04-Feb-24

Educational Statistics
B.Ed 1.5 (3rd Semester)
Course Code: HSED – 717

Dr. Gulzar Ali Shah Bukhari

gasb@usindh.edu.pk

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Session: 01
We will discuss on:
Introduction to Basic Terms Used in Educational Statistics and Research
Quantitative & Qualitative Research
Concept
Construct
Variable
Types of Variables
Independent variable
Dependent Variable
Control Variable
Categorical Variable
Moderator Variable
Continuous Variable 2

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Introduction to Basic Terms Used in Educational Statistics and Research

KEEP IN MIND …
Quantitative Research Qualitative Research

Quantitative research generally Qualitative research generally

deals in numbers deals in words and images

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Introduction to Basic Terms Used in Educational Statistics and Research

Concepts:
Concepts are abstract idea representing the fundamental
characteristics.
Concepts enable us to impose some sort of meaning on the world
that social scientists developed which enable them to shape their
perceptions of the world in particular way.
These cannot be observed directly.
Concepts are associated with theory
Examples: Positive Self-Concepts, Negative self-concepts, Self-
Esteem, Intelligence, Life Satisfaction.
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Introduction to Basic Terms Used in Educational Statistics and Research

Construct:
A Construct is a structure or process that is introduced from observed
phenomena (Gall et al., 1999)
Theoretically, it is necessary that a concept must be observable or
measurable.
Constructs are latent variables, which cannot be measured directly, but
only through measurable indicator variables.
Therefore, if a researcher wishes to measure a concept, he/she must
provide a procedures how will be measured the concept under
consideration.
For example, if you needed a measure of organizational commitment, you
could not simply sit a person down and observe their commitment to an
organization 5

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Introduction to Basic Terms Used in Educational Statistics and Research

Variables:
Dimension or factor or characteristics that varies (e.g., weight, height, anxiety levels,
income, body temperature, any event, situation, behavior and so on)
When we operationalize a concept for measurement, we are creating VARIABLES!
It will convert difficult concepts into easily understandable concepts which then can be
measured, observable, and empirical indicators in terms of scores on measure scale.
Variables can be straightforward and easy to measure, such as gender, age, or course of
study.
Other variables are more complex, such as socioeconomic status, academic
achievement. Variables may also include an aspect of the educational system, such as a
specific teaching method.
Examples: Self-Concept may be ranging from highly negative to neutral to highly
positive; if we think this way, we are viewing self-concept as a variable.
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Introduction to Basic Terms Used in Educational Statistics and Research

Types of Variables
Independent variable:
IDVs are antecedent conditions that are supposed to
affect a dependent variable.
DV is to be dependent on the independent variable
IDV is stable and unaffected by the other variables
Dependent Variable:
DV defines a principal focus of research interest.
It is affected by one or more independent variables that
are either manipulated or observed by the researcher
Control Variable:
It is an extraneous variable that an investigator does not
wish to examine in a study. Therefore, the researcher
control this variable.
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Introduction to Basic Terms Used in Educational Statistics and Research

Types of Variables
Categorical Variable:
It is an independent or predictor variable that contains values indicating membership in
one or several possible categories,
Examples: gender (male or female), marital status (married, single, divorced, widowed)
etc.
Moderator Variable:
It is that factor which is measured, or selected by the researcher to discover whether it
modifies the relationship of the independent variable to an observed phenomenon.
It is a special type of independent variable.
Moderation occurs when the relationship between two variables is dependent on a third
variable.
Continuous Variable:
Those variables that is not restricted to particular value.
It means that these variables can be divided into fractional numbers. Such variable can
take infinite number of values.
For example, income, temperature, age, a test score, IQ etc. 8

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Session: 02
We will discuss on:
Introduction to Basic Terms Used in Educational Statistics and Research
Population
Target population (universe)
Accessible population
Population Parameters
Sample
Statistic

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Introduction to Basic Terms Used in Educational Statistics and Research

