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GPS AND GNSS TECHNOLOGY
IN GEOSCIENCES
Edited by
GEORGE P. PETROPOULOS
Assistant Professor of Geoinformatics, Department of Geography, Harokopio University of Athens, Greece
PRASHANT K. SRIVASTAVA
Assistant Professor Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development Banaras Hindu University, India
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Contributors
Christos Chalkias Department of Geography, Nikolaos Katsenios Department of Soil Science,

Harokopio University of Athens, Athens, Institute of Soil and Water Resources, Hellenic
Greece Agricultural Organization e Demeter, Lycov-
Prem Chandra Pandey Center for Environ- risi, Attiki, Greece
mental Sciences & Engineering, Shiv Nadar Eleni Kokinou Department of Agriculture,
University, Uttar Pradesh, India Hellenic Mediterranean University, Heraklion,
Alison de Oliveira Moraes Instituto de Aero- Greece; Institute of Computer Science, Foun-
náutica e Espaço e IAE, São José dos Campos, dation for Research and Technology-Hellas,
SP, Brazil Heraklion, Greece
Aspasia Efthimiadou Department of Soil Sci- Amit Kumar Department of Geoinformatics,
ence, Institute of Soil and Water Resources, Central University of Jharkhand, Ranchi,
Hellenic Agricultural Organization e Demeter, Jharkhand, India
Lycovrisi, Attiki, Greece Pavan Kumar College of Forestry and Horti-
Antigoni Faka School of Environment, Geogra- culture, Rani Lakshmi Bai Central Agricultural
phy and Applied Economics, Department of University, Jhansi, India
Geography, Harokopio University of Athens, Sanjay Kumar Atmospheric Research Labora-
Athens, Greece tory Department of Physics, Banaras Hindu
Victor Hugo Fernandes Breder Instituto Tec- University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
nológico de Aeronáutica e ITA, São José dos Shubham Kumar Department of Geo-
Campos, SP, Brazil informatics, Central University of Jharkhand,
V.G. Ferreira School of Earth Sciences and En- Ranchi, Jharkhand, India
gineering, Hohai University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, Preet Lal Department of Geoinformatics, Cen-
China tral University of Jharkhand, Ranchi, Jhark-
João Francisco Galera Monico Sao Paulo State hand, India
University e UNESP, Presidente Prudente, SP, Lawrence Lau, PhD Department of Land Sur-
Brazil veying and Geo-Informatics, The Hong Kong
Grigoris Grigorakakis Department of Geogra- Polytechnic University, Hong Kong SAR,
phy, Harokopio University of Athens, Athens, China; Department of Civil Engineering, The
Greece University of Nottingham Ningbo China,
Ningbo, Zhejiang, China
Moisés José dos Santos Freitas Instituto Tec-
nológico de Aeronáutica e ITA, São José dos qukasz Lrmieszewski Jakub Paradyz_ Univer-
Campos, SP, Brazil sity, Faculty of Technology, Gorzów Wielko-
polski, Poland
Kleomenis Kalogeropoulos Department of Ge-
ography, Harokopio University of Athens, Kamil Maciuk AGH University of Science and
Athens, Greece Technology, Krakow, Poland
ix
x CONTRIBUTORS
R.K. Mall DST - Mahamana Centre of Excel- S.S. Rao Department of Physics, Institute of
lence in Climate Change Research (MCECCR), Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi,
Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Uttar Pradesh, India
Pradesh, India Eurico Rodrigues de Paula National Institute
Jorge Martínez-Guanter Aerospace Engineer- for Space Research e INPE, São José dos
ing and Fluids Mechanics Department, Uni- Campos, SP, Brazil
versity of Sevilla, Sevilla, Spain Purabi Saikia Department of Environmental
Yenca O. Migoya-Orué The Abdus Salam In- Sciences, Central University of Jharkhand,
ternational Centre for Theoretical Physics Ranchi, Jharkhand, India
(ICTP), Trieste, Italy Lucas Alves Salles Instituto Tecnológico de Aer-
H.D. Montecino Departamento de Ciencias onáutica e ITA, São José dos Campos, SP, Brazil
Geodésicas y Geomática, Universidad de Con- Martin Schaefer University of Portsmouth,
cepción, Los Angeles, Biobío, Chile School of the Environment, Geography and
Adam Narbudowicz Trinity College Dublin, the Geosciences, Buckingham Building, Lion Ter-
University of Dublin, CONNECT Centre, race, Portsmouth, UK
Dublin, Ireland; Wroclaw University of Science Hao Sha Gyrfalcon Technology Inc., Milpitas,
and Technology, Telecommunications and CA, United States
Teleinformatics Department, Wroclaw, Poland
Jyoti Kumar Sharma Center for Environmental
C.E. Ndehedehe Australian Rivers Institute and Sciences & Engineering, Shiv Nadar University,
Griffith School of Environment & Science, Uttar Pradesh, India
Griffith University, Nathan, QLD, Australia
A.K. Singh Atmospheric Research Laboratory
Evgeny Ochin Jakub Parady_z University, Faculty Department of Physics, Institute of Science,
of Technology, Gorzów Wielkopolcki, Poland Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar
Manish Kumar Pandey Remote Sensing Labo- Pradesh, India
ratory, Institute of Environment and Sustain- R.P. Singh Atmospheric Research Laboratory
able Development, Banaras Hindu University, Department of Physics, Banaras Hindu Uni-
Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India versity, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Zoi Papadopoulou Department of Natural Re- Arpine Soghoyan Gyrfalcon Technology Inc.,
sources and Agricultural Engineering, Agri- Milpitas, CA, United States
cultural University of Athens, Athens, Greece
Panagiotis Sparangis Department of Soil Sci-
Alastair Pearson University of Portsmouth, ence, Institute of Soil and Water Resources,
School of the Environment, Geography and Hellenic Agricultural Organization e Demeter,
Geosciences, Buckingham Building, Lion Ter- Lycovrisi, Attiki, Greece
race, Portsmouth, UK
Prashant K. Srivastava Remote Sensing Labo-
Manuel Perez-Ruiz Aerospace Engineering and ratory, Institute of Environment and Sustain-
Fluids Mechanics Department, University of able Development, Banaras Hindu University,
Sevilla, Sevilla, Spain Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India; DST - Maha-
George P. Petropoulos Department of Geogra- mana Centre of Excellence in Climate Change
phy, Harokopio University of Athens, Athens, Research (MCECCR), Banaras Hindu Univer-
Greece; School of Mineral Resources Engineer- sity, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
ing, Technical University of Crete, Kounou- Nikolaos Stathopoulos Institute for Space
pidiana Campus, Greece Applications and Remote Sensing, National
Sandro M. Radicella The Abdus Salam Inter- Observatory of Athens, BEYOND Centre of EO
national Centre for Theoretical Physics (ICTP), Research & Satellite Remote Sensing, Athens,
Trieste, Italy Greece
CONTRIBUTORS xi
Baohua Sun Gyrfalcon Technology Inc., Milpi- Shrini K. Upadhyaya Biological and Agricul-
tas, CA, United States tural Engineering Department, University of
Prasoon Tiwari DST - Mahamana Centre of California, Davis, CA, United States
Excellence in Climate Change Research Bruno César Vani Federal Institute of Educa-
(MCECCR), Banaras Hindu University, Vara- tion, Science and Technology of Sao Paulo e
nasi, Uttar Pradesh, India IFSP, Presidente Epitácio, SP, Brazil
Dimitris Triantakonstantis Department of Soil Michalis Vidalis-Kelagiannis Department of
Science, Institute of Soil and Water Resources, Geography, Harokopio University of Athens,
Hellenic Agricultural Organization e Demeter, Athens, Greece
Lycovrisi, Attiki, Greece T. Xu Nanjing University of Information Science
Amit Kumar Tripathi Center for Environmental and Technology, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
Sciences & Engineering, Shiv Nadar University, Lin Yang Gyrfalcon Technology Inc., Milpitas,
Uttar Pradesh, India CA, United States
Andreas Tsatsaris Department of Surveying P. Yuan Geodetic Institute, Karlsruhe Institute
and Geoinformatics Engineering, University of of Technology, Karlsruhe, Baden-Württemberg,
West Attica, Athens, Greece Germany
Konstantinos Tserpes Harokopio University,
School of Digital Technology, Department of
Informatics and Telematics, Athens, Greece
Foreword
Although the Global Positioning System systems that would continue to enhance
(GPS) technology, developed by the US Air location and time accuracy and also diversify
Force to track their nuclear submarines, was the use of spatiotemporal data toward
ingeniously used by geoscientists in the 1990s sustainable development offers a highly
to detect nano-strain deformation of the promising approach toward building a
earth’s surface, its potential applications in hazard resilient society.
data-guided geo-science services to society This volume edited by scientists of
began to sprout only after the US Govern- proven credentials who have personally
ment, in 2000, ended the selective availability of contributed to advancing the wavefront of
its error-free signals. This landmark decision, GNSS applications from its initial tracking
by dramatically reducing real-time location and time stamping uses to the Internet of
errors by an order of magnitude, fueled the Things has rightly identified the critical el-
design and development of a wide variety of ements of scientific knowledge and the
progressively miniaturized receiver systems computational and technological challenges
and algorithms for guiding management needed to translate these into knowledge
strategies, environmental monitoring, products, to fashion its contents. These,
resource conservation, as well as individuals contained in 27 chapters, systematically
in planning their lives and works which, in address the important links in the long
turn, drove the evolution of new supportive chain of system structure and processes that
public infrastructure. Concomitantly, the reduce the end product of a highly sophis-
depoliticization of GPS signals catalyzed ticated technological system into one of
evolution of the transformative Global equally high social value. This book is thus
Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) which admirably designed to inform, educate, and
allows a civilian user to exploit the technical given the requisite motivation, empower
interoperability of the various national and both curious and dedicated individuals to
regional satellite networks, notably the professionally engage in aspects of the
modernized GPS, the European Galileo, and system that fire their interest.
the restructured Russian Glonass, to meet
user demands for ever more precise estima-
tions of earth coordinates and time. A
commitment by GNSS to promote the devel- Vinod Gaur
opment of and support to complementary Bangalore, February 10, 2021
xiii
C H A P T E R
1
Introduction to GPS/GNSS
technology
Amit Kumar1, Shubham Kumar1, Preet Lal1, Purabi Saikia2,
Prashant K. Srivastava3, 4, George P. Petropoulos5, 6
1
Department of Geoinformatics, Central University of Jharkhand, Ranchi, Jharkhand, India;
2
Department of Environmental Sciences, Central University of Jharkhand, Ranchi, Jharkhand,
India; 3Remote Sensing Laboratory, Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development,
Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India; 4DST - Mahamana Centre of
Excellence in Climate Change Research (MCECCR), Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi,
Uttar Pradesh, India; 5Department of Geography, Harokopio University of Athens,
Athens, Greece; 6School of Mineral Resources Engineering, Technical University of Crete,
Kounoupidiana Campus, Greece
1. Background
The Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) has become a crucial player in terms of the
country’s capability to monitor real-time activities across the world. The rapid growth in
GNSS was first observed through the development of commercial applications through
building navigation satellites and associated equipment. The next-level progression was
made in the positioning techniques using GNSS such as Global Positioning System (GPS),
the infrastructure of the mobile network, and their integration for applications such as auto-
matic vehicle location, tracking systems, navigation have drawn the attention of various
countries such as the United States, India, and China. Satellite navigation system (SNS) is
the system of offering real-time location service using navigation satellites to the users in
air, sea, ground, or space [59]. It is most popular among other navigation technologies as
it offers a real-time location in terms of position, velocity, and time (PVT) with very high pre-
cision. GNSS is a combined collection of satellite systems that directs to all the prevailing
worldwide SNSs as well as regional and advanced navigational systems. These SNSs consti-
tute several augmented systems to enhance system performance to achieve specific require-
ments. These are Japan’s Multi-functional Satellite Augmentation System, United States of
GPS and GNSS Technology in Geosciences

https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-818617-6.00001-9 3 © 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
4 1. Introduction to GPS/GNSS technology
America’s Wide Area Augmentation System, India’s GPS-aided GEO augmented navigation
(GAGAN), and Europe’s European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service (EGNOS).
Navigation is the science of providing directions from one place to another, based on land-
marks or reference points, and the human sense of direction [5,26,58]. Using the Sun and the
stars as reference for navigation on land as well as on ocean surfaces, (Hofmann-Wellenhof
et al., 2003; [53]) have various limitations such as nonvisibility during cloudy conditions,
the relative change in position of these references during various seasons, and position on
the Earth [3]. With the advent of geographical coordinates (latitudes and longitudes) and alti-
tude, the challenge with respect to two-dimensional and three-dimensional reference for
terrestrial navigation has been resolved [4,14]. In the recent past, the radio signals have
helped in the navigation to ensure safety during maritime and inland journeys [47]. Celestial
navigation is based on the triangulation method, in which celestial bodies are used as refer-
ence points, and the GPS is based on the concept of trilateration, which uses GPS satellites’
locations as reference [47]. GPS can measure the time, altitude, longitude, and latitude based
on the available satellite signals above the horizon [50] and contributes in determining the
precise positioning of an object on Earth that revolutionized the navigation and tracking ap-
plications [13,63]. It is one of the most popular satellite-based navigation radio systems due to
the global availability of signal as well as performance. The fundamental operations of the
GPS are one-way ranging that depends on satellite atomic clock predictability. GPS works
in an integrated manner with various supporting parameters such as satellite geometry,
communication link, the antenna of satellite and receiver, the position of the antenna, and
decoding parameters [43]. It is independent of any weather conditions, and day or night
limitations, and provides autonomous spatial positioning with global coverage. Real-time ki-
nematic (RTK) GPS has high producibility, is comparatively more flexible, and is cost- and
time-effective, which reduces the cost by w50% and time by w75% compared to traditional
techniques. It allows measuring positions of an object in real time with an accuracy of a few
centimeters [54].
The first GPS receivers were very simple, providing very basic information of latitude and
longitude with monochrome screens and higher prices. Over the years, the next-generation
SNS receivers brought more user-friendly map-based location devices with color screens
with in-built multiple advanced features, at comparatively lower prices. GPS also operates
independently, which makes it accessible by anyone and provides the ability to work freely
with other GPS receivers. Nowadays, it is being used by civil, military, and commercial users
vastly around the world with crucial information including speed, elevation, and geolocation
with the added base map. The system has revolutionized today’s technology by becoming
more interactive, effective, and useful in multiple industries. This chapter will explore the
basic principles of GPS, its various hardware that make it work in-depth, and the operation
of the system, including the theoretical calculations for positioning, speed, bearing, and dis-
tance to destination.
The history of navigation goes back as early as the invention of the magnetic compass as
mentioned by Ceruzzi [7]. The navigation in the later period was carried by a chronometer as
given by Ceruzzi [8], which resolved the problem of longitude. This was replaced by Quartz
oscillators in the 1920s. The next concurrent advancement was radio or the wireless. The next
advancement was Omega and Loran, which were the radio-based inertial navigation sys-
tems. This was further taken over by satellite-based navigation systems in the 1960s. The evo-
lution of GNSS as given in NASA (2020) is listed in Table 1.1.
I. General introduction to GPS/GNSS technology

2. Major segments of GPS 5
TABLE 1.1 The evolution of GNSS.
1960 US Air Force and Navy commence research
1973 US Department of Defense unveils GPS project
1978 First US GPS satellite launched
1982 First Russian GLONASS satellite launched

1983 KAL 007 flight disaster
1994 Worldwide coverage achieved by GPS
2000 Full civilian accuracy permitted in the United States
2000 First Chinese BeiDou satellite launched
2005 First European Union Galileo satellite launched
2011 Worldwide coverage achieved by the Russian GLONASS system

2018 GPS III satellite launched
2020 Worldwide coverage is projected for China’s BeiDou constellation and the European Union’s Galileo
constellation
The commercial market of GPS emerged during 1983e95 [8], and the market converged
during 1995e2015 [8]. From 1995 to 2005, GPS found its use in several areas ranging from
research, surveying, military, and in hiking and hunting. In the second decade, from 2005
to 15, it drew public attention, and several new applications were created, which were never
thought of earlier, for example, in cell phones, in drones, in a smartphone, tracking and pri-
vacy, etc., to name a few. The future market growth of GNSS could be estimated only after
the full deployment of the Galileo and BeiDou satellite constellations is over. The European
GNSS Agency projects the current value of six billion GNSS deployed devices to grow to over
nine billion by 2023 (Jacobson, 2017). According to Research and Markets NASA (2020), the
GNSS market is estimated to grow at a compound annual growth rate of around 9.0% during
2018e22. As per GNSS Market Outlook 2022 NASA (2020), market dynamics would be led by
location-based services, transportation, surveying activities, and agriculture.
2. Major segments of GPS

GPS primarily consists of three different segments viz. (a) satellite constellation, (b) ground
control stations, and (c) receivers [10]. The space segment consists of constellations of satel-
lites that transmit pseudorandom noise (PRN)ecoded signals, which are used for the true
line-of-sight (LoS) range (speed*time) along with various error sources including satellite
clock error, atmospheric delays, receiver clock error, tracking errors, and receiver channel de-
lays [40]. The coded signals comprise the information about the position of the satellite, which

can be used by an unlimited number of users at a time [26]. The GPS satellite constellations in
the space segment are being monitored and controlled by the GPS control segment (CS) by
resolving satellite anomalies and collecting pseudorange and carrier-phase measurements
at the control stations to ascertain and refurbish satellite clock rectification, almanac, and
ephemeris at least once per day [49]. Additionally, the CS monitors the state of the satellite’s
health, controls its orbital position, and regulates the satellite bus and payloads [45]. The CS
has three different physical components such as the master control station (MCS), monitor
stations, and ground antennas. The receiver/user segment includes all military and civilian
users using the GPS signal for various purposes [13]. Each GPS receiver processes the trans-
mitted signals received from the satellites to determine the PVT of the receiver anywhere in
the world.
3. Functioning of GPS
GPS works on the ranging and trilateration by combining various groups of satellites
[34], functional in space as reference points. These satellites transmit a navigation message
consisting of information related to almanac, i.e., the orbital information about the entire sat-
ellite constellation, general system status messages, as well as ephemeris, and the detail of the
individual satellite’s position to regulate the orbital position of satellites. A minimum of four
common satellites are required in a group to determine the precise receiver’s position at any
time [21]. Only three distances to three simultaneously tracked satellites are needed to obtain
the latitude, longitude, and altitude information. However, the fourth satellite accounts for
the receiver clock offset and contributes in time rectification [27]. The GPS positioning is
further improved at subcentimeter to a few meters with the deployment of two receivers
simultaneously tracking the same GPS satellites [31]. GPS employs three basic binary codes
viz, (PRN code including precision (P) code, Coarse Acquisition (C/A) code, and the naviga-
tion code. The PRN code is a sequence of very precise time marks that allow the receivers to
estimate the transmission delay between the satellite and the control station [33,56].
The GPS satellites broadcast two carrier waves viz. L1 (390 MHz) and L2 (1500 MHz),
which are modulated by the coded information signal that is transmitted by the satellites
to communicate with the receivers. They are derived from the frequency of 10.23 MHz
through a very precise atomic clock. The high-frequency signals transmitted from the satel-
lites travel in a straight line and have very low power (50 W). It is very essential that the an-
tenna of the GPS receiver should have a direct view of the satellite. L1 and L2 carrier waves
are broadcasted at 1575.42 MHz and 1227.60 MHz, respectively. L1 carrier waves are modu-
lated with the C/A code at 1.023 MHz and the P-code at 10.23 MHz, while the L2 carrier
wave is modulated with only one code, i.e., P-code at 10.23 MHz. These coded signals are
used to calculate the transmission time of radio signals from the satellite to the receivers
on the Earth, i.e., the time of arrival, which is multiplied by the velocity of the signal to es-
timate the satellite range, which is the distance from the satellite to the receiver. The GPS
signal contains a navigation message of a low frequency (50 Hz), which is modulated on
the L1 and L2 carriers [16].

