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5G &
Beyond
Keysight Technologies Special Edition
by Larry Miller and Jessy Cavazos
5G & Beyond For Dummies®, Keysight Technologies Special Edition
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Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION................................................................................................ 1
About This Book.................................................................................... 1
Foolish Assumptions............................................................................. 1
Icons Used in This Book........................................................................ 2
Beyond the Book................................................................................... 2
CHAPTER 1: Realizing the Vision of 5G....................................................... 3

Looking at 5G New Radio (NR)............................................................. 3
Vision................................................................................................. 4
Use cases.......................................................................................... 4
3GPP 5G releases............................................................................. 5
Evolution to Release 16................................................................... 9
Smoothing the Migration Path to the 5G Vision.............................. 10
From 5G NSA to SA........................................................................ 10
From FR1 to mmWave FR2........................................................... 11
From traditional RAN to O-RAN................................................... 11
CHAPTER 2: Stepping Up 5G Device and Base Station

Development................................................................................. 13
Integrating and Optimizing 5G Devices............................................ 13
Device development...................................................................... 14
Device conformance...................................................................... 14
Device acceptance......................................................................... 15
Ramping Up Device Manufacturing.................................................. 16
Optimizing gNB Performance............................................................ 17
CHAPTER 3: Accelerating the Transformation to O-RAN......... 19

Overcoming Traditional RAN Challenges......................................... 19
Understanding O-RAN Basics............................................................ 22
Addressing conformance and integration challenges.............. 24
Deploying O-RAN........................................................................... 24
Table of Contents iii
CHAPTER 4: Advancing Virtualization, Cloudification,
and MEC.............................................................................................. 25
Evolving from 5G NSA to SA............................................................... 25
Embracing MEC.................................................................................... 26
Enabling 5G Observability.................................................................. 27
Ensuring Security................................................................................. 28
CHAPTER 5: Expanding Wireless Connectivity to

Enable Innovation...................................................................... 29
Recognizing New Opportunities........................................................ 29
New services................................................................................... 29
New industries............................................................................... 30
New revenue streams................................................................... 31
Defining the 6G Vision........................................................................ 31
CHAPTER 6: Ten Steps to 5G Deployment Success........................ 35
GLOSSARY........................................................................................................... 37
iv 5G & Beyond For Dummies, Keysight Technologies Special Edition
Introduction
T
he promise of 5G is faster and more reliable communica-
tions. 5G enables the Internet of Things (IoT), autonomous
vehicles, wireless broadband, interruption-free video, and
the fourth industrial revolution. When you develop 5G technology,
understanding design and testing concepts and solutions across
multiple dimensions is imperative.
In this book, you find out about 5G technologies and their associ-
ated challenges. You also discover solutions available to address
these challenges and ways you can create new opportunities for
your organization.
About This Book

5G & Beyond For Dummies, Keysight Technologies Special Edition,
describes how 5G technologies are evolving. This book is conven
iently organized into six chapters that
»» Explain the vision of 5G New Radio (NR) and the path to the
5G vision (Chapter 1)
»» Describe 5G device and base station development (Chapter 2)
»» Delve into Open Radio Access Network (O-RAN) challenges
and solutions (Chapter 3)
»» Detail virtualization, cloudification, multi-access edge computing
(MEC), observability, and security trends in 5G (Chapter 4)
»» Explore 5G opportunities and the vision for 6G (Chapter 5)
»» List the key steps to 5G deployment success (Chapter 6)
You can also refer to the glossary at the end of the book — just in
case you start feeling overwhelmed by any acronyms or technical
terms used in this book.
Foolish Assumptions
This book uses mainly one assumption about you: You’re an engi-
neer of some sort within the mobile ecosystem. Perhaps you work
Introduction 1
for a chipset manufacturer, device maker, network equipment man-
ufacturer, or network operator involved in the research, develop-
ment, and manufacturing of 5G devices (such as chipsets, devices,
base stations, or components) or the deployment of 5G networks.
You probably know a little something about wireless communica-
tions, but you may not necessarily know about the latest 5G tech-
nologies. As such, this book is primarily for technical readers.
If that describes you, you’re in the right place. If it doesn’t, keep

reading anyway. It’s a great book, and you’ll find out a few things
about 5G.
Icons Used in This Book

This book occasionally uses icons to call attention to important
information. Here’s what you can expect:
This icon points out information or a concept that may well be

worth committing to your nonvolatile memory, your gray matter,
or your noggin!
If you seek to attain the seventh level of nerd-vana, perk up!

