تصاميم السدود-كورس اول-Hydraulic construction, Dam.

Dams Design…………………………...……….…………………………………..Dr. Ammar H.
Kamel
Dams Design
Introduction:
A dam is a barrier structure placed a cross a water course to store water and modify normal stream flow.
Water is often more useful to people when it is properly controlled, conveyed, and contained, dams are
designed and built to serve these purpose. Dams vary in size from a few meters in high (farm pond dams)
to massive structures of over 100m in high (large hydroelectric dams).
Dams fulfill many functions:

 To provide electricity
 To provide downstream flood control
 Irrigation water to vast amounts of farmland
 Recreational opportunities (‫)سياحت واستجمام‬
 To provide industrial water supply, cooling water for power plants and municipal water supply
 To support navigation on many large rivers.
Important Terms for The main Parts of Dam:
Illustration of dam-parts in a typical cross section
 Dam: is a barrier across flowing water that obstructs, directs or retards the flow, often creating a
Reservoir.
 Reservoir: is an artificial lake created by flooding land behind a dam. Some of the world's largest lakes
are reservoirs.
 Crest: The top of the dam structure. These may in some cases be used for providing a roadway or
walkway over the dam.
 Parapet walls: Low Protective walls on either side of the roadway or walkway on the crest.
 Heel: Portion of structure in contact with ground or river-bed at upstream side.
 Toe: Portion of structure in contact with ground or river-bed at downstream side.
 Spillway: It is the arrangement made (kind of passage) near the top of structure for the passage of
surplus/ excessive water from the reservoir.
 Abutments: The valley slopes on either side of the dam wall to which the left & right end of dam
are fixed to.
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Dams Design…………………………...……….…………………………………..Dr. Ammar H. Kamel
 Gallery: Level or gently sloping tunnel like passage (small room like space) at transverse or
longitudinal within the dam with drain on floor for seepage water. These are generally provided
for having space for drilling grout holes and drainage holes. These may also be used to
accommodate the instrumentation for studying the performance of dam.
 Sluice way: Opening in the structure near the base, provided to clear the silt accumulation in the
reservoir.
 Free board: The space between the highest level of water in the reservoir and the top of the
structure.
 Dead Storage level: Level of permanent storage below which the water will not be withdrawn.
 Diversion Tunnel: Tunnel constructed to divert or change the direction of water to bypass the
dam construction site. The hydraulic structures are built while the river flows through the
diversion tunnel.
 Flood: is an overflow or an expanse of water submerging land.
Dams differ from all other major civil engineering structures in a number of important regards:
 Every dam, large or small, is quite unique; foundation geology, material characteristics, catchment flood
/hydrology etc. are each site-specific.
 Dams are required to function at or close to their design loading for extended periods.
 Dams do not have a structural lifespan; they may, however, have a notional life for accounting purposes,
or a functional lifespan dictated by reservoir sedimentation.
 The overwhelming majority of dams are of earth fill, constructed from a range of natural soils; these are
the least consistent of construction materials.
 Dam engineering draws together a range of disciplines, e.g. Structural and fluid mechanics, geology and
geotechnics, flood hydrology and hydraulics, to a quite unique degree.
 The engineering of dams is critically dependent upon the application of informed engineering judgment.
Hence the dam engineer is required to synthesize design solutions which, without compromise on safety, represent
the optimal balance between technical, economic and environmental considerations. (Addis Ababa University)
Planning Consideration:
Whether dam is used for municipal water supply, irrigation, flood control, or hydropower, several items
must be considered in the planning and design of dam and reservoir:
1. Hydrological Data: data for the stream that the dam is to be built on are analyzed to determine
flood and drought flows and to determine the required capacity and operating procedure for the
reservoir. Also the required spillway capacity must be determined from analysis of hydrologic
data like monthly flow, momentary peak flow of a stream at or near the dam site, annual sediment load. If
available, the following information is necessary:
 Maximum observed flood level in the system
 Report on damage caused by flooding
 Data for estimating water demand
2. Geologic Data: on the geology of the area that the dam is to be built on will no doubt exist;
however, on-site inspection geologists are usually mapping the drilling of expiratory holes, and
collection of core-sample data by geologists is usually required. These data reveal the structural
ability of the foundation material to withstand the loads that may act on it and indicate the leakage
and erosion problems that may be encountered, presence, orientation and extent of joint planes, seams,
caverns, and solution channel. Banks should be checked for possible zones of landslides
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3. Reservoir Data: a complete assessment of the area to be inundated by the reservoir must be made.
This includes topographic maps, land ownership, land classification, and location of roads and
public utilities. These data are used to estimate the cost of land acquisition and relocation of roads
and utilities.
4. Environmental Consideration: for most dams an environmental impact statement or at least an
(Environmental Impact Report) will be required in order to obtain the necessary funding and
construction permits. These reports utilize the results of field studies to identify the unique
environment in the project area and assess the impact that may be created by project.
Many other factors such as availability of materials and manpower, environmental aspects, sedimentation
and dam safety must also be considered in the planning and design of a dam and reservoir.
Classification of Dams:
 Based on, use, dams can be classified as follows:
-Storage dam: They are constructed to store water during the rainy season when there is a large flow in
the river. Many small dams impound the spring runoff for later use in dry summers. Storage dams may
also provide a water supply, or improved habitat for fish and wildlife. They may store water for
hydroelectric power generation, irrigation or for a flood control project. Storage dams are the most
common type of dams and in general the dam means a storage dam unless qualified otherwise.
-Diversion dam: A dam that diverts all or a portion of the flow of a river from its natural course.
Diversion dams do not generally impound water in a reservoir.
Diversion dams are installed to raise the water level of a body of water to allow the water to be redirected.
The redirected water can be used to supply irrigation systems, reservoirs, or hydroelectric power
generation facilities. The water diverted by the diversion dam to the reservoirs can be used for industrial
applications or for municipal water supply.
Fig.1 Diversion Dam

-Detention dams: Detention dams are constructed for flood control. A detention dam retards the flow in
the river on its downstream during floods by storing some flood water. Thus the effect of sudden floods is
reduced to some extent. The water retained in the reservoir is later released gradually at a controlled rate
according to the carrying capacity of the channel downstream of the detention dam. Thus the area
downstream of the dam is protected against flood.
-Weir: A weir (also sometimes called an overflow dam) is a type of small overflow dam that is often used
within a river channel to create an impoundment lake for water abstraction purposes and which can also
be used for flow measurement or retardation.
- Saddle dam: A saddle dam is an auxiliary dam constructed to confine the reservoir created by a primary
dam either to permit a higher water elevation and storage or to limit the extent of a reservoir for increased
efficiency. An auxiliary dam is constructed in a low spot or "saddle" through which the reservoir would
otherwise escape. On occasion, a reservoir is contained by a similar structure called a dike to prevent
inundation of nearby land. Dikes are commonly used for reclamation of arable land from a shallow lake.
This is similar to a levee, which is a wall or embankment built along a river or stream to protect adjacent
land from flooding.
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-Coffer dams: It is an enclosure constructed around the construction site to exclude water so that the
construction can be done in dry. A coffer dam is thus a temporary dam constructed for facilitating
construction. These structures are usually constructed on the upstream of the main dam to divert water
into a diversion tunnel (or channel) during the construction of the dam. When the flow in the river during
construction of hydraulic structures is not much, the site is usually enclosed by the coffer dam and
pumped dry. Sometimes a coffer dam on the downstream of the dam is also required.
Based on structure (construction materials) and design, dams can be classified as follows:
-Rigid dam
1. Gravity dam: A gravity dam is a massive sized dam fabricated from concrete or stone masonry.
They are designed to hold back large volumes of water.
2. Arch dam: An arch dam is curved in plan, with its convexity towards the upstream side. They
transfer the water pressure and other forces mainly to the abutments by arch action.
-Non Rigid dam

1. Earth dam: An earth dam is made of earth (or soil) built up by compacting successive layers of
earth, using the most impervious materials to form a core and placing more permeable substances
on the upstream and downstream sides
2. Rock-fill dam: A rockfill dam is built of rock fragments and boulders of large size. An impervious
membrane is placed on the rockfill on the upstream side to reduce the seepage through the dam.
3. Combination of Rock and earth fill dam.
Based on size, dams can be classified as follows:

-Small dam (height less than 15m)
-Large dam (higher than 15m)
-Major dam (higher than 150m)
 International Commision on Large Dams, (ICOLD) assumes a dam as large when its height is
bigger than 15m.
 If the height of the dam is between 10m and 15m and matches the following criteria, then ICOLD
accepts the dam as big:
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 If the crest length is bigger than 500m

 If the reservoir capacity is larger than 1 million m3
 If the flood discharge is more than 2000 m3/s
 If there are some difficulties in the construction of foundation
 According to hydraulic design

-Unspilled dam
-Spilled dam
Exercises
Q1: What are the items must be considered in the planning and design of dam and reservoir?
Q2: How you can use the hydrologic data to design the dams and operate reservoirs?
Q3: Classify the following dams according to their use:
a- Alwarrar regulator, b- Al-Falluja Barrages, c-Mosul Dam
Factors Governing Selection Site of Dams:
A dam is a huge structure requiring a lot of funds therefore; extreme care shall be taken while selecting
the site of a dam. A wrong decision may lead to excessive cost and difficulties in construction and
maintenance (Mousel Dam for example). Various factors should be considered when selecting the site of
a dam:
 Topography: The topography of the dam and reservoir sites should permit maximum storage of water at
minimum cost.
 Suitable Foundation: Foundation should be impervious and should be able to support the dam's
weight, (Geological mappings 1/5000 – 1/1000 or 1/500 and underground explorations like
boreholes, adits....etc are necessary )
 Good Site for reservoir (A major portion of a dam should be on high ground) – (i) Large storage
capacity (ii) Shape of reservoir basin (iii) Water tightness of the reservoir (iv) Good hydrological
conditions (v) Deep reservoir (vi) Small submerged area (vii) Low silt inflow (viii) No
objectionable minerals
 Spillway site
 Availability of materials: Materials of construction should be available in sufficient quantity and good
quality at a reasonable distance.
 Accessibility of the site and transportation facilities
 Healthy surroundings
 Minimum overall cost, the cost of relocating roads, buildings etc. should be as small as possible
 Selection of the most suitable type of dam for a particular site requires a lot of judgment and
experience (River Cross Section).
 The cost of stream diversion and dewatering the site should be as small as possible
 Communication.
Factors Governing Selection Type of Dams:
Various factors govern the selection of type of dam:

1. Topography
-For narrow V-shape valley select arch dam
V-shape= top width of the valley less than (1/4) height.
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Fig.2 Arch Dam
-For narrow U-shape valley indicate choice of over flow concrete gravity dam.
-A low rolling plain country suggest earth dam.
-a- -b-
Fig.3, a-earth dam, and b- gravity dam
2. Geology and Foundation:

Bearing capacity of the underlying soil, foundation settlements, and permeability of the foundation soil
must be consider, for example:
 Solid Rock foundation…..select any type
 Gravel and coarse sand foundation……select Earth dam, Rock fill dam
 Silt and fine sand foundation….select earth dam or low concrete dam up to (8m).
 Clay foundation…..select Earth dam with special treatment.
3. Availability of material of construction:
 If sand, gravel and stone are available, a concrete gravity dam may be suitable.
 If coarse and fine grained soils are available, an earth dam may be suitable.
4. Length and height of the dam:
 If the length of the dam is very long and its height is low, an earth dam would be a better
Choice.
 If the length is small and height is more, gravity dam is preferred.
5. Road way:
 If a road way is to be passed over the top of the dam, an earth dam would be preferred.
6. Life of the dam
 Concrete or masonry gravity dam have very long life, Earth and rock fill dams have
intermediate life.
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From above discussion we can recognize the four main types of dams, table below explains these types.
Type Stability Materials Cross Section
Concrete, rock or
Gravity Large Mass
masonry
Arch action on
Arch Concrete
rock canyon
Mass of dam&
Concrete, steel, or
Buttress water on
timber
upstream face
Mass of dam &

Earth water on Earth or rock
upstream face
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Exercises
Q1: Choose the type of dam according to the following condition:

1. The site of dam has a very hard rock in foundation, depth of soft material above the rock
is less than 7m and the length of the crest is more than five times of the height of the dam.
2. The site of dam has a weak soil in foundation and the height of dam is more than 50m.
3. The site of dam is narrow canyon, the pressure exerted on the valley sides is between 5.5 -
8 MPa
4. The site of dam is relatively narrow canyon, the rock absolutely reliable to bear 2-3 MPa
or more without any appreciable settlement.
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Flood Hydrology for Design Purposes

1. Introduction
Hydrology is a science of prediction - the likelihood of recurrence of natural events. Mathematicians may
try to predict events based on past history but Nature is unpredictable as to time and magnitude of
occurrence.
Based on past information (1):The low flow characteristics of the river will control the storage required
and hence the normal full supply level of the reservoir. (2)High flow records and flood forecasting
techniques provide the basis for design of the spillway, and hence the flood storage required above
normal full supply level.
Weather forecasting is important to the dam engineer because future seasonal weather could influence
the decision as to which type of dam is built. For example, too short a dry season may preclude the
economical construction of an earth fill dam (why?). A weather station should be established at a
proposed dam site at the earliest possible date. Records of temperature, humidity, rainfall, wind and air
pressures can materially assist the meteorologists in synthesizing storm patterns and is one step in the
process of maximum flood estimation.
Whatever dimensions the Engineer selects for the dam and spillway there will always be some risk,
assessment of the acceptable risk is the art of dam engineering.
2.Storage Capacity
The storage capacity of a reservoir is defined as the volume of water which can be stored. Initial
estimates of storage capacity can be made from topographic maps or aerial photographs.
The reservoir volume can be estimated by planmetering areas upstream of the proposed dam site up to the
proposed top water level. The mean of the two successive contour areas is multiplied by the contour
interval to give the interval volume, the summation of the interval volumes provides the total volume of
the reservoir site.
Greater accuracy can be achieved through use of the primordial formula:
1
Volume  ( A1  A1 A2  A2 )z ………(1)
3
The summation of these increments below any elevation is the storage volume below that level. In the
absence of adequate topographic maps, cross sections of the reservoir are sometimes surveyed and the
capacity computed from these vertical cross sections by use of the primordial formula.
The storage capacity required in a reservoir of a dam may be determined in a number of ways. In tropical
regions(‫ )منااق اساتئاةيت‬it may be decided to store the whole runoff from precipitation in one season.
Whether this would ensure continuity of flow would depend upon the season selected and the seasons
occurring later. It may be decided to provide sufficient storage to ensure continuity based upon a
repetition of past history.
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Fig. determine of reservoir volume from topographic map.
Physical characteristics of Reservoirs:
Since the main function of reservoir to provide storage, their most important physical characteristics is
storage capacity.
 Capacity of a reservoir of regular shape can be computed with formulas for volumes of solids.
 Capacity of reservoir on natural sites must usually be determined from topographic surveys.
An area-elevation curve is constructed by plaimetering the area enclosed within each contour with the
reservoir site. The integral of the area-elevation curve is the elevation-storage, or capacity, curve for the
reservoir. The incremental of storage between two elevations is usually computed by multiplying the
average of the areas at the two elevations by the elevation difference, (eq.1).
Fig. Evaluate Area-Volume-elevation curve of a reservoir.
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Zones of Storage:
Fig. Zones of Storage

Normal pool level: is the maximum elevation to which the reservoir surface will rise during ordinary
operating conditions. It is determined by the elevation of the spillway crest or the top of the spillway
gates.
Minimum pool level: is the lowest elevation to which the pool is to be drawn under normal conditions.
This level may be fixed by the elevation of lowest outlet in the dam or, in the case of hydroelectric
reservoirs, by conditions of operating efficiency for turbines.
Useful Storage: is the storage volume between the minimum and normal pool levels. For multipurpose
reservoirs in accordance with adopted plan of operation, the useful storage may be subdivided into:
 Conservation storage,
 Flood mitigation storage.
During floods, discharge over the spillway may cause the water level to rise above normal pool level.
This surcharge storage is normally uncontrolled, i.e., it exists only while a flood is occurring and cannot
be retained for later use.
Dead Storage: is the water held below minimum pool level.
Reservoir banks are usually permeable, and water enters the soil when the reservoir fills and drains out as
the water level is lowered.
This bank storage increases the capacity of the reservoir above that indicated by the elevation-storage
curve. This storage depends on:
 Geological conditions,
 Reservoir volume.
The water in a natural stream channel occupies a variable volume of valley storage.
The net increase in storage capacity resulting from the construction of a reservoir is the total capacity less
the natural valley storage.
This distinction is of no important for conservation reservoirs, but from the viewpoint of flood mitigation
the effective storage in the reservoir is the useful storage plus the surcharge storage less the natural valley
storage corresponding to the rate of inflow to the reservoir.
(Volume) eff  S us  S s  S Na  Inflow ……(2)
( S us =useful storage, S s =surcharge storage, S Na =Natural valley storage).
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Applications
Example(1): The following data represents the elevation-area relationship for a reservoir, if the
storage volume (normal) is 3.135*106 m3 , and the elevation of outlet (sluiceway) is 621m,
determine:
1. Elevation-area-volume curve,
2. The dead storage,=0.73*106 m3
3. The elevation of spillway crest=626.5m
Elevation(m) Area (m2) Volume (*106 m3) Cumulative Volume (*106 m3)
0.1
618 150000 0.1
0.37
620 220000 0.47
0.52
622 300700 0.99
0.72
624 422200 1.71
1.04
626 619200 2.75
1.54
628 930000 4.29
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Example (2): we have two selection locations for a dam, if the storage capacity is 400*106 m3, chose
the best location for a reservoir and why?
Location (1)
Elevation(m) Area (Km2) Volume(* 106m3) Cumulative(* 106m3)

500 22 14.67 14.67
502 30 51.79 66.46
504 41 70.7 137.16
506 50 90.85 228.01
508 55 104.96 332.97
510 62 116.93 449.9
Location (2)
Elevation(m) Area (Km2) Volume(* 106m3) Cumulative(* 106m3)
560 15 10 10
562 22 36.8 46.8
564 39 60.2 107
568 48 86.8 193.8
570 57 104.9 298.7
572 63 119.9 418.6
Example (3): The following data represent the elevation-area relation for a reservoir, if the lowest
outlet elevation is 700m, the normal pool level is 720m, and the bed elevation is 696m. Determine:
1. The dead storage volume,
2. The useful storage volume,
3. The reservoir capacity volume,
4. The height of spillway,
Elevation(m) Area (m2) *106 Volume(m3) *106 Cumulative (m3) *106

698 0.5 0.33 0.33
700 0.7 1.19 1.52
702 1 1.69 3.21
704 2 2.94 6.15
706 3.5 5.43 11.58
708 5.7 9.11 20.69
710 8 13.64 34.33
712 11 18.92 53.25
714 14.6 25.52 78.77
716 16.8 31.37 110.14
718 20 36.75 146.89
720 22 41.98 188.87
722 24.5 46.5 235.37
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Exercises
1-What are the considerations of planning and design of dams?
2- Classify the dams according to their use, construction materials, and size.
3- What are the factors governing the type selection of dams.
Estimation of design flood:
There are two methods now commonly used to estimate the design flood;
 The estimation of probable maximum precipitation on to the particular catchments under the worst
meteorological conditions likely to occur over the catchments, followed by an estimation of the
run-off that would result from such a storm, and;
 The statistical analysis of past floods with extrapolation to estimate the magnitude and probability
of occurrence of future floods.
Probable Maximum Precipitation (PMP):

PMP stands for Probable Maximum Precipitation. Even though its name implies a probability, in effect
the first P in PMP is to be interpreted loosely as "possible". The PMP is a reasonable maximization of the
event precipitation expected at a given geographical location, for a given duration. It estimates, including
generalized and statistically based has been made in the United States since the early 1960s.The
determination of probable maximum precipitation for a particular drainage basin requires comprehensive
( ‫ )شاام‬study of major storms on record and is a job for experts. One is limited by the lack of data; records
usually do not go back more than 50 years, which makes prediction of more than the 100 year flood
impossible. As it is, 50 years of data will predict a 100 year flood to within 25%, and 115 years will
predict it to 10%. The Engineer is faced with conflicting requirements in terms of safety and economy, he
is therefore obliged to use to the best advantage the data and procedures that are available;
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 Statistical analysis of past flow records at the site - and extrapolation;