3. Functioning of GPS 7
3.1 Pseudorange
Pseudorange is the measure of apparent signal propagation time from the satellite to the
GPS receiver on the Earth. It is calculated by dividing the distance with the speed of light,
which is denoted with c, i.e., a universal physical constant. The apparent signal propagation
time is the deviation of signal reception by the receiver and the time of signal transmission by
the satellite. In other words, it is the time delay between the clocks of GPS receivers and sat-
ellites on the Earth, determined from the P-code and C/A code. Generally, the signal from the
satellite to the GPS receiver reaches in 0.06 s, if in case the satellite is in the overhead position
of an observer. It is called pseudorange because the clocks in the GPS receiver and the satellite
are not synchronized, and it is influenced by satellite orbital errors, user clock error, and iono-
spheric delay.
3.2 Carrier-phase measurement

The range between the carrier signal generated from the satellite and the carrier signal
generated by a GPS receiver’s internal oscillator can be obtained through the carrier-phase
measurement. The ranges calculated with the carriers are much more accurate than those
calculated with the pseudorange codes due to the better resolution of the carrier phase
(19 cm) in the case of L1 frequency than that of the pseudorange codes [33].
3.3 GPS broadcast message, ephemeris, and almanac

The navigation message included three types of components (a) the current date, time, and
the health of the satellite; (b) orbital information (ephemeris); and (c) the status of all the sat-
ellites in the GPS program (almanac). Each GPS satellite broadcasts microwave signals
regarding clock corrections, system and satellite status, and its position or ephemeris data.
The navigation message transmitted by the satellite contains the predicted satellite positions
in real time referred to as broadcast ephemeris. Each GPS receiver is capable of acquiring
either C/A code or P-code and can acquire the broadcast ephemeris in real time. This broad-
cast ephemeris is estimated using the past continuous tracking of the GPS satellites in space
by ground station and analyzed by the MCSs. New parameters for the satellites are trans-
mitted back to the GPS satellites on the hourly basis through a navigation message to predict
new orbital elements. In contrast, the more accurate satellite positions are obtained by post-
processing of actual tracking of GPS satellite data, referred to as precise ephemeris, and are
available at a later date [21,51].
Almanac data are transmitted from the satellite to the receivers and used to be stored in the
GPS receiver’s memory. The almanac consists of the data about the position of satellites in
space at any given time including coarse orbit, status information of satellites’ constellation,
an ionospheric model, and information to relate GPS-derived time to Coordinated Universal
Time. The entire almanac from a single satellite used to be received in ca. 12.5 min. GPS re-
ceivers in functional condition receive the latest corrected data within the last 4e6 h and are
referred to as warm condition, whereas almanac data are not updated in case GPS receivers
are not turned on for a long time and are referred to as cold receivers.

4. GPS errors
Both the GPS pseudorange and carrier-phase measurements are affected by different types
of random and systematic errors (biases) [42]. Based on the source of its origin, it can be clas-
sified broadly into three categories, i.e., the ephemeris or orbital errors, satellite clock errors,
and the errors originating at the satellites’ end. The receiver clock errors, multipath error,
receiver noise, and antenna phase center variations are the errors originating at the receiver
end. The delays occurred during the GPS signal pass through the ionosphere and troposphere
are the signal propagation errors, also called atmospheric refraction [28,29].
4.1 Satellite and receiver clock errors

The GPS satellite clocks are highly accurate but not perfect as their stability is about 1e2
parts in 1013 over a period of 1 day, which leads to the satellite clock error of ca.,
8.64e17.28 ns/day. Cesium clocks have better stability compared to rubidium clocks and
tend to perform better over a longer period [35]. Satellite clock errors can cause several
GPS navigations errors that can be corrected through differencing between receivers. It
may leave an error of the order of several nanoseconds, which translates to a range error
of a few meters, as 1 nanosecond error is equivalent to a range error of about 30 cm [12].
In contrast, the inexpensive crystal clocks used in GPS receivers are much less accurate
than the satellite clocks [29], and their errors can be rectified through differencing between
the satellites.
4.2 Multipath error

The interaction of GPS signals with various surfaces including large buildings or other el-
evations surrounding the receiver antenna before being captured by the receiver causes
multipath error in GPS signals. It distorts the original signal through interference with the re-
flected signals at the GPS antenna, which affects both carrier-phase and pseudorange mea-
surements [56]. The reflected signal takes more time to reach the receiver than the direct
signal resulting in errors in the range of a few meters that can be verified using a day-to-
day correlation of the estimated residuals [21]. The pseudorange multipath error is reduced
to several meters, even in a highly reflective environment with the help of new technology
viz. Strobe correlator (Ashtech Inc.), and MEDLL (NovAtel Inc.), and multipath mitigation
methods [55].
4.3 Ionospheric delay

Ionospheric propagation at the GPS L-band frequencies (1.2 and 1.6 GHz) is of great inter-
est for GPS. The ionosphere is a dispersive medium with maximum electron density in layer
F2 (210e1000 km). The altitude and thickness of those layers vary with time due to the
changes in the solar radiation and the magnetic field of the Earth. The F1 layer disappears
during the night and is more prominent in the summer than the winter [30]. This atmospheric
layer bends the GPS signal path and causes a range error, particularly if the satellite elevation

4. GPS errors 9
angle is greater than 5 degrees. It also causes a significant range error by speeding up the
propagation of the carrier phase beyond the speed of light, in contrast by slowing down
the PRN code and the navigation message at the same rate [21]. Ionosphere range delay
on GPS signals is a major error source in GPS positioning and navigation [60]. Total electron
content (TEC) of the ionosphere produces most of the effects on radio signals, and the GPS
signal delays are caused by the ionosphere to be proportional to TEC along the path from
the satellite to a terrestrial GPS receiver [60]. The highest TEC in the world occurs in the equa-
torial region, and it is maximum usually in the early afternoon and minimum usually just
before sunrise. Variations in TEC along the slant path connecting GPS satellites and receivers
represent irregularities and turbulence in ionospheric plasma density [46]. Conversely, the
steep gradients of ionospheric plasma cause the navigation satellite signals scintillation in
phase as well as amplitude. GPS is an effective tool to study the ionospheric disturbances
and irregularities caused by space weather due to these scintillations [9,41,48]; Cherniak
et al. (2018); [52].
4.4 Tropospheric delay

The electrically neutral troposphere (w50 km from the surface of the Earth) acts as a
nondispersive medium for radio frequencies below 15 GHz [19], which result in a longer
satellite-to-receiver range than the actual geometric range. Temperature, pressure, and hu-
midity in the signal path through the troposphere are the factors responsible for the tropo-
spheric delay. The signals from satellites at low elevation angles travel a longer path
through the troposphere than those at higher elevation angles. Therefore, the tropospheric
delay is minimum in the user’s zenith and maximum near the horizon [6]. The tropospheric
delay is frequency independent and can be removed by the addition of a second C/A code on
L2 as part of the modernization program [51].
4.5 GPS ephemeris errors

The position of each satellite in the constellation is a function of time because they keep on
moving with respect to time. It is included in broadcast satellite navigation messages and pre-
dicted from previous GPS observations at the ground control stations. Typically, overlapping
4-h GPS data spans are used by the operational control system to predict fresh satellite orbital
elements for each 1-h duration. The predicted satellite orbital information cannot consider the
forces influencing the GPS satellites, which may lead to some errors in the estimated satellite
positions (2e5 m) referred to as ephemeris errors. The ephemeris error for a particular satel-
lite is identical to all GPS users worldwide [12].
4.6 Other limitations

GPS was originally designed in such a way that the real-time autonomous positioning and
navigation with the civilian C/A code receivers would be less precise than military P-code
receivers. The GPS signals were intentionally introduced by the United States to disrupt po-
sition, navigation, and time through either spoofing (making a GPS receiver calculate a false

position) or jamming (overpowering GPS satellite signals locally so that a receiver can no
longer operate). Antispoofing (A/S) is an encryption of the P-code induced to prevent “the
enemy” from imitating a GPS signal. A/S does not pose a significant problem as precise
GPS techniques rely on measuring the phase of the carrier signal itself, rather than the pseu-
doranges derived from the P-code. Modern geodetic receivers can, in any case, form two pre-
cise pseudorange observables on the L1 and L2 channels, even if A/S is switched on.
However, the United States stopped the intentional degradation of GPS satellite signals in
May 2000, thereby eliminating a source of uncertainty in GPS performance to civil GPS users
worldwide [1].
The United States implemented the selective availability (SA) on Block II GPS satellites to
deny accurate real-time autonomous positioning to unauthorized users to ensure national se-
curity. SA was officially activated on March 25, 1990 [21], to either the satellite clock or delta
error or an additional slow varying orbital error or epsilon error. With SA turned on, nominal
horizontal and vertical errors can be up to 100 and 156 m, respectively, at the 95% probability
level [15]. The effect of signal spoofing in degrading the navigation solution can have serious
impacts on both military and civilian applications, especially those related to safety-of-life
services. Various techniques have been developed to detect and mitigate spoofing [25].
DGPS (to overcome the effect of the epsilon error) [12], signal quality monitor [38]; Ledvina
et al., 2010), and vestigial signal defense [57] are being used for better accuracy than the
standalone P-code receiver due to the elimination or the reduction of the common errors,
including SA.
5. GPS technologies
There is a variety of methods employing GPS to improve the accuracy and increase the
applicability of the system. RTK survey and differential GPS are few of them.
A differential GPS is an advanced form of GPS, providing very accurate and precise
location-based services. In general, two receivers that are relatively closer (within
10e15 km) receive the signal from approximately the same GPS satellites and experience
similar atmospheric errors. In DGPS, the difference between the concurrent coordinates
with respect to known coordinates (base receiver) is estimated and applied to fix the concur-
rent coordinates of unknown locations (rover receiver). The corrected information can be
applied to the roving receiver in real time in the field using radio signals or through postpro-
cessing after data capture using special processing software. RTK surveying is a carrier
phaseebased relative positioning technique that employs two (or more) receivers simulta-
neously tracking the same satellites. RTK increases the accuracy while surveying a large num-
ber of unknown points located in the vicinity with reference to a known point, provided the
area of investigation falls within 10e15 km to the known point, the connection between rover
and static is established, and the LoS and the propagation path are relatively unobstructed
[32]. In this method, the base receiver remains stationary over the known point and is
attached to a radio transmitter. The rover receiver is normally carried in a backpack and is
attached to a radio receiver. The base receiver measurements and coordinates are transmitted
to the rover receiver through the communication (radio) link [33].

6. Global Navigation Satellite System 11
6. Global Navigation Satellite System

The GNSS is defined as the group of all SNSs and their augmentations. There are 195
countries across the globe, but very few countries host their own navigation system through
a specific satellite (Jiang et al., 2013). Globally four countries host navigation systems: GPS
(US), GLObal NAvigation Satellite System (GLONASS of Russia), Galileo (EU), and BeiDou
(China). Additionally, two countries have regional navigation systems: Quasi-Zenith Satel-
lite System (QZSS of Japan) and Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS) or
Navigation Indian Constellation (NavIC of India). The GNSS constellation system is
depicted in Fig. 1.1.
6.1 NAVSTAR
GPS is a commonly used acronym of NAVSTAR (NAVigation System Time and Ranging)
and is the first SNS developed by the US Department of Defense in 1978. It is the first fully
operational GNSS consisting nominally of a constellation of 24 operational satellites
completed its initial operational capacity (IOC) on December 8, 1993 [21]. Its orbits are
NS:35
NOP:3
NS:24 OIA:55
NOP:6 OC:12 h 55 min
OIA:55 SO:MEO 21500
OC:11 h 58 min GEO 36000
SO:MEO 20220 IGSO 36000
GPS Beidou
GNSS
GLONASS Galileo
NS:24
NOP:3 NS:30
OIA:64.8 NOP:3
OC:11 h 15min OIA:56
SO:MEO 19130 OC:13 h
SO:MI:O 23222
NS: Number of Satellites; NOP: Number of Orbital Planes; OIA: Orbital Inclination Angle; OC: Operation Cycle; SO: Satellite Orbit in Km.
FIGURE 1.1 GNSS constellation systems. Adapted from Wu, J., Ta, N., Song, Y., Lin, J., Chai, Y., 2018. Urban form
breeds neighborhood vibrancy: a case study using a GPS-based activity survey in suburban Beijing. Cities 74, 100e108. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2017.11.008; pp.1e29).

approximately circular with an inclination of about 55 degrees at the satellite altitude of about
20,200 km above the Earth’s surface [36]. NAVSTAR GPS provides users with location-based
services very precisely in very little time. The satellites in NAVSTAR constellation orbit the
Earth in every 12 h transmitting continuous navigation signals in L1 and L2 frequencies.
NAVSTAR has four generations of satellite constellation viz. Block I (1978e85), Block II
(1989e90), Block II A (1990e97), Block II-R (1997e2004, Block IIR-M (2005e09), Block II-F
(2010e16), Block III-A (2018-present). Each newer Blocks replaced older Blocks after
completing their active service period (end of life) and are of the improved version. The sat-
ellites are orbiting at an altitude of ca. 20,200 km and arranged in a way that at least six sat-
ellites are always above the horizon everywhere on the globe (Fig. 1.2).
6.2 GLONASS
GLONASS is a satellite-based navigation system operated during the last decades of the
twentieth century by the Russian Aerospace Defence as an alternative to the US-based NAV-
STAR. At present, it is complimentary as well as an alternative option for an operational nav-
igation system with related precision and full coverage [20]. The launching of satellites
started in 1982 until the constellation was completed in 1995. The life cycle of GLONASS nav-
igation satellites was 5e7 years, and the new satellites are to be launched after a specific time
interval to fill the gap due to aging satellites [2,37,39]. In 2011, the full global coverage was
established with upgraded satellite constellations under GLONASS-K. GLONASS consists
of 24 satellites that are uniformly deployed in three approximately circular orbital planes
at an inclination of 64.8 degrees to the equator at the satellite altitude of about 19,100 km
above the Earth’s surface. Each GLONASS satellite transmits standard and high accurate sig-
nals in L1 (1598.06e1604.40 MHz) and L2 (1242.94e1248.63 MHz) frequencies. The modern
age GPS receivers are compatible with both NAVSTAR and GLONASS, thus providing
more flexibility of positioning and better accuracy.
FIGURE 1.2 Satellite constellations and orbital altitude of major navigation systems.

6. Global Navigation Satellite System 13
6.3 Galileo
Galileo was developed by the collaboration of the European Union and European Space
Agency in 2011, and the satellite constellation was completed in 2020 (https://ec.europa.
eu/growth/sectors/space/galileo/launches_en) with 30 satellites in orbit (24 operational
and 6 active spares) [11,18]. Additional satellites will be launched after in-orbit validation
phase to achieve IOC. Galileo will give position measurements, i.e., horizontal and vertical,
having the range of 1-meter precision. This positioning service even at high latitudes proves
more efficient than other relatively positioning systems. The Galileo constellation is evenly
distributed among three orbital planes inclined at 56 degrees relative to the equator with a
nominal semimajor axis of about 30,000 km. Galileo will transmit radio navigation signals
in E1 (1559e1594 MHz), E6 (1260e1300 MHz), E5a (1164e1188 MHz), and E5b
(1195e1219 MHz) frequencies. The EGNOS provides an augmentation signal to the GPS stan-
dard positioning service (SPS). Global Search and Rescue function is a unique feature of Gal-
ileo. Apart from Russian GLONASS and US GPS, high precision has been achieved in the
Galileo navigation and positioning system.
6.4 Compass/ BeiDou

China developed its own navigation satellite system “Compass/BeiDou” with five geosta-
tionary satellites and 30 nongeostationary satellites to date. BeiDou-1 consists of three satel-
lites and offers limited coverage (to users of China and their neighboring countries) and
applications. The second generation of this navigation system, referred to as Compass, is a
global SNS comprising 35 satellites. It has been operational with 10 satellites in orbit in China
since December 2011. By 2020, it is expected to be available to all global customers [23,61]. It
uses two different orbits with 55 degrees inclination for navigation satellites: (i) medium
Earth orbit (21,500 km) and (ii) inclined geosynchronous orbit (36,000 km). It works on three
channels: (i) B1: 1559.052e1591.788 MHz, (ii) B2: 1166.22e1217.37 MHz, and (iii) B3:
1250.618e1286.423 MHz frequencies. The system is providing two types of service at the
global level: open service (with a positioning accuracy of 10 m, a timing accuracy of 20 nano-
second, and a velocity accuracy of 0.2 m/s) and authorized service (with a provision of more
reliable PVT information and communications services as well as integrity information) [44].
6.5 Quasi-Zenith Satellite System

QZSS (also known as Michibiki) is a regional navigation satellite system developed by
Japan. It is a combination of four satellites (now expanded to four satellites) that are inclined
on orbital planes at 39 degreese47 degrees on two altitudes, 39,581 km and 31,911 km, which
provide navigation for East Asia, including Japan, and Oceania. The three satellites of this
constellation were fully operational in 2013 and the fourth satellite of QZSS services was
operational since November 1, 2018, and three more are satellites planned till 2023. The
design and concept of QZSS are purely different from GPS and GLONASS systems due to
the policy of national development [24]. QZSS is targeted to achieve communication-
related services, i.e., audio, video, and data with location information, and is useful in mobile
applications. QZSS is also termed as GNSS augmented service. It works on four frequency of

signal: (i) L1 (L1 C/A and the L1-SAIF: center frequency 1575.42 MHz), (ii) L2 (center fre-
quency 1227.6 MHz), (iii) L5 (center frequency 1176.45 MHz), and (iv) LEX (center frequency
1278.75 MHz) frequencies [62].
6.6 IRNSS/NavIC
IRNSS/NavIC is a regional SNS, developed by ISRO (Indian Space and Research Organi-
sation). It would comprise of two services, i.e., SPS for civilian users and restricted service for
authorized military users. Both services work on L5 (1176.5 MHz) and S-band (2492.08 MHz)
frequencies. The proposed navigation system would have a constellation of seven satellites
and a supported ground segment, and three satellites from the constellation will be kept
as geostationary satellites. GPS with aided augmented navigation system is initiated in India
with the collaborations of ISRO and Airport Authority of India (AAI), which is termed as
GEO augmented system (GAGAN). This system is used to enhance the accuracy of a
GNSS receiver based on reference signals. When GAGAN will be fully operational, it will
fulfill the requirements of the three geostationary satellites (GAGAN will help to get more
accuracy for IRNSS when it is fully completed and it will fulfill requirements of three geosta-
tionary satellites). The Indian subcontinent (India and neighboring countries) will be covered
with help of the footprint of its signal. The operational Satellite Based Augmentation System
implemented by AAI’s efforts tends to be a step in the field of modern communication, air
traffic control, and management and navigation (Table 1.2).
7. Applications of GPS/GNSS
7.1 Navigation
Navigation is of the most common uses of GPS, which aids in aviation, maritime, shipping,
and rail and road transportation. It also supports the public in their day-to-day activities by
providing the precise location with respect to the surroundings including geotagging, car-
pools, helping blind people navigate, safety and emergency assistance, security applications
including tracking of vehicles, vehicle guidance, hiking, skiing, paragliding, skydiving, etc.
(Jacobson, 2017).
7.2 Military services

The GPS of military services are far more precise than GPS used by civilians around the
world. It uses dual-frequency equipment to avoid signal distortions that could jeopardize
its mission or research. Although now dual frequencies are also used by government organi-
zations and commercial services, commonly for civilians, it is single-frequency GPS receiver
that makes a difference in precision too. It supports military operations, reconnaissance, and
surveillance and to navigate the unfamiliar areas and enhance the awareness of GPS-guided
missiles attack. Advanced GPS receivers are used for various military operations to achieve
goals and diffuse enemy installations, including navigating to the target locations, tracking
the movement of enemies, and supply delivery on the battlefield with precise computation.