Population:
A population is a specific group of people or objects that follow to specific criteria or have
similar characteristics and to which we intend to generalize the results of the research.
It is the whole collection of individuals that one intends to study
Target population (universe)
The entire group of people or objects to which the researcher wishes to generalize the
study findings.
Population:
Target population (universe)
Accessible population
The portion of the population to which the researcher has reasonable access; may be a
subset of the target population.
Population Parameters
A numerical value or measure of a characteristic of the population; remember P for
parameter & population
Parameter is usually presented by Greek letter (i.e., µ, π, σ).
Parameters are unknown usually 10

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Introduction to Basic Terms Used in Educational Statistics and Research

To know the parameter of a population, we need a sample.
Sample
Sample is a representative part of the population. The selected elements
(people or objects) chosen for participation in a study; people are referred to
as subjects or participants.
Since it is difficult to measure a parameter from the population, a sample is
drawn of size n. From this data, we measure the statistic.
It is a numerical value summarizing all the data of an entire population
Statistic
A measure of sample or a measure of the distribution of sample.
Statistic is usually presented by Latin letter (i.e., s , p, t).

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Session: 03
We will discuss on:
Introduction to Basic Terms Used in Educational Statistics and Research
Data
Types of Data
Quantitative Data
Contituous Data
Discreate Data
Qualitative Data
Atribute Data
Ordinal
Nominal
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Introduction to Basic Terms Used in Educational Statistics and Research

Data

The value of the variable associated with one element of a

population or sample. This value may be a number, a word, or
a symbol.

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Introduction to Basic Terms Used in Educational Statistics and Research

Types of Data
Quantitative data
Numbers representing counts or measurements. Example: weights of supermodels.
Quantitative data can further be distinguished between discrete and continuous types.
Discrete Data
Data result when the number of possible values is either a finite number or a ‘countable’
number of possible values (i.e. number of residents in this room such as 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .).
Example: The number of eggs that hens lay.
Continuous Data
Numerical data result from infinite values that correspond to some continuous scale that
covers a range of values without gaps, interruptions, or jumps. Example: The amount of
milk that a cow produces; e.g. 2.343115 gallons per day.
Qualitative, or Attribute Data: Data that categorizes or describes an element of a
population.
Note: Arithmetic operations, such as addition and averaging, are not meaningful for data
resulting from a qualitative data.
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Session: 04
We will discuss on:
Introduction to Basic Terms Used in Educational Statistics and Research
Scales or Levels of Measurement for Quantitative Data
Types of Scales
1. Nominal Scales
2. Interval Scales
3. Ordinal Scales
4. Likert Scales
5. Ratio Scale

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Introduction to Basic Terms Used in Educational Statistics and Research

Scales or Levels of Measurement for Quantitative Data

What are Scales or Levels of Measurements?

A scales are types of composite measure that are comprise of several
items having a logical or empirical structure among them.

Scaling describes the procedures of assigning numbers to various

degrees of opinion, attitude and other concepts.

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Introduction to Basic Terms Used in Educational Statistics and Research

Scales or Levels of Measurement for Quantitative Data
Types of Scales
1. Nominal Scales
Only Categories (Names)
A nominal scale is simply some placing of data into categories (names,
labels or categories), without any order or structure (such as low to high).
Examples: Gender (male-female), Ice cream flavors, and fruit names are
measured on a nominal scale.

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Introduction to Basic Terms Used in Educational Statistics and Research

Scales or Levels of Measurement for Quantitative Data
2. Interval Scales
Interval scales are numeric scales in which we know not only the order,
but also the exact differences between the values. There is no natural zero
starting point (where none of the quantity is present).
Examples: Time is a good example of an interval scale in which the
growths are known, consistent, and measurable. Temperature in F or C,
Pain sensitivity

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Introduction to Basic Terms Used in Educational Statistics and Research

Scales or Levels of Measurement for Quantitative Data
3. Ordinal Scales
Categories with some order but not equal
(Likert)
Example of Ordinal Scales
Ordinal scales are the order of the values is what’s
important and significant, but the differences
between each one is not really known. Examples:
Class rank, Sports Rankings, Course Grades A, B, C,
D, or F
For Example: The difference between “OK” and
“Unhappy” the same as the difference between
“Very Happy” and “Happy” we cannot say?
This scale has the ability to rank the individual
attributes to items in same group but it does not
assume that the intervals between numbers are
equal. 20

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Introduction to Basic Terms Used in Educational Statistics and Research

Scales or Levels of Measurement for Quantitative Data
4. Likert Scales:
It is most commonly used scales in social sciences research. It is named after its
creator, psychologist Rensis Likert.