 As above, but with extension of the flow records by correlation with flows from adjacent
catchments;
 Statistical analysis of rainfall records and extrapolation;
 As preceding, but with extension of data by correlation with other stations;
 Correlation(‫ )ارتباق‬studies including both rainfall and flow records;
 Estimation of 'maximum possible' rainfall by Meteorological Services and application of such data
to the estimation of 'probable maximum flood' from catchments.
The Return Periods
The return periods commonly used in design. In hydrology, design return periods vary typically from 10
years to 100 years and in countries (or places where the Probable Maximum Precipitation (PMP) has not
been defined, up to 10,000 yr. The choice of return period depends on various factors, including the size
of the drainage area, the risk of failure, the importance of the structure, and the desired degree of
conservatism. In countries lacking a generalized PMP, it is common practice to use the return period of
10,000 yr in lieu of the PMP. The value of 10,000 yr has been used for many decades to designate the
maximum return period to be used for hydrologic design. It is a de-facto equivalent of a practicable
maximum value. For places where generalized PMPs have not been developed, and where risk of failure
places human life in jeopardy, return periods in excess of 100 years, to include 200, 500, 1000, 2000,
5000, and 10,000 are warranted. Values up to 10,000 years are used for emergency spillway and
freeboard hydrographs in dam design.
The return period is chosen by the designer, in consultation with the owner, following established
hydrologic practice. An assessment of risk is paramount to the selection of return period. Table (1) may
be used as a guideline, when used in conjunction with local regulations and experience.
The return period of 100 yr amounts to four human generations. It is a number which is not too high, nor
too low. The value of 100 yr does not mean that the structure will be at risk exactly every 100 yr. Rather,
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it means that the structure will be at risk, say 10 times every 1000 yr. The 100-yr flood peak applies for
flood plain development, medium-sized flood protection works, and regional urban drainage facilities.
As a rule, the large drainage area means the longer return period. Typically, drainage areas less than 250
ha do not warrant return periods greater than 25 yr. However, larger areas, up to 10,000 ha and beyond,
may justify return periods up to 100 yr or longer.
Frequency Analysis:
The magnitude of an extreme event is inversely related to its frequency of occurrence, very severe events
occurring less frequently than more moderate events.
The objective of frequency analysis is to relate the magnitude of extreme events to their frequency of
occurrence through the use of probability distributions.
The data analyzed (discharge, water level) are assumed to be independent and identically distributed. The
data employed should be carefully selected so that the assumptions of independence and identical
distribution are satisfied. In practice, this is often achieved by selecting the annual maximum of the
variable being analyzed (e.g., the annual maximum discharge, which is the largest instantaneous peak
flow occurring at any time during the year) with the expectation that successive observations of this
variable from year to year will be independent.
The results of flow frequency analysis can be used for many engineering purpose; for the design of dams,
bridges, culverts, and flood control structures; to determine the economic value of flood control projects
and to delineate flood plains and determine the effect of encroachments on the flood plains.
A simple empirical technique has been used to arrange the given annual extreme series in descending
order of magnitude and to sign an order number m. Thus for the first entry m=1, for the second entry m=2
and so on till that last event for m=N=number of years of record. The probability P of an event equaled to
or exceeded is given by following formula:
3
(m  )
P 8
1
(N  )
4
The recurrence interval T is given by:
T=1/P
Economic Height of the Dam:
The economic height of the dam (any type of dams) is that height of the dam corresponding to which the
cost of the dam per unit storage is minimum (cost/storage)=minimum.
The construction cost increase with the dam height. For each dam height, the reservoir is known from the
capacity curve.
The construction cost per unit of storage for all possible dam height can be plotted. The lowest point on
the curve gives the economic dam height.
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Applications
Example(1): the following data represent the discharge of Euphrates River, we need to design the dam
on this river, determine the spillway capacity for recurrence period 25, 50, and100 years what are their
probability?
Max.Q Year Max.Q Year Max.Q Year Max.Q Year Max.Q Year Max.Discharge Year
1934.29 1970 1109.84 1949 983 1980 887.87 1946 729.32 1984 602.5 1985
1617.2 1969 1093.99 1945 983 1981 887.87 1957 697.61 1950 570 1933
1617.2 1989 1062.4 1939 951.29 1953 887.87 1976 697.61 1973 539.1 1962
1426.94 1968 1062.28 1943 951.29 1982 856.16 1966 697.61 1986 507.4 1934
1331.81 1964 1046.4 1937 951.29 1978 824.45 1948 681.76 1952 507.36 1987
1268.4 1955 1014.71 1983 935.44 1961 792.74 1951 665.91 1956 443.94 1974
1173.3 1941 1014.71 1944 935.44 1940 792.74 1965 665.9 1963 253.68 1975
1173.26 1967 998.86 1947 919.6 1958 792.74 1971 634.2 1988
1109.84 1942 983 1936 919.58 1972 792.74 1979 634.2 1960
1109.84 1954 983 1977 887.87 1938 729.32 1959 602.5 1935
Max.Q m P (%) T (year)

1934.29 1 0.01 100
1617.2 2 0.03 33
1617.2 3 0.05 20
1426.94 4 0.07 15
1331.81 5 0.09 12
1268.4 6 0.1 10
1173.3 7 0.12 8
1173.26 8 0.14 7
1109.84 9 0.16 6
1109.84 10 0.18 5.6
1093.99 11 0.2 5
1062.4 12 0.21 4.7
1062.28 13 0.23 4.3
1046.4 14
1014.71 15
1014.71 16
998.86 17
983 18
983 19
951.29 20
951.29 21
951.29 22
935.44 23
935.44 24
919.6 25
919.58 26
887.87 27
887.87 28
887.87 29
887.87 30
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856.16 31
824.45 32
792.74 33
792.74 34
792.74 35
792.74 36
729.32 37
729.32 38
697.61 39
697.61 40
697.61 41
681.76 42
665.91 43
665.9 44
634.2 45
634.2 46
602.5 47
602.5 48
570 49
539.1 50
507.4 51
507.36 52
443.94 53
253.68 54
Example(2): The construction cost per certain possible height of a dam at given site have been
estimated and are tabulated below. The storage capacities for all these dam height are also given:
Construction
No. H(m) Storage (m3) Cost/S
cost(million)
1 10 4000 50 80
2 20 8000 110 72.5
3 30 12000 180 67
4 40 18000 300 60
5 50 27000 350 77
6 60 39000 500 78
7 70 50000 600 83
Determine the economic height of dam?
- 18 -
Exercises
Q: The table below represents the elevation-area curve for a reservoir, the maximum storage is
32 000 000 m3, the elevation of powerhouse (turbine) =65m, the normal pool level is 74.5m, and the
height of the dam is 13m, Determine:
1. The elevation-area-volume curve,
2. Draw the storage zone of the reservoir with elevations,
3. The useful storage volume,
4. The dead storage volume,
5. The elevation of spillway crest,
6. The head of water over the spillway,
7. The surcharge storage volume,
8. Free board
- 19 -
Gravity Dam
General:
A gravity dam (figure) is a huge structure constructed across a river to create a reservoir on its u/s. It is
approximately triangular in shape (section or profile), it derive their strength from their weight. Shear
resistance, which is a function of weight, friction angle, and cohesion, controls sliding. A gravity dam‟s
weight, as defined by its geometry and concrete density, and its uplift pressures control overturning
stability. All failure modes must somehow either decrease the net effect of the weight of the structure or
the resistance against sliding and overturning, or increase the driving forces. In most situations, all three
of these occur.
It may construct of concrete or masonry. It is generally straight in plan (straight gravity dam), but in
some cases it may slightly curved in plan, with its convexity upstream.
There are two types of gravity dam; solid gravity dam and hollow gravity dam. Gravity dams are
particularly suited for gorges with steep slopes having sound rock (low gravity dam < 15-20m. can be
constructed even on soil foundation). Gravity dams typically consist of a non-overflow section(s) and an
overflow section or spillway.
Fig. Gravity Dam
- 20 -
Important Definitions:
 Gravity dams are usually provided with an overflow spillway in some portion of its length.
(overflow section).
 The Structural height of the dam is the difference in elevation of the top of the dam and the
lowest point in the excavated foundation.
 The hydraulic height of the dam is the difference in elevation of the highest controlled water
surface on the u/s of the dam the lowest point in the bed river.
 The axis of the gravity dam is the line of the upstream edge of the top (or crown) of the dam. It is
also called the base line.
 The length of the gravity dam is the distance from one abutment to the other, measured along the
axis.
- 21 -
Fig. main parts of Gravity dam

Topographical and Geological Conditions
 Hard rock at or near the surface.
 Depth of soft material above the rock should not exceed 7-10m thereby avoiding excavation.
 Materials for concrete, i.e. aggregate, stone and sand should easily be accessible within 8-16 km2.
 Gravity dams are suited when the length of the crest is five times or more than the height of the
dam.
Characteristics of Gravity Dam

 Gravity dams are quite strong, stable and durable.
- 22 -
 Are quite suitable across moderately wide valleys and gorges having steep slopes where earth
dams, if constructed, might slip.
 Can be constructed to very great heights, provided good rock foundations are available.
 Are well adapted for use as an overflow spillway section. Earth dams cannot be used as an
overflow section. Even in earth dams, the overflow section is usually a gravity dam.
 Are especially suited to such areas where there is very heavy downpour. The slopes of the earth
dams might be washed away in such an area.
 Maintenance cost of a gravity dam is very low.
 Does not fail suddenly. There is enough warning of the imminent failure and the valuable property
and human life can be saved to some extent.
 Can be constructed during all types of climatic conditions.
 Sedimentation in the reservoir on the upstream of a gravity dam can be somewhat reduced by
operation of deep-set sluices.
Limitation
 Gravity dams of great height can be constructed only on sound rock foundations. These cannot be
constructed on weak or permeable foundations on which earth dams can be constructed.
 Initial cost of a gravity dam is usually more than that of an earth dam. At the sites where good
earth is available for construction and funds are limited, earth dams are better.
 Usually take a longer time in construction than earth dams, especially when mechanized plants for
batching, mixing and transporting concrete are not available.
 Require more skilled labor than that in earth dams.
 Subsequent raising is not possible in a gravity dam
Forces Acting on Gravity Dam:
A gravity dam is subjected to the following main forces:

 Gravity Force (Weight of the dam),
 Water pressure,
 Uplift pressure,
 Silt pressure,
 Wave pressure,
 Wind pressure,
 Pressure due to earth quake force,
 Ice pressure,
These forces fall into two categories as:

a) Forces, such as weight of the dam and water pressure, which are directly calculable from the unit
weights of the materials and properties of fluid pressures; and
b) Forces, such as uplift, earthquake loads, silt pressure and ice pressure, which can only be assumed on
the basis of assumption of varying degree of reliability. It is in the estimating of the second category of
the forces that special care has to be taken and reliance placed on available data, experience, and
judgment. It is convenient to compute all the forces per unit length of the dam
1-Gravity Force (Weight of the Dam): -
- 23 -
For a gravity dam the weight of the structure is the main stabilizing force, and hence the construction material
should be as heavy as possible. Structure self-weight is accounted for in terms of the resultant, W, which acts
through the centroid (center of gravity) of the cress-sectional area.
Gravity Force (F) =W = γc * Volume
Note: (γ concrete ) = 2.4 tonnes/m3 = 24 kN/m3 (in the absence specific data from laboratory test trials)
For final designs the specific weights shall be based on actual test data. Where crest gates and other ancillary
structures or equipment of significant weigh are present they must also be accounted for in determining the weight
of the structure. It is essential to make sure that the actual specific weight obtained for the construction
material is more than or at least equal to that assumed in the design.
2- Water pressure:
Water pressure is the force exerted by the water stored in the reservoir on the upstream and the water depth at the
tail of the dam.
External water pressure can be calculated by the law of hydrostatics according to which in a static mass of
liquid the pressure intensity varies linearly with the depth of liquid and it acts normal to the surface in
contact with the liquid. For the non-overflow section of the dam water pressure may be calculated as
following:
P1 = horizontal component of hydrostatic force upstream side, acting along a line 1/3 H above the base
1
P1   w * H 2
2
1
P2   w * H 22
2
γw = Unit weight of water (=10 kN/m3)
Fv = Vertical component of hydrostatic pressure = Weight of fluid mass vertically above the upstream
face acting through the center of gravity of the mass.
- 24 -
If the upstream face is partially vertical and partially inclined as shown in the fig. below, the resultant
water pressure can be solved in two components:
1
PH   w * H 2
2
PH   (1 / 2) *  w * H  2
Pv1  ( H 1 * X ) *  w
Pv  (1 / 2) *  w * ( X  * H )
Pv 2  (1 / 2) * H 2 * X *  w
1-horizontal component (PH)
2-vertical component (PV).
Fig. Calculation of Water Pressure Forces
3-Uplift pressure:
Uplift pressure is the force exerted by water penetrating through the pores, cracks and seams with in the body of the
dam, at contact surface between the dam and its foundation, and within the foundation. It acts vertically upward at
any horizontal section of the dam as well as its foundation. It causes a reduction in the effective weight of the
portion of the structure lying above this section.
a-Without Gallery (solid gravity dam), without cut-off wall: In this case, the computation of uplift
pressure force as in following equations, (fig. below)
- 25 -
PU1   w * ( B * H )
PU 2  (1 / 2) * [( B * ( H  H )]
Fig. Calculation of Uplift Forces

b-With gallery (hollow gravity dam) without cut-off wall: In some dams gallery can be used for drainage
purposes to relieve uplift pressure at base of dam. It is provided by a line of drilled holes d/s from the grout curtain.
The holes are connected to drainage gallery to carry the seepage to the tail water. In this case, the computation of
uplift pressure force as in following equations, (fig. below):
2
PU   w * ( H  H ) Reduction of pressure at the drainage
3
Net pressure available at the gallery becomes
2
PUg   w H   w ( H  H )
3
1
PUg   w ( H  2 H )
3
If there is no water D/S
- 26 -
Fig. Calculation of Uplift Forces
c-Without Gallery (solid gravity dam), with cut-off wall: In practice dams are usually provided with cut-
off walls or grout curtains to reduce seepage and drain to relieve pressure downstream from the cutoff.
Actually cutoff and grout curtains may not be perfectly tight and hence fail to dissipate the head (H1 –
H2)
Usually a distribution like 1-2-3-4 is used with 3-4 a straight line as shown in Figure. Opinions about the
value of uplift reduction factor, ζ (Zeta), are varied, the tendency is to take:
ζ= 0.85 (for normal loading cases)
ζ= 1.00 (for exceptional loading cases like earthquake)
Uplift pressure distribution for perfectly tight cutoff walls
- 27 -
Uplift pressure distribution for less tight cutoff
Uplift area factor, C

The value of area factor for concrete has been determined experimentally by several investigators.
However, for the foundation rock the value of area factor is not determinable experimentally and hence
the same has been estimated on the basis of theoretical considerations.
Some of the earliest investigators recommended, for both concrete and rock, a value of area factor
ranging from one third to two-thirds of the area to be considered as effective area over which the uplift
pressure acts. However, Harza, Terzaghi and Lelivakey have indicated that, for both concrete and rock,
the value of area factor is nearly equal to unity.
Values suggested for uplift area factor
Value of C Suggested by
0.25 to 0.40 Henry
1.00 Maurice Levy
0.95-1.00 Terzaghi
As such the present practice followed in the design of dams is that the uplift pressure is assumed to act
over 100 percent of the area with in the body of the dam as well as its foundation. Hence, under all
conditions, the value C = 1.00 is recommended.
4-Silt pressure:
Some rivers carry very heavy silt load in seasons which changes the density of the reservoir. The gradual
accumulation of fine sediment, notably silt, will generates a resultant horizontal force, F s. The magnitude of this
force in additional to water load, F WH, is a function of the sediment depth, hs, the submerged unit weight, γsilt, and
the active pressure coefficient, Ka, and is determined according to Rankine‟s formula.
- 28 -
Fig. Calculation of Silt (sediment) Forces
P Sv1   Silt * V1, 2, 4,5,1

P Sv2   Silt * V2,3, 4, 2
P Sh  (1 / 2) Silt * hs2 * [(1  sin  ) /(1  sin  )]
Where:
hs=height of silt
γs=submerged unit weight of silt materials
1  sin 
Ka   (  Angle of internal friction of material)
1  sin 
5-Wave Pressure:
The result of continuing wind is causing one end of the reservoir to be at a higher level and cause wave
exerts pressure on the upstream face. This pressure force, Fwv depends on fetch (extent of the water surface on
which the water blows) and wind velocity. It is of relatively small magnitude and, by its nature, random and local
in its influence. According to Molitor the following formula could be used to determine the rise in water level, hw
hw  0.032 V .F  0.763  0.274 F for F  32km

hw  0.032 V .F for F 32km
Where:
hw: height of the wave (m).
V: wind velocity (km/hr).
F: straight length of water expanse (km).
Calculations for a large reservoir in which the fetch is 38km would indicate the following values:
Return Period (years) Wind Speed ((km/h) Set-up (m)

1000 160 0.75
100 125 0.45
10 95 0.26
5 88 0.22
2 77 0.17
- 29 -
Note:-
1- For hw calculation take V= 120 km/h in the case of N.P.L. and take V = 80 km/h in the case of
M.P.L.
2- Select the hw which give the higher reduced level of the top crest of the dam.
3- Freeboard:
 Freeboard shall ≥ 1.5hw (hw = wave height),
 For modern practice the freeboard should be at least 3% to 4% of the height of dam.
 It shall not be less than 1m. above M.P.L.
 Freeboard shall ≥ wind setup (S) + 4/3hw, where
V 2F
S
62000 D
Where
hw wave height in meter.
S wind setup in meter, (fig.).
F fetch in km.
V the wind speed measured at a height of 10 m from the surface (km/h).
D average water depth over the fetch in meter.
4-The Wave force can be calculated by the following equation:
Fw  2hw2 For 1m width, force in kN
Fw=wave pressure force. This force acts at a distance (3hw/8) above the reservoir water surface.
Example: A reservoir is oval shaped with a length of 20 km and a width of 10 km. If the wind blows in a
direction lengthwise to the reservoir with a velocity of 130 km/h, what will be the setup of the average
water depth of the reservoir is 10 m?
Sol:
V 2F 130 2 * 20
S   0.55m
62000 D 6200 *10
Example: Calculate the wind set-up and wave height for a reservoir with 8 km fetch length. The average
reservoir depth is 15 m. The wind velocity is V = 100 km/h. If the upstream of the dam is vertical, what
will be the minimum freeboard to be given?
- 30 -
Sol:
V 2F 100 2 * 8
The wind set-up is, S    0.09m
62000 D 62000 *15
The wave height,
hw  0.032 V .F  0.763  0.27 4 F
hw  0.032 100 * 8  0.763  0.27 4 8  1.21m
4
H freeboard  S  hw  0.09  1.61  0.5 safty  2.3m  3m
3
Fig. Calculation of Wave Pressure Forces
6-Wind Pressure
Generally, the wind pressure is not significant for the design of gravity dams and is therefore neglected.
However, the superstructure of dams carrying very large gates may be subjected to high wind pressure,
which should be considered in the design (0.1 t/m2 to 0.15 t/m2 ).
7-Ice Pressure
At high attitudes and in the cold climates, ice is formed in the reservoir and the reservoir surface gets
covered with a sheet of ice. Subsequently, when the temperature of atmosphere rises, ice sheets expands
and causes a thrust on the dam. The magnitude of the ice thrust (force) depends on: -
 Thickness of the ice sheet is usually not more than 1 m, but in some sub-zero regions, it may be
even 2m or more.
 Restrains of rim walls depends upon the rigidity of the rim walls of the reservoir.
 U/S slope of the dam
 Rate of rise of temperature thrust increase with temperature rise increasing.
The coefficient of thermal expansion of ice is being five times more than that of concrete. The ice force
acts linearly along the length of the dam at the reservoir level.
The average value of (5kg/cm 2) or (50 ton/m2) may be taken as an ice force.
- 31 -
8-Earth Quake Force:

An earthquake produces seismic waves which set the earths crust into a state of vibration. These waves
impart a momentary acceleration (sudden movement) to the earth‟s crust (ground under the dam). The
dam must also move with it to avoid rupture. This leads to inertia forces in the dam and the water in the
reservoir.
The earthquake wave may travel at any inclination through the foundation of the dam. It is more
convenient to consider the components of acceleration in the vertical and horizontal direction.
Inertia forces:
Dynamic loads resulted from seismic disturbances must be considered in the design of all major dams
situated in recognized seismic “high risk” regions and dams located where sites in close proximity to
potentially active geological fault complexes.
Seismic force depends on complex oscillating patterns of accelerations and ground motions, which
generated transient dynamic loads by the inertia of the dam and the retained body of water. For design
purposes both should be considered operative in the sense least favorable to stability of the dam.
Horizontal accelerations are therefore assumed to operate normal to the axis of the dam. Under reservoir
full conditions the most adverse seismic loading will then occur when a ground shock is associated with:
1. Horizontal foundation acceleration operating upstream, and
2. Vertical foundation acceleration operating downward
Direction of ground acceleration and the respective horizontal earthquake force on gravity dam
The inertia force always acts opposite to the direction of earthquake acceleration. It is expressed as
F = m * acceleration
But m = (W/g) and acceleration a = α g

Where α is seismic coefficient, W = weight of dam or water in reservoir, g = gravity. Thus
- 32 -
F = (W/g) * α g = α W
I-) Inertia forces in the dam
1- Vertical inertia force……….. Fv = αv W(dam)
2- Horizontal inertia force…….. Fh = αh W(dam)
II-) Inertia force in the water
There are three models for calculation of inertial force in the water body,
Model 1: The horizontal acceleration (Hydrodynamic Pressure) of the dam and foundation toward the
reservoir causes a momentary increasing in the water pressure. The increasing in water pressure (Pe) and
force are given by:
Pe  0.55K h H
Fe  0.55K h H 2
Where:
Kh=Earth quake coefficient in horizontal acceleration.
H= upstream water depth.
This force acts at a distance (4H/3π) above the bed level of the dam.
Model 2: Zanger in 1952 gave the formula for computing the hydrodynamic pressure (P ey). In that
formula the intensity of hydrodynamic pressure distribution is assumed to be elliptical –cum- parabolic.
According to that formula the hydrodynamic pressure at the depth of y is, (fig.):
- 33 -
Pey= C αh γw H
Where C = depends upon the slopes (U/S & d/S) and depth of the reservoir, it can be obtained as follows:
cm  y y y y 
C  ( 2  )  ( 2  ) * 0.5
2 H H H H 
Where Cm = maximum value of c. It can be obtained from a chart or it can be approximately obtained
from the relation,
o
cm  0.735(1  )
90
Where Ø = angle in degree which the u/s or d/s face makes with vertical
y = Depth of the point under consideration from the reservoir water surface.
H = Depth of headwater
If the u/s face is partly vertical and partly sloping, Øu can be obtained as follow: -
If h ≥ (H/2)……… take Øu = 0
If h ≤ (H/2)……… take Øu = Øm
The total force on the portion of the dam up to depth y from top is given by
Fey = 0.726 Pey y
- 34 -
The moment about the plane up to which force is taken, is given by

Me = 0.299 Pey y2
Model 3: As analyzed by Westerguard(1993), fig.
Py  k  h  w H . y
2
Fewy   h  w y H . y k 
3
Where k” = earthquake factor for the water body
0.816
k  
H 2
1  7.75( )
1000T
Where: T = period of earthquake

γw = in tone/m3
H, y in meters
The force acts at 0.4y from the dam joint being considered.
For inclined upstream face of dam
Py  k  h  w H .y cos 
Where Φ is the angle the face makes with the vertical.