7. Applications of GPS/GNSS 15
TABLE 1.2 Details of the major global and regional navigational satellite system.
System GPS GLONASS BeiDou Galileo NavIC QZSS
Owner United States Russia China European India Japan

union
Orbital 20,188 19,130 21,150 23,222 36,000 36,000
altitude (km)
Total number 01 01 01 01 02 01
of orbits
Total number 06 03 03 03 02 04
of orbital
planes
Total number 6*MEO 3*MEO 3*GEO, 3*MEO 3*GEO, 3*GSO, 1*GEO
of planes is 3*IGSO, 4*IGSO
constellation 3*MEO in
BeiDou-III
phase
Total number 31 24 35 22 08 04
of operational
satellites
Period 11.97 h 11.26 h 12.63 h 14.00 h 23.93 h 23.93 h
Number of 72 24 satellites 5 GEO 30 14 (8 active 7 (4 satellites in

satellites in three satellites, and 1 failed constellation and
orbital planes 30 MEO and 5 3 satellites are
whose satellites planned) planned by 2023)
ascending
nodes are 120
degrees apart
Frequency L1, L2 L1*, L2* B1, B2, B3 L1 L5, S-band L1, L2, L5, L6
Status as in Operational Operational Operational Operational Operational Operational
2020
Year of first 1978 1982 2000 2011 2013 2010
launch of the
satellite
Period of Fully Fully Fully Fully NA 2023
fully operational operational operational operational
operational but more but more
satellite series satellites satellite
planned planned till
2030
Horizontal 500e30 cm 5e10 m 3.6 m (public) 1 m (public), 1 m (public), PNT <10 m
accuracy (with vertical 2.6 m 1 cm 10 cm (public)
accuracy: (Asia pacific, (encrypted) (encrypted) SLAS <1 m
w15 m) public) (public)
10 cm CLAS <10 cm
(encrypted) (public)
B1, 1561.1 MHz; B2, 1207.14 MHz; B3, 1268.52 MHz; GEO, geosynchronous; L1*, 1602 MHz; L1, 1575.42 Mhz; L2*, 1246 MHz; L2,
1227.60 MHz; L5, 1176.45 MHz; L6, 1278.75 MHz; MEO, medium Earth orbit; S, 2492.028 MHz.

7.3 Geodetic control surveys

A geodetic control survey is based on a network of monumented control points on the
ground and a very precise survey method supporting mapping, construction, boundary sur-
veys, etc. GPS emerged as a better alternative to these precise surveys. The static method is
used in high-order geodetic control surveys, but for low-order control surveys such as in
photogrammetric and other types of mapping, fast static techniques are used.
7.4 Cadastral survey

With the introduction of GPS in surveying, cadastral surveys also share its benefits in the
precise demarcation of property boundaries. It is common in most of the cases of real-estate
deals where the conflict arises because of improper records of land sizes. GPS receivers
proved to be faster alternatives irrespective of the coverage area, without compromising
the accuracy of the measurements.
7.5 Photogrammetry, remote sensing, and GIS

GPS can be integrated with remote sensing and geographical information system (GIS) to
yield applications in various fields like natural resource management, environmental and at-
mospheric monitoring, precision farming and environmental modeling, urban planning, for-
est survey and management, animal behavior studies, meteorology and climate research,
disaster mitigation, emergency response, mobile mapping, etc. It can provide very accurate
controls required for satellite photogrammetry for mapping and creation of stereomodels.
It incredibly boosts the process like the creation of a new map, updating of existing maps, etc.
7.6 Ground truthing and validation

The use of GPS for ground truthing and validation in various types of R&D activities is
primarily a modernization of old techniques, i.e., surveying. Ground truth is simply observa-
tions or measurements made at or near the surface of the Earth of the air or space-based
remote sensing survey. GPS supports in identification as well as tracking of ground control
points and validation sites through its real-time positioning and navigation methods. The
modern-day handheld GPS also provides detailed data form with coordinates and enables
researchers to work confidently in remote areas of forest, glaciers, hills, desert, and in marine.
7.7 Disaster, response, and mitigation

The GPS technologies with its integration with remote sensing and GIS can have a signif-
icant role in disaster response and mitigation [17], including landslide and flood disaster pre-
vention, forest fire, cyclone tracking, and shifting of population. GPS enables the task forces

8. Conclusions 17
to pinpoint the location and supports in timely evacuation and responses. Emergency
response team members can make the benefits of GPS for reducing response time, by deter-
mining the location of a casualty during operations.
7.8 Integration of GPS with mobile and google maps and GPS
It has extended use in day-to-day life through GPS in mobiles, which helps in movement,
direction, real-time traffic congestion, and physical activity measurement. GPS in mobile has
been widely used for accessing the precise location of smartphones. The positioning in smart-
phones is completed by the built-in locator module, involving navigation software, GSM
communication module, and GPS chip. They receive positioning signals from satellites
continuously, and GPS modules figure out the related information through analysis, like di-
rection or speed of the target. The smartphone enables GPS-based navigation, tracking, and
positioning of family members and aids in locating facilities and other landmarks [22].
8. Conclusions
GPS is a space-based radio-positioning and time-transfer system that provides three-
dimensional positioning and navigation services for civilian, military, and scientific users.
The accuracy of GPS is based on the clear and fine visibility of the sky, and any obstructions
by means of tree branches or building density may lead to limited accuracy in the forest and
urban areas. GPS satellites transmit signals to provide accurate PVT information to an unlim-
ited number of users on the Earth. GPS satellites broadcast a signal that encodes position and
time with a high accuracy derived from the satellite’s atomic clock time standard. The GPS
receivers use the time-of-arrival ranging to generate pseudorange to determine the user’s po-
sition. The GPS receiver can receive and process the SPS signals as modified by SA and pro-
vides precise positioning. The GPS coordinates in the WGS-84 datum are not easily
convertible into local geodetic systems and require a reliable transformation scheme. It also
requires highly skilled workers for surveying activities. GPS signals and measurements are
prone to many unintentional disturbance factors including the drift of both the satellite
and receiver clocks, ionosphere and troposphere added delays to the signal transmission
time, and multipath errors. One major type of intentional GPS error includes signal jamming,
which is deliberate interference caused by broadcasts of radio frequency signals around the
receiver with the aim of preventing the tracking of true GNSS signals. Most of the GPS errors
can be resolved through technological advancement and methods. TEC is a key parameter in
the mitigation of ionospheric effects on radio systems. Incorporating both GPS and GLO-
NASS constellations in the navigation system may significantly improve the accuracy of
the navigational solution. Furthermore, it helps in environmental monitoring, precision
farming, urban planning, forest management, disaster mitigation, and emergency response.

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Further reading
[1] G. Blewitt, C. Kreemer, W.C. Hammond, J. Gazeaux, MIDAS robust trend estimator for accurate GPS station ve-
locities without step detection, J. Geophys. Res.: Solid Earth 121 (2016) 2054e2068, https://doi.org/10.1002/
2015JB012552.
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from GPS geodesy, AGU Fall Meeting Abstract. 41 (2013) G41AeG0917.
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Improve Resistance to Spoofing, 2011, US20110102259A1.
[5] G. Lewis, Evaluating the use of a low-cost unmanned aerial vehicle platform in acquiring digital imagery for
emergency response, in: Geomatics Solutions for Disaster Management, Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2007,
pp. 117e133.
[6] A. Mansourian, M.J. Valadan Zoje, A. Mohammadzadeh, M. Farnaghi, Design and implementation of an on-
demand feature extraction web service to facilitate development of spatial data infrastructures, Comput. Environ.
Urban Syst. 32 (5) (2008) 377e385.
[7] M. Mulla, S. Sambare, Efficient analysis of lightweight Sybil attack detection scheme in Mobile Ad hoc Networks,
in: 2015 International Conference on Pervasive Computing (ICPC). Presented at the 2015 International Conference
on Pervasive Computing (ICPC), 2015, pp. 1e6, https://doi.org/10.1109/PERVASIVE.2015.7086988.
[8] S. Westlund, The use of geospatial technology in disaster management, Int. J. Appl. Geospatial Res. (IJAGR) 1 (3)
(2010) 17e30, https://doi.org/10.4018/jagr.2010070102.

C H A P T E R
2
Fundamentals of structural and
functional organization of GNSS
Evgeny Ochina
Jakub Parady_z University, Faculty of Technology, Gorzów Wielkopolcki, Poland
1. GNSS structural organization
1.1 Introduction
This chapter provide an elementary introduction to the architecture of Global Navigation
Satellite System (GNSS). The main purpose is to give the user a general idea of the structural
organization of GNSS. The presentation is not aimed at academicians writing serious
scientific dissertations. Whenever possible, has been avoided a comparative analysis of
various types of GNSS. It has also been avoided introducing the reader to the discussion
issues and, all the more, discussing the possible ways to solve problems that have not yet
become generally accepted. The structural organization of GNSS constitutes Space Segment
(SS) þ Control Segment (CS) þ User Segment (US). SS consists of a constellation of 24 satel-
lites for Global Positioning System (GPS) and GLONASS and 32 satellites for BeiDou and
Galileo that orbit the Earth in circular orbits. Satellites are placed in six or eight orbital planes,
with each orbital plane consisting of four satellites and circling the Earth every 12 h. The incli-
nation of the orbital planes and the location of the satellites guarantee the visibility of at least
six satellites from any place on Earth. GNSS satellites are placed in mid-Earth orbit (MEO) at
an altitude of about 20,000 km. To increase redundancy and improve accuracy, the total
number of GNSS satellites in the constellation can reach 32 for GPS and GLONASS and 40
for BeiDou and Galileo. CS constitutes stations on Earth that are monitoring and maintaining
the GNSS satellites. US constitutes receivers that process the navigation signals from the
GNSS satellites and calculate position and time.
a
Prof. Ph.D. Habil. "Computers, complexes, systems and networks". Ph.D. Habil. "Optical systems of location, tele-
communications and information processing". eochin@ajp.edu.pl
GPS and GNSS Technology in Geosciences

https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-818617-6.00010-X 21 © 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
22 2. Fundamentals of structural and functional organization of GNSS
One of the oldest problems in human history was the problem of precise positioning. Posi-
tioning methods were based on the observation of celestial bodies. The field of positioning
and navigation has undergone a dramatic evolution, which has led to the use of radio fre-
quency signals and led to the emergence of GNSS with global coverage, high accuracy,
and the absence of complex equipment for the user. The new concept of GNSS cloud receivers
is expected to play a significant role in defining the Internet of things (IoT) technology,
machine-to-machine interaction, and smart cities. With an increasing interest in new use cases
such as smart manufacturing, augmented reality, and a multitude of IoT applications, there is
a need for an infrastructure with edge computing and distributed cloud capabilities.
GNSS pinpoints latitude, longitude, and altitude to about a meter of accuracy and pro-
vides nanosecond precise time anywhere on Earth.
Vehicle navigation for actively engaged drivers, whether furnished by original equipment
manufacture or after-market installation, represents the largest, fastest growing segment for
positioning technologies.
1.2 Some notation and definitions

• Sat i ; i ¼ 1; N; N 4dthe navigation satellites as the spacefaring component of GNSS.
• ðx; y; zÞdthe real coordinates of a vehicle.
• ðxv ; yv ; zv Þdthe
precise coordinates of the vehicle.
• b
xv; b
yv; b z v dthe calculated coordinates of the vehicle using the GNSS.
• ðxi ; yi ; zi Þdthe coordinates of Sati .
• T vi dthe propagation time from Sati to the vehicle in vacuum.
• b v dthe propagation time from Sati to the vehicle in real atmosphere.
T i
• Dvi dthe measurement result of the distance from Sati to the vehicle (the vehicle
pseudoranges).
• Dri dunknown error of the measurement result of the distance from Sati to the vehicle.
• GNSS makes it possible to determine the location and speed of objects in any place on
the Earth (including the polar regions), in almost any weather, as well as in outer space
near the planet.
• US NAVSTAR GPSdNAVigation Satellites providing Time And Range Global Posi-
tion System, RF GLONASSdGLObal Navigation Satellite System, PRC BeiDou-3, UE
Galileoda GNSS.
• Time of arrival (ToA) is the travel time of a radio signal from a single transmitter to a
remote single receiver.
• Pseudorange is a measure of the difference between the receiver's chronometer when
receiving a signal and the satellite's chronometer when transmitting a signal, multiplied
by the speed of light.
• Trilateration is a method of determining the relative positions of three or more (multi-
lateration) points by treating these points as vertices of a triangle or triangles of which
the angles and sides can be measured.
• DGNSSdDifferential GNSS.
• DSddifferential stationdcontrol correction station subsystem DGNSS, including a
reference station (RS) with their own coordinates ðxrs ; yrs ; zrs Þ and the radio beacon
transmitting correction information.
I. General Introduction to GPS/GNSS technology

1. GNSS structural organization 23
• ðxrs ; yrs ; zrs Þdthe coordinates of RS.
• RTCMdRadio Technical Commission for Maritime Servicesddefines a differential
data link for the real-time differential correction of roving GNSS receivers.
• WGS-84dWorld Geodetic System 1984ddescribes the size and shape of the Earth.
1.3 GNSS global coverage

GNSS includes navigation satellite infrastructure and constellations that provide posi-
tioning and time information for traffic management. GNSS satellite groupings currently
recognized by the International Civil Aviation Organization include the US GPS, Russian
GLONASS, European Galileo, and Chinese BeiDou. Frequencies for GNSS signals that sup-
port transport safety are globally harmonized and legally protected in accordance with the
International Telecommunication Union radio regulations.
GNSS Global Coverage ¼ GNSS with full operational capability (FOC) ¼ The space-based
radio navigation system that helps pinpoint a three-dimensional (3D) position to about a
meter of accuracy (latitude, longitude, and altitude) and provides nanosecond precise time
anywhere on Earth. There are currently four FOC GNSS: US NAVSTAR GPS, RF GLONASS,
UE Galileo, and PRC BeiDou.
GNSS is a dual-use system: standard civil location service (Standard Positioning Service,
SPS) and military Precise Positioning Service (PPS).
PPS1 ¼ GNSS positioning, speed, and time service that are continuously available world-
wide to users authorized by the US Department of Defense (usually using the P-code). Access
to PPS is controlled using cryptography and other information security methods. Since the
material in this monograph is designated for the civil community, we will only consider SPS.
Standard Positioning Service (SPS) is a positioning and timing service provided on GNSS
L1 frequency and available to all GNSS users. SPS is designed to provide accuracy at about
15 meters in the horizontal plane and about 22 m in the vertical plane. The error in deter-
mining the Universal Time Coordinated (UTC) time guarantees no more than 40 ns.
The main goal of GNSS is to allow users to evaluate their position, velocity, and timing at
any time, anywhere in the world.
Low Earth orbits are located at an altitude of 160e2000 km above the Earth's surface (in
the first case, the orbital period is approximately 88 min and in the second 127 min). Objects
moving at altitudes of less than 200 km experience marked inhibition in the highest layers of
the atmosphere and quickly fall to Earth. Therefore, heights of less than 300 km are usually
not used for satellitesdthe lifetime in such low orbits is relatively short.
Currently, all inhabited orbital stations and the vast majority of artificial Earth satellites are
in low orbits.
The US NAVSTAR GPS [1] is an FOC designed, implemented, and operated by the US
Department of Defense. The total number of satellites in the constellation is 33, including 31
that are operational.
1
GPS Standard Positioning Service (SPS) Performance Standard: https://www.gps.gov/technical/ps/#spsps. This
document defines the levels of performance the US government makes available to users of the GPS SPS, also
known as the civilian GPS service.

GPS is comprised of three different parts:

• SS: A constellation of at least 24 US government satellites distributed in six orbital
planes inclined 55 degrees from the equator in a Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) at about
20,200 km (12,550 miles) and circling the Earth every 12 h.
• CS: Stations on Earth monitoring and maintaining the GPS satellites.
• US: Receivers that process the navigation signals from the GPS satellites and calculate
position and time.
RF GLONASS [2] is an FOC GNSS owned and operated by Roscosmos of the Russian
Federation. The total number of satellites in the constellation is 28, including 24 which are
operational.
PRC BeiDou (BDS or Compass, BeiDou translated means “Northern Bucket”dthe Chi-
nese name for the constellation Ursa Major) is an FOC GNSS. The total number of satellites
in the constellation is 48, including 35 operational satellites [3]: 5 satellites in geostationary
orbit, 3 satellites in geosynchronous orbit (with an inclination of 55degrees), and 27 satellites
in middle Earth orbit (~21,500 km), developed by the China Academy of Space Technology.
UE Galileo is an FOC GNSS owned and operated by the European Space Agency. The
project involves China, Israel, South Korea, and Russia. In addition, negotiations are under-
way with representatives of Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Chile, India, and Malaysia. Unlike
the American GPS and Russian GLONASS, the Galileo system is not controlled by govern-
ment or military institutions. The European Union announced the launch of Galileo Primary
Services in 2016 and plans to complete a 24e32 satellite system by 2021 [4].
Galileo offers four services:
1. Open Service offers time and location information.
2. The Commercial Service uses various frequency bands to provide higher quality ser-
vices. It is possible to encrypt access to it.
3. The State Regulation Service is intended for use only by government agencies.
4. The Search and Rescue Service is designed to find and help people in distress at sea or
on land.
In December 2005 and April 2008, the first two experimental satellites were launched,
which began the In-Orbit Verification (IOV) phase. IOV consists of taking measurements
of the medium (radiation, magnetic fields) and beginning to test communication equipment.
The complete Galileo system will include a constellation of 30 satellites.
The Galileo ground segment consists of two control centers and a global network of trans-
mitting and receiving stations. The Galileo Special Control System (GCS) and Galileo Mission
System are responsible for managing the satellite constellation and providing control func-
tions for all Galileo satellites.
GCS is responsible for transmitting navigation data embedded in navigation signals. It uses
the Galileo Global Sensor Station Network to calculate orbit information and clock offsets for
each satellite. These data are then uploaded to the satellites periodically, every 100 min.
GNSS satellites continuously transmit navigation signals, and the main observable param-
eter is the propagation time of the navigation signal from the satellite antenna to the receiver
antenna. This value is multiplied by the speed of light to get an estimate of the distance
between them. The position of the receiving antenna is calculated based on the measured dis-
tances from at least four satellites.

