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signal conditioning/processing

Signal Conditioning
and
Data Representation
Digital Signal Processors (DSP) take real-world signals like voice, audio, video,
temperature, pressure, or position that have been digitized and then
mathematically manipulate them. A DSP is designed for performing
mathematical functions like "add", "subtract", "multiply" and "divide" very
quickly.

• Signals need to be processed so that the information that

they contain can be displayed, analyzed, or converted to
Operational Amplifiers (Op-amp)
another type of signal that may be of use.
• In the real-world, analog products detect signals such as
sound, light, temperature or pressure and manipulate
them. Converters such as an Analog-to-Digital converter
then take the real-world signal and turn it into the digital
format of 1's and 0's.
• From here, the DSP takes over by capturing the digitized
information and processing it. It then feeds the digitized
information back for use in the real world. It does this in
one of two ways, either digitally or in an analog format
by going through a Digital-to-Analog converter.
• All of this occurs at very high speeds.

Why are they useful?

• Operational Amplifiers are represented both • Sensor signals are often too weak or too noisy
schematically and realistically below: – Op Amps ideally increase the signal amplitude
– Active component! without affecting its other properties

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How are Op-Amps used? Non-inverting Op-Amp

• Comparator
• Voltage follower
• Signal Modulation
• Mathematical Operations
• Filters
• Voltage-Current signal conversion

Uses: Amplify…straight up

Inverting Op-Amp Summation

www.wikipedia.org
www.wikipedia.org

Uses: Add multiple sensors inputs until a

Uses: Analog inverter threshold is reached.

Difference Difference

V 2 R3  R1 R4 V1 R3 V 2 R3  R1 R4 V1 R3

Vout   Vout  
( R4  R2 ) R1 R1 ( R4  R2 ) R1 R1

If all resistors are equal: If all resistors are equal:

Vout  V2  V1 Vout  V2  V1

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Integrating Op-Amp
www.wikipedia.org
Uses: PID Controller
Analogue to digital converters
• Microcontrollers are capable of detecting binary signals: is
the button pressed or not? These are digital signals.
• When a microcontroller is powered from five volts, it
understands zero volts (0V) as a binary 0 and a five volts (5V)
as a binary 1.
• The world however is not so simple and likes to use shades
of gray. What if the signal is 2.72V? Is that a zero or a one?
We often need to measure signals that vary; these are called
analog signals. A 5V analog sensor may output 0.01V or
4.99V or anything inbetween.
• Luckily, nearly all microcontrollers have a device built into
them that allows us to convert these voltages into values
that we can use in a program to make a decision.
ADC conversion process
There are mainly two steps involves in the process of
conversion. They are-
1. Sampling and Holding
2. Quantizing and Encoding
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Differentiating Op-Amp
www.wikipedia.org
(where Vin and Vout are functions of time)
• What is the ADC?
• An Analog to Digital Converter (ADC) is a very
useful feature that converts an analog voltage on
a pin to a digital number. By converting from the
analog world to the digital world, we can begin to
use electronics to interface to the analog world
around us.
• This is really an electronic integrated circuit which
directly converts the continuous form of signal to
discrete form. It can be expressed as A/D or A-to-
D or A-D or ADC. The input (analog) to this system
can have any value in a range and are directly
measured. But for output (digital) of an N-bit A/D
converter, it should have only 2N discrete values.
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• Encoding:
Here; for each quantum, a unique digital code will be
assigned and after that the input signal is allocated
with this digital code. The process of quantizing and
encoding is demonstrated in the table below.

Quantizing:
It is the process in which the reference signal is partitioned
into several discrete quanta and then the input signal is
matched with the correct quantum.

Digital-Analog Convertors
• A Digital to Analog Converter (DAC) converts
a digital input signal into an analog output
signal. The digital signal is represented with a
binary code, which is a combination of bits 0
and 1.