The resultant vertical hydrodynamic load, F ewv, effective above an upstream face batter or flare may be accounted
for by application of the appropriate seismic coefficient to vertical water load. It is considered to act through the
centroid of the area.
Few y   v Fv (Fv = W(water))

Where W(water)= Weight of the water on the slope of the dam in both side [d/s & u/s (if any)].
Uplift load is normally assumed to be unaltered by seismic shock.
- 35 -
Load combination for Design
The design of a gravity dam is based on the most adverse combination of the loads/forces acting on it, which
includes only those loads having a reasonable probability of simultaneous occurrence. The combination of transient
loads such as those due to maximum flood and earthquake are not considered because the probability of occurrence
of each of these phenomena is quite low and hence the probability of their simultaneous occurrence is almost
negligible. Thus for the design of gravity dams according to Indian Standard is specified as the following load
combination:
I. Load combination A (construction condition or empty reservoir condition): Dam completed but no water in the
reservoir and no tail water.
II. Load combination B (Normal operating condition): Full reservoir elevation (or top of gates at crest), normal dry
weather tail water, normal uplift, ice and uplift (if applicable)
III. Load combination C (Flood Discharge condition): Reservoir at maximum flood pool elevation, all gates open,
tail water at flood elevation, normal uplift, and silt (if applicable)
IV. Load combination D - Combination A, with earthquake.
V. Load combination E - Combination A, with earthquake but no ice
VI. Load Combination F - Combination C, but with extreme uplift (drain inoperative)
VII. Load Combination G - Combination E, but with extreme uplift (drain inoperative)
Depending upon the scope and details of the various project components, site conditions and construction
programme one or more of the following loading conditions may be applicable and may need suitable
modifications. The seven types of load combinations are as follows:
1. Load combination A (construction condition): Dam completed but no water in reservoir or tailwater
2. Load combination B (normal operating conditions): Full reservoir elevation, normal dry weather tail water,
normal uplift, ice and silt (if applicable)
3. Load combination C: (Flood discharge condition) - Reservoir at maximum flood pool elevation ,all gates open,
tailwater at flood elevation, normal uplift, and silt (if applicable)
4. Load combination D: Combination of A and earthquake
5. Load combination E: Combination B, with earthquake but no ice
6. Load combination F: Combination C, but with extreme uplift, assuming the drainage holes to be Inoperative
7. Load combination G: Combination E but with extreme uplift (drains inoperative)
It would be useful to explain in a bit more detail the different loadings and the methods required to calculate them.
These are explained in the following sections.
Reaction of the foundation

The foundation should provide the required reaction to the resultant force for the dam to be stable.
- 36 -
Zone α
I 0.01
II 0.02
III 0.04
IV 0.05
V 0.08
Loading and Factor of Safety - Dynamic Loading:

The Earth's crust is in a state of stress. When the stress is great enough, and the crust is weak enough,
adjustments may occur. These adjustments will release energy in the form of shock waves, propagated
from an epicenter. These waves will vary in wavelength and frequency. Short-period waves have
predominant frequencies within the range of natural frequencies for dams; they are apt to produce
conditions of resonance in the dam. Engineers are therefore more concerned with the possibility of
moderate earthquakes occurring within 80 to 120 km of the dam than larger earthquakes occurring outside
this limit. For gravity dams a horizontal coefficient is adopted and applied as an additional static load. In
October 1969 the Committee on Earthquakes of the International Commission on Large Dams (ICOLD)
summarized 1969 practice:
 Design- For gravity dams a horizontal coefficient was generally adopted and applied as an
additional static load. Vertical effects were taken into account in very few circumstances and
dynamic analysis was used by very few.
 Zoning - Many countries were adopting the principle of seismic zoning.
 Seismic Coefficients - A coefficient of from 0.1 to 0.2 was commonly used.
 Seismic Waves - Analyses had been made by applying sinusoidal or modified earthquake records -
but actual earthquake records had only been applied in rare cases for dynamic analyses.
 Properties of Materials - Different mechanical properties of various materials when subjected to
static and dynamic loading.
- 37 -
 Allowable Stresses - In many cases the permissible compressive stress under dynamic loading was
increased by up to 30% above the permissible static stress.
 Models - These were popular for arch dams and were used for some gravity dams.
 Seismographs - In a majority of large dams seismographs were used.
Other loads on the Dam
Thermal Effects - Concrete dams will be subject to loading from temperature variation within the dam
caused by hydration of the cement and due to seasonal variations. Water as depth doesn't vary, but
towards the surface it varies with season. A skew loading is used to describe solar and air temperature
effects.
Construction Loads - Concrete dams of cupola and buttress shape offer good resistance to water loading
when complete but during construction it is necessary to control the rate of construction and to include
reinforcement in overhanging sections.
Hydrostatic Loading within the Foundation or Abutment - Faults, cracks and joints are present in most
damsites. Forces due to a large dam may cause cracks to appear in the rock upstream from the dam, this
may cause jacking loads that could cause failure. To avoid this, careful surveys should be made of the
orientation and inclination of faults, joints and cracks.
Tectonic Forces - Besides seismic effects, there may be significant tectonic forces on the Earth's crust at
the site and these may be upset by deep excavation or saturation due to the filling of the reservoir.
Failure and Criteria for Structural Stability of Concrete Gravity Dam:
The gravity dam must be designed such that it is safe against all possible modes of failure. There are four
failure modes: -
1- Sliding Failure
2- Overturning Failure
3- Tension Failure
4- Crushing (or Compression) Failure
1- Sliding Failure
 a-Sliding When Shear Is Neglected

The sliding occurs when the dam slides over its base or when a part of the dam lying above any horizontal
plane slides over that plane. In the other words, sliding will occur when the net horizontal force at the
base of the dam exceeds the frictional resistance developed at that level. For this failure the following
criteria should be checked.
F .S Sliding 
 FH  tan  
 FV
Or
 ( FV )
F .S Sliding  1
 FH
- 38 -
Where:
∑Fv: is the summation of all vertical force components acting on the dam.
∑FH: is the summation of all horizontal force components acting on the dam.
μ: is the coefficient of friction between the dam base and the foundation, (ordinarily 0.4<μ>0.75).
θ is the angle which the resultant force makes with vertical.
Note: - In the both above criteria, only friction is considered.
Surface μ
Masonry on masonry or masonry on good rock or concrete on concrete 0.75
Concrete or masonry on gravel 0.5
Concrete or masonry on sand 0.4
Concrete or masonry on clay 0.3
 b-Sliding when shear is considered
The total friction resistance to sliding on any joint plus the ultimate shearing strength of the joint must exceed the
total horizontal force above the joint by a safe margin, i.e.
 ( FV )  bq   FH
Or Shear Friction Factor (S.F.F.) greater than 1
 ( FV )  bq
S .F .F  1
F H
Where
b = Width of the dam at the horizontal section under consideration (cross-section area of the joint).
At the base of the dam it is equal to B
q = Average shear strength of material at the horizontal section.
To improve the resistance of the dam against sliding we can use the Keys.
The keys (or keyways): are the parts of the dam built into the foundation to add resistance against dam
sliding.
 ( FV )  As s
F .S Sliding  1
 FH
 s : is the shear stress strength of keys,
- 39 -
As : is the total shear area provided by the keys.
Important Notes:
Note: -
1- q = For a good rock generally varies from 1.4 to 5 Mpa.
For concrete usually taken as (1/4) of the crushing
strength.
For preliminary design of gravity dam generally a
value of 1.4 Mpa is taken.
2- As per USBR recommendations: -
S.F.F. ≥ 5 under normal condition.

S.F.F. ≥ 4 under unusual (extreme) condition.
For dams higher than 150 m, the S.F.F. is taken as follow: -
S.F.F. ≥ 4 under normal condition.
S.F.F. ≥ 3 under unusual (extreme) condition.
3- In S.F. both friction and shear strength of the materials are
considered.
4- If F.S.S. is less than unity, it does not mean that the dam will fail due to sliding. In that case, the
S.F.F. should be determined. If the S.F.F. is within the safe limit, the dam is considered to be safe
against sliding. In the other words, while analyzing resistance to sliding, first compute tanΦ and if tanΦ > μ
apply b. In that case, S.F.F should equal or exceed the allowable value
 Overturning:
If the resultant of all forces acting on a dam at any section of its section passed out side the toe, the dam
shall rotates and overturning about the toe, the factor of safety against overturning is defined by the ratio
- 40 -
of the resisting moments (counterclockwise moments about the toe) to the overturning moments
(clockwise moments about the toe)
W .l w  ( FHS ) v .l v
F .S overturning  2
 FH .YH  Fu .lu
Where:
(FHS)v is the vertical components of the hydrostatic force, and lw, lv, and lu are the horizontal distance
from the toe to the lines of action of the weight, the vertical components of hydrostatic force, and the
uplifting force, respectively. YH is the vertical distance measured from the toe to the lines of action of
each respective horizontal force component (FH) acting on the upstream face of the dam.
 Compression or Crushing:
A dam may fail by the failure of its materials, the compression stress produced may be exceeding
allowable stress and dam materials may get crushed. We may assume that the vertical pressure on the
foundation is a linear distribution between the toe and heel as shown in fig. if we let Rv represent the
resultant of all vertical forces acting on the base of the dam and PT and PH represent the resulting
foundation pressure (stress) at the toe and heel, respectively, we may write:
- 41 -
( PT  PH )
Rv  .B
2
By equating moments (vertical forces only) about the centre line
( PT  PH ) B
Rv  e  [ .B].( )
2 6
Solving these two equations simultaneously, we have
Rv 6e
PT  ( )(1  )
B B
Rv 6e
PH  ( )(1  )
B B
The vertical resultant normally acts through a point on the downstream side of the base centreline.
Therefore; PT is usually the critical pressure in design. The value of PT must be kept less than the
allowable stress of foundation.
PT < Allowable stress of foundation
 Tension
No tension in any joint of the dam under all loading conditions (i.e. for full and empty reservoir). Thus,
resultant of all forces (including uplift) must intersect the joint within the middle third. The pressure at the
heel in the above equations, PH , is less important. Nevertheless, it is desirable to keep PH a positive value
at all time to prevent tension cracks from developing in the heel region. Negative pressure indicates
tension, and masonry materials have very low resistance to tension stress. A positive PH value can be
ensured if the vertical resultant force, Rv, is kept within the middle third of the base or
B
e
6
The value of e can be found by using the principle of moments. That is, the moment produced by the
individual vertical force components about the centre line is equal to the moment produced by Rv.
Notes: -
Tension crack by itself does not cause failure of the dam but it leads to the failure of the dam by
crushing or by overturning.
- 42 -
Maximum vertical stresses are not the maximum stresses in the structure. The maximum stresses occur at the end
joints, or inclined planes, normal to the face of the dam.
Maximum stress for downstream face, reservoir full:
 max  PT (1  tan 2 2 )
Maximum stress for upstream face, reservoir full
 max  PH (1  tan 2 1 )
The inclined compressive stresses in the dam and foundation shall not exceed the allowable values.
Ultimate stress, σu = 14 to 31 MPa (after 28 days curing)

Working stress σw = σu /6
For foundation materials some indications for allowable stress are:

Limestone -------------200 to 350 t/m3
Granite -------------250 to 300t/m3
Design Concepts and Criteria

A gravity dam shall be:
 Safe against overturning at any horizontal plane within the dam.
 Safe against sliding at any horizontal place within the dam.
 So proportioned that the allowable stresses in both the concrete and the foundation shall not be
exceeded.
- 43 -
Principals & Shear Stresses: -

Principal Stresses
Below the water surface both U/S and D/S faces are principal plains because there is no any shear forces
on them. So, the hydrostatic pressures on those planes are principle stresses (it may be major or minor
stresses).
According to the principle of principal planes, any plane which is perpendicular to principal plane is also
principal plane. Thus any plane perpendicular to U/S or D/S face is principal plane and will cross the dam
body. To obtain the safe dam against crushing failure, major stress on that plane must be calculated and
compared to the strength of the dam material.
Note:- For toe the major principal stress (σ1D) will occurs at reservoir full condition while the major
principal stress at the heel (σ1U)will occurs at reservoir empty condition.
By force equilibrium principles from both triangular prisms, which are very small and approaches zero in
volume, the principal stresses on both planes of BC and B- C- can be calculated which are:
 1D   VT sec 2  D  ( P  PeH ) tan 2  D

 1U   VH sec 2 U  ( P  PeH ) tan 2 U
Where:
 =Hydrodynamic pressure at toe (y = H-)
PeH
PeH =Hydrodynamic pressure at heel (y = H)
Again from both triangular prisms, by force equilibrium principles, the equation of shear stresses on both
planes of AB and A- B- can be calculated which are:
 D  [ VT  ( P  Pe)] tan  D
 U  [ VH  ( P  Pe)] tan U
- 44 -
Where:
τD = shear stress at toe and
τU= shear stress at heel.
Notes:
1. The larger shear stress should be checked with the shear strength of the dam material.
2. (-) sign indicate that the direction of shear stress is towards the D/S in the reservoir empty
condition.
Design of the Profile of the Dam Depending on the Profile of Elementary Profile:
The elementary profile of dam section takes the shape of water pressure distribution. When the reservoir
full, the base width is governed by:
1- No Tension at the Heel:

Moment about the outer middle third point =0 where the resultant should pass for no tension.
H
B
Ss 1
B=Base width, H= Max. depth of water in the Reservoir, Ss=specific weight of dam material.
If there is no uplift
H
B
Ss
2-No Sliding
H
B
 ( S s  1)
The frictional resistance µ∑V should be equal to ∑H. For no uplift
B=H/μSs .................................(2b)
Note: the value of B is the greater of the two values of eqs. (1) and (2).
-High and Low Gravity Dam

The principal stresses calculated for an elementary profile is given by
   w H (S s  c  1)
C=cohesion of soil
So the principal stress varies only with H. To avoid dam failure by crushing the value of σ should be less
than the compressive strength (f in t/m2) of dam material. When uplift is neglected
f
H
 w ( S s  1)
- 45 -
If the height of a dam having an elementary profile of triangle, is more than that given by eq (4) the
maximum compressive stress will exceed the allowable value. In order to keep it safe, extra slope on the
u/s and d/s below the limiting height will be required as shown below:
If =300 t/m2 , h=300/1(2.4+1)=88 m
b-) Top Width

1- Most economical top width (without earthquake consideration) is about (0.14*H), where H is the dam
height.
2- In practices, a road is usually provided at the top of the dam for which a min. width of 6 to 7m is
usually recommended.
c-) U/S & D/S Slopes.

1- For d/s slope from practical view of point take 1V: 0.7H as the min. d/s slope.
2- For u/s slope it depends on stability of the dam. Ranges from 5V: 1H to 25V: 1 H.
Application
Example: Compare between the base width and volume of concrete in the unit thickness for 120m dam
height for weight and belt-weight type. The basin water pressure reduction factor at the dam is 0.8
and  c  24kN / m 3
Sol:
 24 H 120
Sc  c   2.4 B   95m V  0.5 * 95 *120  5700m3
 w 10 S s  0.8 1.6
For belt-weight
H 120
B   78m  V  0.5 * 78 *120  4680m 3
Ss 2.4
Decrease in volume= (5700-4680)/5700=18%
Selecting belt-weight instead of weight will reduce the concrete volume by 18%. This choice can only be
made when the slopes are sufficiently strong.
- 46 -
Example (1) for the gravity dam in fig., the geotechnical report refers to the bearing capacity of soil
under foundation is 150kN/m2, check if the section satisfy this requirement or not? Assume free board is
4m; consider the weight, hydrostatic force, earth quake coefficient 0.1g, and water pressure. Neglect all
other forces
Example (2): A hydrologic study for a gravity dam in fig. suggest the maximum depth of water in the
dam reservoir about 30m, the speed of wind is 15km/hr, the length of fetch is 35km, from the soil
investigation the allowable stress on the soil foundation is 150 kN/m2, and the design acceleration
coefficient of the earth quake is (Kh= 0.1 Earth quake coefficient in horizontal acceleration ), assume full
uplift, μ=0.74 and neglect sediment, ice, and wave forces, determine:
1. Free board,
2. Stability against sliding,
3. Stability against overturning,
4. Stress on foundation, it is safe or not.
Example (3): Typical force ratios for a gravity dam are about 2 for overturning and 1.2 to 1.5 for sliding.
Determine if these requirements are met on the dam in fig., assume a coefficient of friction of 0.7, a
- 47 -
specific gravity for concrete of 2.4, full uplift forces on the dam base, and neglect earthquake and
sedimentation force, (free board is 1m)?
Example (4): Determine the foundation pressure at the heel and toe of the dam in example (3)?
Example (5): For the concrete, gravity dam in fig., compute the foundation bearing pressure at the heel
and toe. Assume that the uplift force takes a triangular distribution with maximum magnitude one-third
that of the hydrostatic pressure at the heel and zero at the toe. The reservoir is full to its designed
elevation with 3m freeboard, and the masonry has a specific gravity of 2.65?
Example (6): Check the dam in example (5), for stability against overturning and sliding if the coefficient
of friction between the dam base and the foundation is 0.65?
Example: Design a non-overflow gravity dam by the Single-step method using the following data.
tem Value Item Value

Hmax (depth of headwater) 45 m f (friction factor) 0.75
he ( spillway crest to MWL) 3m sa (Shear strength) 4.5 MPa
Tail water None ssf (Shear safety factor) 5
Top width 7.5 ζ (Uplift factor) 0.5
ᵞc (concrete Specific unit weight) 22 MPa C (uplift area factor) 1
ᵞ (water specific unit weight)

w 10 MPa σc‟ (concrete ultimate strength) 30 MPa
Earthquake small F (Fetch length) 5 km
silt pressure Ignore V (Wind Velocity) 128 km/hr
- 48 -
Solution
Determine the wave height by the empirical equations
hw  0.032 V .F  0.763  0.274 F

hw  0.032 128 * 5  0.763  0.27 4 5  1.17m
Rise of water wave  1.33hw
 1.56m
With an allowance of 0.14m, free board=1.7m
FWV  2 w hw2
 2 *10 *1.17 2 level.
 27.4kN / m
Point of application=3/8 * 1.17=0.44m above still water
- 49 -
Check for sliding

H  tan  
10152.4
 0.710.75 Friction alone is sufficient!
V 14383.88
Check Stresses for Reservoir empty
PH , PT 
W [1  6e ]  17997.38  6 * 5.71]  1045.1,0
B B 34.37 34.37
PH  1045.1...................PT  0
 max  PH (1  tan 2  2 )  1045.1(1  0.0332 )  1046.3kPa

PH , max  rock,all  4000kPa  safe
Check Stresses for Reservoir full
PT , PH 
W [1  6e ]  14383.88  6 * 4.75 ]  757.7,70.88
B B 34.37 34.37
PT  757.7..................PH  70.88
 max  PT (1  tan 2  2 )  757.7(1  1.327 2 )  2092kPa
PH , max  rock,all  4000kPa  safe
Example: for the gravity dam in fig.(), the unit weight of water,  w , is taken as 10 m3/s,  c  24kN / m 3
unit shear resistance, c=600kN/m2; angle of shearing resistance, Φc=35°,Sediment: friction angle,
Φs=30°; submerged unit weight:  s  15kN / m 3 , analyze the stability of the profile with respect to plane
X–X using shear friction factor, SFF, for sliding stability, and determine the vertical normal stresses and
major principal stresses at either face.
- 50 -
1  sin  1  sin 30
Full uplift applies as no drains are operative. The sediment load, Ka    0.33
1  sin  1  sin 30
FO 
M 

28296
 1.22 (Low but acceptable)
M 
23110
 ( FV )  bq 0.7(2328)  12 * 600
S .F .F    4.22 (Acceptable)
F H 2090
- 51 -
e
M *
 1.18m i.e. e lies downstream of the centroid.