The signal transmitted by satellites has two main components:
1. Range codes are digital sequences 0 and 1 for determining the time distances to satellite
antennas. They are also called pseudorandom noise (PRN) sequences because of their
correlation properties.
2. Navigation data are a digital message about the position of satellites, ephemeris, infor-
mation about the correction of hours, and other additional parameters.
The autocorrelation function of PRN codes has a peak only at zero delay and resembles the
function of an uncorrelated noise signal. However, PRN codes are deterministic sequences
(pseudorandom). When the PRN sequence correlates with a copy of itself, the correlation
is maximum.
1.4 GNSS regional coverage

Currently there are two regional GNSSs operating: Indian NavIC and Japanese QZSS.
Navigation Indian Constellation (NavICdacronym for NAVigation with Indian Constel-
lation, meaning “sailor” or “navigator”) is a regional GNSS owned and operated by the Gov-
ernment of India (until 2016, it was called IRNSS d Indian Regional Navigation Satellite
System). NavIC is an autonomous system designed to cover the Indian region and
1500 km around the Indian mainland. The system consists of seven satellites [5].
QZSSdacronym Quasi-Zenith Satellite Systemdis a regional GNSS owned by the
Government of Japan and operated by QZS System Service Inc. QZSS complements GPS
to improve coverage in East Asia and Oceania. The system consists of four satellites and
will be expanded to seven satellites for autonomous capability by 2023 [6].
1.5 Three main GNSS segments

GNSSs are composed of three different complementary segments, as shown in Fig. 2.1:
The SS (Table 2.1), consisting of navigation satellites, is a combination of sources of radio
navigation signals that simultaneously transmit a significant amount of overhead informa-
tion. The main functions of each satellite are the generation and emission of radio signals
necessary for navigational determinations of consumers and the control of onboard satellite
systems.
WGS-84 is an ellipsoid designed to best shape the entire Earth with a single ellipsoid. It is
often used as a reference around the world, while other ellipsoids are used locally to provide
a better connection to Earth in the local region. GNSS uses the center of the WGS84 ellipsoid
as the center of the ECEF GNSS reference frame.
The CS (or Ground Segment) tracks and maintains the satellites in space. The CS monitors
the satellite health and it maintains the satellite orbits as desired. Furthermore, the CS up-
dates the satellite clock corrections and ephemerides, among other parameters, encapsulated
in the navigation message.
The CS includes a cosmodrome, a command and measurement complex and a control cen-
ter. The spaceport provides the launch of satellites into the required orbits during the initial
deployment of the navigation system, as well as the periodic replenishment of satellites as

FIGURE 2.1 GNSS consists of three segments: the Space Segment, the Control Segment, and the User Segment.
TABLE 2.1 Space segments for different GNSSs.

Parameter GPS GLONASS Galileo BeiDou
Orbital period (hrs:min) 11:58 11:15 14:04 12:37

Orbital height (Km) 22.2 19.1 23.222 21.15
Number of orbital planes 6 3 3 6
Number of satellites 24 þ 6 21 þ 3 24 þ 6 27 þ 5 þ 32
Reference frame WGS-84 PZ90 GTRF CGCS 2000
they fail or resource exhaustion. The main objects of the spaceport are the technical position
and the launch complex. The technical position provides reception, storage, and assembly of
launch vehicles and satellites, their testing, refueling, and docking.
Among the tasks of the launch complex are delivery of the carrier with the navigation sat-
ellite to the launch pad, installation on the launch system, preflight tests, refueling the carrier,
and launch. The command and measuring complex serves to supply navigation satellites
with service information necessary for navigating sessions, as well as for monitoring and con-
trolling them as spacecraft. The control center, connected by the information and control ra-
dio links with the spaceport and the command and measurement complex, coordinates the
operation of all elements of the satellite navigation system.
The US combines all user installations and their supporting equipment. A custom installa-
tion typically consists of an antenna, a GNSS receiver, a processor, a computer, and I/O
devices.
27 MEOs þ 5 GEOs þ 3 IGSOs.

2

This setup captures and tracks the navigation signal from four or more satellites in the field
of view, measures the propagation time of these signals and Doppler frequency shifts,
converts them to pseudorange and pseudorange variation rates, and determines the spatial
position and speed while also setting the GNSS time.
To solve navigation problems, a specialized built-in computer is provided in the consumer
equipment. A variety of existing consumer equipment meets the needs of land, sea, aviation,
and space consumers.
Pseudorange (or pseudo-range) is a measure of the difference between the receiver's
chronometer when receiving a signal and the satellite's chronometer when transmitting a
signal, multiplied by the speed of light. As a result of the asynchrony of the two chronometers
and many other reasons, the pseudorange is measured with a large error.
Multiconstellation has seen increasing adoption owing to the benefits it brings to receiver
performance, particularly in environments with constrained sky views such as urban
canyons. The range of benefits includes the following:
Increased availabilitydparticularly in the aforementioned constrained environments,
where shadowing would prevent a single constellation from providing an adequate solution.
In some cases, shadowing would make it so a single constellation is entirely ineffective.
Increased accuracydbetter geometry and more signals that allow the receiver to reject
compromised inputs (e.g., from multipath).
Improved robustnessdseveral independent systems are harder to spoof than a single
system.
Supported constellations3 by GNSS receivers:
➢ GPS only
➢ GPS þ GLONASS
➢ GPS þ Galileo þ GLONASS
➢ GPS þ Galileo
➢ GPS þ GLONASS þ BeiDou
➢ GPS þ BeiDou
➢ GPS þ Galileo þ BeiDou
➢ GPS þ GLONASS þ BeiDou þ Galileo
This book is intended primarily for GNSS users, as well as engineering students related to
satellite navigation. As the experience of teaching such disciplines shows, almost all the basic
ideas of GNSS can be illustrated by the example of two-dimensional (2D) navigation. The
problem of clock synchronization can also be illustrated by the example of 2D navigation.
At the end of this section, it will be shown that 2D navigation is easily generalized to the
case of real 3D GNSS.
A navigation satellite is a transmitting radio station with known XYZ coordinates, which
emits directional radio signals. The radio receiver of a vehicle measures the ToA sometimes
called time of flight of the radio signal from the satellite to the radio receiver Dt and
3
GSA Infoclip: What is Multi-constellation?// https://www.gsa.europa.eu/gsa-infoclip-what-multi-constellation.

determines the distance to it r ¼ c$Dt, where c is the speed of propagation of electromagnetic

waves, approximately equal to the speed of light, cz300; 000 km=s.
1.6 Navigation using one satellite

Assume that a precision clock is mounted on a satellite at a point in 2D space with known
coordinates ðx1 ; z1 Þ. Suppose also that a precision clock is mounted on a vehicle located at a
point in 2D space with unknown coordinates ðxv ; zv Þ and synchronized with the clock on
the satellite with high accuracy. The result of the ToA measurement gives a circle of radius
r1 ¼ c$ToA, which is the set of points on which the vehicle may be located (Fig. 2.2).
2 2 2
ðx1 xv Þ þ ðz1 zÞ ¼ ðr1 Þ (2.1)
In this case, we can assume that the systematic error is Dr ¼ 0. In practice, this means that
it is necessary to install a relatively expensive clock, for example, an atomic clock4 both on a
satellite (this is exactly what is implemented in 3D GNSS) and on a vehicle (this is practically
not feasible).
If the clocks on the satellite and the receiver are not synchronized, then the systematic error
Drs0 (Fig. 2.3).
2 2 2
ðx1 xv Þ þ ðz1 zv Þ ¼ ðr1 þ DrÞ (2.2)
FIGURE 2.2 Navigation using one satellite. The clocks on the satellite and the receiver of a vehicle are syn-
chronized. Systematic error Dr ¼ 0; ToA ¼ time of arrival of the radio signal from the navigation satellite to the
radio receiver; S, satellite; V, vehicle located at some point with unknown coordinates.

FIGURE 2.3 The clocks on the satellite and the receiver are not synchronized. The clocks on the satellite and the
receiver are not synchronized. Systematic error Drs0 is unrecoverable.
This architecture assumes that the watch on the vehicle has the normal accuracy of a reg-
ular quartz watch. Clock error Dt leads to measurement error of the vehicle to the satellite
Dr ¼ c$Dt.
The practical significance of such navigation is as follows. Suppose a vehicle reckons its
way using the inertial navigation system (INS). If the vehicle is within the satellite coverage
area, the ToA measurement result allows you to partially correct the accumulated over time
track reckoning error with an accuracy not exceeding the ToA measurement error.
1.7 2D navigation using two satellites

Assume that the clocks on two satellites are installed at points with known coordinates
ðx1 ; z1 Þ and ðx2 ; z2 Þ and clock on a vehicle at some point with unknown coordinates
ðxv ; zv Þ, synchronized with high accuracy. Measurement results ToA1 and ToA2 give two cir-
cles of radii r1 ¼ c$ToA1 and r2 ¼ c$ToA1 , intersecting at two points, one of which is a
vehicle (Fig. 2.4).
it is necessary to install a relatively expensive clock, for example, an atomic clock both on sat-
ellites (this is exactly what is implemented in 3D GNSS) and on a vehicle (this is practically
not feasible).
If the clocks on the satellite and the receiver are not synchronized, then the systematic error
Drs0 (Fig. 2.5). This architecture assumes that the clock on the vehicle has the normal accu-
racy of a regular quartz watch (and this is a plus); however, the positioning error Dr cannot
be corrected (and this is a minus).

FIGURE 2.4 Navigation using two satellites. The clocks on the satellite and the receiver are synchronized. Sys-
tematic error Dr ¼ 0.
FIGURE 2.5 The clocks on the beacons and the receiver are not synchronized. Systematic error Drs0 is
unrecoverable.
The practical significance of such navigation is as follows. Suppose a vehicle reckons its
way using INS. If the vehicle is in the satellite coverage area, the ToA measurement result
allows you to correct the accumulated time error of the reckoning track with accuracy not
exceeding the ToA measurement error.
1.8 2D navigation using three satellite

Assume that the clocks on three satellites are installed at points with known coordinates
ðx1 ; z1 Þ, ðx2 ; z2 Þ, and ðx3 ; z3 Þ and hours on a vehicle at some point with unknown

coordinates ðxv ; zv Þ, synchronized with high accuracy. Measurement results ToA1 , ToA2 , and
ToA3 give three circles of radii r1 ¼ c$ToA1 , r2 ¼ c$ToA2 , and r3 ¼ c$ToA3 , intersecting at the
vehicle location (Fig. 2.6).
it is necessary to install a relatively expensive clock, for example, an atomic clock both on sat-
ellites (this is exactly what is implemented in 3D GNSS) and on a vehicle (this is practically
not feasible).
If the clocks on the beacons and the receiver are not synchronized, then the systematic er-
ror Drs0 (Fig. 2.7). This architecture assumes that the clock on the vehicle has the normal
accuracy of a regular quartz clock (and this is a plus), while it is possible to correct the posi-
tion error Dr (and this is the second plus).
FIGURE 2.6 The clocks on the beacons and the receiver are synchronized. Systematic error Dr ¼ 0.
FIGURE 2.7 The clocks on the beacons and the receiver are not synchronized. Systematic error Drs 0.

1.8.1 The main idea of an iterative algorithm to compensate for the systematic error Dr
The vehicle's onboard processor iteratively subtracts (or adds) a certain correction (the
same for all ri þ Dr) to the measured ranges and continues to change the measured ranges
until it finds a solution that “draws” all the circles through one point (Fig. 2.8) in which
the vehicle is located.
1.8.2 Inaccurate vehicle clock synchronization

It should be specially noted that in the algorithm for compensating for the systematic error
Dr, the synchronization mechanism of inaccurate vehicle clocks is hidden using accurate,
usually atomic,4 clocks installed on satellites. Indeed, if we take into account that
ToA ¼ ðr þDrÞ=c, then Eq. (2.2) can be represented as
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
r1 ¼ ðx1 xv Þ2 þ ðz1 zv Þ2 Dr; (2.3)
and for the case of three satellites you can write

8 qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
>
> r ¼
2
ðx1 xv Þ þ ðz1 zv Þ Dr
2
>
> 1
< qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2 2
> r2 ¼ ðx2 xv Þ þ ðz2 zv Þ Dr (2.4)
>
> qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
>
:
r3 ¼ ðx3 xv Þ2 þ ðz3 zv Þ2 Dr
FIGURE 2.8 Iterative algorithm to compensate for the systematic error Dr. The pseudorange to the GNSS satellite
is equal to the difference between the time of the receiver at the time of signal reception and the time of the satellite at
the time of signal transmission, multiplied by the speed of light. The measured range ðri þDrÞ differs from the
geometric distance ðri Þ by the correction value ðDrÞ due to the nonsynchronism of the onboard timescale of the GNSS
navigation spacecraft and the time line of the GNSS consumer navigation equipment.
4
Atomic clocks use vibrations that occur in atoms. Atomic clocks are used in spaceships, ballistic missiles, air-
planes, submarines, in GNSS, in base stations of mobile communications, time services, etc.

The system of three Eq. (2.4) contains three unknowns fxv ; zv ; Drg. The calculation of Dr
gives the clock error Dt ¼ Dr=c for synchronization. The synchronization requirements
should be high enough. So, for example, the clock out of sync for 106 s leads to an error
Dr ¼ 106 $s ¼ 106 $3$108 ¼ 300 n.
1.9 3D GNSS using N satellites

We write Eq. (2.4) for 3D GNSS and three satellites as
8 qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
>
> r ¼
2
ðx1 xv Þ þ ðy1 yv Þ þ ðz1 zv Þ Dr
2 2
>
> 1
< qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2 2 2
> r2 ¼ ðx2 xv Þ þ ðy2 yv Þ þ ðz2 zv Þ Dr (2.5)
>
> qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
>
:
r3 ¼ ðx3 xv Þ2 þ ðy3 yv Þ2 þ ðz3 zv Þ2 Dr
Positioning accuracy increases with an increase in the number of “visible” satellites; there-
fore, in the general case for N satellites, one can write:
8 qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
>
> r ¼ ðx1 xv Þ2 þ ðy1 yv Þ2 þ ðz1 zv Þ2 Dr
>
> 1
>
> qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
< 2 2 2
r2 ¼ ðx2 xv Þ þ ðy2 yv Þ þ ðz2 zv Þ Dr (2.6)
>
>
>
> .
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ffi
>
>
:
rN ¼ ðxN xv Þ þ ðyN yv Þ2 þ ðzN zv Þ2 Dr
2
To solve the system of Eq. (2.6), relatively complex iterative algorithms are used to calcu-
latefxv ; yv ; Drg, consideration of which is beyond the scope of this book. See, for example,
Ref. [7].
1.10 Summary and conclusions on the topic structural organization of GNSS

The GNSS architecture is an understanding of GNSS from the perspective of a GNSS user.
There is little interest in coordinate systems and time in satellite technology, the theory of
flight of artificial Earth satellites, the influence of the ionosphere and troposphere on SRNS
signals, how the CS (or Ground Segment) is organized, and many other details that are of
interest only to GNSS developers. The user must understand how the GNSS structure is orga-
nized in terms of the satellite segment and what are the main parameters of positioning
accuracy and time. And, of course, the user need to clearly understand how the main ele-
ments of the GNSS structure interact, what will be discussed in the next part “GNSS func-
tional organization.”

2. GNSS functional organization
2.1 GNSS functional principle

GNSS is based on the use of the principle of no-request range measurements between nav-
igation satellites and the user. This means that satellite coordinate information is transmitted
to the user as part of the navigation signal. At the same time (synchronously), measurements
of ranges to navigation satellites are carried out. The range measurement method is based on
calculating time delays of the received signal from the satellite compared to the signal gener-
ated by the user equipment.
Figs. 2.9 and 2.10 shows a diagram of user position determinations with coordinates x, y,
and z based on measurements of range to navigation satellites. The true range differs from the
pseudorange by an amount equal to the product of the speed of light per the amount of offset
of the user's clock with respect to the system time.
Ideally, when measurements are made accurately and the satellite clock and user readings
coincide to determine the position of the user in space, it is sufficient to measure up to three
navigation satellites.
In fact, the clock readings that are part of the user's navigation equipment differ from the
clock readings on board navigation satellites. So to solve the navigation task, add another one
to the previously unknown parameters (three user coordinates)dthe offset between the user's
clock and the system time. It follows that in general, in order to solve the navigation problem,
the consumer must “see” at least four navigation satellites.
FIGURE 2.9 The GNSS positioning.