When responding to a Likert questionnaire item, respondents specify their level of

agreement or disagreement on a symmetric agree-disagree scale for a series of
statements.
Example of Likert Scales:

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Introduction to Basic Terms Used in Educational Statistics and Research

Scales or Levels of Measurement for Quantitative Data
5. Ratio Scale
Ratio scales tells us about the order, they tell us the exact value between units. It is the
top level of measurement.

The interval level modified to include the natural zero starting point (where zero indicates that
none of the quantity is present). For values at this level, differences and ratios are meaningful.
Examples: Height, Weight, temperature in K, Prices of textbooks (Rs. 0 represents no cost).
The factor, which clearly defines a ratio scale, is that it has a true zero point. The simplest
example of a ratio scale is the measurement of length.

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Introduction to Basic Terms Used in Educational Statistics and Research

Summary - Levels of Measurement

Nominal - categories only (Names)

Ordinal - categories with some order but not

equal (Likert)

Interval - differences but no natural starting point

Ratio - differences and a natural starting point

(Equal increments)
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Session: 05
We will discuss on:
Introduction to Basic Terms Used in Educational Statistics and Research
Statistics
Types of Statistics
Discriptive Statistics
Inferencial Statistics
Data Tabulation in Descriptive Statistics
Frequency Distribution
Percent Distribution
Valid Percent Distribution
Cumulative Frequency Distribution
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Types of Statistics
Statistics
Statistics is the science of collecting,
organizing, summarising, analysing,
and making inference from data

Descriptive Statistics Inferential Statistics

Includes Includes
collecting, organizing, Making inferences,
summarising, analysing, hypothesis testing
and presenting data Determining relationship,
and making prediction 25

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Data Tabulation in Descriptive Statistics

The process of presenting and interpreting numerical or quantitative data
often contain Descriptive Statistics and Inferential Statistics.

1. Descriptive Statistics

A descriptive refers to calculations that are used to “describe” the data set.
These provide an overview of the attributes of a data set. The most
common descriptive used are: Measuring Central Tendency: numerical
average of scores for a particular variable (The Mean, Median, & Mode),
and Measures of Variability about the average (Range, Variance and
Standard Deviation). 26

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Data Tabulation in Descriptive Statistics

A Frequency Distribution
It is an organized arrangement of the number of individuals or scores located in each category.
A Percent Distribution
It displays the proportion of participants who are represented within each category. It divides each Frequency by the Total Number of Valid Cases.
Each Frequency
Percent= x 100
Total Numbers
E.g., 100 33.8%; 100 22.1%; 100 22.5% and so on…….
A Valid Percent Distribution
It is the percent when missing data are excluded from the calculations
Each Frequency
Valid Percent = Total Valid Numbers (excluded Missing) x 100

E.g., 100 36.2%; 100 23.6%; 100 24.1% and so on…….

Cumulative Frequency Distribution
It is the sum of the each frequency divided by total number of valid cases.
Comulative Frequency
Cumulative Percent = Total Numbers (Frequency) x 100

E.g., 100 36.2%; 100 59.9%; 100 84.0 and 100 100.0

Class Rank
Frequency Percent Valid percent Cumulative Percent Cumulative Frequency
Valid Freshman 147 33.8 36.2 36.2 147
Sophomore 96 22.1 23.6 59.9 147+96 = 243
Junior 98 22.5 24.1 84.0 243+98 = 341
Senior 65 14.9 16.0 100.0 341+65 = 406
Total 406 93.3 100
Missing System 29 6.7
Total 435 100.0

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Session: 06
We will discuss on:
Introduction to Basic Terms Used in Educational Statistics and Research

Measuring Central Tendency

The Mean
The Median
The Mode

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Data Tabulation in Descriptive Statistics