V
Rv 6e 3528 6 * 1.18
PT , H  ( )(1  )  (1  )
B B 12 12
H  30kN / m 2 ......... T  560kN / m 2
Major Principal Stresses are

 max  PT (1  tan 2  2 )  560(1  0.25)  700kN / m 2
 max  PH (1  tan 2  2 )  30(1  0)  30kN / m 2
Example: The overturning stability factor of the dam in worked example above is to be revised to
FO=1.6 to improve the stress distribution and obviate cracking. The foundation is unable to take pre-
stressing anchorage loads, and a downstream supporting shoulder of compacted rock-fill is to be added as
suggested in Fig. Determine the height of rock-fill shoulder required. (Compacted rock-fill. Unit
weight,  r  19kN / m 3 ; coefficient, K0 (estimated)=0.60.
FO 
M 
 1.6
M 
∑M+ required from shoulder= (1.6*23110)-28296=8680
- 52 -
K 0 *  r * h 2 h  r h (0.5h) 2
FO  *  *  8680
2 3 2 3
8680
0.141h 3   14.8m  h  15m
19
- 53 -
Concrete Arch Dam

It is a dam curved in plan which carries a major part of the water load horizontally to the abutments by
arch action. The remainder of the water load is transferred to the foundation by cantilever action, as in the
case of a gravity dam.
It is usually a high dam built in relatively narrow rock canyon sections. The efficiency of using material
strength rather than bulk (resulting in a very slender cross section compared to a gravity dam) make the
arch dam the best choice in many situations.
Arch dams are usually built in narrow, deep gorges in mountainous regions where access and availability
of construction materials pose especially acute problems.
The ultimate complexity of design and analysis of stresses is attained in arch and dome dams. These dams
are thin, curved structures commonly containing reinforcement, either steel rods or prestressed steel
cables the volume of concrete required is much less than for gravity and gravity arch dams, but the
competency of bedrock in foundations and abutments to sustain or resist loads must be of a high order.
- 54 -
Advantages
 An arch dam requires less concrete as compared to a gravity dam as the section is thinner.
 Arch dams are more suited to narrow, V-shaped valley, having very steep slopes.
 Uplift pressure is not an important factor in the design of an arch dam because the arch dam has
less width and the reduction in weight due to uplift does not affect the stability.
 An arch dam can be constructed on a relatively less strong foundation because a small part of load
is transferred to base, whereas in a gravity dam full load is transferred to base.
Limitations
 An arch dam requires good rock in the flanks (abutments) to resist the thrust. If the abutments
yield, extra stresses develop which may cause failure.
 The arch dam requires sophisticated formwork, more skilled labor and richer concrete.
 The arch dam cannot be constructed in very cold climates because spalling of concrete occurs due
to alternate freezing and thawing.
 The arch dams are more prone to sabotage.
 The speed of construction is relatively slow.
Types of Arch Dams
1- Single –Curvature arch dams Constant-radius arch dams.

Constant-angle arch dams.
Variable-radius arch dams.
Constant radius arch dams (variable centre) - commonly have a vertical upstream face with a constant
radius of curvature
Variable radius dams (constant-angle) - have upstream and downstream curves (extrados and intrados
curves) of systematically decreasing radii with depth below the crest.
- 55 -
 The variable-centre dam is best adapted to V-shaped canyons since arch action can be depended
on all elevations.
 The constant-centre dam is sometimes proffered for U-shaped canyons as cantilever action will
carry a large portion of the load at the lower level.
The cantilevers are actually trapezoidal in cross section, and their deflection includes that due to shearing
action as well as bending. Deflection of arch ribs is caused mainly by the water load but is also greatly
affected by temperature changes. Shrinkage and plastic flow of the concrete must also be considered.
Yielding of the foundation or abutments affects the structural behavior of arch dam. If the foundation
yields relatively more than the abutment, cantilever action is suppressed, while if the boundary conditions
are reversed, arch action plays a lesser role.
Analysis assumes that two major kinds of deflections or dislocations affect the dam and its abutments.
Pressure of water on the upstream face of the dam and uplift pressures from seepage beneath the dam tend
to rotate the dam about its base by cantilever action. In addition the pressure of reservoir water tends to
flatten the arch and push it downstream.
- 56 -
I. Constant radius arch dams

For U-shaped valleys
Have vertical US face
Constant extrados radii for U-shaped valley
Suitable to install gates at the US face
II. Constant angle arch dams

For V-shaped valleys
Have curved US face
No possibility for gate installment
2-Double–Curvature arch dams (or Cupola arch or shell arch dam).
(Katse Double Curvature Concrete Arch Dam-185m height- 710m along the Crest. Started from February
1990 and completed in May 1997---- South Africa).
- 57 -
3- Arch gravity dams.
(Hoover Arch-Gravity Dam 221m height- 379m Crest length- 201m thick at the base and about 14m thick
at the Crest (Top width-Roadway) Highest concrete arch dam in USA)
Classification According to Crest Chord-Height Ratio
The ratio of crest length to dam height is recommended not to exceed five. To determine the site suitability for an
arch dam the following equation of canyon shape factor (CSF) is proposed:
B  H (sec 1  sec  2 )
CSF 
H
Some references refer to this factor as Crest Chord-Height Ratio CHR. Usual values of CSF or CHR are
from 2 to 5. The lower the CSF value the thinner the section.
- 58 -
1-Thin Arch Dams
 Thin arch dams require valleys to have a crest chord-height ratio of fewer than 3, with a radius of
less than 150m.
 The pressure exerted on the valley sides is between 5.5 - 8 MPa
 Where there is a vertical radius of curvature as well as a horizontal, this is known as a cupola or
dome type.
 Used where cement is expensive and labors is cheap.
2-Thick Arch Dams
 The thick arch dam can be built where the crest chord-height ratio is between 3 and 5.
 The chief geological criterion is that the rock must be absolutely reliable to bear 3.5 MPa or more
without any appreciable settlement.
 A substantial saving in material compared with that of gravity dams.
 Thick arch dams are difficult to design on paper but are well determined from trials on models.
Definition of different arch dams based on base thickness (h is height of the dam):
- 59 -
Thin arch <0.2h

Medium arch 0.2h - 0.3h
Thick arch >0.3h
Arch-gravity >0.5h
3-Multiple Arch Dams

 The multiple arch concrete dam is a variety of buttress dam.
 The chief geological criterion is that the rock must be absolutely reliable to bear 2-3 MPa or more
without any appreciable settlement (<8mm)
 There is some saving in concrete compared with buttress dams.
 In respect of uplift, corrosion and economy the two types are very similar.
Simplified Design of Arch Dams
Thin Cylinder Theory
In this theory, it is assumed that the horizontal section of the arch dam is a part of thin cylinder of the
same radius, and the entire water load (hydrostatic pressure) is carried horizontally by the arch action
(cantilever action is absent). Because the cylindrical element is assumed to be thin, the stress distribution
across the thickness is uniform.
- 60 -
The total hydrostatic pressure force (PH), is

PH = P * {2re sin(θ/2)}
= γw h * {2re sin(θ/2)}
= 2γw h re sin(θ/2)
Where
PH= Intensity of pressure * Projected area normal to
the direction of PH .
re = Extrados radius of the arch ring.
θ = Central Angle of the dam.
P = Intensity of water pressure.
h = Depth of headwater from the reservoir water surface.
The PH is resisted by the reaction at the abutments (R). Therefore, from the equilibrium in the u/s
direction: -
2R sin (θ/2) = 2γw h re sin(θ/2)
Or R   w hre ……………..(1)
The transverse unit stress
But R = Stress *Area = f * t * 1
Or R=f*t ……………..(2)
Where f = compression stress developed in the arch ring and
t = thickness of the arch ring.
Substitute eqn.(2) in eqn.(1),
 w hre
f  …………..(3)
t
- 61 -
For safe design of the arch ring, the compressive stress (f) should not exceed the allowable stress (fa) in
compression for the material of the arch ring. Thus
 w hre
fa 
t
 w hre
or t ……………………………..(4)
fa
Note: the hydrostatic pressure ᵞwh may be increased by earth quake and other pressure forces where applicable:
Since re  rc  0.5t and re  ri  t
 w hrc
or t …………………………(5)
f a  0.5 w h
 w hri
or t ……………………………(6)
fa   wh
Where
rc = mean radius of the arch ring.
ri = intrados radius of the arch ring.
Equation (6), indicates that the thickness of the ribs should increase linearly with distance below the water
surface and that for a given water pressure the required thickness is proportional to the radius of
curvature.
The volume of concrete required for a single arch rib (see fig. above) across a canyon of width B is
V  rA
A is the cross sectional area of the rib and θ is the central angle in radians. Since t is proportional to r,
A=kr and
V  kr 2
From trigonometry r=B/2 sin θ/2 and
B
V  k( )2
2 sin  / 2
Differentiating last equation with respect to θ and equating to zero gives θ=133 o34- , and r = 0.544B for a
rib of minimum volume. This is a reason why a constant-angle dam can be designed to require less
concrete than a constant-centre dam
Notes:-
1- This method is quite approximate and it can be used for small dam.
2- It is quite useful for the preliminary design of the arch dams (small, intermediate, and large).
Displacement in an arch ring:

rm
   all
E
E = Concrete elasticity modulus
rm = Radius from ring axis
- 62 -
For the relation between center angle (2υ), beam length (L) & arch radius (r):
L
r
2 sin 
Arch stress analysis: elastic ring theory

Elastic analysis based on the application of classical ring theory is adequate for the initial study of simple
single-curvature arch dams of modest height. The approach is therefore appropriate to the preliminary
analysis of constant-radius profiles. The more complex geometry of the constant angle profile makes it
much less suitable for analysis by this method. Ring theory is not applicable to cupola profiles.
The ring theories consider water load only, self-weight stresses being determined separately and
superimposed if significant to the analysis. Uplift load is not regarded as significant except for a thick
arch, and therefore may normally be neglected. For analytical purposes the dam is considered to be
subdivided into discrete horizontal arch elements, each of unit height, and the important element of
vertical cantilever action is thus neglected. The individual rings are then analyzed on the basis of the thick
ring or thin ring theories as considered most appropriate, and the horizontal tangential arch stresses
determined.
Thick ring stress analysis
The discrete horizontal arch elements are each assumed to form part of a complete ring subjected to
uniform external radial pressure, pw, from the water load. The compressive horizontal ring stress, σh, for
radius R is then given by
p (R 2  R 2 R 2 / R 2
 h  w u 2 u 2d
Ru  Rd
Where Ru and Rd are respectively the upstream and downstream face radii of the arch element
considered.
Ring stress σh has a maximum at the downstream face. Ring thickness tr, equal to Ru-Rd, is assumed
uniform at any elevation. For R=Rd, equation above may consequently be rewritten in terms of σhmax
with p w   w h thus
2 w hRu2
 h max 
t r ( Ru  Rd )
- 63 -
Thin ring stress analysis
If mean radius Rm is very large in comparison with t it may be assumed that Rm=Ru=Rd and,
consequently, that stress σh through the ring element is uniform. Equation above then simplifies to the
classical thin ring expression:
 hr
h  w e
t
In the upper reaches of a dam equations above agree closely, the difference diminishing to under 2%
when Ru / t  25 . Both variants of ring theory are inexact and of limited validity for two principal reasons.
First, the simplifying assumption of discrete, independent horizontal rings which are free of any mutual
interaction is clearly untenable. Secondly, the assumption of uniform radial deformation implicit in elastic
ring theory is similarly untenable because of restraint at the abutment, and also the fact that arch span will
marginally increase owing to elastic deformation of the abutment. Arch deflection will, in turn, reduce σh
near the crown and progressively increase σh as the abutments are approached.
In theory, arch thickness should therefore diminish towards the crown and increase close to the
abutments. In practice it is usual to maintain a uniform thickness at any elevation for a single-curvature
dam, and the maximum tangential stresses will therefore be those generated at either abutment.
Assuming that no abutment yielding occurs, an approximation of the maximum stress at the abutment can
be made by application of a correction factor, KR. In terms of thin ring theory, therefore, at the abutment
K  hr
h  R w e
t
Factor KR is a function of 2θ and of ratio Ru/t, and curves for KR are presented in Fig. below. It will be
noted that KR→1.0 for high values of 2θ, i.e. the solution tends to that of pure thin ring theory.
Factor of Safety - Concrete Arch Dams

The factor of safety for an arch dam is the ratio of the compressive strength of concrete to the maximum
calculated compressive stress in the dam. The compressive strength is usually referred to as the strength
of concrete at the age of 91 days when tested in 150 mm x 300 mm cylinders.
The design criterion adopted by the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation is for a factor of safety of 4 based on the
strength of concrete at 1 year. Except for extreme loading combinations the maximum compressive stress
is usually limited to 6.9 MPa.
- 64 -
An arch dam utilizes the strength of an arch to resist loads placed upon it by 'arch action'. The foundations
and abutments must be competent not only to support the dead weight of the dam on the foundation but
also the forces that are directed into the abutments because of arch action in response to the forces acting
on the dam. Therefore, the strength of the rock mass at the abutments and immediately downvalley of the
dam must be unquestionable and its modulus of elasticity must be high enough to ensure deformation
under thrust from the arch is not so great as to induce excessive stresses in the arch.
Steel reinforcement can reduce the thickness of the dam but at a cost. If reinforcement was not used then
cracking in the faces of an arch dam may result from:
 Excessive tensile stress due to dam geometry;

 Secondary tension resulting from high compressive forces in thin members;
 Secondary tensile stresses at the arch haunches and parallel to the abutments;
 'Hang up' of concrete adjacent to a near vertical abutment;
 Temperature effects - either due to hydration of the cement or climatic conditions.

Reinforcement is not generally required in arch-gravity dams or thick arch dams. Its use in thin arch
dams is favored, however for a 90m high dam the cost of reinforcement will be many millions of dollars,
which could mitigate the adoption of such a dam.
Uplift - is not usually of importance in thin arch dams, but in thick arch dams provision is made for
internal drainage, as for gravity dams. If the design assumes that the concrete will crack if tensions exceed
say 0.4MPa, then it is consistent to assume that full hydrostatic pressure can act in such cracks.
Tensile stresses - the aim of the designer is to eliminate tensile stresses, although this is not always
possible since an irregular cross-section can generate local stress concentrations, and necessary
excavation of abutments beyond the design limits will alter the geometry of the dam, and possibly affect
the degree of fixity.
Abutment Stability
In the rock body the following are involved:
 The weight of the rock;
 Static tectonic and dynamic seismic stresses;
- 65 -
 Hydrostatic thrusts and buoyancy after filling of the reservoir;

 Forces transmitted from the dam.
Minimum safety is usually found in the upper part of the double curvature dams because:
 The upper zones of the valley are less tight and earthquake forces here cause stronger reactions;
 The rock overburden is less - providing less normal loading on possible sliding planes;
 The direction of the resultant forces from the dam often meets the abutments at less favorable
angles.
Percolation of water under pressure may affect the strength of a rock abutment:
 Saturation frequently decreases the strength of rocks, probably due to infiltration of micro cracks;
 Natural rock stresses will be modified by the water pressure, and
 Shearing resistance may be decreased.
Example: A constant-radius cylindrical arch dam with a vertical upstream face is to be constructed in a
symmetrical valley. The idealized valley profile consists of a trapezoid with a base 50 m wide and sides at
45°. The base is at 100m AOD, the spillway crest at 140m AOD. Design flood level (DFL) will be 1.0 m
above the full length crest spillway, which has a structural thickness of 1.5 m. The maximum permitted
horizontal arch stress, assumed uniform through the arch thickness, is 2500kN/m2.
1. Select a suitable geometry in plan and determine the crest level arch stress under DFL conditions.
2. Determine a profile for the dam using thin-ring theory and, assuming that DFL loading applies,
calculate the thickness required at vertical intervals of 10m.
3. Confirm the upstream and downstream face stresses at mid-height in terms of thick-ring theory
and estimate the abutment stress.
Sol:
1-Select central subtended angle, 2θ=90 (range 70-110), r=65/sin45=92m
- 66 -
 w hre 10 *1 * 92
f    6100kN / m 2
t 1.5
2-
3-At level 120, with Ru=92m, RD=92-73=84.27 m

 hr 10 * 21 * 92
f  w e   2500kN / m 2
t 7.73
 hr   w ht 10 * 21 * 84.27  10 * 21 * 7.73
f  w i  
t 7.73
Applications
Example(1): A V-canyon supports a 35m height, constant-angle (120o) arch dam. If the canyon is 20m
wide at the top and 2m free board, determine the abutment reactions at height of 9m, 18m and 27m?
Example(2): On the basis of arch-rib analysis, design an arch dam 137m high to span 226m wide U-
shaped canyon. Use 3.5 MPa as allowable compressive stress in concrete? Assume free board is 3m
- 67 -
Example(3) : Design an arch dam 50m high for V-canyon shape. The width of the canyon at its bottom is
10m and the width at the top is 70m. The maximum compressive stress in the concrete is 4200kPa?
Example(4): A constant angle arch dam (θ=133o 34-) is designed to span a vertical-walled canyon 150m
wide. The height of the dam is 78m including 3m of freeboard. If the dam has 4m thickness at the crest
and has a symmetrical cross section that increases its thickness to 11.8m at the base, determine the
masonry stress in the dam, using the cylinder method (constant radius) for approximate analysis at:
1. the crest,
2. the midheight,
3. the dam base,
4. if the allowable stress is 6MPa, what is the F.S?
- 68 -
Design example
Design a 100m height constant radius arch dam, by the thin cylinder theory for a valley 100m wide at the base and
150m wide at a height of 100m σall = 4MPa.
Solution:
0
The top arch is taken to be 140
B 75
R   79.8m
2 sin  / 2 sin 70
Take r = 80m
The extrados radius re of all arches is kept as 80m. Calculations are shown in table below:
h B re P t ri θ
0 150 80 0 0 80 139.27
10 145 80 100 2 78 129.98
20 140 80 200 4 76 122.09
30 135 80 300 6 74 115.08
40 130 80 400 8 72 108.68
50 125 80 500 10 70 102.75
60 120 80 600 12 68 97.18
70 115 80 700 14 66 91.90
80 110 80 800 16 64 86.87
90 105 80 900 18 62 82.03
100 100 80 1000 20 60 77.36
Note: Provide a nominal thickness of 1.5 m when necessary.
Example:
Design a 100m high constant angle arch dam by thin cylinder theory for a valley 40m wide at the base and 240m
wide at a height of 100m. Take σall = 5MPa.
Solution
θ=133o34- , and ri = 0.544B
 w hri
t
fa   wh
re=ri+t
h B ri P P*ri σall-P t re
0 240 130.56 0 0 5000 0 130.56
10 220 119.68 100 11968 4900 2.44 122.12
20 200 108.80 200 21760 4800 4.53 113.33
30 180 97.92 300 29376 4700 6.25 104.17
40 160 87.04 400 34816 4600 7.57 94.61
50 140 76.16 500 38080 4500 8.46 84.62
60 120 65.28 600 39168 4400 8.90 74.18
70 100 54.40 700 38080 4300 8.86 63.26
80 80 43.52 800 34816 4200 8.29 51.81
90 60 32.64 900 29376 4100 7.16 39.80
100 40 21.76 1000 21760 4000 5.44 27.20
- 69 -
Height will be 100 m and peak width will be 5 m

From the top of a belt dam, 0, 25, 50,
Axis radii at depths of 75 and 100 m
95, 80, 63, 58, 50 m respectively. Concrete
Safety tension 300 t / m² and elasticity
Module is 2 × 106 t / m². Belts at every level
We find the thickness and the thickness of the ring
Example: An arch dam with 100m height and top width 5m. At the levels 0,25,50,75, and 100m the
radius are 95, 80m 63, 58, and 50m respectively. If the maximum tension stress is 300 t / m² and elasticity
Module is 2 × 106 t / m², determine the thickness and deflection displacement of the dam at these levels?
Sol:
2 2
 all   max  * 300  200t / m 2
3 3
 w hrc rm
t    all
f a  0.5 w h E
- 70 -
Example: Using simple arch analysis, design an arch for an arch dam. This particular arch is to be at
elevation 300 m, and the width of the canyon wall at the elevation is 600 m. The maximum pool level for
the reservoir r is to be 400. Assume the allowable compressive stress in the concrete is 1.4 kN/cm2.
Sol:
L 600
r   414.36m
2 sin  2 sin 133.6
 w hre 10 *100 * 414.36

t   29.59m
fa 14000
Buttress Dams
Buttress dam consists of a sloping membrane that transmits the water load to a series of buttresses at
right angles to axis of the dam. The principal structural elements of a buttress dam are the water
supporting u/s deck and the buttresses that in turn support the deck. The buttresses are carefully spaced,
triangular walls proportionate to transmit the water load and the weight of the structure to the foundation.
Buttress dams are adaptable to both overflow and non-overflow conditions. In overflow dams a
downstream deck is provided to guide the flowing stream.
Typical section and plan view of a buttress dam
- 71 -
There are several types of buttress dam, according to the water supporting membrane utilized in the body of the
structure. The most important once being:
 Flat slab (water supporting membrane is a series of flat reinforced slabs).