2. GNSS functional organization 35
FIGURE 2.10 LADGNSSdLocal Area Differential GNSS; RADGNSSdRegional Area Differential GNSS;
WADGNSSdWide Area Differential GNSS.
2.1.1 Systems of coordinates

Navigation satellite systems require data on the Earth's rotation parameters, fundamental
ephemeris of the Moon and planets, data on the Earth's gravitational field, models of the
atmosphere, and highly accurate data on coordinate and time systems used. The origin of
the geocentric coordinate systems coincides with the center of the Earth's mass. Such systems
are called Earth-wide or global (Table 2.2).
2.1.2 Time systems

GPS system time is associated with Coordinated Universal Time or UTC as observed by
the US Naval Observatory. Nominally, the GPS timescale has a constant of 19 s, a discrepancy
with the time atomic international TAI. The time count is in GPS weeks and seconds within
the current week, the start of the count is 00 h 00 min January 06, 1980. In the GPS system, the
week number is recorded with a 10-bit binary number, the maximum value of the week num-
ber is 1023. The zero number of the week was repeated at midnight from August 21 to
August 22, 1999 [8].
TABLE 2.2 In modern navigation satellite systems, various, usually national, coordi-
nate systems are used.
GNSS Coordinate system
GLONASS PZ-90 (1990 Earth Parameters)
NAVSTAR GPS WGS-84 (World Geodetic System)

GALILEO GTRF (Galileo Terrestrial Reference Frame)
BeiDou CGCS 2000 (China Geodetic Coordinate System 2000)
QZSS JGS (Japanese geodetic system)
NavIC WGS-84 (World Geodetic System)

2.1.3 Factors affecting accuracy

There are many factors that influence the accuracy of coordinates, speed, and time. Some
of them are as follows:
• Errors related to onboard satellite and ground GNSS control systems are mainly due to
imperfections in time frequency and ephemeris support.
• Errors are due to the difference between the speed of propagation of radio signals in the
Earth's atmosphere and the speed of their propagation in a vacuum, as well as the
dependence of speed on the physical properties of different layers of the atmosphere.
• Hardware errors are divided into systematic errors of radio signal hardware delay and
fluctuation errors caused by noise and consumer dynamics.
• Mutual positioning of navigation satellites and the consumer: The quantitative character-
istic of the error of position determination and correction of clock readings related to the
features of the spatial position of the satellite and the user is Geometric Definition of
Precision [9].
2.1.4 GNSS accuracy improvement

There are a number of tasks that require high navigation accuracy. These tasks include
navigation in coastal waters, navigation of helicopters and vehicles, and others. The classical
method of improving the accuracy of navigation definitions is the use of differential (relative)
mode of calculation.
The differential mode involves the use of one or more base receivers located at points with
known coordinates, which simultaneously with the user receiver receive signals of the same
satellites.
Improvement of navigation accuracy is achieved due to the fact that errors of measure-
ment of navigation parameters of user and basic receivers are correlated. When generating
differences of measured parameters, most of such errors are compensated.
Differential method is based on knowledge of coordinates of reference point control and
correction station or system of RSs, relative to which corrections to definition of pseudor-
anges before navigation satellites can be calculated. If these corrections are taken into account
in the user equipment, the accuracy of calculation, in particular, of coordinates can be
increased by tens of times.
To ensure differential treatment for a large regiondfor example, for Europe, Russia, and
the United Statesdthe transmission of corrective differential corrections is carried out using
geostationary satellites. Systems implementing this approach have been called broad-zone
differential systems.
Since the travel time of the signal from the satellite to the receiver is known, the distance
between the transmitter and the receiver can be measured. Position estimation based on dis-
tance measurements is called trilateration when three measurements are used or multilater-
ation when more than three measurements are used. The basis of GNSS positioning is
distance measurement by ToA. For this purpose, each satellite transmits signals with a
time stamp associated with it. On the user side, the GNSS receiver measures the reception
time of the transmitted mark and then estimates the propagation delay for each satellite as
the difference between the measured reception time and the transmission mark time. With
this difference, the distance between the satellite and the user can be calculated as
d ¼ c$ToA, with c being the speed of light.

The calculated distance provides the radius of a spherical surface centered on the satellite
and containing the user's location. However, the clocks in the satellite and receiver are not
synchronized, hence all distance measurements shift. The corresponding measurements are
too short or too long by the total amount of error.
2.2 GNSS signal structure, encoding, and frequency

GNSS navigation messages can highlight structural commonality. Navigation messages
are transmitted continuously and periodically repeated.
In the initial stage of GNSS creation, satellite transmitting equipment radiated signals at
two carrier frequencies L1 and L2. Ranges of these frequencies for GPS and GLONASS sys-
tems are shown in Tables 2.3e2.5.
C/A code ¼ a pseudorandom bit string that is mainly used by commercial GNSS receivers
to determine the coverage of the transmitted GNSS satellite. The 1023 GPS C/A code repeats
every 1 ms, which gives the chip code length of 300 m, which is very easy to block.
Signals from satellites are modulated by pseudorandom digital sequences by phase-shift
keying. The L1 frequency is modulated by two types of codes, the C/A code (free access
code) and the P-code (authorized access code). The L2 frequency is only the P-code. In addi-
tion, both carrier frequencies are further encoded by a navigation message containing orbital
data of artificial Earth satellites, atmospheric parameter information, and system time
corrections.
This principle of system signal generation makes it possible to determine vehicle speed by
measurement of the Doppler shift in carrier frequency and the range to satellite from delay of
elements of the range code. The service code carries auxiliary information (satellite ephem-
eris, system almanac, etc.) necessary to ensure operation of the navigation receiver.
TABLE 2.3 L1 and L2 frequency ranges for GPS and GLONASS.

GNSS
The bearing frequency [3] GPS frequency range, MHz GLONASS frequency range, MHz
L1 1597.4525 1620.6100 1565.1900 1585.6500

L2 1241.3275 1261.6100 1217.3700 1237.8300
L5 960.0000 1215.0000 960.0000 1215.0000
GNSS L1 frequency ¼ GNSS carrier frequency 1575.42 MHz, which includes the course acquisition code (C/A), as well as the
encoded P-code and navigation messages used by commercial GPS receivers.
GNSS L2 frequency ¼ GNSS secondary carrier frequency 1227.60 MHz, containing only coded P-code. Currently, GNSS satellites
transmit civil C/A code on L1 frequency and military P(Y) code on L1 and L2 frequencies. Block GNSS IIR-M satellites transmit
the same signals as previous GNSS satellites but will also have a new signal, called L2C, on the L2 frequency.
GNSS L5 frequency ¼ third civilian GNSS frequency at 1176.45 MHz and is transmitted starting from GNSS Block IIF satellites.
This frequency is in the 960e1215 MHz frequency band. The L5 signal is evenly split between the phase (I) data channel and the
quadrature (Q) data channel, which improves interference immunity, especially from systems emitting pulses in the same band as
L5.

TABLE 2.4 The corrections of pseudoranges for all vehicles in the j-one limited scopes and two-
dimensional interpolation on an irregular grid of the pseudoranges in the area of the all-region
(U is the symbol of interpolation, Table 2.4).
RSj ; j [ 1; M Interpolation for the region
fxmin £x £xmax ; ymin £y £ymax ;
1 2 . M zmin £z£zmax g
rs rs rs rs rs rs rs rs rs
1;1 x1 ; y1 ; z1
Sati ; i ¼ 1; N;N 1 DDrs 1;2 x2 ; y2 ; z2
DDrs . DDrs
1;M xM ; yM ; zM
4
rs rs rs rs rs rs rs rs rs
2;1 x1 ; y1 ; z1
2 DDrs 2;2 x2 ; y2 ; z2
DDrs . DDrs
2;M xM ; yM ; zM
. . . . . .

N DDrs
N;1 1 ; y1 ; z1
xrs rs rs
DDrs
N;2 2 ; y2 ; z2
xrs rs rs . DDrs
N;M M ; yM ; zM
xrs rs rs
TABLE 2.5 The corrections of pseudoranges for all vehicles in the j-one limited scopes and two dimen-
sional interpolation on an irregular grid of the pseudoranges in the area of the all-region (U is
the symbol of interpolation, Table 2.5).
RSj ; j [ 1; M Interpolation for the region
1 2 . M fxmin £x £xmax ; ymin £y £ymax g
rs rs rs rs rs rs
Sati ; i ¼ 1; N; N 1 1;1 x1 ; y1
DDrs 1;2 x2 ; y2
DDrs . 1;M xM ; yM
DDrs
3
rs rs rs rs rs rs
2 2;1 x1 ; y1
DDrs DDrs
2;2 x2 ; y2 . 2;M xM ; yM
DDrs
. . . . . .
rs rs
N N;1 x1 ; y1
DDrs rs rs
DDrs
N;2 x2 ; y2
rs rs
. DDrs
N;M xM ; yM
The encoding of a satellite-radiated radio signal has several purposes:

• Enabling synchronization of navigation satellite and receiver signals;
• Creation of the best conditions for signal discrimination in receiver equipment against
noise background (pseudorandom codes have such properties);
• Implementation of limited access mode to GNSS signals, when high-precision measure-
ments are possible only with authorized use of the system.

The periodically repeated navigation message in GPS and GLONASS systems is called a
superframe. The superframe represents the first level of structuring navigation messages.
The superframe is separated by 25 frames representing the second layer of structuring the
navigation message.
In the GPS system, frames are divided into subframes in the third structuring layer. In the
fourth structuring layer, the subframes are divided into 10 words, each word is divided into
30 information characters. In the GLONASS system at the third level of structuring, frames
are divided into lines. In GNSS GLONASS, each line contains 100 information characters.
The start/end of the third-level structure unit in both systems is used to transmit time
stamps. The time stamp transmission period in GPS is 6 s and in GLONASS 2 s. Duration
of data symbol transmission in both systems is 20 ms (frequency 50 Hz).
In both systems, a portion of the third-level structural units in each frame (page) are
diverted to transmit ephemeris information. The content of these units in all frames of the
superframe is the same. The remainder of the Layer 3 structural units in each frame is allo-
cated for transmission of almanac data and other auxiliary data. The content of these struc-
tural units in all frames of the superframe is different. However, the full amount of data
transmitted per superframe contains the almanac information of all satellites included in
the system.
Selection of types and parameters of signals used in GNSS is made so as to provide high
accuracy of measurement of signal arrival (delay) and its Doppler frequency, as well as high
probability of correct decoding of navigation messages.
In order for the signals of individual GPS satellites to differ reliably, they have a low level
of cross-correlation. In addition, GNSS signals are highly resistant to deliberate and uninten-
tional interference of various kinds.
2.3 Pseudoranges
The pseudorange to the GNSS navigation spacecraft is equal to the difference between
the time of the receiver at the time of signal reception and the time of the satellite at the
time of signal transmission, multiplied by the speed of light in vacuum.
The measured range to the GNSS navigation spacecraft differs from the geometric distance
to the GNSS navigation spacecraft by the correction value due to the nonsynchronism of the
onboard timescale of the GNSS navigation spacecraft and the time line of the GNSS consumer
navigation equipment. The clock on the satellite and in the receiver, as a rule, diverge, which
leads to errors in the magnitude of the measured distance. Additional errors are caused by
delays on the path of radio signals passing through the atmosphere (ionosphere and
troposphere).
Simultaneous calculation of distances to several satellites allows you to calculate the coor-
dinates, speed, and direction of movement of the vehicle. Depending on the purpose of the
tasks to be solved, absolute and relative (differential) methods of coordinate definitions are
distinguished.
When performing phase measurements of the carrier oscillations by satellite receivers, the
determined value is the phase of the carrier oscillations received from the satellite, which is
compared with the phase of the corresponding oscillations generated in the receiver. Due to

the high frequency of the carrier oscillations and the associated high sensitivity of the used
phase measuring devices, the potential capabilities of these methods turn out to be extremely
high and correspond to the millimeter level of accuracy. In this regard, phase methods are
fundamental in solving a variety of geodetic problems, which usually provide for high mea-
surement accuracy. At the same time, when performing phase measurements, specific diffi-
culties arise for them (in particular, the problem of resolving ambiguity), to overcome
which it is necessary to develop appropriate methods.
2.4 GNSS positioning

The distance from a vehicle to satellites Sati can be written as
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Dvi ¼ ðxi xv Þ2 þ ðyi yv Þ2 þ ðzi zv Þ2 ¼ cTiv ; i ¼ 1; N; N 4 (2.7)
Since the measurement of distance from the vehicle to the satellites is carried out by
measuring the propagation time T b v ¼ Tv þ DTv of GNSS signals from Sati to the vehicle,
i i
then Eq. (2.7) can be represented as (excluding time synchronization errors):
ðxi xv Þ2 þ ðyi yv Þ2 þ ðzi zv Þ2 ¼ cð T b iv þ DT v Þ; i ¼ 1; N; N 4 (2.8)
As Dr ¼ sDTv , then Eq. (2.8) can be written in the form

2 2
ðxi xv Þ þ ðyi yv Þ þ ðzi zv Þ þ Dr ¼ c T
2 b iv ; i ¼ 1; N; N 4 (2.9)
The navigation processor in the vehicle solves the system of Eq. (2.9) and calculates the po-
sition of the vehicle ðxv ; yv ; zv Þ and timing errors on board Dt, which are then used to correct
the GNSS navigation clock.
8 qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 9
>
> ðx1 xv Þ þ ðy1 yv Þ þ ðz1 zv Þ þ Dr >
2 2 2
>
>
> >
> Iteration algorithm
> >
< qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
>
2 2 2
ffi >
= for Sati ; i ¼ 1; N
ðx2 xv Þ þ ðy2 yv Þ þ ðz2 zv Þ þ Dr ¼)ðxv ; yv ; zv Þ (2.10)
>
> >
>
>
> .
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi >
>
>
> >
>
: 2 2 2 ;
ðxN xv Þ þ ðyN yv Þ þ ðzN zv Þ þ Dr
Because Dr is not an unknown value, instead of the exact value ðxv ; yv ; zv Þ, we will get
approximate results of measurements b xv; b y v ; bz v :
8 qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ffi 9
>
> ðx 1 xv Þ þ ðy1 yv Þ þ ðz1 zv Þ >
2 2 2
> Iteration algorithm
>
> >
>
< qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
> >
= for Sati ; i ¼ 1; N
ðx2 xv Þ2 þ ðy2 yv Þ2 þ ðz2 zv Þ2 ¼) bxv; b
y v ; bz v (2.11)
>
> . >
>
>
> ffi>>
: qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
> >
;
ðxN xv Þ2 þ ðyN yv Þ2 þ ðzN zv Þ2

Analytical methods of solving the systems of Eq. (2.11) do not work, and the description of
numerical methods of solving such a system of equations goes beyond the scope of this chap-
ter. See, for example, Ref. [7].
2.5 Differential GNSS architecture

In order to increase the accuracy of GNSS to a level that provides ships that are underway
in rivers and canals with sufficiently accurate positioning coding, DGNSSs are divided into
three categories (DGNSS base station antenna is set to within a few millimeters), consisting
of ground differential base stations that receive signals from satellites, counting errors for sig-
nals about its (actual) position in the systems WGS-84, PZ-90 or others, and transmitting er-
rors by a special radio network or by satellite. Correcting ReedeSolomon codes are used for
error-correcting coding. DGNSSs are divided into three categories.
Local Area Differential GNSS (LADGNSS) is the DS transmitting correction information
up to 100e200 km of coastline. Regional Area Differential GNSS (RADGNSS) is formed by
combining data of a few LADGNSSs located in the same region. Wide Area Differential
GNSS (WADGNSS) is formed by combining data of a few RADGNSSs located in a same
region, a same state, or a group of bordering states. The transmitting of correction informa-
tion in the unlimited field of the Earth can be implemented through a communication satellite
or a group of satellites, for example, using the Network Transport of RTCM via satellite link
or through the Internet, for example, using the Network Transport of RTCM via Internet
protocol.
2.5.1 Local Area Differential GNSS positioning

The LADGNSS method uses two or more pseudorange receivers. One of the receivers is
permanently installed at a point with a known position in the common Earth coordinate sys-
tem. It is called a RS or control and correction station. The second receiver is at the point
whose coordinates must be determined. It is known that the influence of various sources
of errors on the measurement results is the same for both the reference and the mobile
receiver.
In those cases when the required accuracy of determining the coordinates is estimated at
about 1 m (as, for example, on certain types of work in marine geodesy), resort to the use of
differential pseudoranging methods [10].
The essence of the practical use of such differential methods is that along with the mobile
satellite receiver installed on the vehicle, another (reference) receiver is installed at the point
with known coordinates, working simultaneously with the first one. Between the two re-
ceivers, a radio communication channel is organized to transmit information (correction
terms) from the reference receiver to the mobile one. The noted information contains correc-
tions that are received at the RS by using both the measured values of the pseudorange and
the distances to the satellites, calculated on the basis of the application of the known coordi-
nates of this point (Fig. 2.11).

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Title: Lolly Willowes

or, the loving huntsman
Author: Sylvia Townsend Warner
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Language: English
Original publication: London: Chatto & Windus, 1926
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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LOLLY