Measuring Central Tendency
The Mean
This is the average of all the scores and it is obtained by adding the scores together and
dividing the sum by the number of scores.
Sum of All Scores
Mean orX=
Total Number of Score
ƩX
X=
N
Where:
= The mean (Called X-Bar); ∑ = (Greek Letter Sigma) = “The Sum of”; X = Individual
score; N = The total Number of scores
Examples: Find the mean score of the test scores got by the students: 5, 6, 2, 9, 8, and 7
5+6+2+9+8+7
Mean orX=
6
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Mean orX = = 6.17
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Data Tabulation in Descriptive Statistics

The Median
Median is the numerical middle point or score that cuts the distribution in half.
To find out Median, put the test scores in ascending or descending order and then find the
middle test score.
Example 1: Find the Median Score of the data: 5, 6, 2, 9, and 8
Put all scores in Ascending Order: 2, 5, 6, 8, 9
The median is: 6
If there are an even number of test scores, after ranking the scores, find the mean of the
middle two values.
Example 2: Find the Median Score of the data: 5, 6, 2, 9, 8, and 7
Put all Scores in Ascending Order: 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
Now Find the Mean of Middle Two (6 and 7) = .
The median is: 6
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Data Tabulation in Descriptive Statistics

The Mode
The mode is the most frequent or most common or popular number score or value for a
particular variable.
In other words, the mode is simply the number which appears most often.
To find out Mode, put the data scores in ascending or descending order and then find the most
often appear number or score.
Example 1: Find the Mode Score of the data: 6, 3, 9, 5, 13, 15, 9, 18, 9, 8
Put all scores in Ascending Order: 3, 5, 6, 8, 9, 9, 9, 13, 15, 18
THE SCORE WHICH OCCURS MOST OFTEN IS 9;
So, Mode will be 9

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Session: 07
We will discuss on:
Introduction to Basic Terms Used in Educational Statistics and Research

MEASURES OF VARIABILITY
The Range

The Variance

Standard Deviation

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Measures of Variability or Statistical Dispersion

MEASURES OF VARIABILITY
Measure of variability or Desperation indicates the spread of the scores within a
distribution.
The usual measures of variability are Range, Variance and Standard
Deviation.
1. The Range
The range is usually taken as the difference between the highest and the lowest
scores in a set of distribution.
Example: Find the Range of the given data: 7, 2, 5, 4, 6, 3, 1, 2, 4, 7, 9, 8, 10.
Put all scores in Ascending Order: 1, 2, 2, 3, 4, 4, 5, 6, 7, 7, 8, 9, 10
Lowest score = 1, Highest = 10.
Therefore, the Range = 10 -1 = 9
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Measures of Variability or Statistical Dispersion

2. The Variance
The Variance show how far a data set is spread out. The Variance is the sum of the squared differences from the
mean of each score, divided by the total number of scores minus one.
Ʃ & '
!"# %
( &)
Where: Sigma /0 = Variance; = Term in Data Set; 1 234567 8739; ∑ = (Greek Letter Gigma; "The
Sum of") !; ( < =>?# < @#
First Step: Find Mean of All ( 1 ); Second Step: Find &
' ' '+ '+ ' + ……..+ '
Third Step: Ʃ & = ) & + ' & A & B & ! &
Fourth Step: Find Variance by Using above Formula
Terms in Data Set Value of each ( ) & & '

X1 1 1 – 3.7 = –2.7 (– 2.7)2 = 7.29

X2 –2 –2 –3.7 = – 5.7 (– 5.7)2 = 32.49
X3 5 5 – 3.7 = 1.3 (1.3)2 = 1.69
X4 9 9 – 3.7 = 5.3 (5.3)2 = 28.09
X5 6 6 – 3.7 = 2.3 (2.3)2 = 5.29
X6 3 3 – 3.7 = – 0.7 (– 0.7)2 = 0.49
Total (N) = 6 Mean = 22/6 = 3.7 Sum Ʃ = 75.34
Ʃ Xi − X 2
75.34 75.34
Variance σ = N −1 = σ = 6 −1 = 5 = 15.068 34

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Measures of Variability or Statistical Dispersion