 Multiple arches (a series of arches that permit wider spacing of buttress).
Types of Buttress Dam
-Buttress dam usually require only one-third to one-half as much concrete as gravity dams of similar
height but are not necessarily less expensive because of the increased formwork and reinforcing steel
involved.
-Since a buttress dam is less massive than a gravity dam, the foundation pressure is less and a buttress
dam may be used on foundations that are too weak to support a gravity dam.
-The upstream faces usually slope at about 45o, and with a full reservoir a large vertical component of
hydrostatic force is exerted on the dam. This assists in stabilizing the dam against sliding and overturning.
General specifications:
 The buttress dam is suitable where the rock is capable of bearing pressures of 2 - 3 MPa.
 Buttress dams require between half and two thirds of the concrete required for a gravity section,
hence making it more economical for dams over 14m.
 Additional skilled labor is required to create the formwork.
 Threat of deterioration of concrete from the impounded water is more likely than from a thick
gravity section.(‫) خطئرة الماء المخزون خلف السد‬
 There is also an elimination of a good deal of uplift pressure, the pressure resulting from the water
in the reservoir and possibly of water from the hillside rocks gaining access through or under any
grout curtain and exerting upwards underneath the mass concrete dam.
- 72 -
Advantages
 Buttress dams require less concrete compared to a gravity dam of the same height (which means,
large surface area to volume ration, and increased speed construction).
 Uplift/ice pressure is generally not a major factor
 Can be constructed on relatively weaker foundations.
 Power house and water treatment plants, etc. can be housed between buttresses.
 Vertical component of the water pressure on deck prevents the dam against overturning and
sliding failures.
 More safety against overturning and sliding because of the larger vertical component of
hydrostatic force exerted on the dam (highly inclined u/s face)
 Can be designed to accommodate moderate movements of foundations without serious damages.
 Heat dissipation is better in buttress dams.
 Back of the deck and the foundation between buttresses are accessible for inspection.
 Can be easily raised subsequently by extending buttresses and deck slabs.
Limitations
 Buttress dams require costlier formwork, reinforcement and more skilled labor. Consequently, the
overall cost of construction may be more than that of a gravity dam.
 Buttress dams are more susceptible to damage and sabotage.
 Buttress dams cannot be constructed in very cold climates because of spalling of concrete.
 Because the upstream deck slab is thin, its deterioration may have very serious effect on the
stability.
- 73 -
Design Principle for Buttress Dams

The stability analysis for buttresses is done in a similar fashion as for a gravity dam. However, the design
element is not taken to be a slice of unit thickness as in gravity dams, but the full panel is considered. In
addition to satisfying the stability criteria the buttresses are designed to conform to the design rules for
structural concrete members.
The buttress width is determined by considering the buttress to be a vertical cantilever beam. The width
has to be sufficient to avoid tension at the upstream face when fully loaded and also to avoid excessive
compression at the downstream face. In order to determine the thickness of the buttress required to
prevent buckling they are considered to be bearing walls instead of beams. The minimum allowable
thickness is same as that for columns. The unsupported length is generally reduced by providing struts at
intermediate points.
Simple slab (Ambersen type) buttress dams
The slab is simply supported and the joint between the slab and buttresses is filled with asphalt putty or
any flexible compound. The slab is designed by assuming that it consists of a series of parallel beams
acting independent of one another and simply supported on the buttresses.
Modeling of simply supported Buttress dam
Spacing of the buttress is governed by:
i. length of the dam

ii. pressure of spread footing or a continuous floor slab
iii. presence of spillway over the dam
iv. slope of the upstream water supporting membrane(slab)
v. Unusual foundation or side hill condition.
- 74 -
For high dams greater spacing may be economical. Wider spacing may entail increased thickness and
reinforcement of slabs. The spacing that will give the most economical balance of concrete steel and
formwork area is determined by the total cost of the items.
The buttress is designed as a system of columns each carrying the load by column action to the
foundation. These columns are proportioned to develop a uniform compressive stress and curved to avoid
any serious eccentricity on any horizontal or normal plane when the water and concrete loads are
resolved.
Concrete Slab Deck
The flat slab is simply supported on the buttress heads to avoid negative bending and cracking on the
upstream face of the slabs. Flexible seals should be installed to prevent water loss around the ends of the
slab as they defect. Some buttress dams have been constructed with the slab continuous over one or more
buttresses.
1. Simple slab deck
2. Continuous slab deck
Massive Head Buttress

To avoid tensile stresses in a thin slab, and hence the need for reinforcement, the massive head buttresses
were developed.
1. Massive Head (flat head)
2. Massive Head (round head)
The relative economy of buttress dams will depend on the foundations, the cost of the materials, and the
cost and reliability of the skilled tradesmen at the particular site.
- 75 -
For dams up to 150 meters high it should be possible to dimension a buttress type of dam so that the first
principal stress does not exceed 7 MPa, i.e. a stress comparable with that in a thin arch dam.
Buttress analysis and profile design

In structural terms the massive buttress dam is constructed from a series of independent „units‟, each
composed of one buttress head and a supporting buttress, or web. Each unit has a length along the axis of
the dam of about 12–15m. Structural analysis is therefore conducted with respect to the buttress unit as a
whole. The sliding stability of one complete unit is investigated in terms of FSS, sliding factor or, more
usually, FSF, shear friction factor, in accordance with the principles of these approaches as outlined
previously. The design minimum values for FSS and FSF are normally comparable with those required of
a gravity profile. Stress analysis of a buttress „unit‟ is complex and difficult. Modern practice is to employ
finite element analyses to assist in determining the optimum shape for the buttress head to avoid
undesirable stress concentrations at its junction with the web. An approximate analysis of the downstream
portion of the buttress web, using modified gravity method analysis, is possible if the web is parallel
sided. The sides of the buttress web are, however, generally flared towards base level, to increase contact
area and hence sliding resistance and to moderate the contact stress on the foundation. A trial profile is
established on the basis of previous experience, the selection of a round head or a diamond head being
largely at the discretion of the designer. The profile details are then modified and refined as suggested by
initial stress analyses.
Example: The profile of the major monolith of a buttress dam is illustrated in Fig. The stability of the
dam is to be reviewed in relation to updated design criteria. Normal load combination (NLC). Water load
(to design flood level (DFL)) + self-weigh t+ uplift (no pressure relief drains).
Static stability: Overturning, FO˃1.5; sliding (shear friction factor), FSF˃2.4.
Concrete characteristics: core samples. Unit weight, γc=23kN/m3; unit shear resistance, c=500kN/m2 ;
angle of shearing resistance (internal friction), Φc=35°.
- 76 -
1. Analyze the static stability of the buttress unit with respect to plane X–X under NLC and in
relation to the defined criteria for FO and FSF.
2. Concern is felt with regard to stability under possible seismic loading. Dynamic stability criteria
are specified as FO=2.0; FSF=3.2, and will be met by pre-stressing as shown. Determine the pre-
stress load required in each inclined tendon.
Sol: All calculations relating to stability refer to the monolith as a complete unit. Uplift is considered to
act only under the buttress head, and the profile is subdivided into the elements A, B and C, identified in
Fig., for convenience. The load–moment table (all moments are relative to toe) is as follows:
FO 
M 

396150
 2.11 (Satisfactory)
M 
187330
 ( FV )  bq0.7(25220)  78 * 500
S .F .F    2.83 (Satisfactory)
 FH 20000
Seismic criteria, FSF=2.83 unsatisfactory (<3.2); pre-stress load/buttress = Pps; inclination to vertical, tan
Φu=0.10; Φu=5.7°.
 ( FV  Pps cos u )  bq 0.7(25220  Pps * 0.99)  78 * 500
S .F .F  3.2  
 FH  Pps sin u 20000  Pps * 0.1
Pps  7230kN..... per ..buttress  3615kN... per ..tendon
- 77 -
Earth Dams:
An earth dam is made of earth (or soil) and resists the forces exerted upon it mainly due to shear strength
of the soil; derive its strength from position, internal friction and mutual attraction of particles. Embankment dams
are usually built in wide valleys having flat slopes at flanks (abutments). The natural fill materials are
placed and compacted without the addition of any binding agent, using high capacity mechanical plant. It
can be homogeneous when the height of the dam is not great and zoned sections, with an impervious zone
(called core) in the middle and relatively pervious zones (called shells or shoulders) enclosing the
impervious zone on both sides.
Nowadays majority of dams constructed are of this type. The highest dams of the world are earth dams
(Rongunsky dam Rusia, 325 m and Nurek dam, Rusia, 317 m) as well as the largest capacity dams (New
Cornelia dam, USA and Tarbela dam, Pakistan). The highest dam of India is Tehri dam (261 m), which is
earth and rockfill type. Hirakund dam (Orissa) is the longest earthen dam of the world (25.3 km).
Depending upon the material used during construction, embankment dams are classified in to two:
1) Earth fills Embankments: if the compacted soils, i.e. clays/silts & sands, account for over 50% of the
placed volume of material. Examples of these types of dams in Iraq are Haditha dam, and the small dams
in Iraqi western desert like Al-Rutba dam, Al-Massad dam, and Gaara dam.
2) Rock fill Embankment: if the compacted rock particles larger than a man can easily lift, i.e. coarse
grained frictional material, accounts for over 50% of the placed volume of materials. Examples of these
types of dams in Iraq are Mosul dam and Darbendekhan dam.
- 78 -
Darbendekhan dam in Sulaymaniya-Iraq
Advantages:
The relative disadvantages of the embankment dam are
 Are usually cheaper than gravity dams if suitable earth for construction is available near the site.
 Can be constructed on almost all types of foundations, provided suitable measures of foundation
treatment and seepage control are taken.
 Can be constructed in a relatively short period.
 Skilled labor is not required in construction of an earth dam.
 Can be raised subsequently.
 Are aesthetically more pleasing than gravity dams.
 Are more earthquake-resistant than gravity dams.
Limitations
 Are not suitable for narrow gorges with steep slopes.

 Cannot be designed as an overflow section. A spillway has to be located away from the dam.
 Cannot be constructed in regions with heavy downpour, as the slopes might be washed away.
 Maintenance cost of an earth dam is quite high. It requires constant supervision.
 Sluices cannot be provided in a high earth dam to remove slit.
 Fails suddenly without any sign of imminent failure. A sudden failure causes havoc and untold
miseries.
Depending upon the method of construction, earth dams can be divided into two categories:
1. Rolled fill dam,
2. Hydraulic fill dam
Rolled fill dams:
This can farther be subdivided into the following types:
- 79 -
1. Homogeneous embankment dam,

2. Zoned embankment dam,
3. Diaphragm
a- Homogeneous Earth Dam:

It is a simplest type of embankment that consists of single material and is homogeneous. A homogeneous
section has been replaced by a modified homogeneous section in which internal drainage system in the
form of horizontal filter drain or rock toe in provided, the horizontal drainage filter or rock toe to keep the
phreatic line (top seepage line) with in the body of the dam.
b-Zoned Earth Dam:
- 80 -
c-Diaphragm Earth Dam:
- 81 -
Embankments have a thin impervious core (in order to check seepage) which is surrounded by earth or
rock fill. The impervious core called diaphragm and it is made from concrete, asphalted concrete, etc.
The diaphragm acts as water barrier to prevent seepage through the dam. It is may be placed either at the
center of the section as a central vertical core or at the upstream face as a blanket.
Hydraulic Earthfill Dams
A hydraulic fill dam is one in which the material is transported in suspension in water to the embankment
where it gets placed by sedimentation. The sorting effect of flowing water is utilized in creating a fine-
grained core at the centre of the embankment with coarse shells on the sides. In a semi-hydraulic fill
dam the material is transported by hauling units and dumped at the edge of the embankment. It is then
washed to its final position by water jets. The use of this type of dam is rare, because;
 The cost of rolled earth has drooped rapidly with the development of larger more
economical earth moving equipment.
 It is difficult to control the quality which makes them less dependable than other types of
dam.
- 82 -
Drainage of the core takes place in two ways, some of the water percolates horizontally into the more
pervious shell. The remainder moves upward to the surface, allowing the centre of the dam to subside.
The downward movement eventually develops arching in the core and prevents its full consolidation.
Central Impervious Core Earthfill Dams
Where there is only limited supply of soil for the impervious core but plenty of pervious material for the
embankment, the designer has no option but to decide on a thin core dam. However, where there are
plentiful supplies of pervious and impervious material, a thin core dam may be more economically or
easily constructed for a number of reasons:
1. The unit cost of placing impervious materials may be more than the unit cost of placing
pervious materials.
2. The amount of embankment volume can be reduced in a thin core dam more effectively than
in any other type of dam.
3. The construction time available and the weather conditions may not allow the use of an
impervious core of large thickness.
The minimum thickness of core is dependent on a number of factors:
1. tolerable seepage loss;

2. minimum width which will allow proper construction;
3. the type of material chosen for the core and shoulders of the dam;
4. design of proposed filter layers;
5. past experience on similar projects.
Core Stability - The core material usually has less shear strength than the rest of the embankment,
therefore from a stability standpoint, a thinner core is better. However, a thicker core has increased
resistance to differential cracking; which may lead to piping. Therefore, piping resistance is dependent
upon the soil properties such as plasticity and gradation of the core material.
Advantages of vertical cores:
1. One advantage of the vertical core is that higher pressures will exist on the contact between the
core and the foundation, and will provide more protection against the possibility of leakage along
the contact.
2. The vertical core tends to be slightly thicker for a given quantity of impervious soil than the
thickness of a sloping core.
The following criteria represent a rough cross-section of opinion among experienced earth dam
engineers:
 Cores with a width 30% to 50% of the head of water have proved satisfactory on many dams
under diverse conditions. Cores of this width are adequate for any soil type and dam height.
 Cores with a width of 15% to 20% of the head of water are considered thin. However, when
adequately designed and constructed filter layers are used, then the core is satisfactory under most
circumstances.
 Core widths of less than 10% of the head of water are not used widely and should only be used
when a large leak through the core would not lead to failure of the dam.
Sloping Impervious Core Earthfill Dams
- 83 -
Advantages of sloping cores:
1. The principal advantage of the upstream sloping core is that the downstream portion of the
embankment can be constructed first and the core placed later. This a distinct advantage when
there is only a short season of dry weather suitable to allow construction of a core from fine-
grained soils.
2. Another advantage is that the foundation grouting can take place whilst the embankment is being
placed.
3. Filter zones between the upstream and downstream pervious zones can be constructed more thinly
and are easier to install than in vertical core dams.
4. The sloping core dam is advantageous with the speed and economy of foundation grouting which
can be achieved. The advantage comes from the fact that grouting can be performed while the
main downstream pervious embankment is being constructed.
Disadvantages of sloping cores:
1. At some sites the area of contact between the core and the foundation depends on the depth of the
foundation excavation: i.e. when the excavation is carried deeper, the contact area moves
upstream. However, in some cases the depth of excavation required to provide a suitable contact
between the earth core and foundation cannot be determined reliably in advance of construction.
2. Due to the reason above it may be difficult to locate the grout curtain in the desired position
relative to the core contact area.
If it is anticipated that additional grouting is required through the embankment after the dam is completed
then a central core design is preferred, because the work can be done from the crest of the dam without
lowering the reservoir.
Causes of Failure of Earth Dam:

The types of failure are:
45% Hydraulic Conditions
30% Type of Structure and Construction
7% Geology
6% Environment
6% Consequences
Table based on International Commission on Large Dams 1965 report.
Number of incidents
Arch Buttress Gravity Earthfill Rock fill Misc Total
Exploration 9 5 6 49 2 1 72
Material 1 - 2 8 - - 11
Layout - 1 4 17 3 - 25
Design 4 6 13 48 3 2 76
Construction 1 1 2 32 5 - 41
Operation - - - 5 1 - 6
Supervision)‫ (المراقبت‬1 1 - 3 - - 5
Total 16 14 27 162 14 3 236
- 84 -
Hydraulic Failure:
It is include the following:
1. Over topping: The water may over top the dam if the design flood is under estimated or the
spillway of insufficient capacity or spillway gates are not properly operated.
2. Erosion of U/S face (Wave Erosion): The effect of wave is to washout earth from the upstream
slope in absence of proper slope protection in the form of riprap. The wave developed near the
water surface may cause slip of the U/S face.
3. Toe Erosion: Its due to

 Tail water
 Cross current that may come from spillway buckets, or from areas of outlet.
4. Erosion of D/S face: Proper maintenance required (good drainage system should be provided to
the down stream slope).
Seepage Failure:
Seepage under an embankment is much more dangerous than that for a concrete dam, since embankments
are usually built on soft material which is liable to be scoured out and it is also vulnerable to influx of
water; whereas a concrete dam is usually built on rock which is not worn away so rapidly by the scouring
action of water; and even then a defective dam will not necessarily be endangered by passage of water
through it or even under it.
Basic seepage problems
Stored water behind dams, gives rise to three basic seepage problems, which can lead to difficulties and in
serious cases to total failure:
1. Piping occurs when water picks up soil particles and moves them through unprotected exits,
developing unseen channels or pipes through a dam or its foundation.
2. Heave or slope failures caused by seepage forces.
3. Excessive loss of water.
Three basic methods for controlling seepage are:

1. Use of filters to prevent piping and heave
2. Seepage reduction
3. Drainage
- 85 -
The phreatic line is a streamline whose intersection with the equipotensial lines is equally spaced
vertically by the amount of Δh=H/n, where H is the total head available and n is the number of potential
drops counted in a graphic flow net. This line, which provides the upper boundary of the flow net, must
be initially located by trial. An empirical rule for locating the phreatic line was suggested by Casagrande.
A large portion of the phreatic line AD can be approximated by the parabola BCE with F as the focus and
passing through the point B. point A on the upstream face of the dam is the intersection of the water
surface with the dam. Point D is the downstream transition where the seepage is exposed to the
atmosphere.
Section DF must be protected against soil piping which may eventually lead to dam failure. Seepage
discharge per unit width of the dam:
m
qk H
n
m=number of flow channel
n=number of drop,
k=coefficient of permeability.
d d2 H2
X   
cos  cos 2  sin 2 
q  k (tan )( X sin  )  kX tan . sin  )
To prevent migration of fines from the core:
D15/D85 < 4-5

(filter)/(zone being filtered)
D50/D50 < 25
For sufficient permeability:

D15/D15 > 4-5
To prevent segregation of the filter:
D60/D10 < 20
(filter)/(filter)
- 86 -
Problems associated with natural formations

The foundations and abutments of dams are usually stable under the influence of the natural groundwater
flow. However, reservoir filling greatly changes the groundwater regime and may lead to piping and
internal erosion. The potential for internal erosion and piping may occur at joints in rock, beds of gravel
and in cavities left by rotting roots, animals' burrows or other buried organic matter.
Recommendations for preventing piping in natural formations