WILLOWES ***
Lolly Willowes
OR
THE LOVING HUNTSMAN
SYLVIA
TOWNSEND WARNER
Published by
CHATTO & WINDUS
LONDON
*
CLARKE, IRWIN & CO. LTD
TORONTO
First published 1926
To
BEA ISABEL HOWE
LOLLY
WILLOWES
Part I
W HEN her father died, Laura Willowes went to live in London with her
elder brother and his family.
‘Of course,’ said Caroline, ‘you will come to us.’
‘But it will upset all your plans. It will give you so much trouble. Are
you sure you really want me?’
‘Oh dear, yes.’
Caroline spoke affectionately, but her thoughts were elsewhere. They
had already journeyed back to London to buy an eiderdown for the bed in
the small spare-room. If the washstand were moved towards the door,
would it be possible to fit in a writing-table between it and the fireplace?
Perhaps a bureau would be better, because of the extra drawers? Yes, that
was it. Lolly could bring the little walnut bureau with the false handles on
one side and the top that jumped up when you touched the spring by the
ink-well. It had belonged to Lolly’s mother, and Lolly had always used it,
so Sibyl could not raise any objections. Sibyl had no claim to it whatever,
really. She had only been married to James for two years, and if the bureau
had marked the morning-room wall-paper, she could easily put something
else in its place. A stand with ferns and potted plants would look very nice.
Lolly was a gentle creature, and the little girls loved her; she would soon
fit into her new home. The small spare-room would be rather a loss. They
could not give up the large spare-room to Lolly, and the small spare-room
was the handiest of the two for ordinary visitors. It seemed extravagant to
wash a pair of the large linen sheets for a single guest who came but for a
couple of nights. Still, there it was, and Henry was right—Lolly ought to
come to them. London would be a pleasant change for her. She would meet
nice people, and in London she would have a better chance of marrying.
Lolly was twenty-eight. She would have to make haste if she were going to
find a husband before she was thirty. Poor Lolly! black was not becoming
to her. She looked sallow, and her pale grey eyes were paler and more
surprising than ever underneath that very unbecoming black mushroom hat.
Mourning was never satisfactory if one bought it in a country town.
While these thoughts passed through Caroline’s mind, Laura was not
thinking at all. She had picked a red geranium flower, and was staining her
left wrist with the juice of its crushed petals. So, when she was younger, she
had stained her pale cheeks, and had bent over the greenhouse tank to see
what she looked like. But the greenhouse tank showed only a dark shadowy
Laura, very dark and smooth like the lady in the old holy painting that hung
in the dining-room and was called the Leonardo.
‘The girls will be delighted,’ said Caroline. Laura roused herself. It was
all settled, then, and she was going to live in London with Henry, and
Caroline his wife, and Fancy and Marion his daughters. She would become
an inmate of the tall house in Apsley Terrace where hitherto she had only
been a country sister-in-law on a visit. She would recognise a special
something in the physiognomy of that house-front which would enable her
to stop certainly before it without glancing at the number or the door-
knocker. Within it, she would know unhesitatingly which of the polished
brown doors was which, and become quite indifferent to the position of the
cistern, which had baffled her so one night when she lay awake trying to
assemble the house inside the box of its outer walls. She would take the air
in Hyde Park and watch the children on their ponies and the fashionable
trim ladies in Rotten Row, and go to the theatre in a cab.
London life was very full and exciting. There were the shops,
processions of the Royal Family and of the unemployed, the gold tunnel at
Whiteley’s, and the brilliance of the streets by night. She thought of the
street lamps, so impartial, so imperturbable in their stately diminuendos,
and felt herself abashed before their scrutiny. Each in turn would hand her
on, her and her shadow, as she walked the unfathomed streets and squares
—but they would be familiar then—complying with the sealed orders of the
future; and presently she would be taking them for granted, as the
Londoners do. But in London there would be no greenhouse with a glossy
tank, and no apple-room, and no potting-shed, earthy and warm, with
bunches of poppy heads hanging from the ceiling, and sunflower seeds in a
wooden box, and bulbs in thick paper bags, and hanks of tarred string, and
lavender drying on a tea-tray. She must leave all this behind, or only enjoy
it as a visitor, unless James and Sibyl happened to feel, as Henry and
Caroline did, that of course she must live with them.
Sibyl said: ‘Dearest Lolly! So Henry and Caroline are to have you.... We
shall miss you more than I can say, but of course you will prefer London.
Dear old London with its picturesque fogs and its interesting people, and
all. I quite envy you. But you mustn’t quite forsake Lady Place. You must
come and pay us long visits, so that Tito doesn’t forget his aunt.’
‘Will you miss me, Tito?’ said Laura, and stooped down to lay her face
against his prickly bib and his smooth, warm head. Tito fastened his hands
round her finger.
‘I’m sure he’ll miss your ring, Lolly,’ said Sibyl. ‘You’ll have to cut the
rest of your teeth on the poor old coral when Auntie Lolly goes, won’t you,
my angel?’
‘I’ll give him the ring if you think he’ll really miss it, Sibyl.’
Sibyl’s eyes glowed; but she said:
‘Oh no, Lolly, I couldn’t think of taking it Why, it’s a family ring.’
When Fancy Willowes had grown up, and married, and lost her husband
in the war, and driven a lorry for the Government, and married again from
patriotic motives, she said to Owen Wolf-Saunders, her second husband:
‘How unenterprising women were in the old days! Look at Aunt Lolly.
Grandfather left her five hundred a year, and she was nearly thirty when he
died, and yet she could find nothing better to do than to settle down with
Mum and Dad, and stay there ever since.’
‘The position of single women was very different twenty years ago,’
answered Mr. Wolf-Saunders. ‘Feme sole, you know, and feme covert, and
all that sort of rot.’
Even in 1902 there were some forward spirits who wondered why that
Miss Willowes, who was quite well off, and not likely to marry, did not
make a home for herself and take up something artistic or emancipated.
Such possibilities did not occur to any of Laura’s relations. Her father being
dead, they took it for granted that she should be absorbed into the
household of one brother or the other. And Laura, feeling rather as if she
were a piece of family property forgotten in the will, was ready to be
disposed of as they should think best.
The point of view was old-fashioned, but the Willoweses were a
conservative family and kept to old-fashioned ways. Preference, not
prejudice, made them faithful to their past. They slept in beds and sat upon
chairs whose comfort insensibly persuaded them into respect for the good
sense of their forbears. Finding that well-chosen wood and well-chosen
wine improved with keeping, they believed that the same law applied to
well-chosen ways. Moderation, civil speaking, leisure of the mind and a
handsome simplicity were canons of behaviour imposed upon them by the
example of their ancestors.
Observing those canons, no member of the Willowes family had risen to
much eminence. Perhaps great-great-aunt Salome had made the nearest
approach to fame. It was a decent family boast that great-great-aunt
Salome’s puff-paste had been commended by King George III. And great-
great-aunt Salome’s prayer-book, with the services for King Charles the
Martyr and the Restoration of the Royal Family and the welfare of the
House of Hanover—a nice example of impartial piety—was always used by
the wife of the head of the family. Salome, though married to a Canon of
Salisbury, had taken off her embroidered kid gloves, turned up her sleeves,
and gone into the kitchen to mix the paste for His Majesty’s eating, her
Venice-point lappets dangling above the floury bowl. She was a loyal
subject, a devout churchwoman, and a good housewife, and the Willoweses
were properly proud of her. Titus, her father, had made a voyage to the
Indies, and had brought back with him a green parrokeet, the first of its kind
to be seen in Dorset. The parrokeet was named Ratafee, and lived for fifteen
years. When he died he was stuffed; and perched as in life upon his ring, he
swung from the cornice of the china-cupboard surveying four generations
of the Willowes family with his glass eyes. Early in the nineteenth century
one eye fell out and was lost. The eye which replaced it was larger, but
inferior both in lustre and expressiveness. This gave Ratafee a rather leering
look, but it did not compromise the esteem in which he was held. In a
humble way the bird had made county history, and the family
acknowledged it, and gave him a niche in their own.
Beside the china-cupboard and beneath Ratafee stood Emma’s harp, a
green harp ornamented with gilt scrolls and acanthus leaves in the David
manner. When Laura was little she would sometimes steal into the empty
drawing-room and pluck the strings which remained unbroken. They
answered with a melancholy and distracted voice, and Laura would
pleasantly frighten herself with the thought of Emma’s ghost coming back
to make music with cold fingers, stealing into the empty drawing-room as
noiselessly as she had done. But Emma’s was a gentle ghost. Emma had
died of a decline, and when she lay dead with a bunch of snowdrops under
her folded palms a lock of her hair was cut off to be embroidered into a
picture of a willow tree exhaling its branches above a padded white satin
tomb. ‘That,’ said Laura’s mother, ‘is an heirloom of your great-aunt Emma
who died.’ And Laura was sorry for the poor young lady who alone, it
seemed to her, of all her relations had had the misfortune to die.
Henry, born in 1818, grandfather to Laura and nephew to Emma, became
head of the house of Willowes when he was but twenty-four, his father and
unmarried elder brother dying of smallpox within a fortnight of each other.
As a young man Henry had shown a roving and untraditional temperament,
so it was fortunate that he had the licence of a cadet to go his own way. He
had taken advantage of this freedom to marry a Welsh lady, and to settle
near Yeovil, where his father bought him a partnership in a brewery. It was
natural to expect that upon becoming the head of the family Henry would
abandon, if not the Welsh wife and the brewery, at least Somerset, and
return to his native place. But this he would not do. He had become
attached to the neighbourhood where he had spent the first years of his
married life; the ill-considered jest of his uncle the Admiral, that Henry was
courting a Welshwoman with a tall hat like Mother Shipton’s who would
carry her shoes to church, had secretly estranged him from his relations; and
—most weighty reason of all—Lady Place, a small solid mansion, which he
had long coveted—saying to himself that if ever he were rich enough he
would make his wife the mistress of it—just then came into the market. The
Willowes obstinacy, which had for so long kept unchanged the home in
Dorset, was now to transfer that home across the county border. The old
house was sold, and the furniture and family belongings were installed at
Lady Place. Several strings of Emma’s harp were broken, some feathers
were jolted out of Ratafee’s tail, and Mrs. Willowes, whose upbringing had
been Evangelical, was distressed for several Sundays by the goings-on that
she found in Salome’s prayer-book. But in the main the Willowes tradition
stood the move very well. The tables and chairs and cabinets stood in the
same relation to each other as before; the pictures hung in the same order
though on new walls; and the Dorset hills were still to be seen from the
windows, though now from windows facing south instead of from windows
facing north. Even the brewery, untraditional as it was, soon weathered and
became indistinguishably part of the Willowes way of life.
Henry Willowes had three sons and four daughters. Everard, the eldest
son, married his second cousin, Miss Frances D’Urfey. She brought some
more Willowes property to the Somerset house: a set of garnets; a buff and
gold tea-service bequeathed her by the Admiral, an amateur of china, who
had dowered all his nieces and great-nieces with Worcester, Minton, and
Oriental; and two oil-paintings by Italian masters which the younger Titus,
Emma’s brother, had bought in Rome whilst travelling for his health. She
bore Everard three children: Henry, born in 1867; James, born in 1869; and
Laura, born in 1874.
On Henry’s birth Everard laid down twelve dozen of port against his
coming of age. Everard was proud of the brewery, and declared that beer
was the befitting drink for all classes of Englishmen, to be preferred over
foreign wines. But he did not extend this ban to port and sherry; it was
clarets he particularly despised.
Another twelve dozen of port was laid down for James, and there it
seemed likely the matter would end.
Everard was a lover of womankind; he greatly desired a daughter, and
when he got one she was all the dearer for coming when he had almost
given up hope of her. His delight upon this occasion, however, could not be
so compactly expressed. He could not lay down port for Laura. At last he
hit upon the solution of his difficulty. Going up to London upon the
mysterious and inadequate pretext of growing bald, he returned with a little
string of pearls, small and evenly matched, which exactly fitted the baby’s
neck. Year by year, he explained, the necklace could be extended until it
encircled the neck of a grown-up young woman at her first ball. The ball, he
went on to say, must take place in winter, for he wished to see Laura
trimmed with ermine. ‘My dear,’ said Mrs. Willowes, ‘the poor girl will
look like a Beefeater.’ But Everard was not to be put off. A stuffed ermine
which he had known as a boy was still his ideal of the enchanted princess,
so pure and sleek was it, and so artfully poised the small neat head on the
long throat. ‘Weasel!’ exclaimed his wife. ‘Everard, how dare you love a
minx?’
Laura escaped the usual lot of the new-born, for she was not at all red.
To Everard she seemed his very ermine come to true life. He was in love
with her femininity from the moment he set eyes on her. ‘Oh, the fine little
lady!’ he cried out when she was first shown to him, wrapped in shawls,
and whimpering at the keen sunlight of a frosty December morning. Three
days after that it thawed, and Mr. Willowes rode to hounds. But he came
back after the first kill. ‘’Twas a vixen,’ he said. ‘Such a pretty young vixen.
It put me in mind of my own, and I thought I’d ride back to see how she
was behaving. Here’s the brush.’
Laura grew up almost as an only child. By the time she was past her
babyhood her brothers had gone to school. When they came back for their
holidays, Mrs. Willowes would say: ‘Now, play nicely with Laura. She has
fed your rabbits every day while you have been at school. But don’t let her
fall into the pond.’
Henry and James did their best to observe their mother’s bidding. When
Laura went too near the edge of the pond one or the other would generally
remember to call her back again; and before they returned to the house,
Henry, as a measure of precaution, would pull a wisp of grass and wipe off
any tell-tale green slime that happened to be on her slippers. But nice play
with a sister so much younger than themselves was scarcely possible. They
performed the brotherly office of teaching her to throw and to catch; and
when they played at Knights or Red Indians, Laura was dutifully cast for
some passive female part. This satisfied the claims of honour; if at some
later stage it was discovered that the captive princess or the faithful squaw
had slipped away unnoticed to the company of Brewer in the coachhouse or
Oliver Cromwell the toad, who lived under the low russet roof of violet
leaves near the disused melon pit, it did not much affect the course of the
drama. Once, indeed, when Laura as a captive princess had been tied to a
tree, her brothers were so much carried away by a series of single combats
for her favour that they forgot to come and rescue her before they swore
friendship and went off to the Holy Land. Mr. Willowes, coming home from
the brewery through a sunset haze of midges, chanced to stroll into the
orchard to see if the rabbits had barked any more of his saplings. There he
found Laura, sitting contentedly in hayband fetters, and singing herself a
story about a snake that had no mackintosh. Mr. Willowes was extremely
vexed when he understood from Laura’s nonchalant account what had
happened. He took off her slippers and chafed her feet. Then he carried her
indoors to his study, giving orders that a tumbler of hot sweet lemonade
should be prepared for her immediately. She drank it sitting on his knee
while he told her about the new ferret. When Henry and James were heard
approaching with war-whoops, Mr. Willowes put her into his leather arm-
chair and went out to meet them. Their war-whoops quavered and ceased as
they caught sight of their father’s stern face. Dusk seemed to fall on them
with condemnation as he reminded them that it was past their supper-time,
and pointed out that, had he not happened upon her, Laura would still have
been sitting bound to the Bon Chrétien pear-tree.
This befell upon one of the days when Mrs. Willowes was lying down
with a headache. ‘Something always goes wrong when I have one of my
days,’ the poor lady would complain. It was also upon one of Mrs.
Willowes’s days that Everard fed Laura with the preserved cherries out of
the drawing-room cake. Laura soon became very sick, and the stable-boy
was sent off post-haste upon Everard’s mare to summon the doctor.
Mrs. Willowes made a poor recovery after Laura’s birth; as time went
on, she became more and more invalidish, though always pleasantly so. She
was seldom well enough to entertain, so Laura grew up in a quiet
household. Ladies in mantles of silk or of sealskin, according to the season
of the year, would come to call, and sitting by the sofa would say: ‘Laura is
growing a big girl now. I suppose before long you will be sending her to a
school.’ Mrs. Willowes heard them with half shut eyes. Holding her head
deprecatingly upon one side, she returned evasive answers. When by quite
shutting her eyes she had persuaded them to go, she would call Laura and
say: ‘Darling, aren’t your skirts getting a little short?’
Then Nannie would let out another tuck in Laura’s ginghams and
merinos, and some months would pass before the ladies returned to the
attack. They all liked Mrs. Willowes, but they were agreed amongst
themselves that she needed bracing up to a sense of her responsibilities,
especially her responsibilities about Laura. It really was not right that Laura
should be left so much to herself. Poor dear Miss Taylor was an excellent
creature. Had she not inquired about peninsulas in all the neighbouring
schoolrooms of consequence? But Miss Taylor for three hours daily and
Mme. Brevet’s dancing classes in winter did not, could not, supply all
Laura’s needs. She should have the companionship of girls of her own age,
or she might grow up eccentric. Another little hint to Mrs. Willowes would
surely open the poor lady’s eyes. But though Mrs. Willowes received their
good counsel with a flattering air of being just about to become impressed
by it, and filled up their teacups with a great deal of delicious cream, the
silk and sealskin ladies hinted in vain, for Laura was still at home when her
mother died.
During the last few years of her life Mrs. Willowes grew continually
more skilled in evading responsibilities, and her death seemed but the final
perfected expression of this skill. It was as if she had said, yawning a
delicate cat’s yawn, ‘I think I will go to my grave now,’ and had left the
room, her white shawl trailing behind her.
Laura mourned for her mother in skirts that almost reached the ground,
for Miss Boddle, the family dressmaker, had nice sensibilities and did not
think that legs could look sorrowful. Indeed, Laura’s legs were very slim
and frisky, they liked climbing trees and jumping over haycocks, they had
no wish to retire from the world and belong to a young lady. But when she
had put on the new clothes that smelt so queerly, and looking in the mirror
saw herself sad and grown-up, Laura accepted the inevitable. Sooner or
later she must be subdued into young-ladyhood; and it seemed befitting that
the change should come gravely, rather than with the conventional polite
uproar and fuss of ‘coming out’—which odd term meant, as far as she could
see, and when once the champagne bottles were emptied and the flimsy
ball-dress lifted off the thin shoulders, going-in.
As things were, she had a recompense for the loss of her liberty. For
Everard needed comfort, he needed a woman to comfort him, and abetted
by Miss Boddle’s insinuations Laura was soon able to persuade him that her
comfortings were of the legitimate womanly kind. It was easy, much easier
than she had supposed, to be grown-up; to be clear-headed and watchful, to
move sedately and think before she spoke. Already her hands looked much
whiter on the black lap. She could not take her mother’s place—that was as
impossible as to have her mother’s touch on the piano, for Mrs. Willowes
had learnt from a former pupil of Field, she had the jeu perlé; but she could
take a place of her own. So Laura behaved very well—said the Willowes
connection, agreeing and approving amongst themselves—and went about
her business, and only cried when alone in the potting-shed, where a pair of
old gardening gloves repeated to her the shape of her mother’s hands.
Her behaviour was the more important in that neither of her brothers was
at home when Mrs. Willowes died. Henry, now a member of the Inner
Temple, had just proposed marriage to a Miss Caroline Fawcett. When he
returned to London after the funeral it was impossible not to feel that he
was travelling out of the shadow that rested upon Lady Place to bask in his
private glory of a suitable engagement.
He left his father and sister to find consolation in consoling each other.
For though James was with them, and though his sorrow was without
qualification, they were not likely to get much help from James. He had
been in Germany studying chemistry, and when they sent off the telegram
Everard and Laura reckoned up how long he would take to reach Lady
Place, and planned how they could most comfortingly receive him, for they
had already begun to weave a thicker clothing of family kindness against
the chill of bereavement. On hearing the crunch of the wagonette in the
drive, and the swishing of the wet rhododendrons, they glanced at each
other reassuringly, taking heart at the thought of the bright fire in his
bedroom, the carefully chosen supper that awaited him. But when he stood
before them and they looked at his red twitching face, they were abashed
before the austerity of a grief so differently sustained from their own.
Nothing they had to offer could remedy that heart-ache. They left him to
himself, and sought refuge in each other’s society, as much from his sorrow
as theirs, and in his company they sat quietly, like two good children in the
presence of a more grown-up grief than they could understand.
James might have accepted their self-effacement with silent gratitude; or
he might not have noticed it at all—it was impossible to tell. Soon after his
return he did a thing so unprecedented in the annals of the family that it
could only be explained by the extreme exaltation of mind which possessed
him: for without consulting any one, he altered the furniture, transferring a
mirror and an almond-green brocade settee from his mother’s room to his
own. This accomplished, he came slowly downstairs and went out into the
stable-yard where Laura and his father were looking at a litter of puppies.
He told them what he had done, speaking drily, as of some everyday
occurrence, and when they, a little timidly, tried to answer as if they too
thought it a very natural and convenient arrangement, he added that he did
not intend to go back to Germany, but would stay henceforth at Lady Place
and help his father with the brewery.
Everard was much pleased at this. His faith in the merits of brewing had
been rudely jolted by the refusal of his eldest son to have anything to do
with it. Even before Henry left school his ambition was set on the law.
Hearing him speak in the School Debating Society, one of the masters told
him that he had a legal mind. This compliment left him with no doubts as to
what career he wished to follow, and before long the legal mind was
brought to bear upon his parents. Everard was hurt, and Mrs. Willowes was
slightly contemptuous, for she had the old-fashioned prejudice against the
learned professions, and thought her son did ill in not choosing to live by
his industry rather than by his wits. But Henry had as much of the Willowes
determination as either his father or his mother, and his stock of it was
twenty-five years younger and livelier than theirs. ‘Times are changed,’ said
Everard. ‘A country business doesn’t look the same to a young man as it did
in my day.’
So though a partnership in the brewery seemed the natural destiny for
James, Everard was much flattered by his decision, and hastened to put into
practice the scientific improvements which his son suggested. Though by
nature mistrustful of innovations he hoped that James might be innocently
distracted from his grief by these interests, and gave him a new hopper in
the same paternal spirit as formerly he had given him a rook-rifle. James
was quite satisfied with the working of the hopper. But it was not possible
to discover if it had assuaged his grief, because he concealed his feelings
too closely, becoming, by a hyperbole of reticence, reserved even about his
reserve, so that to all appearances he was no more than a red-faced young
man with a moderate flow of conversation.
Everard and Laura never reached that stage of familiarity with James
which allows members of the same family to accept each other on surface
values. Their love for him was tinged with awe, the awe that love learns in
the moment of finding itself unavailing. But they were glad to have him
with them, especially Everard, who was growing old enough to like the
prospect of easing his responsibilities, even the inherent responsibility of
being a Willowes, on to younger shoulders. No one was better fitted to take
up this burden than James. Everything about him, from his seat on a horse
to his taste in leather bindings, betokened an integrity of good taste and
good sense, unostentatious, haughty, and discriminating.
The leather bindings were soon in Laura’s hands. New books were just
what she wanted, for she had almost come to the end of the books in the
Lady Place library. Had they known this the silk and sealskin ladies would
have shaken their heads over her upbringing even more deploringly. But,
naturally, it had not occurred to them that a young lady of their
acquaintance should be under no restrictions as to what she read, and Mrs.
Willowes had not seen any reason for making them better informed.
So Laura read undisturbed, and without disturbing anybody, for the
conversation at local tea-parties and balls never happened to give her an
opportunity of mentioning anything that she had learnt from Locke on the
Understanding or Glanvil on Witches. In fact, as she was generally ignorant
of the books which their daughters were allowed to read, the neighbouring
mammas considered her rather ignorant. However they did not like her any
the worse for this, for her ignorance, if not so sexually displeasing as
learning, was of so unsweetened a quality as to be wholly without
attraction. Nor had they any more reason to be dissatisfied with her
appearance. What beauties of person she had were as unsweetened as her
beauties of mind, and her air of fine breeding made her look older than her
age.
Laura was of a middle height, thin, and rather pointed. Her skin was
brown, inclining to sallowness; it seemed browner still by contrast with her
eyes, which were large, set wide apart, and of that shade of grey which
inclines neither to blue nor green, but seems only a much diluted black.
Such eyes are rare in any face, and rarer still in conjunction with a brown
colouring. In Laura’s case the effect was too startling to be agreeable.
Strangers thought her remarkable-looking, but got no further, and those
more accustomed thought her plain. Only Everard and James might have
called her pretty, had they been asked for an opinion. This would not have
been only the partiality of one Willowes for another. They had seen her at
home, where animation brought colour into her cheeks and spirit into her
bearing. Abroad, and in company, she was not animated. She disliked going
out, she seldom attended any but those formal parties at which the
attendance of Miss Willowes of Lady Place was an obligatory civility; and
she found there little reason for animation. Being without coquetry she did
not feel herself bound to feign a degree of entertainment which she had not
experienced, and the same deficiency made her insensible to the duty of
every marriageable young woman to be charming, whether her charm be
directed towards one special object or, in default of that, universally
distributed through a disinterested love of humanity. This may have been
due to her upbringing—such was the local explanation. But her upbringing
had only furthered a temperamental indifference to the need of getting
married—or, indeed, of doing anything positive—and this indifference was
reinforced by the circumstances which had made her so closely her father’s
companion.
There is nothing more endangering to a young woman’s normal
inclination towards young men than an intimacy with a man twice her own
age. Laura compared with her father all the young men whom otherwise she
might have accepted without any comparisons whatever as suitable objects
for her intentions, and she did not find them support the comparison at all
well. They were energetic, good-looking, and shot pheasants with great
skill; or they were witty, elegantly dressed, and had a London club; but still
she had no mind to quit her father’s company for theirs, even if they should
show clear signs of desiring her to do so, and till then she paid them little
attention in thought or deed.
When Aunt Emmy came back from India and filled the spare-room with
cedar-wood boxes, she exclaimed briskly to Everard: ‘My dear, it’s high
time Laura married! Why isn’t she married already?’ Then, seeing a slight
spasm of distress at this barrack-square trenchancy pass over her brother’s
face, she added: ‘A girl like Laura has only to make her choice. Those
Welsh eyes.... Whenever they look at me I am reminded of Mamma.
Everard! You must let me give her a season in India.’
‘You must ask Laura,’ said Everard. And they went out into the orchard
together, where Emmy picked up the windfall apples and ate them with the
greed of the exile. Nothing more was said just then. Emmy was aware of
her false step. Ashamed at having exceeded a Willowes decorum of
intervention she welcomed this chance to reinstate herself in her brother’s
good graces by an evocation of their childhood under these same trees.
But Everard kept silence for distress. He believed in good faith that his
relief at seeing Laura’s budding suitors nipped in their bud was due to the
conviction that not one of them was good enough for her. As innocently as
the unconcerned Laura might have done, but did not, he waited for the ideal
wooer. Now Emmy’s tactless concern had thrown a cold shadow over the
remoter future after his death. And for the near future had she not spoken of
taking Laura to India? He would be good. He would not say a word to
dissuade the girl from what might prove to be to her advantage. But at the
idea of her leaving him for a country so distant, for a manner of life so
unfamiliar, the warmth went out of his days.
Emmy unfolded her plan to Laura; that is to say, unfolded the outer
wrappings of it. Laura listened with delight to her aunt’s tales of Indian life.
Compounds and mangoes, the early morning rides along the Kilpawk Road,
the grunting song of the porters who carried Mem Sahibs in litters up to the
hill-stations, parrots flying through the jungle, ayahs with rubies in their
nostrils, kid-gloves preserved in pickle jars with screw-tops—all the solemn
and simple pomp of old-fashioned Madras beckoned to her, beckoned like
the dark arms tinkling with bangles of soft gold and coloured glass. But
when the beckonings took the form of Aunt Emmy’s circumstantial
invitation Laura held back, demurred this way and that, and pronounced at
last the refusal which had been implicit in her mind from the moment the
invitation was given.
She did not want to leave her father, nor did she want to leave Lady
Place. Her life perfectly contented her. She had no wish for ways other than
those she had grown up in. With an easy diligence she played her part as
mistress of the house, abetted at every turn by country servants of long
tenure, as enamoured of the comfortable amble of day by day as she was.
At certain seasons a fresh resinous smell would haunt the house like some
rustic spirit. It was Mrs. Bonnet making the traditional beeswax polish that
alone could be trusted to give the proper lustre to the elegantly bulging
fronts of talboys and cabinets. The grey days of early February were tinged
with tropical odours by great-great-aunt Salome’s recipe for marmalade;
and on the afternoon of Good Friday, if it were fine, the stuffed foxes and
otters were taken out of their glass cases, brushed, and set to sweeten on the
lawn.
These were old institutions, they dated from long before Laura’s day. But
the gradual deposit of family customs was always going on, and within her
own memory the sum of Willowes ways had been augmented. There was
the Midsummer Night’s Eve picnic in Potts’s Dingle—cold pigeon-pie and
cider-cup, and moth-beset candles flickering on the grass. There was the
ceremony of the hop-garland, which James had brought back from
Germany, and the pantomime party from the workhouse, and a very special
kind of sealing-wax that could only be procured from Padua. Long ago the
children had been allowed to choose their birthday dinners, and still upon
the seventeenth of July James ate duck and green peas and a gooseberry
fool, while a cock-pheasant in all the glory of tail-feathers was set before
Laura upon the ninth of December. And at the bottom of the orchard
flourished unchecked a bed of nettles, for Nannie Quantrell placed much
trust in the property of young nettles eaten as spring greens to clear the
blood, quoting emphatically and rhythmically a rhyme her grandmother had
taught her:
‘If they would eat nettles in March
And drink mugwort in May,
So many fine young maidens
Would not go to the clay.’
Laura would very willingly have drunk mugwort in May also, for this
rhyme of Nannie’s, so often and so impressively rehearsed, had taken fast
hold of her imagination. She had always had a taste for botany, she had also
inherited a fancy for brewing. One of her earliest pleasures had been to go
with Everard to the brewery and look into the great vats while he, holding
her firmly with his left hand, with his right plunged a long stick through the
clotted froth which, working and murmuring, gradually gave way until far
below through the tumbling, dissolving rent the beer was disclosed.
Botany and brewery she now combined into one pursuit, for at the spur
of Nannie’s rhyme she turned her attention into the forsaken green byways
of the rural pharmacopœia. From Everard she got a little still, from the
family recipe-books much information and good advice; and where these
failed her, Nicholas Culpepper or old Goody Andrews, who might have
been Nicholas’s crony by the respect she had for the moon, were ready to
help her out. She roved the countryside for herbs and simples, and many
were the washes and decoctions that she made from sweet-gale, water
purslane, cowslips, and the roots of succory, while her salads gathered in
fields and hedges were eaten by Everard, at first in hope and trust, and
afterwards with flattering appetite. Encouraged by him, she even wrote a
little book called ‘Health by the Wayside’ commending the use of old-
fashioned simples and healing herbs. It was published anonymously at the
local press, and fell quite flat. Everard felt much more slighted by this than
she did, and bought up the remainders without telling her so. But mugwort
was not included in the book, for she was never allowed to test its virtues,
and she would not include recipes which she had not tried herself. Nannie
believed it to be no less effective than nettles, but she did not know how to
prepare it. Once long ago she had made a broth by seething the leaves in
boiling water, which she then strained off and gave to Henry and James. But
it made them both sick, and Mrs. Willowes had forbidden its further use.
Laura felt positive that mugwort tea would not have made her sick. She
begged for leave to make trial of it, but to no avail; Nannie’s prohibition
was as absolute as that of her mistress. But Nannie had not lost her faith.
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readiness for what might happen. These two engines were both in
successful operation when my own operations ceased; the
remaining three engines were to be added as their business
required.
The engineer of that company was an original investigator. He had
a battery of return-tubular boilers, each one crammed full of tubes
according to the usual methods of boiler-makers. He provided
himself with pieces of lath one inch wide, one eighth of an inch thick,
and four inches long, and laid one in the front end of each tube in
one of his boilers and left them there for twenty-four hours. He had
made a diagram of his boiler on which he numbered every tube and
put a corresponding number on every piece of lath. In taking them
out they presented an astonishing revelation, which he showed me.
Some of the pieces were burned almost to a coal and some were
scarcely discolored, while the great body of them presented various
effects of heat between these extremes. These showed distinctly the
enormous differences in the temperature of the gases passing
through the different tubes, and that fully one half of the tubes did
little or no work in evaporating the water. They taught a lesson which
boiler-makers, who count every additional tube they can get into a
boiler as so much added heating surface and rate their boilers
accordingly, have no anxiety to learn, but which I afterwards turned
to good account, as will be seen.
About the last and the most interesting engine that I built while in
Philadelphia was one for the firm of Cheney Brothers, silk-
manufacturers, of South Manchester, Conn. This was a cross-
compound, the first and the last compound engine that I ever built,
and it is the only engine in this country to which I applied my
condenser. The cylinders were 12 and 21 inches in diameter, the
stroke 24 inches, and the shaft made 180 revolutions per minute.
The condenser presented a new design in one respect; the air-pump
was double-acting and made only 45 double strokes per minute,
being driven by a belt from the engine shaft and the motion reduced
by gears 1 to 4. This engine ran perfectly from the start, and I looked
forward with confidence to a demand for many more of the same
type. The diagrams made by it are here reproduced.
Scale, 1″ = 32 Lbs.
Atmosphere
Scale, 1″ = 16 Lbs.
Atmosphere
Diagrams from my First and Only Compound Engine.
I have a pleasant memory connected with this engine. The silk-mill

