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AMPLIFIERS
ANALOG CIRCUITS
Amplifier symbol
EFFICIENCY
Pout
100
Pdc
GAIN
Thévenin source
equivalent circuit
R in
Vi V
R R in
OUTPUT IMPEDANCE
RL
Amplifier Vo V
output as a Ro R L
Thévenin
equivalent R0
AMPLIFIER MODEL
• Power gain is the ratio of the power supplied to the load to that
absorbed at the input2 2
Vi Vo
Pi Po
Ri RL
k – harmonic order
NOISE
• All real electronic circuit add noise to signals
• The noise associated with a voltage source can be modelled using
an equivalent circuit
• The noise produced within an amplifier is represented by an
equivalent circuit (noise at the input is multiplied by the gain of
the amplifier)
V P
S/N ratio = 20 log 10 0 dB
S/N ratio = 10 log 10 0 dB
Vn Pn
AMPLIFIER APPLICATIONS
• Power amplifier
• Designed to provide high power to the load with high efficiency
• Applied i.e. in audio systems
AMPLIFIER TYPES
• A midpoint-biased CE amplifier
is called class A amplifier
• Single transistor that conducts
(is in active mode)
during the entire input cycle
Biasing the BJT amplifier above
or below midpoint would result
in one of the two situations:
1. A reduction in the maximum
possible amplifier output.
2. Distortion.
• The lower the position of the Q-point, the higher the maximum
theoretical efficiency
Higher efficiency
Lower distortion
CLASS D AMPLIFIER
• Class D operation functions on the principle of representing
instantaneous input signal amplitude by the duty cycle of a
high-frequency squarewave (PWM operation)
• The output transistor(s) never operate in active mode, only cutoff
and saturation (on/off) - an ideal switch would dissipate no power,
since either the current or the voltage is zero
• Amplifiers of this type are called switching amplifiers or switch-
mode amplifiers
• Efficiency is very high, up to 99%
AMPLIFIERS - SUMMARY
• Amplification forms part of most electronic systems
• BJT amplifiers were shown in this lecture, similar configurations
are built with MOSFET transistors
• The most popular configuration is Common Emitter (CE) or
Common Source in case of MOSFET realization
• Equivalent circuits are useful when investigating the interaction
between circuits
• Amplifier gains are often measured in decibels (dBs)
• The gain of all amplifiers falls at high frequencies
• The gain of some amplifiers falls at low frequencies
• Some amplifiers are very simple in construction
• Classes of amplifiers provide different efficiency and distortion
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS
DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER
• Differential-mode/double-ended
operation is very important in
measurement techniques
• If measured voltage signal is
transferred by one wire with
respect to the ground it can be
distorded by common-mode
noise, which will be amplified
• Signal transfer in differential
mode (as a voltage difference
between two wires)
is much less susceptible to noise
IDEAL AMPLIFIER
• Op-amps are
manufactured as
integrated circuits (IC’s)
OP-AMP TERMINALS
• Inputs:
• (-) inverting
• (+) non-inverting
• Op-amp without feedback loop (open loop) has very large gain
• Output saturates with very low difference of input voltages (range
of µV)
• Exemplary application:
comparison of triangular
and constant voltages
(op-amp with single supply)
FEEDBACK
FEEDBACK
amplifier
Systems with a
feedback loop are
feedback called closed-loop
• Typical closed-loop
operational amplifier
with negative feedback
OP-AMP FEEDBACK ANALYSIS
𝒁𝒔 𝒁𝒔 General equation
𝑼 = − 𝑼𝟏 + (𝟏 + )𝑼𝟐 of ideal closed
𝒁𝟏 𝒁𝟏 loop OP-AMP
• Therefore
• For R1=R3 and R2=R4
output voltage:
• Differential voltage amplification
SUMMING AMPLIFIER
• Summing amplifier
• Current-voltage converter
• Uwe=0
• Uwy=-iR
• Output is proportional
to input current
• Current source
• Iobc=Uwe/R
• Output current is proportional
to input voltage
• Load is not grounded
INTEGRATORS
• Integrating circuit
• Capacitor as an
integrating circuit
in feedback loop
• Differentiating circuit
• Sinusoidal oscillators
• Feedback oscillators
• RC oscillators (LF)
• RC phase-shift oscillator
• Wien bridge oscillator
• LC oscillators (HF) Frequency ranges:
- High/radio (HF/RF) -
• Colpitts oscillator
100 kHz to 100 GHz
• Hartley oscillator - Low/audio (LF/AF) –
• Quartz crystal oscillators (HF) up to ~30 kHz
amplifier
feedback
• Criterion fullfillment –
stable oscillations
RC OSCILLATOR
• Colpitts
• Better stability
• Often applied in digital clocks
VOLTAGE CONTROLLED OSCILLATOR
(VCO)
• XR-2206 Integrated Circuit
• Output frequency depends on input voltage
SWEEP GENERATOR
• Square-wave generators
• Can be used to generate PWM waveforms
U cc
• Example –
555 as
astable
(oscillator)
555 AS PWM GENERATOR