This icon explains the jargon beneath the jargon and is the stuff
legends — well, nerds — are made of.
Tips are appreciated, but never expected — so keep these useful

nuggets of information nearby.
These alerts point out the stuff your mother warned you about
(well, probably not). But they do offer practical advice to help you
avoid potentially costly mistakes.
Beyond the Book

There’s only so much this short book covers, so if you find
yourself wondering, “Where can I find out more?,” just go to
www.keysight.com/find/5g.
2 5G & Beyond For Dummies, Keysight Technologies Special Edition
IN THIS CHAPTER
»» Tuning in to 5G New Radio (NR)
»» Plotting the path to 5G
Chapter 1
Realizing the Vision of 5G
T
he high-bandwidth and real-time capabilities of 5G hold
enormous potential for society by enabling many new and
unexpected use cases. In this chapter, you find out about the
5G vision, discover more about use cases, read about standards
enhancements, and delve deeper into the migration path to 5G.
Looking at 5G New Radio (NR)

5G embodies the breadth and depth of innovative and compre-
hensive mobile wireless communications technology. The poten-
tial of 5G goes well beyond that of its predecessors. Some of the
new applications it will enable are
»» Multi-gigabit wireless mobile broadband

»» Fixed broadband wireless access
»» Augmented reality (AR) and virtual reality (VR)
»» Autonomous vehicles
»» Vehicle-to-everything (V2X) communications
»» The mobile Internet of Things (IoT)
»» The wireless industrial IoT (IIoT)
CHAPTER 1 Realizing the Vision of 5G 3
NR is to 5G what Long Term Evolution (LTE) is to 4G. The 5G NR
standard continues to evolve to enable faster data rates, improved
coverage, lower latency, higher reliability, and greater network
flexibility.
The following sections break down the ins and outs of 5G to help
you better understand the importance of the technology from a
technical standpoint.
Vision
The vision for the 5G future is bold: It’s much more than just the
next iteration of mobile networks. Technological trends including
cloud computing, artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning
(ML), AR and VR, and billions of connected devices are pushing
the boundaries of the wireless communications system like never
before.
5G technology promises faster, more reliable, and near-instant

connections that will universally connect people and things. 5G
allows everyone to experience live events and video games in real
time, make phone and video calls that feel close and intimate, and
pair smart devices with AI to create a customized and personal-
ized environment for everyone.
Use cases
The three use cases defined in 5G NR are as follows:
»» Enhanced mobile broadband (eMBB): eMBB refers to the

target 5G peak and average data rates, capacity, and
coverage as compared to conventional mobile broadband.
eMBB specifies a 5G design capable of supporting up to 20
gigabits per second (Gbps) in the downlink (DL) and 10 Gbps
in the uplink (UL).
»» Massive machine-type communications (mMTC): mMTC
supports 5G IoT use cases with billions of connected devices
and sensors. The use case covers both low-data-rate/
low-bandwidth devices with infrequent bursts of data
requiring long battery life as well as very-high-bandwidth/
data-rate devices.
»» Ultra-reliable and low-latency communications (URLLC):
URLLC focuses on applications that require fail-safe,
real-time communications. Examples include autonomous
vehicles, the industrial Internet, smart grids, infrastructure
protection, and intelligent transportation systems.
3GPP 5G releases
The 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) is an industry
consortium responsible for developing standards for mobile tele-
communications (protocols, architectures, system requirements,
and so on). Release 15 (Rel-15) of the 5G NR specification is the
first implementable standard for 5G, and it establishes a flexible
foundation to accommodate future releases of 5G features.
Rel-15 focuses on the high-speed data rates and capacity demands

of eMBB. It specifies a new air interface to enable higher data
throughput and lays the groundwork for low latency and higher
reliability applications. The use of millimeter-wave (mmWave)
spectrum up to 52.6 gigahertz (GHz) is the key to enabling higher
data throughput. At these higher frequencies, more contiguous
spectrum is available to send more data through the channel.
Rel-15 specifies a maximum carrier bandwidth of up to 400 meg-
ahertz (MHz) and up to 16 component carriers (CCs), and allows
multiple carriers to be combined to create up to 800 MHz of chan-
nel bandwidth. Flexibility and scalability in the slot structure help
support the many new and diverse use cases expected from 5G.
Figure 1-1 reviews some of the key technologies and benefits in