Field exploration and geological mapping for dam projects should identify the important soil and rock
formations that could cause failure by internal piping or heave. The geotechnical properties of these
materials should be thoroughly investigated. If the materials are proven to be unsuitable then remedial
action should be taken to improve their geotechnical properties.
All new dams and reservoirs should be carefully observed and monitored once in service to detect the
development of unsafe conditions. If seepage quantities increase or if there is an unexplained change in
seepage conditions then protective measures should be put into action. Such actions should include
lowering the reservoir and placing weighted filters over areas where seepage discharges occur.
Seepage Under Dam:
Piping can occur under dam (in all types of dams). The region direct down stream of the dam is much
more dangerous than that for other regions. The safety for any type of dams depends on the exit gradient
(i), and icr

icr 
w
    sat   w
(Submerged unit weight= saturation unit weight-unit weight of water).
If the iex  icr the condition is not safe, the stability of soil will be lost. This is generally referred to as
boiling or quick condition. The safety factor is
icr
S .F 
iex
Heaving in Soil Due to Flow Around Sheet Piles:
Seepage force per unit volume of soil can be calculated for checking possible failure of sheet-pile
structures, where underground seepage may cause heaving of soil on the downstream side.
- 87 -
The factor of safety for these conditions is
icr
F .S 
im
i m = Average hydraulic gradient in the block of soil. (Will explain in examples)
Selection of Suitable Section of Earth Dam

The earth dam consists of basic components plus a number of appurtenances which enable the basic
components to function efficiently shown in Figure. The preliminary selection includes:
1. Height of the dam (Z)
2. Top width (b),
3. Outer shell,
4. Central impervious Core,
5. Cutoff trench,
6. Downstream drainage System.
7. Foundation
- 88 -
Basic components and appurtenances of Embankment dam
1. Height of the dam (Z):
The height of an embankment dam (Z), is the vertical distance from the foundation to the water surface in
the reservoir (H), when the spillway is discharging at design capacity, plus a free board allowance. The
free board (Fb) must be sufficient enough to avoid any possibility of overtopping. Minimum height of
free board for wave action is generally taken equal to (1.5 hw), plus allowance for settlement (Sall +
allowance for splash (Sp).
Fb  1.5hw  S all  Sp
Settlement allowance: the following may be used as guide.
For foundation: 1% of height of dam
For embankment: 1-2% of height of embankment
Splash allowance could be taken 0.30 – 0.50m.
Z  H  Fb
2. Top width (b):

The crest width of an earth dam depends on the following:
 Embankment materials,
 Height of the structure,
 Importance of the structure,
 Width of the highway on the top of the dam,
 Protection against earth quake forces.
The top width of the dam can be calculated from:
Z
b  3 (Very low dam)
5
b  0.55Z 1 / 2  0.2Z ( Z  30m )
b  1.65(Z  1.5)1 / 3 ( Z 30m )
- 89 -
3. Outer Shell
The outer shell provides structural support for the core and to distribute the loads over the foundation. It
acts as foundation for most of the appurtenances. In homogenous dam core and shell of a dam are
constructed of the same material.
The design slopes of the upstream and downstream embankment may vary widely depending on the
character of the materials available, foundation conditions and the height of the dam.
Shell slopes are based on stability analysis. When the stability is insufficient, improvements are possible
by adopting
a. Flatter slopes;
b. Increasing strength through high density;
c. Treatment for weak foundation;
d. Drainage of the foundation and embankment.
The slope also depended on the type of the dam (homogeneous, zoned or diaphragm).
 The upstream slope may vary from (2:1) previous to as flat as (4:1) impervious.
 The downstream slope may vary from (2:1) where a downstream pervious to (2.5:1) where a
downstream is impervious.
The table shown below gives the dimensions of earth dams according to Terzaghe:
Soil Type U/S slope D/S slope

1 Homogeneous well graded material 2.5H:1V 2H:1V
Homogeneous silt clay or clay
2 a-Height  15m 2.5H:1V 2H:1V
b-Height >15m 3H:1V 2.5H:1V
3 Homogeneous Coors silt 3H:1V 2.5H:1V
4 Sand or Sand and gravel with clay core 3H:1V 2.5H:1V
5 Sand or Sand and gravel with R.C core 3H:1V 2.5H:1V
6 Low density silt, micaceous silt 3.5H:1V 3H:1V
Composite slopes: - are used for large dams. They can be found in two ways: a series of straight slopes or
a constant slope with berms.
- 90 -
Composite slopes for shell of embankment dam
A berm is a level surface on the slope that can serve the following purposes
1. Increases slope stability by increasing dam width;
2. Breaks the continuous downstream slope to reduce surface erosion
3. Provides level surface for maintenance operations, roads, etc.
Berm is also used at the bottom of a zone of riprap to provide supporting shoulder.
4. Central Impervious Core:

 The width of the core at the crest of the dam should be minimum (3m),
 The top level of the core should be at least (1m) above the maximum water level to prevent
seepage by capillary siphoning.
Overall Stability of Earth Dam:
C * B  W tan 
F .S  1.3
F h
Where:
∑W=weight of all materials of the dam,
∑Fh=sum of all horizontal forces on the dam,
B=base length of the dam,
θ=angle of internal friction
C=cohesion of soil
- 91 -
Example: for homogeneous earth dam shown in fig. Cohesion (C) = 2.4 ton/m2
Angle of internal friction (θ)=25o
γd= 1.8 ton/m3
Submerged weight of soil γs=1.2 ton/m3,
Area above the phreatic line=380 m2
Area below the phreatic line=929 m2,
Now, check the overall stability of the dam.
Factor of Safety - Embankment Dams

The minimum factors of safety for embankment dams would be:
Upstream Slope
Immediately after completion with full construction pore pressure 1.3-1.5

Following rapid drawn down (slip circles between high and low water levels) 1.2-1.3
Downstream Slope
- 92 -
Earthquake and Reservoir Full 1.2

Reservoir full - steady seepage 1.5
In an area subject to earthquakes the following factors are indicative of acceptable values:
Seismic coefficient 0.1 FoS 1.8

Seismic coefficient 0.3 FoS 1.15
Stability of Foundation against Shear:
The present method of finding factor of safety of foundation against horizontal shear is an approximate
one, and is based on the assumption that earthen materials has an equivalent unit weight which would
produce the same shear stress as the material itself.
h12  h22 
p . m tan 2 (45  1 )
2 2
where;
p=total horizontal shear,
1
 m tan 2 (45 
) =equivalent liquid unit weight,
2
Ф1=equivalent angle of friction given by:
 m h1 tan   C
tan 1 
 m h1
Ф and C=shear parameter for the foundation materials,

γm=mean unit weight of the dam and foundation in proportion to the depth of each.
- 93 -
 D (h1  h2 )   f h2
m 
h1
γD=unit weight of dam materials

γf= unit weight of foundation materials
Average unit shear=Sav=p/(b.1)

Max. unit shear=Smax.=2*Sav.
This occure at 0.4b from point C.

Let S1  unit shear strength at A.
S 2  unit shear strength at C.
S1  C   f (tan  )h2
S 2  C   m (tan  )h1
Average shear stress=S
S1  S 2
S 
2
S
Overall F.S against shear= 1.5
S av.
So
Factor of safety at maximum shear = 1
S max
Where;
S o  C   av. h(tan  )
 D h   f h2
 av. 
h  h2
h=depth of 0.4b from C
- 94 -
Rock fill Dams
Rock fill dams have characteristics midway between gravity dams and earth dams. A rock fill is one in
which rocks serve as the main structural element.
Rock fill dams can be built where the following conditions exist -
 Uncertain or variable foundation which is unreliable for sustaining the pressure necessary for any
form of concrete dam.
 Suitable rock in the vicinity which is hard and will stand up to variations of weather.
 An adequate amount of clay in the region which may be inserted in the dam either as a vertical
core or as a sloping core.
- 95 -
 Accessibility of the site and the width of the valley is suitable for the manipulation of heavy earth-
moving machinery, caterpillar scrapers, sheep foot rollers and large bulldozers.
Types of Rock fill:

 Impervious face
 Impervious earth core.
- 96 -
In the first type of dam the rock fill supports the membrane and the water load.
 Since load is transmitted through the fill by rock to rock contact, a dense fill with well-graded
rocks is best, but sand and gravel in small quantities do no harm as long as rock to rock contact
is maintained and drainage is adequate.
 The U/S face is made as smooth as possible so that the membrane has adequate support, which
may can be mad from asphalt or reinforcement concrete in two dimension.
General specification:
1. Most membranes have expansion joint at intervals about (10m).

2. Usually slab thickness is between 15cm and 45 cm.
Rock-fill dams are subjected to considerable settlement, which may result in cracking of the membrane.
This is perhaps the greatest weakness of impervious face rock fill dams, although in many instances
leakage has been controlled by periodic repair..
The second type (impervious earth core),

 An impervious-clay core is placed some where near the center of the embankment.
 It is very important that the core be separated from the rock fill by a transition zone of fine
material gradually graded to coarser particles.
 The transition zone provides firm support for the core and keeps it from being washed away.
Example (1): Design an earth dam according to the following conditions:

Homogeneous well graded material for fill, the depth of water in the reservoir=35m, the length of the
fetch=36km, the max. Wind velocity=35km/hr?
Example (2): Design an earth dam according to the following conditions:

Zoned Earth Dam (central core, the depth of water in the reservoir=50m, the length of the fetch=40km,
the max. Wind velocity=35km/hr?
Example (3): Check the dam in fig. for subsurface flow conditions assume submerged unit weight=11
kN/m3):
1. The amount of seepage in m3/day,
2. The safety factor against piping,
3. The safety factor against heaving?
- 97 -
Sol:
m 4
qk H  q  0.0003 * * 50 * 60 * 24  6.65m 3 / day / m
n 13
Q  q * L  6.65 * 850  5649m 3 / day
 11 h 50  0
icr   icr   1.12 iexit   h   3.85m
w 9.81 ld 13
3.85 i 1.12
l d  5  iexit   0.77 S .F  cr   1.45 it is safe
5 iex 0.77
icr 3.85 * 3
F .S   im   1.05
im 11
1.12
F .S   1.07
1.05
Overflow Spillway
- 98 -
A spillway acts as a safety valve on a dam. Spillways are designed to pass large amount of water safely
over the crest of the dam during storms. The provision ) ‫ )البند الاد‬of adequate spillway facilities can
pose ( ‫ )يشدل‬more problems than the design of the dam. The existing or possible future habitation in the
valley below the dam must influence decisions to be made regarding the spillway.
For small dams, their design shape is not that critical. On large dams, their effectiveness is highly
dependent on shape.
Hydraulic aspects of spillway design extend to the design of the three spillway components: control
structure, discharge channel, and terminal structure. The control structure regulates outflows from the
reservoir. Design problems relate to determining the shape of the section and computing discharge
through the section. The flow released through the control structure is conveyed to the streambed below
the dam in a discharge channel. An estimate of the loss of energy through the channel section is
important in designing the terminal structure. Terminal structures are energy-dissipating devices that are
provided to return the flow to the river without serious scour or erosion at the toe of the dam. These
comprise a hydraulic jump basin, a roller bucket, a sill block apron, or a basin with impact baffles and
walls. Spillways are usually referred to as controlled or uncontrolled, depending on whether or not the y
are equipped with gates.
Conclusion:
Uses (function):
-the safety valve for a dam
-discharges major floods & keeps reservoir below predetermined level
1. Controlled 2. Uncontrolled
(crest gates)
Required Capacity (Maximum Outflow Rate through the spillway)

1. Spillway design flood (inflow hydrograph to reservoir)
2. Discharge capacity of the outlet works
3. Available storage
*All depend on type of dam, location, & consequences of failure
For controlled spillway:
- 99 -
• Gates may be positioned on the crest for “overflow regulation”.

• During the floods, if the reservoir is full, the gates are completely open to promote the overflow.
• A large number of reservoirs with a relatively small design discharges are ungated.
• Currently most large dams are equipped with gates to allow for a flexible operation.
• The cost of the gates increases mainly the magnitude of the flood, i.e.: with the overflow area.
• Improper operation and malfunction of the gates is the major concern which may lead to serious
overtopping of the dam.
• In order to inhibit floods in the tail water, gates are too moved according to gate regulation.
• Gates should be checked against vibrations.
The Advantages and Disadvantages of Gates:
The advantages of gates at overflow structure are:

• Variation of reservoir level,
• Flood control,
• Benefit from higher storage level.
The disadvantages are:

• Potential danger of malfunction,
• Additional cost and maintenance.
Depending on the size of the dam and its location, one would prefer the gates for:
• Large dams,
• Large floods, and
• Easy access for gate operation.
Three types of gates are currently favored:

• Hinged flap gates,
• Vertical lift gates,
• Radial gates.
Three Types of gates

 The flaps are used for a small head of some meters, and may span over a considerable length.
- 100 -
 The vertical gate can be very high but requires substantial slots, a heavy lifting device, and
unappealing superstructure.
 The radial gates are most frequently used for medium or large overflow structures because of
their simple construction, the modest force required for operation and absence of gate slots.
For all three types of gates
• The risk of gate jamming in seismic sites is relatively small, if setting the gate inside a stiff one-
piece frame.
• For safety reasons, there should be a number of moderately sized gates rather than a few large
gates.
• For the overflow design, it is customary to assume that the largest gate is out of operation.
• The regulation is ensured by hoist or by hydraulic jacks driven by electric motors.
• Stand-by diesel-electric generators should be provided if power failures are likely.
Types of Spillways:
1. Ogee Spillway,
2. Side Channel Spillway,
3. Chute Spillway,
4. Shaft Spillway,
5. Siphon Spillway.
6. Service & Emergency spillways.
Ogee Spillway
It is widely used on gravity and buttress dams (large or high dams). The ideal longitudinal profile of
ogee spillway should flow along the same curve as the underside of the free falling water nappe to
minimize the pressure on the spillway surface.
 Caution must be exercised to avoid any negative pressure on the surface,

 Negative pressure is caused by separation of the high-speed flow from the spillway surface,
resulting in a pounding action that can cause significant damage to the spillway structure (e.g.,
pitting resulting from cavitation plus the vibration).
- 101 -
Cavitation effect on the spillway crest
Design of Ogee Spillway

The design procedure is depends on:
1-Discharge of Spillway:
The discharge of a spillway calculated from the following equation
Q  C 2 g LH 3 / 2
Where;
Q=discharge, C=the coefficient of discharge, L=is the width of the spillway crest, H=the sum of static
(design) head (Hd or Hs) and approaching velocity head (ha) at the crest.
V2
H  Hd  a
2g
 The coefficient C depends on the approach depth, actual shape of the crest, and upstream face
slope.
Design Chart 1.Coefficient of discharge for ogee crests with vertical faces (Roberson, Cassidy,
Chaudhry, 1998)
- 102 -
 Overflow spillways frequently use undershot radial gates for releases over the dam. The governing
equation for gated flows,
2
Q 2 g CL( H 13 / 2  H 23 / 2 )
3
Where C is a coefficient of discharge, and H1 and H2 are total heads to the bottom and top of the gate
opening. The coefficient C is a function of geometry and the ratio d/H 1, where d is the gate aperture. Piers
placed on spillways to furnish structural support for the gates not only reduce effective flow-passing
length of the spillway crest by the width of the piers but also cause flow contractions that further reduce
the effective length, particularly if the nose of the pier is not rounded.
Design Chart 2.Coefficient of discharge for flow under gates (USBR, 1988)
Overflow spillways are named as high-overflow, and low-overflow depending upon to the relative
upstream depth P/HD. In high-overflow spillways, this ratio is (P/HD>1.33) and the approach velocity is
generally negligible. Low spillways have appreciable approach velocity, which affects both the shape of
the crest and the discharge coefficients. (Ref. A.Bulu)
2-Crest Shape of Overflow Spillways
The lower surface of a nape from a sharp-crested weir is a function of,

1. The head on the weir,
2. The slope or inclination of the weir surface,
3. The height of the crest, which influences approach velocity.
On the crest shape based on a design head HD, when the actual head is less than HD, the trajectory of the
nape falls below the crest profile, creating positive pressures on the crest, thereby reducing the discharge.
On the other hand, with a higher than design head, the nape-trajectory is higher than crest, which creates
negative pressure pockets and results in increased discharge. Accordingly, it is considered desirable to
under-design the crest shape of a high overflow spillway for a design head HD, less than the head on the
crest corresponding to the maximum reservoir level, H. However, with too much negative pressure,
cavitation may occur. The U.S. Bureau of Reclamation (1988) recommendation has been that H/HD
should not exceed 1.33. The Corps of Engineers (COE) has accordingly recommended that a spillway
crest be designed so that the maximum expected head will result in an average pressure on the crest no
lower than (- 4.50m) of water head (U.S. Department of Army, 1986). Pressures of (-4.50m) can be
approximated by the following equations (Reese and Maynord, 1987).
For H, HD ≥ 10 m,
- 103 -
H D  0.43H 1.22 (Without piers)

H D  0.39H 1.22
(With piers)
For H, HD < 10 m,
H D  0.7 H (Without piers)
H D  0.74H (With piers)
Another empirical equation given for the maximum head on the crest for no cavitation is,
H max  1.65H D
The U.S. Bureau of Reclamation described the complete shape of the lower nappe by separating it into
two quadrants, one upstream and one downstream from the crest (apex), as shown in Figs (below). There
are two methods to determine the profile downstream from the crest of spillway:
1. By design table
The profile downstream from the crest can be determine from the following equation
y x
( )  K ( ) P
Hs Hs
Definition sketch (design table method)

Hs(HD) = Design head excluding the velocity approach head.
x, y = Coordinates of the crest profile, with the origin at the highest point (O), as shown in Fig.
K, P = Constants that depend on upstream inclination and approach velocity.
The following table can use for design purpose:
Design table: Upstream slope (ver/hor.)

3/0 3/1 3/2 3/3
a/Hs 0.175 0.139 0.115 0
b/Hs 0.282 0.237 0.214 0.199
r1/Hs 0.5 0.68 0.48 0.45
r2/Hs 0.2 0.21 0.22 -
K 0.5 0.516 0.515 0.534
P 1.85 1.836 1.81 1.776
- 104 -
2. By design chart
The profile of spillway can be determine from the following equation,
y 1 x 1.85
( ) ( )
HD K HD
where
HD = Design head excluding the velocity approach head.
x, y = Coordinates of the crest profile, with the origin at the highest point (O),
K = Constant that depends on upstream inclination and approach velocity.
Constant K can be varied from 2.00 for a deep approach to 2.20 for a very shallow approach, as shown in
design chart 3.
For two above methods:

In a high-overflow section, the crest profile merges with the straight downstream section of slope D, as
shown in Fig. (i.e., dy/dx = D). Differentiation of equation and expressing that in terms of x yield the
distance to the position of downstream tangent as will explain in examples.
Design Chart 3. Coordinate coefficients for spillway crest (U.S. Department of the Army, 1986)
The discharge efficiency of a spillway is highly dependent on the curvature of the crest immediately
upstream of the apex. To fit a single equation to the upstream quadrant had proven more difficult. An
ellipse, of which both the major and minor axes vary systematically with the depth of approach, can
closely approximate the lower nappe surfaces. There are two methods to determine the elliptical shape for
upstream quadrant:
1. The elliptical shape for upstream quadrant can expressed depending on the design table above
by determining the parameters (a, b, r1, and r2 in fig.)
2. With respect to origin at the apex, the equation of the elliptical shape for upstream quadrant is
expressed as,
- 105 -
x 2 ( B  y) 2
 1
A2 B2
where
x = Horizontal coordinate, positive to the right
y = Vertical coordinate, positive downward
A, B = One-half of the ellipse axes, (fig, below) for various values of approach depth and design head.
Definition sketch (design chart method)

For inclined upstream face of slope U, the point of tangency with elliptical shape can be determined by
the following equation:
A 2U
xUT  2 2
( A U  B 2 )1 / 2
Not:
In some cases may be the flow exceeds design capacity of spillway therefore following treatments can be
used,
- 106 -
Example (1): An overflow spillway (type ogee) 80m wide carries a maximum discharge of 400m3/s.
Define the crest profile for the spillway. Consider the upstream slope is (V: H) is (3:1) and
downstream slope (V: H) is (2:1) assume C=2.2?
Sol:
Assume a minimum approach velocity hv=0 Ha=Hs
Q 2/3 400 2 / 3
Q  2.22 LH s3 / 2  H s  ( ) ( )  1.72m
2.22 L 2.22 * 80
From the table, we have
a  0.139 H s  0.239m;  r1  0.68H s  1.17m
b  0.237 H s  0.408m;  r2  0.21H s  0.361m
K  0.516;  P  1.836
And
y x x
( )   K ( ) P  0.516( )1.836
Hs Hs Hs
The downstream of the profile curve will be matched to a straight line with slope 2:1. The position of the
point of tangency is determined by
y
d( )
Hs x x
  KP ( ) P 1  0.947( ) 0.836  2
x Hs Hs
d( )
Hs
X
 2.45,  X P.T .  4.21m
Hs
Y
 2.674,  YP.T .  4.599m
Hs
The crest profile curve of the spillway is shown in fig. below:
- 107 -
Point x/Hs x y/Hs y

a 0.5 0.86 -0.145 -0.249
b 1 1.72 -0.516 -0.888
c 1.5 2.58 -1.086 -1.868
d 2 3.44 -1.842 -3.168
e 2.5 4.3 -2.775 -4.773
Example (2): Design an overflow spillway section for a design discharge of 1500 m3/sec. The
upstream water surface level is at elevation 240 m and the upstream channel floor is at 200 m. The
spillway, having a vertical face, is 50 m long.
Sol:
1. Assuming a high overflow spillway section, for P/H D ≥ 3, discharge coefficient CD = 0.49 from
design chart 1.
2. From the discharge equation:
Q  C 2 g LH 3 / 2
Q 1500
H 3/ 2    13.822
C 2g L 0.49 19.62 * 50
H=5.76m
3. Depth of water upstream=240-200=40m