is located in a very large park, scattered about which are the
residences of different members of the family. About twelve years
after the engine was built, in company with my wife, I was visiting
relatives in Hartford, from which South Manchester is about twelve
miles distant. One day we were driven over there with our friends to
make a social call. On our arrival I left the party to make a visit to my
old engine. The mill seemed to have been changed very much, and I
lost my way. Finally I recognized, as I thought, the old engine-room
and went in. My engine was not there, but in its place stood another
engine, a pair of tandem compounds of much larger dimensions.
These had evidently just been erected, as they stood idle. “Oh,
dear,” said I to myself, “my engines have been superseded for some
reason or other.” While I was indulging in that reflection the engineer
came in. I introduced myself and said to him: “I see that my old
engines have been supplanted.” “Oh, no,” said he, “your engines are
all right; they are running just where they always have been. They
have built a new mill twice as large as the old one, and your engines
have been giving such satisfaction they have ordered another pair of
compounds from the Southwark Foundry, and these are the engines;
they have not been started yet, as the mill is not ready for them and
won’t be for a month.”
He directed me to the old engine-room, where I found my engines
gliding away as though they had been erected yesterday. At that time
I regarded these engines as only a stepping-stone to far higher
things. I was engaged on a plan for a great development of the high
speed system, but which has not materialized. I still consider it as on
the whole superior to the turbine, a superiority, however, which may
never be established.
In the spring of 1881, in our anxiety to revive the manufacture of
the engine, we were foolish enough to send one to the Atlanta
exhibition. We eagerly believed the promises of the agent that we
should find all the machinery that we wanted to drive, and sent an
engine finished with great care, and a skillful man to erect and run it.
We also printed the heading of a lot of diagrams, to be given to
visitors. The facts were found to be that we had nothing to drive but
an idle line of shafting and one Clark’s spool-winder, while the
exhaust main was so small and choked with the exhausts from other
engines that we had a back pressure of ten pounds above the
atmosphere; so we could take no diagrams; and the fact that we did
not take any was used as a conclusive argument against high-speed
engines; so the exhibition did us harm instead of good.
I pass over other distressing experiences at the works, and come
at once to the final catastrophy in the late fall of 1882.
Another exhibition opened in the fall of 1882, for which I made
great preparations, and from which I anticipated important results.
This was the exhibition of the New England Manufacturers’ and
Mechanics’ Institute, held in Boston. I obtained an important
allotment of space with plenty of machinery to drive, and, besides a
fine engine, sent a large exhibit of our finished work, in the parts of
several sizes of engines, expecting to attract the attention of all New
England manufacturers. I prepared for a regular campaign. I rented
an office and engaged a young man to represent us in Boston as our
agent, and another, Mr. Edwin F. Williams, to travel and solicit orders
and take the charge of erecting engines. Our engine arrived without
a piston. Mr. Merrick had thought he had found a defect in the piston,
and ordered another one to be made. When we came to put the
engine together in the exhibition, this piston would not enter the
cylinder. On examination it was found to have been turned conical,
the bases of the two cones meeting in the middle, so the middle was
one eighth of an inch larger in diameter than the faces. We had to
get a coarse file and file down the middle of the piston all around
until it would enter the cylinder. Then I had a great disappointment—
the greatest I ever experienced—the engine thumped badly on both
centers. The only way in which we could stop the thumping was by
shutting off the steam until the initial pressure was brought down to
the height reached by the compression of the exhaust. In this plight
we had to run through the exhibition. We could not take a diagram
and had to watch the engine constantly, for whenever the pressure
rose ever so little too high in the cylinder it would begin to thump. I
attributed this to the shocking condition of the surface of the piston. I
could not comprehend how this should cause the thump, but it must
be that, for I could conceive of nothing else that could produce it.
This thump made my exhibition a total failure, and necessitated the
abandonment of all my plans.
At the close of the exhibition I went home utterly discouraged.
When I went into the shop the first person I met was the foreman of
the lower floor, where the engine had been built. I told him of the
plight in which I found myself placed and to which I attributed my
failure. The fellow gave me the lie direct, saying with a conceited
smirk: “It is impossible, Mr. Porter, that any such work as you have
described can have gone out of this establishment.” I turned on my
heel and left him, and in less than half a minute I saw at a distance
of fifty feet a 22-inch piston being finished for an engine we were
building for the Tremont and Suffolk Mill. The workman had finished
turning the piston and was then cutting the grooves for the rings. The
reflection from the surface showed me the same two cones meeting
in the middle. I went up to the lathe, the back side of which was
toward me, and told the workman to stop his lathe and bring me a
straight-edge. This rocked on the edge in the middle of the piston,
opening nearly one eighth of an inch on each face alternately. I sent
a boy to find the foreman and asked him what he thought of that and
left him. I had influence enough to have both the foreman and the
workman discharged that night. Think of it; superintendent, general
foreman, the foreman of the floor, and workman, altogether, never
saw what I detected at a glance from the opposite side of the shop.
I want to stop here to express my disgust with the American
system of making the tailstock of a lathe adjustable, which enables
either an ignorant, careless or malicious workman to ruin his work
after this fashion. To their credit, English tools have no such feature.
The very next day we received a call from Mr. Bishop, the
engineer of the works of Russell & Irwin at New Britain, Conn., to tell
us that their engine just put in by us had a very bad thump which he
was afraid could not be cured as it was evidently caused by the
piston projecting over the admission ports when at the end of its
stroke. “Impossible,” I exclaimed; “I never made such an engine in
my life.” I should here state that in experimenting with the first little
engine that I made before I went to England, I at first made the
piston project over the port one quarter of an inch, and the engine
thumped. I satisfied myself that this was caused by the impact of the
entering steam against the projecting surface of the piston, driving it
against the opposite side of the cylinder; this was aggravated in
high-speed engines. In this case the engine made 160 revolutions
per minute and the steam was admitted through four simultaneous
openings, so it entered the cylinder with great velocity. I turned a
quarter of an inch off from each face of the piston, and the thump
disappeared. I then made it a law from which I never varied, that the
piston should come to the admission port and not project over it at
all, and this feature was shown in every drawing.
Mr. Bishop replied to me: “It does project, Mr. Porter; it projects
seven eighths of an inch over the port at each end of its stroke, for I
have measured it.” I rushed up to the drawing-office and called for
the horizontal sectional drawing of that cylinder, and there I saw the
piston not only drawn, but figured—projecting seven eighths of an
inch over the port. I felt as though I were sinking through the floor.
That was what had ruined my Boston exhibition and sent me home
disgraced and broken-hearted and the badly fitting piston, shameful
as that was, had nothing to do with it. The first question that occurred
to me was: “How came this drawing to exist and I to know nothing
about it?” The answer to this question was simple.
When the first pair of Willimantic engines was started I was
disappointed in their economy, and made up my mind that the
excessive waste room was accountable for it. The proportion of
cross-section area to the stroke being fifty per cent. greater than in
my table of sizes increased in the same degree the proportion of
waste room to the piston displacement. I felt that there was need
here for improvement. By far the greatest amount of waste room was
in the exhaust ports. I accepted a modification of the exhaust valves
by which this item of the waste room was reduced fully one half and
made a new pair of cylinders for this engine. The improvement in the
economy was so marked that I determined to change the exhaust
valves of all the engines. Only the exhaust valves and ports needed
to be changed. These were drawn anew in pencil and carefully
studied and approved of by me. It was necessary that the entire
combined cylinder drawing should be retraced, but this, except only
the exhaust ports and valves, was to be copied over the existing
tracings. This did not require my attention, and I gave no thought to
it. Here was the superintendent’s opportunity. In copying these
tracings he had only to move the straight line representing each face
of the piston on the longitudinal section of the cylinder seven eighths
of an inch, thus adding this amount to the piston at each end, and
shorten the cylinder heads to correspond, and the job was done; and
there did not exist among the large number of persons in the
drawing-office and shop who must have been aware of this change,
loyalty enough to let me know anything about it.
We had also recently finished two engines for the Cocheco Mill at
Dover, N. H., and about this time we received a letter from the
superintendent of that mill expressing his admiration of the engines
in every other respect, but complaining of a bad thump in the
cylinders. He said he would be glad to invite the superintendents of
other mills to see them, but he could not show the engines to
anybody until that thump was cured.
I went directly to the president and demanded authority to change
the pistons and heads of these engines. To my astonishment he
refused point-blank, saying he had spent money enough on these
alterations, and he would not spend another cent. I replied to him
that there was one other alternative and that was to abandon the
business, to which he made no reply. But why did I need to go to the
president; why not make these changes myself? The answer to this
question is very humiliating to me. An account had been made up of
the cost of the alterations here described and presented to the board
of directors, showing this to amount to $20,000. I was aghast at this
statement; I had never seen a figure pertaining to the business,
except the single bill already mentioned. I told the directors that any
good pattern-maker would have taken the contract to alter those
exhaust valves and ports on our twenty sizes of cylinders for an
average price of fifty dollars each, and made a profit of fifty per cent.
in doing it. The cost of the new drawings and the price of cylinders
for the Willimantic engine could not more than double this sum, and
by some hocus-pocus this $2000 had been changed to $20,000;
probably by transfer from other losing accounts. The president
replied that was the cost of the alterations as it appeared on the
books, and the directors, without making any investigation, adopted
a resolution that no further alterations should be made unless
expressly ordered by the president.
I did not believe that in making this addition to the length of the
piston the superintendent had any intention to wreck the business.
He could have had no idea of its fatal nature; his only thought was to
make a considerable further reduction of waste room and gratify his
itching to change my drawings. But of course doing this without my
knowledge was criminal, and should have caused his instant
discharge; but his whole conduct from the beginning had been the
same and the president had sustained him. I had no opportunity to
pursue this matter further.
On receiving the president’s refusal I determined to appeal to the
directors, but first I thought I would lay the matter before Mr. Henry
Lewis, whom I regarded as the most open-minded of all. What was
my amazement when, after listening to my statement, he replied:
“We shall sustain the president, Mr. Porter.” Then I knew the end had
come. It was idle for me to butt against the Philadelphia phalanx. A
day or two after a committee of the directors headed by Mr.
Shortridge, called at the office and asked to see our order book. This
showed that in more than a month preceding we had not received a
single order. On this state of affairs it was evident to the directors
that a change must be made in the management. I had long realized
that the great gulf that I had dug between the stockholders and
myself, as already described, had never been filled. Neither the
directors as a body, except on the single occasion already
mentioned, nor any director individually, had ever conferred with me
on any subject whatever. They knew nothing, except what they might
have learned from the president; he had no mechanical knowledge
or ability to form a mechanical judgment, and the superintendent
influenced him in a degree which to me was unaccountable. His
want of comprehension of the business was shown in his answer to
the life-or-death question which I had presented to him. The next day
I received a communication from the directors requesting me to send
in my resignation, which I promptly did. Mr. Merrick was also
requested to resign. This was evidently a put up job, to let me down
easy. Mr. Merrick had for some time expressed a wish to be relieved
from his position which he found very uncomfortable.
The directors elected as president one of their own number, who
had nothing else to do, to sit in the president’s chair and draw his
salary, and committed the practical management of the business to
an oily-tongued man who had never seen a high-speed engine, and
whose qualifications for the position were that he was a friend of one
of the directors and was a Philadelphian, and who I learned received
a large bonus for leaving his own business and accepting the
position vacated by me.
Benjamin F. Avery
CHAPTER XXVII
My Last Connection with the Company.
will close this account of my engineering experience