5G NR Rel-15 that are discussed in the following sections.
FIGURE 1-1: 5G NR Rel-15 technologies and their benefits.
Low latency
The URLLC use case is partially achieved through a concept
called mini-slots. In LTE, transmissions adhere to the standard
slot boundaries, but they aren’t optimized for minimal latency.
A standard slot has 14 orthogonal frequency-division multiplex-
ing (OFDM) symbols. As the subcarrier spacing increases, the
slot duration decreases. A mini-slot is shorter in duration than a
standard slot and can be located anywhere within the slot. A mini-
slot is two, four, or seven OFDM symbols long. Mini-slots provide
low latency payloads with an immediate start time, without need-
ing to wait for the start of a slot boundary.
Flexibility
The maximum carrier bandwidth in LTE is 20 MHz, which when
aggregated across the maximum number of carriers that the
standard allows — five — creates a wider effective communica-
tion channel bandwidth of up to 100 MHz. In 5G NR, the maxi-
mum carrier bandwidth is up to 100 MHz in FR1 (up to 7.125 GHz),
or up to 400 MHz in FR2 (24.25 to 52.6 GHz). The standard allows
for the aggregation of multiple carriers for up to 800 MHz of
channel bandwidth.
A new innovation in 5G NR is bandwidth parts, where the carrier

is subdivided for different purposes. Each bandwidth part has its
own numerology and is signaled independently. One carrier can
have mixed numerologies to support services in unlicensed bands
and different levels of services — like power saving or multiplex-
ing of numerologies.
Reliable channels
5G NR uses the cyclic prefix OFDM (CP-OFDM) waveform format.
Unlike LTE, this format can be used in both the DL and the UL.
Having the same waveform in both the UL and the DL enables
easier implementation of things like device-to-device communi-
cation in future releases. Discrete Fourier transform spread OFDM
(DFT-s-OFDM) is an optional waveform in the UL. DFT-s-OFDM
reduces the demand on user equipment (UE) transmission ampli-
fiers, helping to extend battery life.
Unlike 4G, NR allows for scalable OFDM numerology where the

subcarrier spacings are no longer fixed to 15 kilohertz (kHz).
Subcarrier spacing is determined by the formula 2n×15 kHz
where n can be as low as –1. Lower frequency bands use 7.5, 15,
30, and 60 kHz subcarrier spacings, and higher frequency bands
use 60, 120, and 240 kHz subcarrier spacings.
Scalable numerology enables scalable slot duration to optimize
throughput, latency, or reliability for different service levels.
Larger subcarrier spacing at higher frequencies also helps with
the robustness of the waveform because integrated phase noise is
a greater issue in mmWave designs (see Figure 1-2).
FIGURE 1-2: Relationship between subcarrier spacing and time duration.
In an OFDM system, using CP mitigates the effects of channel

delay spread and intersymbol interference (ISI). CP provides a
buffer to protect the OFDM signal from ISI by repeating the end
of the symbol at the start of the same symbol. Although using CP
reduces the achievable data rate, it eliminates ISI up to the length
of the CP. In 5G NR, as subcarrier spacing changes, CP length
scales to adapt to the channel conditions.
Channel state information (CSI), which refers to the known prop-

erties of a communication link, helps with 5G NR beamforming
reliability. 5G NR specifies a new beam management framework
for CSI acquisition to reduce coupling between CSI measurements
and reporting to control different beams dynamically. CSI uses
channel estimation to intelligently change the precoding and
adapt the beam to a specific user. The better and more precise
this CSI information, the better the link adaptation. CSI is also
used for other purposes like equalization to adjust for frequency-
depended variations within the transmit (Tx) channel.
Greater throughput
5G boosts throughput in multiple ways. For example:
»» Wider overall channel bandwidths enable sending more data

through the air interface.
»» Spatial multiplexing sends multiple independent streams of
data through multiple antennas at a given time and fre-
quency and uses enhanced channel feedback.
Enhanced channel feedback improves throughput because the

signal is optimized for transmission with advanced channel cod-
ing. Massive multiple-input/multiple-output (massive MIMO)
and beam-steering technologies improve throughput.
Operating at mmWave frequencies introduces new challenges