1500
Velocity of approach= V0   0.75m / s
40 * 50
V02 0.75 2
Velocity head=   0.03m
2 g 19.62
4. Maximum water head = 5.76 − 0.03 = 5.73m
5. Height of the crest = 40.00 − 5.73 = 34.27m
6. Since H= 5.76m < 10m
Design head = HD = 0.7H =0.7*5.76=4.03m
P 34.27
7.   8.51.33 high overflow
HD 4.03
8. Downstream quadrant from Eq.
y 1 x 1.85
( ) ( ) From design chart (3), P/HD =8.5, K=2
HD K HD
y 1 x
( )  ( )1.85  y  0.15 x1.85
4.3 2 4.3
Coordinates of the shape computed by this equation as follows:
- 108 -
9. Point of tangency: Assume a downstream slope of (2/1). From Eq

y 1 x 1.85 dy 1.85 x 0.85
( ) ( )   ( )
HD K HD dx K HD
x
( DT )  0.485( KU )1.176
HD
xDT = Horizontal distance from the apex to the downstream tangent point
U = Slope of the downstream face.
x DT  0.485 * 4.03 * (2 * 2)1.176  9.98m
10. Upstream quadrant: From design chart 3
P A B
 8.5   0.28   1.65
HD HD HD
A  0.28 * 4.03  1.13m
B  1.65 * 4.03  0.66m
From Eq.
x2 (B  Y )2
 1
A2 B2
x2 (0.66  y) 2
 1
1.132 0.66 2
The coordinates are computed as follows:
Example (3): A spillway has been designed for a head of 2.80 m with a length 200 m. The discharge
coefficient is C = 0.49 Calculate the discharge for this head. What will the discharge be for heads of
0.20 m and 1.50 m? What is the maximum discharge that can be passed over this spillway without
cavitation?
Sol:
At the design head,
Q  C 2 g LH 3 / 2
Q  0.49 * 19.62 * 200 * 2.8 3 / 2
Q  2034m 3 / s
H 0.2
For H  0.2m, , , ,   0.071
H D 2.8
C
From design chart 1  0.82
CD
C  0.49 * 0.82  0.4
- 109 -
Q  0.4 19.62 * 200 * 0.2 3 / 2

Q  32m 3 / s
H 1.5 C
H  1.5m, , , ,   0.54   0.92
H D 2.8 CD
C  0.92 * 0.49  0.45
Q  0.45 * 19.62 * 200 *1.53 / 2
Q  732m 3 / s
The maximum head that can be without cavitation on the crest,
H max  1.65H D
H max  1.65 * 2.8  4.62m
H max 4.62 C
  1.65   1.08
For H D 2.8 CD
C  1.08 * 0.49  0.53
Qmax  0.53 * 19.62 * 200 * 4.62 3 / 2
Qmax  4663m 3 / s
Problems
Q1: Assume the dam in example (1), is 8m high. Re-compute the static head on the weir by accounting
for approach velocity. What percent error was introduced in the static head by ignoring the approach
velocity?
Q2: A spillway needs to be designed to carry a peak flow of 50m3/s with the reservoir elevation 1m above
the crest of the spillway. The elevation difference between the reservoir and the tail water is 15m. If an
overflow spillway is used, with a discharge coefficient of 2.0, determine the length of the spillway crest
required to handle the discharge. Also determine the discharge coefficient in British unit.
Q3: An overflow spillway 70m long was designed in 1960 for a flood capacity 900 m3/s. It has now been
established that according to new more stringent guidelines the design flood capacity of the spillway
should be increased to 1200 m3/s. As a consequence three possibilities are being considered:
1. Increasing the length of the spillway (without any change in the maximum flood reservoir level or
in the freeboard); cost 300000$/m length,
2. Increasing the height of the dam (by providing an additional impermeable wave wall along the
whole dam crest) to accommodate the increased flood level without a reduction of freeboard; cost
800000$/100mm increase in flood storage level,
3. Adding 2 siphons to the existing spillway; cost 6 million $.
a) On purely economic considerations which of the above three alternatives would you choose?
b) What factors other than spillway construction costs might influence your decision?
c) What are the advantage and disadvantages of siphon spillways?
- 110 -
Sol:
2
a) 1- Q  C 2 g LH 3 / 2  C D  0.75  Qmax  Q
3
2
Q  * 0.75 * 19.62 * 70 * H 3 / 2  H  3.23m
3
2
1200  * 0.75 * 19.62 * L * 3.233 / 2  L  93.33m
3
Increasing of length=93.33-70=23.33m
Cost=23.33*300000=6.99≈7$ million
2
2- 1200  * C D * 19.62 * 70 * H 3 / 2  C D  0.75
3
Assume C D  0.775  H 23 / 2  7.48m  H 2  3.82m
Height increasing H2-H1=3.82-3.23=0.6m (600mm)
Cost=6*800000=4.8$ million
3- cost =6$ million
The second (number 2) is the best
Side-Channel Spillway:
A side-channel spillway carries water away from an overflow spillway in a channel parallel to the
spillway crest.
• The side channel overflow was successively used at the Hoover dam (USA) in the late 1930‟s.
• The arrangement is advantageous at locations where a frontal overflow is not feasible, such as
earth dams, or when a different location at the dam site yields a better and simpler connection to
the stilling basin.
• Side channels consist of a frontal type of overflow structure and a spillway with axis parallel to
the overflow crest.
• The specific discharge of overflow structure is normally limited to 10 m3/s/m, but for lengths of
over 100 m.
- 111 -
The crest is usually a concrete gravity section, but it may consist of pavement laid on an earth
embankment or the natural ground surface. This type of spillway is used in narrow canyons where
sufficient crest length is not available for other types of spillway.
Design Criteria:
 The side-channel spillway must provide a slope steep enough to carry away the accumulating flow
in the channel.
 Minimum slope and depth at each point along the channel is desired in order to minimize
construction costs.
 For the above reasons; an accurate water surface profile for the maximum design discharge is
important in this type of spillway design.
Flow Profile Analysis for Side-Channel Spillway:
1. The discharge through any section of the side-channel spillway at a distance x from the upstream
end of the channel is
Qx  xCH a3 / 2
2. The flow profile is analyzed by momentum principle, cannot be analyzed by the energy principle
due to highly turbulent flow conditions that cause excess energy loss in the channel.
Consider the forces and change of momentum between two adjacent sections, Δx distance apart, in the
side channel
 F   (Q  Q)(V  V )  QV
- 112 -
ρ is the density of water, V=average velocity Q=discharge at upstream section, Δ=the incremental change
at the adjacent downstream section.
the forces in left-hand side include, weight component of water body between the tow sections in the
direction of the flow, ( gAx sin  ); the unbalance hydrostatic forces;
gAd cos   g ( A  A)(d  d ) cos 
and a friction force; F f ; on the channel bottom. A=water cross sectional area, d =distance between
centroid of the area and the water surface and θ=angle of the channel slope, momentum equation can be
written as
gAd x sin   [ gAd  g ( A  A)(d  d )] cos   F f
  (Q  Q)(V  V )  QV
S 0 =sinθ (for small angle) and Q  Q1 ,V  V  V2 , A  (Q1  Q2 ) /(V1  V2 ), and , , , F f  AS f x ; the
above equation may be simplified to
Q1 (V1  V2 ) Q
d   (V  V2 )  S 0 x  S f x
g (Q1  Q2 ) Q1
where Δd is the change in water surface elevation between the two sections. This equation is used to
compute the water surface profile in the side-channel spillway.
First term (right-hand side)=the change in water surface elevation between two section due to the impact
loss caused by the water falling into the channel.
The last term=the change due to friction in the channel. Relating the water surface profile to a horizontal
datum, we may write
Q (V  V2 ) Q
z  d  S 0 x   1 1 (V  V2 )  S f x
g (Q1  Q2 ) Q1
Note that when Q1=Q2 or when ΔQ=0, above equation becomes

 V22 V12 
z      S f x
 2 g 2 g 
The last equation represents the energy equation for constant discharge in an open channel.
Chute Spillway:
In this type, water flows over the crest into a steep-sloped open channel that is called a chute or trough,
implies that the velocity of flow is greater than critical velocity.
Chute spillway section
- 113 -
This type of structure consists of four parts as shown in Fig. above, an entrance channel, a control
structure or crest, the sloping chute, and a terminal structure. The entrance channel at A is a relatively
wide channel of subcritical flow. The control section at B is placed in line with or upstream from the
centerline of the dam. The critical velocity occurs when the water passes over the control. Flows in the
chute are ordinarily maintained at supercritical stage until the terminal structure DE is reached. Economy
of excavation generally makes it desirable that from B to C, where a heavy cut is involved, the chute may
be placed on a light slope. From C to D it follows the steep slope on the side of the river valley. An
energy dissipating device is placed at the bottom valley D. The axis of the chute is kept straight as far as
practicable. The velocity of flow increases rapidly in the chute with drop in elevation. It is preferable that
the width of the control section, the chute, and the stilling basins are the same. Quite often, these
widths are not the same, because of the design requirements of the spillway and stilling basin. Extreme
care must be taken that the transitions take place gradually, or undesirable waves may develop. To
prevent hydrostatic uplift under the chute, a cutoff wall (pile) is provided under the control structure
and a drainage system of filters and pipes is provided. When the stilling basin is operating, there is a
substantial uplift under the lower part of the chute and upstream part of the stilling basin floor. The floor
must be made sufficiently heavy or be anchored to the foundation.
General Specification:
 The channel is usually constructed of reinforced-concrete slabs 0.25-0.5 m thick,
 Is relatively light and is well adapted(‫ ) مالئم‬to earth or rock-fill dams.
 Expansion joints are usually required in chute spillway at intervals of about 10m).
 Sometimes has a constant width but is usually narrowed for economy and then widened near the
end to reduce discharge velocity.
- 114 -
A chute spillway may be constructed around the end of any type of dam when topographic condition
permit and such location are preferred for earth dams to prevent possible damage to the embankment.
Slope of Chute Channel:

It is important that the slope of the chute in the upstream section BC should be sufficiently steep to
maintain a supercritical flow to avoid formation of a hydraulic jump in the chute. Flow through a channel
is given by Manning‟s formula,
1
Q  AR 2 / 3 S 1 / 2
n
Where,
Q = Discharge (m3/sec)
n = Roughness (Manning) coefficient
A = Cross-section area of the channel (m2)
R = A/P = Hydraulic radius (m)
S = Slope of bottom of channel.
For a rectangular channel of depth y and width b,
A = By → R ≈ y (for a wide cross-section)
Under the condition of critical flow,
q2 Q
yc  3 q
g B
1
Q
1/ 2
Byy 2 / 3 S c
n
Q 1
 qc  yc5 / 3 S c1/ 2
B n
2 2
q n q 2n2
S c  c10/ 3  c2 / 3
yc  qc 
 1/ 3 
g 
g 10 / 9 n 2 12.64n 2
Sc   0.222
qc2 / 9 qc
The subscript c refers to the critical stage. Since the reliable information on the value of n is difficult, a
- 115 -
conservative approach is indicated in the selection of n. The slope of the chute should be more than Sc for
a supercritical flow.
A review of existing spillways indicates that the actual slopes of the upstream section of the chute are 1 to
2 % or more. Unstable rapid flows occur when the Froude number exceeds 1.56 to 1.64. It is therefore
likely that chutes designed with a conservative slope have a Froude number well over this limit and
unstable flow will occur with bumpy surfaces.
Example: Determine the minimum slope in the upper reach of a chute section of 30 m width. The
range of discharge is 150 to 2000 m3/sec. n = 0.015.
Sol.
 Under the minimum flow conditions,
150
q  5m 3 / s / m
30
12.64n 2 12.64 * 0.015 2
S c  0.222   0.002
qc 5 0.222
 Under maximum flow conditions, flow depth is by using Equ.
1 1
Q  AR 2 / 3 S 1 / 2  2000  * 30 * y 5 / 3 * 0.0021 / 2
n 0.015
2000 * 0.015
y5/3   22.36  y  6.45m
30 * 0.0021 / 2
 Velocity of flow for maximum discharge,
Q 2000
V   10.34m / s
A 30 * 6.45
 Froude number,
V 10.34
Fr    1.3
gy 9.81 * 6.45
Since 1.30 < 1.56, we have stable rapid flow.
Chute Sidewalls
Except for converging and diverging sections, chute channels are designed with vertical sidewalls,
commonly of reinforced concrete 30 to 45 cm thick. The height of the walls is designed to contain the
depth of flow for the spillway design flood. The water surface profile from the control section downward
is determined for this purpose. An allowance is made for pier and waves roll waves, and air entrainment.
The water surface profile is computed by the methods of gradually varied flow. The initial values of
discharge, velocity, and depth at the entering section are known. Since the flow in the chute is
supercritical, computation proceeds in a downstream direction. It may be noted that in the steep channel,
either S2 curve (when yc > y > yn) or the S3 curve (when yc > yn > y) is involved. In view of uncertainties
involved in the evaluation of surface roughness, pier end waves, roll waves, and air entrainment buckling,
a freeboard given by the empirical equation is added to the computed depth of the water surface profile.
Freeboard (m)  0.6  0.0004V d 1 / 3
Where,
V- = Mean velocity in the chute section under consideration (m/sec)
d = Mean water depth (m)
- 116 -
Dynamic Force on Spillway (Structural Design):

The reverse curve on the downstream face of the spillway should be smooth and gradual. A radius of
1
about one-fourth spillway height has proved satisfactory; ( r  h ).
4
Structural design of an ogee spillway is essentially the same as the design of a concrete gravity section.
The change of momentum of the flow of the reverse curve creates a force that must be considered.
Newton second law of motion states that force equals the time rate of change of momentum. The resultant
of the forces on the element of water is:
 F  QV
Where ρ is the density of the water, Q is the flow rate, and ΔV is the change in velocity. The equation can
be expressed as:
F x  Q(Vx 2  Vx1 )
F y  Q(V y 2  V y1 )
When, subscripts x and y are represent convenient system of coordinates. This equation may be used to
find the dynamic forces exerted by water on spillway, deflectors, turbine blades, pipe bends, etc. The
forces Fx and Fy are those acting on a significant free body of fluid and include gravity forces,
hydrostatic pressure, and the reaction of any object in contact with the water.
Example: Given the ogee spillway (fig. below), with discharge coefficient (C 2 g =2.2), compute the
dynamic force on the curved section AB. (check the structural design if allowable stress for
concrete is 4000 Kpa).
- 117 -
Sol:
Q
 2.2 * (1.5)1.5  4.04m 3 / s / m
L
V A2 VB2
13.5  1.8  y A cos 60   yB 
2g 2g
4.04 4.04
VA  ,.......VB 
yA yB
Solving by trial
y A  0.265m,.....V A  15.25m / s......... y B  0.25m........VB  16.16m / s
h 0  0.265
F1  A  9.81 * ( ) cos 60 * 0.265  0.17kN
2 2
0  0.25
F2  9.81 * 0.25  0.31kN
2
60 0.265  0.25
W  9.81 * * 2 (3.6 * )  9.52kN
360 2
Applying impulse-momentum equation for 1 m length of spillway, we get,
 FH  F1 cos 60  F2  FH  Q(V2  V1 cos 60)
FH  1 * 4.04(16.16  15.25 * 0.5)  0.17 * 0.5  0.31
FH  33.47kN 
Similarly
 FV  FV  W  F1 sin(60)  Q(V2  V1 sin 60)
FV  1 * 4.04(0  15.25 * 0.87)  9.52  0.87 * 0.17
FV  43.93kN  FV  43.93kN 
Resultant force,
F  (33.47) 2  (43.93) 2  55.23kN / m
Exercise: An ogee spillway discharges water with a head of 1.20 m over the crest. Taking the
coefficient of discharge as C = 0.50, compute the dynamic force on the curved section AB which has
a constant radius of 3 m. γw = 10 kN/m3.
Shaft Spillway
In this type the water drops through a vertical shaft to a horizontal conduit that conveys the water past the
dam.
This type is used when:
 There is inadequate space for other types of spillway,
 Undesirable to carry a spillway over or through an earth dam, but they are also often used with
embankment dams because it is not safe for standard chutes to be constructed on the embankment.
 If topographic prevents the use of a chute or side-channel spillway around the end of the dam.
- 118 -
Typical shaft spillway through abutment dam
The major components of a shaft spillway are a circular crest section, a vertical shaft, an elbow in a
vertical plane, a tunnel section, and a terminal structure. For large structures, the various components
are usually constructed from concrete, with the tunnel and much of the vertical curve tunneled through
rock.
There are three possible conditions of flow in a shaft spillway:

 At low heads the outlet conduit flows partly full, the perimeter of the inlet serves as a weir, and
discharge of the spillway varies as ( h13 / 2 ).
 As the head is increased, water rises in the shaft, and the outlet may flow partly full (weir flow) or
full (orifice flow).
 When the shaft is completely filled with water and the inlet is submerged, the discharge becomes
approximately proportional to h21 / 2 (pipe flow), where h2 is the total head on the outlet.
- 119 -
-An abrupt transition between the shaft and outlet conduit may results in cavitations; hence a smooth
transition is preferred in large dam. Hydraulic analysis of shaft spillways is difficult, and model tests are
often employed.
-A desirable feature of shaft spillways is the hazarded of clogging with debris, trash racks or other types
of protection are necessary to prevent debris from interring the inlet.
Siphon Spillway:
 If a large capacity is not necessary and space is limited, the siphon spillway may be a practical
selection.
 Siphon spillway has the advantage that they can automatically maintain water surface elevation
within very close limit.
When the water level in the reservoir increases, it seals the air entry trough the mouth of the deprimer
mouth. Water spills over the crest of the spillway. Siphonic action is established after the air in the bend
over the crest has been exhausted. This action is known as priming. The siphon runs full and water is
discharged downstream under siphonic head. During receding flood, when water level has gone down just
to the reservoir level, air enters through the mouth of deprimer dome and the siphonic action is broken.
This action is called depriming of the siphon and is achieved through the deprimer dome.
Depriming is the reverse process of priming. It is the action of the siphon from the air starts entering the
siphon through the vents until siphonic action is completely stopped when the air pressure in the siphon
equals to atmospheric pressure. Depriming is carried out by providing deprimer which is a siphon breaker
air vent and is provided to break the siphonic action when the reservoir water surface is drawn below it. If
an air vent is not provided, siphonic action once initiated would continue till the reservoir level is brought
down to the level at inlet which is provided much below normal reservoir level.
-At low flows, the siphon spillway operates like an overflow spillway with its crest at C.
- At higher flows, after the siphon has primed, discharge is given by:
- 120 -
Q  Cd A 2 gH
Where C d is a coefficient of discharge that is usually about 0.9.
Air vent used automatically maintain the water-surface elevation large capacity not needed, good for
limited space
* At low flow: it acts like an overflow spillway
* At high flow: the siphon action removes the water thru the structure until reservoir drops to the
elevation at the upper lip of entrance
Siphon Behavior:
The portion of the spillway conduit rising above the hydraulic gradient line (HGL) is under negative
pressure. Because (HGL) represent zero atmospheric pressure, the vertical distance measured between the
P
(HGL) and the conduit immediately above (HGL) indicate the negative head,  , at the location. Point

C (highest point in the conduit) is subjected to the maximum negative pressure.
The maximum negative pressure at a spillway crown must not be allowed to decrease below the vapor
pressure of water at the temperature measured. Because of the action of cavitations and potentially
damaging pressure is created. Because, under ordinary conditions, the atmospheric pressure is equivalent
to a 10.34m height of water column, the maximum distance between the (highest point in the siphon) and
water surface elevation in the reservoir is limited to approximately 8m This difference (2.3m) accounts
for the vapor pressure head, the velocity head, and the head losses between the reservoir and highest point
in the siphon.
General Specification
Fig. below explains the general specification of siphon spillway.
Profile of a siphon spillway
- 121 -
Example: The rectangular siphon in fig. has a constant cross section 1m*1m and is 40m long,
friction factor f=0.025, the inlet coefficient=0.1, the bend losses coefficient=0.8 at the crown, and the
exit loss coefficient=1.0. Determine the discharge and the pressure head at the crown? (Assume the
length from entrance to crest=10m
Sol: En. Eq. 1&2

p1 v2 p v2 v v L v v
 z1  1  2  z 2  2  0.1 2  0.8 2  0.025( ) 2  1.0 2
 2g  2g 2g 2g D 2g 2g
V1=V2=0 P1/γ=P2/γ=0 Z1=6m, Z2=0 V=siphon velocity

V2
6  1  0.1  0.8  0.025(40 / 1)
2g
V  6.37m / s
Q  AV  12 (6.37)  6.37m 3 / s
En. Eq. 1&C (crown)
p1 v2 p v2 v2 v2 10 v 2
 6  1  c  8  c  0.1 c  0.8 c  0.025( ) c
 2g  2g 2g 2g 1 2g
p
V1  0..........., 1  0............, Vc  V  6.37m / s

pc
 6.45m

Service and Emergency Spillways

-extra spillways provided on a project in rare case of extreme floods (emergency)
-used to convey frequently occurring outflow rates (service)
Conclusions:
- 122 -
Outlet Work:
The major portion of the storage volume in most reservoirs is below the spillway crest. Outlet works must
be provided in order that water can be drawn from the reservoir as needed. This water may be discharged
into the channel below the dam or may be transported in pipes or canals to some distant point. Outlet
works include:
1. Sluiceways:
It is a pipe or tunnel that passes through a dam or the hillside at one end of the dam and discharges into
the stream below.
Sluiceway for concrete dams generally passes through the dam.
Sluiceway for a gravity concrete dam.