What is a DAC? Types of DACs

• A digital to analog converter (DAC) converts a digital • Many types of DACs available.
signal to an analog voltage or current output. • Usually switches, resistors, and op-amps used
to implement conversion
• Two Types:
– Binary Weighted Resistor
100101… – R-2R Ladder
DAC

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Binary Weighted Resistor Binary Weighted Resistor

• Utilizes a summing op-amp circuit • Assume Ideal Op-amp
Vref
• Weighted resistors are used to distinguish • No current into op-amp
R
each bit from the most significant to the least • Virtual ground at
inverting input 2R I Rf
significant
• Vout= -IRf 4R
• Transistors are used to switch between Vref - Vout
+
and ground (bit high or low) 2nR

Binary Weighted Resistor Binary Weighted Resistor

Voltages V1 through Vn are either Vref
Vref
if corresponding bit is high or ground V1 If Rf=R/2
if corresponding bit is low R
I Rf V V V V 
Vout   IRf   1  2  3   nn 
V2 2R
V1 is most significant bit

Vn is least significant bit

V3 4R
- Vout
2 4 8 2 
+ For example, a 4-Bit converter yields
Vn 2n-1R
 1 1 1 1
MSB Vout  Vref  b3  b2  b1  b0 
 2 4 8 16 
LSB
V V V V  Where b3 corresponds to Bit-3, b2 to Bit-2, etc.
Vout   IRf   Rf  1  2  3   n -1n 
 R 2R 4R 2 R

Binary Weighted Resistor Filters

• Advantages
– Simple Construction/Analysis
– Fast Conversion
• Disadvantages
– Requires large range of resistors (2000:1 for 12-bit DAC)
with necessary high precision for low resistors
– Requires low switch resistances in transistors
– Can be expensive. Therefore, usually limited to 8-bit
resolution.

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Opto-isolators
• An optoisolator (also known as optical
coupler, optocoupler and opto-isolator) is
a semiconductor device that uses a short optical
transmission path to transfer an electrical signal
between circuits or elements of a circuit, while
keeping them electrically isolated from each other.
• These components are used in a wide variety of In its simplest form, an optoisolator consists of a light-emitting diode (LED), IRED
communications, control and monitoring systems (infrared-emitting diode) or laser diode for signal transmission and a photosensor (or
phototransistor) for signal reception. Using an optocoupler, when an electrical current
that use light to prevent electrical high voltage from is applied to the LED, infrared light is produced and passes through the material inside
affecting a lower power system receiving a signal. the optoisolator. The beam travels across a transparent gap and is picked up by the
receiver, which converts the modulated light or IR back into an electrical signal. In the
absence of light, the input and output circuits are electrically isolated from each other.

Electromagnetic Attraction Relays

• In Electromagnetic Attraction Relays, there is a coil
which energises an electromagnet. When the
operating current becomes large, the magnetic field
produced by an electromagnet is so high that it attracts
the armature or plunger, making contact with the trip
circuit contacts.
• The working mechanism of electromagnetic relays is
simple to understand. The electromagnetic relay
operates largely as per the principle of
electromagnetic induction, which also means that as
the electric current is passed on the conductor, the
conductor behaves like a magnet.

• Following are the blocks of analog data

Data Acquisition Systems
• data acquisition systems will perform the tasks
such as conversion of data, storage of data,
transmission of data and processing of data.
• Data acquisition systems consider the
following analog signals.
– Analog signals, which are obtained from the direct
measurement of electrical quantities such as DC & AC
voltages, DC & AC currents, resistance and etc.
– Analog signals, which are obtained from transducers
such as LVDT, Thermocouple & etc.
acquisition systems.
– Transducer − It converts physical quantities into
electrical signals.
– Signal conditioner − It performs the functions like
amplification and selection of desired portion of
the signal.
– Display device − It displays the input signals for
monitoring purpose.
– Graphic recording instruments − These can be
used to make the record of input data permanently.
– Magnetic tape instrumentation − It is used for
acquiring, storing & reproducing of input data.

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