in path loss, blockage, and signal reflections. Beam steering is a
key technology to overcome these issues. NR specifies new initial
access procedures to ensure alignment of the directional trans-
missions used in beam steering. New initial access techniques use
beam sweeping to have the base station transmit multiple beams
and then identify the strongest beam and establish a commu-
nication link. Validating initial access, beam management, and
throughput achieved through the wireless link are key factors for
successful beam steering implementation in 5G (see Figure 1-3).
FIGURE 1-3: Beam sweeping and initial access concepts.
Evolution to Release 16
The 5G NR standard continues to evolve with many new enhance-
ments added in Release 16 (Rel-16) including:
»» URLLC: Downlink and uplink enhancements, new prioritiza-

tion and multiplexing, and multiple active configurations help
achieve lower latency, higher reliability, and support for new
use cases like motion control for factory automation and
remote driving, and enhance Rel-15 use cases like AR/VR.
»» Multi-access edge computing (MEC): Enabling lower
latencies by moving things closer to the edge of the network,
MEC is especially helpful for robotics, mission-critical
autonomous factories, and remote driving applications. In
addition to protocol enhancements, Rel-16 implements
redundancy mechanisms and introduces a new intermediate
session management function (I-SMF) node to control the
user plane function (UPF) when the SMF isn’t able to.
»» Wireless/wireline coexistence: New nodes improve interwork-
ing with non-3GPP systems for wireline access connectivity.
Rel-16 adds support for trusted non-3GPP systems and the
simultaneous usage of 3GPP and non-3GPP systems.
»» Interference management: Cross link interference (CLI)
assesses and mitigates DL and UL cross-interference
between cells and UEs on the network. Remote interference
management (RIM) helps the network understand and
mitigate environmental (that is, atmospheric) issues.
»» MIMO: New features and enhancements include support for
multi-user MIMO (MU-MIMO) that increases capacity by
allowing more UEs on the network, DL and UL control
signaling for multi-beam operations to reduce latency and
signaling overhead, and UE power enhancements.
»» Power efficiency: PDCCH lets a UE know when it needs to
become active and when it can go inactive (or into sleep
mode). MIMO layer adaption allows a UE to turn off unused
receivers for longer periods of time to save power.
»» Unlicensed spectrum: Rel-16 enables NR to operate in unli-
censed spectrum through carrier aggregation (CA) with CCs in
licensed and unlicensed spectrum, dual connectivity (DC) with LTE
in licensed spectrum and NR in unlicensed spectrum, full NR
operation in unlicensed spectrum, and NR cell with DL frequencies
in unlicensed spectrum and UL frequencies in licensed spectrum.
Smoothing the Migration Path
to the 5G Vision
Network operators are taking different paths to migrate to 5G. The
first networks and devices used 5G non-standalone (NSA) mode
to accelerate deployment. Now that the standard for 5G stand-
alone (SA) is complete, parts of the industry are moving to 5G
SA. Sub-6 GHz 5G deployments are well underway across the
globe while mmWave networks are ramping up. Operators are
also looking to adopt open, virtualized, and cloud-based radio
access networks (RAN) for greater network flexibility and save
costs. These evolutions are at the heart of the mobile network
evolution.
From 5G NSA to SA
5G can operate in NSA mode — using the existing 4G LTE radio
and evolved packet core (EPC) network and eNodeB (eNB) as
an anchor and control plane — or in SA mode — using 5G NR
and connecting directly to the 5G next-generation core (NGC),
operating independently of 4G (see Figure 1-4).
FIGURE 1-4: 5G NR deployment options.
5G NR works alongside 4G and even utilizes the 4G core network
for both data and control planes in NSA mode. 5G, 4G, and Wi-Fi
need to coexist on the same carriers and utilize unlicensed bands
to increase capacity below 6 GHz. Chapter 4 discusses 5G NSA and
SA in greater detail.
From FR1 to mmWave FR2

Spectrum harmonization across regions is limited. It’s chal-
lenging for designers to deliver the full range of capabilities and
coverage for consumers around the world. 5G NR specifies fre-
quencies up to 52.6 GHz, and so far, 3GPP has specified associ-
ated behavior and performance to open up almost 10 GHz of new
spectrum, as follows:
»» Frequency range 1 (FR1): 410 MHz to 7.125 GHz adds