Sluiceways for earth or rock dams are preferably placed outside the limits of the embankment. If a
sluiceway must pass through an earth dam, projecting collars should be provided to reduce seepage along
outside of the conduit.
For design purpose :
2 Nx  0.25L
Where N is the number of collars, and x is the projection of the collars.
Example: determine the height of collars for an earth dam if the length of seepage path is 100m,
(assume the available distance between two adjacent collars is 10m?
Sol:
- 123 -
N=(100/10)-1=9
X=(0.25*100)/(2*9)
=1.38m ≈ 1.5m
2(9*1.5)=27>(0.25*100) o.k
 The outlets of most dams consist of one or more sluiceways with their inlets at about minimum
reservoir level.
 Large dams may have sluiceways at various levels.
 In most cases a single large-capacity sluiceway may be structurally unsatisfactory, why?
 Sluiceways may be circular or rectangular,
 The interior should be smooth and without projections or cavities which might induce separation
of flow boundary of the conduit and cause negative pressure and cavitations.
The equation for circular conduits is:
4 x 2  44.4 y 2  D 2
for rectangular conduits is:
x 2  10.4 y 2  D 2
D is the diameter of a circular conduit or the width or height of a rectangular conduit, depending on
whether the side or top and bottom curves are being considered.
Example: the sluiceway for a dam discharge 80m3/s, if the coefficient of discharge from sluiceway is
0.9, and the head above the entrance is 60m, determine the profile of the entrance if:
1. Circular conduit was used,
2. Rectangular conduit was used.
- 124 -
Sol:
Hydraulics of Outlet Works:

 The outlet works of a dam must be designed to discharge water at rates dictated by the purposes of
the dam,
 Head losses encountered in outlet conduits include those caused by the trash rack, conduit
entrance, friction, gates, valves, and bends,
 Trash rack losses are low, approximately as indicated in table,
Velocity through rack (m/s) Head losses (m)

0.2 0.01
0.4 0.05
0.5 0.09
0.6 0.13
 Head losses at entrance to a conduit depends on the shape of the entrance and varies from
0.04hv for a bell mouth entrance to 0.5hv for a square-edged opining, where hv is the velocity
head in the conduit just downstream from the entrance,
 Head losses caused by conduit friction may be calculated by standard pipe-friction formulas,
L V2
hf  f
D 2g
 The discharge formula is,
Q  Cd A(2 gh) 0.5
h=the total head at the valve.
Example: Find the discharge through a valve whose outlet diameter is 2m if the pressure just
upstream of the valve is 200 kN/m2 and Cd=0.68?
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Energy Dissipation Below Spillways:

Water flowing over a spillway has a very high kinetic energy because of the conversion of the entire
potential energy to the kinetic energy. If the water flowing with such a high velocity is discharged directly
into the channel downstream, serious scour of the channel bed may occur. If the scour is not properly
controlled, it may extend backward and may endanger the spillway and the dam. In order to protect the
channel bed against scour, the kinetic energy of the water should be dissipated before it is discharged into
the d/s channel. The energy-dissipating devices can be broadly classified into two types.
1. Devices using a hydraulic jump for the dissipation of energy.
2. Devices using a bucket for the dissipation of energy.
The choice of the energy-dissipating device at a particular spillway is governed by the tail water depth
and the characteristics of the hydraulic jump, if formed, at the toe. If the tail water depth at the site is not
approximately equal to that required for a perfect hydraulic jump, a bucket-type energy dissipating device
is usually provided. The characteristics of the hydraulic jump are discussed in the following section. The
sequent depth (conjugate depth or post-jump depth) y2 is determined for different values of the discharge,
and a jump height curve (JHC) is plotted between the conjugate depth y2 as ordinate and the discharge (Q)
as abscissa. The tail water rating curve (TWRC) at the spillway site is determined by stream gauging, (Q)
as abscissa. As discussed later, the correct choice of the energy-dissipating device is made after
comparing the relative positions of the jump height curve (JHC) and the tail water rating curve (TWRC).
For the design of spillways, the discharge per unit length (q) is usually taken as abscissa instead of Q.
Different types of stilling basins have been developed which are quite effective for the formation of a
stable hydraulic jumps and for confining the hydraulic jump. Stilling basins are commonly used for
spillways and other hydraulic structures, such as weir and barrages. In a stilling basin, chute blocks, basin
blocks (baffle blocks) and an end sill are usually provided. Chute blocks are triangular blocks installed at
the upstream end of the basin. An end sill is constructed at the downstream end of the basin. It may be a
solid sill or a dentate sill. Baffle blocks are installed on the basin floor between the chute blocks and the
end sill. These are also known as baffle blocks or baffle piers.
Characteristics of A Hydraulic Jump:

Hydraulic jump is a sudden and turbulent rise of water which occurs in an open channel when the flow
changes from the supercritical flow state to the subcritical state. It is accompanied by the formation of
extremely turbulent rollers and considerable dissipation of energy. Thus a hydraulic jump is a very
effective means of dissipation of energy below spillways.
Types of jumps
The type of jump and its characteristics depend mainly upon the Froude number of the incoming flow or
the initial Froude number (F1), given by
………..a
where V1 is the mean velocity of flow before the hydraulic jump, g is the acceleration due to gravity and
y1 is the pre-jump depth (or the initial depth of flow).
For the formation of a hydraulic jump, the initial Froude number F1 should be greater than unity.
Different types of hydraulic jump are as follows:
1. Undular Jump An undular jump is formed when F1 = 1.0 to 1.70. In an undular jump, the water
surface shows some undulation. The energy dissipation is about 5.
2. Weak Jump When F1 = 1.70 to 2.50, a weak hydraulic jump occurs. In this case, a series of small
rollers develops on the surface of the jump, but the downstream water surface remains quite smooth. The
velocity is uniform throughout. The energy dissipation is about 20.
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3. Oscillating Jump An oscillating hydraulic jump occurs when F1 = 2.50 to 4.50. There is an oscillating
jet entering the jump bottom to surface and back again without any periodicity. The energy dissipation is
between 20 to 40 .
4. Steady Jump A steady jump occurs when F1 = 4.50 to 9.0. The jump is quite stable and balanced. This
jump is not much sensitive to variations in the tail water depth. The steady jump has very good
performance, and most of the hydraulic structures utilize this type of jump for the dissipation of energy.
The energy dissipation is between 45 to 70 .
5. Strong Jump A strong jump occurs when F1 9.0. The jump action is quite rough but effective. It
causes a rough water surface with strong surface waves downstream. The energy dissipation is between
70 to 85 . Because of rough action, a strong jump is avoided in spillways, as far as possible.
Jump Heigh Curve (JHC) A hydraulic jump will occur in a rectangular open channel if the following
equation between the initial depth y1 and the sequent depth (post jump depth) y1 is satisfied (See any text
of Fluid Mechanics).
……………..b
where q is the discharge intensity (i.e. discharge per unit length). Equation above is usually written in
terms of the initial Froude number (F1) as
…………………c
Where
…………………….d
The mean velocity V1 of the incoming flow for an ogee-shaped spillway can be determined by applying
the Bernoulli equation to points A and 1 (Fig. below). Neglecting losses and the velocity of approach,
Fig.1
………………….e
The mean velocity of flow V1 at the toe of spillway is equal to (q/y1). Therefore,
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………f
By substituting the values of P,H, and q, the value of y1 can be found from above equation. Thus the value
of y1 is determined for a given discharge intensity q over the spillway. The corresponding value of the
sequent depth y2 can be determined from Eq. b. Likewise, for different values of the discharge intensity,
the values of the sequent depth y2 can be computed. A plot is then made between the discharge intensity q
as the abscissa and the corresponding value of the sequent depth y2 as ordinate [Fig.2 (a)]. The curve is
known as the jump height curve (JHC) or jump rating curve (JRC).
Fig.2
Tail water rating curve

The tail water rating curve (TWRC) gives the relation between the tail water depth y2' (i.e. the actual
water depth in the river on the downstream) as ordinate and the discharge intensity q as abscissa [Fig. 2
(b)]. The actual tail water depth corresponding to any discharge intensity q depends upon the hydraulic
characteristics of the river downstream. The values of y2' corresponding to different values of q are
obtained by actual stream gauging. If there is a suitable control somewhere downstream of the spillway
where the depth of water and discharge can be accurately measured, the tail water depth y2' at the spillway
can also be determined by backwater computation. While plotting the tail-water rating curve, an
allowance for channel retrogression, which is likely to occur, must be made.
Location of A Hydraulic Jump:

For a given discharge intensity (q), the sequent depth y2 and the tail water depth y2' are fixed. The location
of hydraulic jump will depend upon the relative magnitudes of y2 and y2', and hence on the JHC and
TWRC. There are five cases, depending upon the relative positions of JHC and TWRC, as discussed
below.
Case-1 JHC and TWRC coincide throughout In this case, the JHC and TWRC curves coincide for all
discharges [Fig. 3 (a)]. As the tail water depth y2' is exactly equal to the sequent depth y2 required for the
formation of hydraulic jump, a perfect jump is formed just at the toe of the spillway as shown in Fig.1.
However, this case indicates a highly idealized condition, which rarely occurs in practice.
Case-2 TWRC always lower than JHC In this case, the tail water rating curve (TWRC) is below the
jump height curve JHC for all discharges [FIG. 3 (b)]. Such a condition occurs when the tail water is
carried away quickly due to a rapid or a fall somewhere on the downstream of the spillway. In this case,
the jump will be located at a point on the downstream of the toe of spillway. The high velocity jet would
- 128 -
sweep down the toe and scour the river bed. Therefore, severe erosion may occur in the portion of the
river between the spillway and the section where the hydraulic jump is formed.
Case-3 TWRC always higher than JHC In this case, the tail water rating curve is above the jump height
curve for all discharges [Fig.3 (c)]. This condition usually occurs when the river cross-section on the
downstream of the spillway is narrow and therefore the tail water backs up. The hydraulic jump in this
case is located upstream of the toe on the spillway face. The hydraulic jump is drowned or submerged,
and the high velocity jet dives under the tail water. The energy dissipation in a drowned hydraulic jump is
not good.
Case-4 TWRC lower than JHC at low discharges, but higher at high discharges
In this case, the tail water rating curve is lower than the jump height curve at low discharges, but it
becomes higher at a particular discharge and then remains higher than the jump height curve [Fig.3 (d)].
It is a combination of cases 2 and 3. The hydraulic jump is formed further downstream of the toe at low
discharge, as in the case 2; but at higher discharges, it is drowned, as in the case 3.
Case-5 TWRC higher than JHC at low discharges, but lower at high discharges.
It is also combination of cases 3 and 2. However, in this case, at low discharges, the jump is drowned;
whereas at high discharges, it is formed further downstream of the toe [Fig. 3 (e)].
Fig.3
Measure Adopted For Dissipation of Energy:
Various measures are adopted at or near the toe of the spillway so that a perfect jump is formed for the
dissipation of energy. The measures adopted will depend upon the relative positions of the tail water
rating curve (TWRC) and the jump height curve (JHC). Measures are discussed separately for all the five
cases discussed in the preceding section.
Case-1 In this case, the tail water rating curve and jump height curve concide for all discharges. There is
no need of any special measure for the formation of hydraulic jump, as a perfect jump will always form at
the toe. A horizontal apron is however provided on the downstream of the toe for the protection of the
river bed (Fig.4). The length of a horizontal apron is taken equal to the maximum length of the hydraulic
jump. Sometimes, baffle blocks are also constructed on the horizontal apron for dissipation of energy.
However, if the baffle blocks are placed too near the toe, they may be subjected to cavitations and
abrasion.
- 129 -
Fig.4
If may be noted that the case-1 rarely occurs in practice. However, by suitably choosing the length of the
spillway, the TWRC and JHC may be made to coincide to some extent.
Case –2 As the tail water rating curve is lower than the hydraulic jump curve, the hydraulic jump forms at
a certain section downstream of the toe. The following measures are adopted:
 A depressed horizontal apron is formed by excavating the river bed on the downstream of the toe
of the spillway to increase the tail water depth [Fig.5 (a)]. The length and depth of the apron
should be such that, for all discharges, the jump is confined to the apron. Sometimes, the
depressed apron is made sloping instead of horizontal.
Fig.5
 (ii) A low secondary weir (or dam) is constructed downstream of toe to raise the
tail water [Fig.5(b)].
 A stilling basin is formed on the downstream of toe and a sill or baffle wall is provided at the end
of the stilling basin. The length and depth of the stilling basin should be sufficient to contain the
hydraulic jump for all discharges.
 If the river bed consist of solid rock, a ski jump bucket can be provided which throws the water up
so that it strikes the bed at a safe distance away from the toe.
Case-3 In this case, the tail water rating curve is higher than the jump height curve and the hydraulic
jump is drowned, the following measures are adopted.
 A sloping apron is constructed above the river bed level extending from the spillway surface to the
toe [Fig.6 (a)]. The sloping apron raises the level of the point where the hydraulic jump is formed.
The slope of the apron should be such that a perfect jump will form somewhere on the sloping
apron for all discharges. A large quantity of concrete is however required for the construction of
the sloping apron.
- 130 -
Fig.6
 The river bed may be excavated to provide a drop in the river bed to lower the tail water
[Fig.6(b)].
 A roller bucket is provided near the toe, which forms rollers for the dissipation energy.
Case-4 In this case, the tail water rating curve is lower than the jump height curve at low discharges but
higher at high discharges. Thus at low discharges, the hydraulic jump is shifted to a downstream point;
but for high discharge, it is shifted upstream of the toe and the jump is drowned.
The following measures are adopted.
 A sloping apron is provided which lies partly above and partly below the river bed level so that a
perfect jump will form in the lower portion of the apron at low discharges and in the higher
portion of the apron at high discharges (Fig.7).
Fig.7
 A low secondary dam (or a sill) with a stilling basin is provided downstream of the toe to raise the
tail water level at low discharges. This arrangement is combined with a sloping apron at a higher
level for developing a jump at high discharges (Fig.8). It is found in practice that the low
secondary dam has negligible effect at high discharges.
 If the velocity is not greater than 15 m/s, baffle blocks or dentated sills may be constructed to
break up the jet and raise tail water level at low discharges to assist jump formation. At high
discharges, the high velocity jet dives under the tail water and breaks up and the energy is
dissipated in internal turbulence, though jump is not formed.
Case-5 In this case, the tail water depth is higher than jump height curve at low discharges, but lower at
higher discharges. The case is similar to case 4 but the range of discharge is different. The following
measures are usually adopted.
 A sloping apron is provided which is partly above the river bed level and partly below the river
bed level, as in Fig. 2.7. In this case, the jump will form in the upper portion of the apron at low
discharges, and in the lower portion, at high discharges.
 A low secondary dam (or a sill) with a stilling basin is provided to increase the depth at high
discharges as in Fig.8. However, at low discharges, this arrangement will further increase the tail
water depth, which is already quite high. Therefore, at low discharges, the jump will be more
- 131 -
drowned and consequently, there will be less dissipation of energy. If this arrangement is not
likely to cause much scour, if may be acceptable.
Fig.8
Stilling Basins:
A stilling basin is a basin-like structure in which all or a part of the energy is dissipated. In a stilling
basin, the kinetic energy causes turbulence and it is ultimately lost as heat energy. The stilling basins
commonly used for spillways are of the hydraulic jump type, in which dissipation of energy is
accomplished by a hydraulic jump. A hydraulic jump can be stabilised in stilling basin by using
appurtenances (or accessories such as chute blocks, basin blocks and end sill.
Problems
Q(1): A horizontal rectangular stilling basin is used at the outlet of a spillway to dissipate energy.
The spillway discharges 13m3/s and has a uniform width of 12m. At the point where the water
enters the basin, the velocity is 10m/s, compute:
 The sequent depth of the hydraulic jump,
 The length of the stilling basin,
 The energy loss in the jump,
 The efficiency of the jump (the ratio of specific energy after to the specific energy before the
hydraulic jump,
 If the thickness of the basin is 0.75m, and the sieve analysis for the site soil indicate the d50
is 0.05mm, are the requirements of scour design satisfied or not?
Q(2):A spillway carries a discharge of 22.5m3/s with the outlet velocity of 15m/s at a depth of 0.2m.
Design the stilling basin and determine the jump efficiency?
Q(3): An increase in discharge through the spillway in Q(2) to 45m3/s will increase the outlet depth
to 0.25m. Design the stilling basin and determine the jump efficiency?
- 132 -

تصاميم السدود-كورس اول-Hydraulic construction, Dam.

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Dams Design…………………………...……….…………………………………..Dr. Ammar H.

Dams fulfill many functions:

Important Terms for The main Parts of Dam:

Illustration of dam-parts in a typical cross section

Fig.1 Diversion Dam

-Non Rigid dam

Based on size, dams can be classified as follows:

 If the crest length is bigger than 500m

 According to hydraulic design

Factors Governing Selection Site of Dams:

Factors Governing Selection Type of Dams:

Various factors govern the selection of type of dam:

Fig.2 Arch Dam

2. Geology and Foundation:

Type Stability Materials Cross Section

Mass of dam &

Q1: Choose the type of dam according to the following condition:

Flood Hydrology for Design Purposes

Greater accuracy can be achieved through use of the primordial formula:

Fig. determine of reservoir volume from topographic map.

Physical characteristics of Reservoirs:

Fig. Evaluate Area-Volume-elevation curve of a reservoir.

Fig. Zones of Storage

Dead Storage: is the water held below minimum pool level.

Elevation(m) Area (Km2) Volume(* 106m3) Cumulative(* 106m3)

Elevation(m) Area (m2) *106 Volume(m3) *106 Cumulative (m3) *106

Estimation of design flood:

Probable Maximum Precipitation (PMP):

 Statistical analysis of past flow records at the site - and extrapolation;

The Return Periods

The recurrence interval T is given by:

Economic Height of the Dam:

Max.Q m P (%) T (year)

Fig. Gravity Dam

Fig. main parts of Gravity dam

Characteristics of Gravity Dam

Forces Acting on Gravity Dam:

A gravity dam is subjected to the following main forces:

These forces fall into two categories as:

1-Gravity Force (Weight of the Dam): -

Gravity Force (F) =W = γc * Volume

Fig. Calculation of Water Pressure Forces

Fig. Calculation of Uplift Forces

If there is no water D/S

Fig. Calculation of Uplift Forces

Uplift pressure distribution for perfectly tight cutoff walls

Uplift pressure distribution for less tight cutoff

Uplift area factor, C

Fig. Calculation of Silt (sediment) Forces

P Sv1   Silt * V1, 2, 4,5,1

hw  0.032 V .F  0.763  0.274 F for F  32km

Return Period (years) Wind Speed ((km/h) Set-up (m)

4-The Wave force can be calculated by the following equation:

Fw  2hw2 For 1m width, force in kN

Fig. Calculation of Wave Pressure Forces

8-Earth Quake Force:

But m = (W/g) and acceleration a = α g

The moment about the plane up to which force is taken, is given by

Model 3: As analyzed by Westerguard(1993), fig.

Where: T = period of earthquake

Where Φ is the angle the face makes with the vertical.

Few y   v Fv (Fv = W(water))

Uplift load is normally assumed to be unaltered by seismic shock.

Load combination for Design

Elevation(m) Area (m2) 106 Volume(m3) 106 Cumulative (m3) *106

 w hre 10 100 414.36