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Current Current
Controlled Controlled
Voltage Current
Source Source
Dependent Sources
• In reality, two terminal
dependent sources do not
exist.
• There’s no way to
telepathically sense a
voltage or current
somewhere else in a
circuit.
15V
Ix = = 0.15A
100Ω
200Ix = 30V
10K
Vo = 30V
50K + 10K
1
Vo = 30V = 5V
6
What is an Op-Amp?
• An op-amp is a real world part that shares
some key similarities with the fictitious
dependent source we just looked at. +
• An op-amp is an integrated circuit, or chip,
that consisting of ~20 transistors,~10 resistors,
−
and ~1 capacitor.
Vo = −Vcc or +Vcc
Taming the Gain
• Op-amps have huge values of Av , their open-
loop gains. (Between 105 and 108 typically)
V− = β ∙ Vo
V𝜟 = V + − β ∙ Vo
V + − VΔ
2. Vo =
β
• The op-amp regulates its own VΔ by adjusting its output voltage Vo which is
connected back to one of the inputs through a feedback network defined by β.
V− = V+ = Vs β
RG
V− = Vs = Vo ×
RG + RF β
Vo = RG + RF Vo = 1 + RF
Vs RG Vs RG
Buffer (Voltage-Follower)
• The buffer is really just a non-
inverting amplifier without a
feedback resistor network.
Ii + IF − Iin = 0
Vs Vo Vo R
+ =0 =− F
Ri RF Vs Ri
Summing Amplifier
• At heart, the summing amplifier is I1
just an inverting amplifier
configured to produce the sum of its I2
IF
input voltages.
Iin
I3
I1 + I2 + I3 + IF − Iin = 0
V1 V2 V3 Vo
+ + =−
R1 R2 R3 RF
RF RF RF
Vo = − V1 − V2 − V3
R1 R2 R3
RF
• If all input resistances are equal, then: Vo = − V1 + V2 + V3 … Vn
Ri
Difference Amplifier
• Sometimes we may want the
difference between two signals.
R2 I1 IF
V+ = V− = V2
R1 + R2
I1 + IF = 0
V1 − V− Vo − V−
=−
R1 R2
Vo 1 1 V1
= V− + −
R2 R1 R2 R1
R1 + R2 R2 R2 R1 + R2 R2
Vo = V− − V1 Vo = V2 − V1
R1 R1 R1 + R2 R1 R1
R2 R2 R2
Vo = V2 − V1 Vo = V − V1
R1 R1 R1 2
Integration
Vs dV
= −CF o
Ri dt
dVo 1
=− V
dt Ri CF s
1
Vo = − න Vs dt + C
Ri CF
The Digital-to-Analog Converter
• Ever wondered how your digital computer or phone plays back analog audio?
• They all use DACs! A digital audio file consists of a sequence of samples, each of which
represent one sliver of the total sound clip.
• When played back, or reconstructed, at just the right speed, you hear your favorite song!
f916
sound_clip.wav Hex
f16 = 1510 916 = 910
ChunkDesc 52 49 46 46 24 08 00 00 57 41 56 45 1510 = 11112 910 = 10012
FormatDesc
66 6d 74 20 10 00 00 00 01 00 02 00 f916 = 111110012
22 56 00 00 88 58 01 00 04 00 10 00
f916 = 24910
Sampled 64 61 74 61 00 08 00 00 00 00 00 00
24 17 1e f3 3c 13 3c 14 16 f9 18 f9 • An 8-bit number can store integer
Data values between 0 and 255.
34 e7 23 a6 3c f2 24 f2 11 ce 1a 0d
The Digital-to-Analog Converter
• If Vref = 1.28V, what is Vo for the given input bit string?
The Digital-to-Analog Converter
• If Vref = 1.28V, what is Vo for the given input bit string?
b3 b2 b1 b0
Ri Ri Ri Ri
Vo = −Vref b + b + b + b
Ri 3 2Ri 2 4Ri 1 8Ri 0
1 1 1
Vo = −Vref 1b3 + b2 + b1 + b0
2 4 8
1 1
Vo = −1.28 1 1 + 0 + 1 + 0
2 4
• This DAC can produce 16 discrete values between 0V and −2.4V at 0.16V intervals.
A History Lesson
• One of the initial applications of the operational amplifier
was in analog computing.
1
y′′ (t) = (x(t) − By′ (t) − Ky(t))
M
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