3. Standard Deviation
The SD is the Average Amount by which the Values Differ from the Mean Score.
In other Words, the SD is the Square Root of Variance. The SD is the most reliable of all measures of variability.
Ʃ X−X 2
SD S =
N −1
Where: C = Standard Deviation; = Term in Data Set; 1 234567 8739; Ʃ <E= !; ( < =>?# < @#
First Step: Find Mean of All ( 1 ); Second Step: Find &
' ' '+ '+ ' + ……..+ '
Third Step: Ʃ & = ) & + ' & A & B & ! &
Fourth Step: Find SD by Using above Formula
Terms in Data Set Value of Each ( ) & & '

X1 1 1 – 3.7 = –2.7 (– 2.7)2 = 7.29

X2 –2 –2 –3.7 = – 5.7 (– 5.7)2 = 32.49
X3 5 5 – 3.7 = 1.3 (1.3)2 = 1.69
X4 9 9 – 3.7 = 5.3 (5.3)2 = 28.09
X5 6 6 – 3.7 = 2.3 (2.3)2 = 5.29
X6 3 3 – 3.7 = – 0.7 (– 0.7)2 = 0.49
Total (N) = 6 Mean = 22/6 = 3.7 Sum Ʃ = 75.34

X−X 2
Ʃ 75.34 75.34
SD S = N −1 = S = 6−1 = 5 = 15.068 = 3.9 35

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Measures of Variability or Statistical Dispersion

3. Standard Deviation

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Session: 08
We will discuss on:
Introduction to Basic Terms Used in Educational Statistics and Research
Normal Distribution (Normal Curve)
Properties of Standard Normal Curve
Significance of Standard Deviation
Use of Pictorial Form for Representation of Data

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Measures of Variability or Statistical Dispersion

Normal Distribution (Normal Curve)
The Normal distribution describes a special class of such distributions that are symmetrically
on both sides of the mean. In below examples, there are many possible ways to show the
values over a continuous range. The data that is distributed normally can be graphically
represented by the Normal Curve or Bell-Shaped. The center of a normal distribution is its
mean. It can be described by two parameters (a) the mean score (b) and the standard deviation.
Data
Data Screwed Data Screwed Data All Jumped
Normally
Right Side Left Side Up)
Distributed
(Positively) (Negatively)

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Properties of Standard Normal Curve

The normal distribution curve is bell-shaped and has a single peak at the center of the
distribution.
No skewness towards right or left side.
The curve is symmetric about its center, the mean (looks similar to left and right sides).
The mean, the median, and the mode coincide at the center (50% data will be greater
than the mean and 50% data will be less than the mean).
The Distribution curve must be uni-model not bi-model.
The location of a normal distribution is determined by the Mean (µ), the dispersion or
spread of the distribution is determined by the Standard Deviation (%) (while Mean and
SD define entire data).
The width of the curve is determined by the standard deviation of the distribution.
The total area under the curve is equal to one.
The normal curve approaches, but never touches the x-axis as it extends farther and
farther away from the mean. 39

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Significance of Standard Deviation

Empirical Rule (68.2% – 95.4% – 99.7%):
The Empirical Rule applies to a normal, bell-shaped curve, so the results are more accurate.
This rule states that within one standard deviation (F 1 SD) of the mean (both left-side and
right-side) there is about 68.2% of the data.
Within two standard deviations (F 2 SD) of the mean (both left side and right side) there is
about 95.4% of the data.
Within three standard deviations (F 3 SD) of the mean (both left side and right side) there is
about 99.7% of the data.

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Use of Pictorial Form for Representation of Data

Graphical Representation
Graphical representation refers to the use of charts and graphs to visually display, analyze, clarify, and
interpret numerical data.
A graph is a sort of chart through which statistical data are represented in the form of lines or curves
drawn across the coordinated points plotted on its surface.
There are many types of graphs, but the most common and most useful are Bar Charts, Histogram
Charts, Polygon Graphs, and Pie Charts, etc.
Bar Graphs: contain solid bars separated by spaces. It is a good tool for displaying the distribution of the
test scores.
Histogram Graphs: a histogram graphs represent the test scores on adjacent bars.
Polygon Graphs: a graph that uses lines that connect points plotted for the frequencies at the midpoints of
the scores. histogram graphs represent the test scores on adjacent bars.
Pie Chart or Graphs: a graph that represents the data in the circular graphs in which slices of pie show the
size of the data. Pie Chart used for categorical variables. Pie Graphs
Polygon Graphs

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