by relating two incidents.
Among the orders which I brought from Newark was
one from the firm of B. F. Avery & Sons, plow-
manufacturers, of Louisville, Ky., the head of which
had first established the manufacture of plows in the
Southern States. Mr. George Avery, one of the sons, had come to
me and asked for a list of the engines I had running, and took the
pains to visit a number of them, also those of other prominent
builders, and as a result of this extended comparison he brought me
his order for an 18×30-inch engine, with strong expressions of the
manifest superiority of the high-speed engine. This engine was about
the first one I finished in the Southwark Foundry. By great
carelessness it was permitted to go out without the crank-pin being
hardened and ground, which was contrary to my invariable practice.
The man who erected the engine left the crank-pin boxes too loose,
and young Mr. Avery, who was quite an amateur mechanic,
undertook to tighten them up; he succeeded in heating the pin and
causing it to be badly torn. He made the best job of it that he could
with a file, and the engine ran in that crippled condition.
Soon after I left Philadelphia, they concluded they ought to have a
hardened crank-pin and wrote to the Southwark Foundry respecting
it. They received a reply that it would be necessary to take the shaft
out and send it to Philadelphia, and their works would need to be
interrupted about three weeks. The firm then wrote to me in New
York asking me to come to Louisville and examine the engine and
advise them what to do, which invitation I accepted. The letter to the
Southwark Foundry had been written by their manager, and in it he
stated that the engine pounded so badly that it could be heard two
blocks away, it was so wasteful it was almost impossible to keep up
steam for it, and that they lived in such dread of its breaking down
that their hair was all turning white. I felt that this letter, after making
full allowance for its obvious exaggerations, reflected pretty badly,
not only on the engine, but also on the boilers. These were two
return-tubular boilers which I had designed myself. I had reflected a
good deal on the observation shown to me by the engineer at
Willimantic, and had felt that tubular boilers needed a better vertical
circulation. This was limited by the small space left for the
descending currents, the sides being filled with tubes almost
touching the shell. So I allowed a space five inches wide between
the shell of the boiler on the sides and bottom and the nearest tubes,
as it was evident to me that the water, filled with bubbles of steam,
would rush up among the tubes fast enough if the comparatively
solid water at the sides could only get down. I also left off the upper
row of tubes to allow more space above them for the steam, and
from this arrangement I anticipated very superior results.
On my arrival in Louisville I thought, before presenting myself at
the office, I would go into the works, which was open to everybody,
and see what the state of affairs really was. I was directed to the
boiler-house, on entering which I saw that one of the boilers was
idle. My first thought was that it had been disabled by some accident,
and their being limited to one boiler accounted for the difficulty they
experienced in supplying the engine with steam. I asked the fireman,
who I found sitting in a chair, what had happened to put this boiler
out of commission. He said, “Nothing at all. They used both boilers at
first, but after a while they thought they did not need both, so they
shut one down, and it has been shut down ever since.” “Well,” said I,
“you must have to fire pretty strong to make one boiler answer.” “No,”
said he, “I have been firing boilers over twelve years and this is the
easiest job I have ever had.” He then showed me his thin fire and
damper two thirds closed. So in two minutes I was relieved from a
load of anxiety about both boiler and engine, for I had before me the
evidence of their phenomenal economy, and I gave the manager
credit for one good square lie. I then asked him the way to the
engine-room; he told me, “Right through that door.” I listened for the
pound that could be heard two blocks away and heard a faint sound.
On opening the door, which was opposite the crank, it was more
distinct. There was no one in the engine-room, but while I was
looking the engine over the engineer came in. I introduced myself
and asked how the engine was doing. He said, “Very well, all but that
little knock in the crank-pin.” I asked him if he had any trouble with it.
He said, “None at all.” “No worry or anxiety?” “Never thought of such
a thing,” he said.
A number of years after I met in New York a young gentleman, Mr.
Benjamin Capwell, now of the firm of Kenyon, Hoag & Capwell, 817
Broadway, New York, who had been in the office of B. F. Avery &
Sons at that time. I told him this story. He said he was not at all
surprised; the boys in the office heard this manager every day
dictating letters just as full of falsehoods as this one. I learned
afterward that he held his position through a cabal in the company,
and that soon after I was there the president succeeded in getting rid
of him.
I was now ready to call on the president, Mr. Samuel Avery. He
told me they would like very much to have a hardened crank-pin put
in the engine, but of course they could not afford to interrupt their
work seriously for that purpose. I replied there would be no difficulty
about that. The present pin might be pressed out and a new one
inserted in a few hours; all our work being made to gauge, the new
pin would be sure to fit. I told him he might safely send an order to
the Southwark Foundry to make the new pin, if they would agree to
put the work into the hands of Mr. Williams, who was then in their
employ, who should direct the manufacture of the pin without any
interference, and himself go to Louisville and do the job. The
Southwark Foundry agreed to these conditions, and the work was
soon done.
While engaged on this proof I wrote to Mr. Williams for an account
of setting this pin, and received from him the following interesting
letter.
It will be seen that he took the safer but far more laborious
method, as no one then in the works could assure him about the
crank having been bored to gauge.
It reads to me as if he found himself obliged to enlarge the hole
just that one thirty-second of an inch.
The method of verifying the alignment of the pin with the shaft by
means of a ground bubble level was originated by me in Newark;
where I found also that the pin could be thrown by riveting.
42 Broadway, N. Y., Oct. 21, 1907.
Chas. T. Porter, Montclair, N. J.
My Dear Mr. Porter: In reply to your request of 14th addressed Cold Springs, I
am pleased to give you such account of the crank pin work at B. F. Avery & Sons,
at Louisville, in 1883, as my memory will admit of.
When I was instructed to do this work I received a letter from you stating that a
new crank pin was to be put in and that it should be “hardened in a furnace,”
allowing it to remain in a crucible with the carbon at a lowered heat for ten hours.
This was done and resulted in a fine job of hardening. The pin was then ground
true and smooth. Don’t think I ever saw a prettier job.
The old pin had to be taken out and the new one put in. The exact diameter of
the old shank was not definitely known. It was thought advisable therefore, to
make the new shank about ¹⁄₃₂″ larger than the drawing dimension; so it would
surely be large enough to admit of drawing the hole which I proposed to do by
hand. Before leaving the works I had a hollow cast iron cylinder or trial plug made,
about twice the depth of the crank pin hole in length, about ¹⁄₁₀₀″ smaller than the
shank of the new pin and slightly tapered at one end.
We cut the bead off the old pin and tried a hydraulic jack on it, but it would not
start. We then drilled five or six 1″ holes in the shank and the pin came out easily.
The hole was then calipered and found to require considerable dressing. The
crank shaft was then tried for level and found by turning in various positions and by
using a very sensitive level, to deflect from the horizontal approximately ¹⁄₂ of
1000th of an inch per foot in length.
The hole was then enlarged by use of file and scraper, its adjustment being
proven as the work progressed by frequent trials of level placed within the hole, at
various points in the revolution of the shaft. Finally, the trial plug was worked into
the hole and used as a surface plate, the “high” spots being scraped down and the
plug found to line with the shaft and the hole by caliper, found to be approximately
³⁄₁₀₀₀″ smaller than the shank of the pin. The pin was then forced in and found to
stand nearly true. The small untruth was easily corrected in riveting up the back
and the pin was thrown approximately ²⁄₁₀₀₀″ away from the center line of shaft
rotation to offset the deflection that would be occasioned when running by the
impact of the steam admission on centers.
I think it quite likely that the pin during the twenty-four years’ service up to the
present date has worn scarcely a measurable amount.
Very truly,
E. F. Williams.
P. S. I saw the engine about 15 years ago and it was running very smoothly.
Some time after I had left, the company found that they needed a
descriptive and illustrated catalogue of the engine, and they had no
one to write it; so they came to me, and in my office in New York I
prepared one for them, for which they gave me the credit by printing
on the title-page and cover the line, “By Charles T. Porter.” I took the
same pains with this that I should have done had I owned the whole
place.
The following letter, referring to an engine made by me in Newark,
was sent by the addressee to the Southwark Foundry with an order
while I was engaged on their catalogue. They made a blue-print of it
and sent it to me for insertion.
Youngstown, O., Dec. 21st, 1882
Mr. F. L. Waters—
Mankato Minn.
Dear Sir—
Your favor recd, making enquiry how we like the Porter Allen Engine: would say,
we have now run it four years, it has never failed one minute or cost one cent for
repairs nor varied a revolution from its speed, are using it now non-condensing but
think of using a condenser before long. As we use it in connection with our water
power, which is variable, sometimes too high and sometimes too low, making up
the deficiency with the Engine, be it all or little, we do not know just how much coal
we require for a Barrel in case we had no water, this much I think I know. That it is
the finest Engine made, Simple, durable, and Economical, and always ready for
effective duty.
We run a Buckeye in the Diamond Mill and a good Engine at our mine, but the
Porter-Allen is my favorite by all odds, ours is 13×24, 160 Revolutions (never more
nor less). They are now designed to run 200 Rev. for that size.
If neatness effectiveness durability and Economy & Steadiness is any object to
you, you will always be glad you bought a Porter-Allen, or I am vastly mistaken.
I know that has been my experience. We now run constantly day & night the
year round (Sundays excepted).
Respectfully Yours
Homer Baldwin
With the preparation of this catalogue my part in the development

and introduction of the high-speed engine seems to have ended.
CHAPTER XXVIII
The Fall and Rise of the Southwark Foundry and Machine Company. Popular
Appreciation of the High-speed Engine.
he reader may be amused by some examples which

came to my knowledge of the achievements of the
new management. The expensive new vice president
was of course a mere figurehead, as he knew nothing
of the engine or the business or my system of work, so
Mr. Merrick’s superintendent had a free hand.
He adhered to his long pistons, and obtained silent running by an
enormous compression of the exhaust steam, commencing soon
after the middle of the return stroke and rising to initial. This involved
a corresponding premature release of the steam during the
expansion. Between the two, about one-third of the power of the
engine was sacrificed, and they were in continual trouble from the
failure of the engines to give their guaranteed power.
I had always advocated giving our attention as much as possible
to large engines, where all the profit lay. My views had so much
weight that, unknown to me, Mr. Merrick and his superintendent
were, before I left, planning a smaller engine, to be called the
“Southwark Engine,” intended to drive isolated incandescent lighting
plants. As soon as I had been gotten rid of the manufacture of this
engine proceeded actively. It was largely exhibited and advertised,
much to the neglect of anything else. This was pursued persistently
until over twenty thousand dollars had been sunk in it, when it was
abandoned.
They had an order from the Pennsylvania Steel Company for an
engine to drive a rolling mill which they were about to establish at
Sparrow’s Point on the Chesapeake Bay below Baltimore, for the
manufacture of steel rails from Cuban ores, which were found to be
especially adapted to the Bessemer process, and where the then
new method of rolling was to be employed, the method by which rails
are rolled direct from the ingot without reheating, which is now in
universal use. This engine was to be much larger than any
previously made, and so requiring new drawings. In making the
cylinder drawings the draftsman omitted the internal ribs, which are
necessary to connect and stiffen the walls of the square steam
chest. The consequence of this almost incredible oversight soon
appeared. The engine had been running but a few days when the
steam chest blew up.
The Porter-Allen valve-gear required in its joints eleven hardened
steel bushings, which had to be finished inside and out. These we
had always made from cast steel bars. This process was extremely
wasteful of both material and time. Shortly before I left I had
ascertained experimentally that I could import from England solid
drawn steel tubing of any size and thickness, sufficiently high in
carbon to harden perfectly well. The new management undertook to
carry out my plans. For this purpose a list was prepared of all sizes
that would be required, with the finished dimensions external and
internal. From this another list was prepared, giving the additional
material required for finishing. A large lot of the tubing was ordered.
When it arrived they discovered they had sent the wrong list, the
tubes were too thin to be finished and were useless for any purpose.
They had an opportunity to estimate for a pair of very large
blowing engines. They got out their estimate for one engine, forgot to
multiply the amount by two, and were astonished the morning after
they had sent in their tender to receive the acceptance of it by
telegraph.
James C. Brooks
Performances of this kind were expensive. When their capital was

all gone, they borrowed five hundred thousand dollars on their
bonds, secured by a blanket mortgage. This did not last a great
while. Only five or six years after I left the affairs of the company
reached a crisis. They had no money to carry on the business, and
no business worth mentioning to carry on, and they owed a floating
debt of one hundred and seventy-five thousand dollars. In this
emergency the directors invited Mr. James C. Brooks to take the
presidency of the company. Mr. Brooks was then a member of the
firm of William Sellers and Company. He was already well
acquainted with the high character of the engine. He found the works
well equipped with tools, nothing wanting but brains. He felt
encouraged to make this proposition to the directors, that if they
would raise two hundred and fifty thousand dollars by an issue of
preferred stock, to pay off the floating debt and give him seventy-five
thousand dollars to start with, he would take hold and see what he
could do. This proposition was accepted and Mr. Brooks took hold;
and by a rare combination of engineering skill and business ability
and force of character, having no one to interfere with him, he soon
set the business on its feet, and started it on a career of magnificent
development, which under his management, has continued for
nearly twenty years to the present time.
Of all this, however I was ignorant. I was so situated as not to
have any knowledge of the company. I only observed that their
advertisements had long ago disappeared from the engineering
journals. In the fall of 1905, being in Philadelphia on a social visit, in
the course of conversation I asked my host “Is the Southwark
Foundry still running?” With a look of amazement he exclaimed,
“Running! I should say it was running and is doing a tremendous
business.” “Is Mr. Brooks still at the head of it” I asked. “Yes,” he
replied, “you will find him at his old post, and no doubt he will be glad
to see you.”
The next day I called, and was most cordially received by Mr.
Brooks. He said he discontinued advertising a number of years ago,
“because the business was not of a nature to be benefited by

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Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

For information on all Elsevier publications visit our website

Publisher: Candice Janco

Christos Chalkias Department of Geography, Nikolaos Katsenios Department of Soil Science,

GPS and GNSS Technology in Geosciences

I. General introduction to GPS/GNSS technology

1982 First Russian GLONASS satellite launched

2011 Worldwide coverage achieved by the Russian GLONASS system

2. Major segments of GPS

I. General introduction to GPS/GNSS technology

I. General introduction to GPS/GNSS technology

3.2 Carrier-phase measurement

3.3 GPS broadcast message, ephemeris, and almanac

I. General introduction to GPS/GNSS technology

4.1 Satellite and receiver clock errors

4.2 Multipath error

4.3 Ionospheric delay

I. General introduction to GPS/GNSS technology

4.4 Tropospheric delay

4.5 GPS ephemeris errors

4.6 Other limitations

I. General introduction to GPS/GNSS technology

I. General introduction to GPS/GNSS technology

6. Global Navigation Satellite System

I. General introduction to GPS/GNSS technology

I. General introduction to GPS/GNSS technology

6.4 Compass/ BeiDou

6.5 Quasi-Zenith Satellite System

I. General introduction to GPS/GNSS technology

7.2 Military services

I. General introduction to GPS/GNSS technology

Owner United States Russia China European India Japan

Number of 72 24 satellites 5 GEO 30 14 (8 active 7 (4 satellites in

I. General introduction to GPS/GNSS technology

7.3 Geodetic control surveys

7.4 Cadastral survey

7.5 Photogrammetry, remote sensing, and GIS

7.6 Ground truthing and validation

7.7 Disaster, response, and mitigation

I. General introduction to GPS/GNSS technology

I. General introduction to GPS/GNSS technology

I. General introduction to GPS/GNSS technology

I. General introduction to GPS/GNSS technology

I. General introduction to GPS/GNSS technology

1. GNSS structural organization

GPS and GNSS Technology in Geosciences

1.2 Some notation and deﬁnitions

I. General Introduction to GPS/GNSS technology

1.3 GNSS global coverage

I. General Introduction to GPS/GNSS technology

GPS is comprised of three different parts:

I. General Introduction to GPS/GNSS technology

1.4 GNSS regional coverage

1.5 Three main GNSS segments

I. General Introduction to GPS/GNSS technology

TABLE 2.1 Space segments for different GNSSs.

Orbital period (hrs:min) 11:58 11:15 14:04 12:37

27 MEOs þ 5 GEOs þ 3 IGSOs.

I. General Introduction to GPS/GNSS technology

I. General Introduction to GPS/GNSS technology