1.5 GHz of new spectrum in frequency bands: 3.3–4.2 GHz,
3.3–3.8 GHz, 4.4–5 GHz, and 5.925–7.125 GHz.
»» Frequency range 2 (FR2): 24.25 to 52.6 GHz initially added
8.25 GHz of new spectrum in frequency bands: 26.5–29.5
GHz, 24.25–27.5 GHz, and 37–40 GHz.
FR1 introduces new challenges for designs — especially in the

new bands above 3 GHz — due to additional propagation loss, the
complexity of the test cases, coexistence issues, and the required
validation of massive MIMO designs over the air.
Similar to LTE, CA provides larger bandwidths, up to a maxi-

mum bandwidth of 800 MHz at FR2. (CA is also applicable to FR1
frequencies although it increases complexity enormously.) Each
country decides on the amount of spectrum deployed. New fre-
quency bands are defined and more CA combinations specified.
From traditional RAN to O-RAN

The desire for wireless operators to move their networks from
physical purpose-built hardware to virtual and cloud-based soft-
ware implementations emerged with 4G. This step to virtualiza-
tion is well underway for the core network. The O-RAN Alliance is
working to achieve this goal for the RAN.
The group is specifying the discrete elements of a disaggregated
base station in the RAN and is standardizing interfaces between
them to allow hosting on white-box hardware instead of purpose-
built appliances. This not only allows for easier virtualization of
the digital elements of the architecture, but it also opens the door
for operators to work with a multitude of vendors that excel in
their area of focus. Each subcomponent of Open Radio Access
Network (O-RAN) — even pieces within subcomponents — can
come from a different vendor.
Read Chapter 3 to find out more about O-RAN.
IN THIS CHAPTER
»» Looking at device development,
conformance, and acceptance
»» Accelerating time to market in device

manufacturing
»» Maximizing performance in the base

station
Chapter 2
Stepping Up 5G Device
and Base Station
Development
I
t’s an exciting time to be in the wireless industry. The race is on
to deploy 5G. New chipsets, devices, and base stations need to
be rolled out at the right cost and time. In this chapter, you find
out how to accelerate time to market across your product devel-
opment life cycle.
Integrating and Optimizing 5G Devices

5G introduces new challenges related to the use of millimeter-
wave (mmWave) frequencies and beam management, driving the
need for validating complex, integrated next-generation devices
in over-the-air (OTA) test environments. Use cases for 5G also
continue to evolve, which means 5G devices need to be charac-
terized and validated to comply with developing 3rd Generation
Partnership Project (3GPP) New Radio (NR) specifications and
mobile operator acceptance plans.
CHAPTER 2 Stepping Up 5G Device and Base Station Development 13
These sections discuss the key stages of the 5G device workflow
from development to acceptance.
Device development
Every new device carrying a 5G chipset comes with a list of tests.
5G mobile devices also combine sub-6 gigahertz (GHz) bands
with new multiple-input/multiple-output (MIMO) antenna sys-
tems and mmWave bands with beam steering. Global spectrum
assignments and deployment options expand the test matrix.
A comprehensive suite of tools can help you accelerate your device

development cycle — pre-silicon, modem and radio frequency
(RF) bring-up, mobile test platform, device integration, and per-
formance optimization — across the protocol, RF, and functional
and performance test domains.
Device conformance
Passing conformance and device acceptance tests is a significant
challenge for 5G device and base station companies.
Keep the following in mind when preparing for 5G NR conform-

ance tests:
»» Conformance test requirements and test methods continue

to evolve as 3GPP refines and adds to the standards.
»» Frequency range 2 (FR2: 24.25 to 52.6 GHz) significantly
increases test complexity.
»» You can expect exponential growth in the number of test
cases.
Preparing for conformance tests by performing pre-conformance

testing is critical. 5G NR introduces new test challenges due to
incomplete test requirements, new mmWave operating bands,
more complex tests, and standards that continue to evolve. Com-
panies that prepare for conformance and device acceptance tests
accelerate their time to market.
Although the standards progress constantly, testing of 5G prod-

ucts has been ongoing for years. Chipset and device makers must
carefully select test equipment for conformance testing, keeping
potential for upgrades in mind.
Device acceptance
5G technology needs to address a wide range of new use cases.
Accelerating device certification and acceptance requires early
and continuous access to the latest 3GPP conformance and mobile
network operator (MNO) acceptance tests.
5G device acceptance solutions span the entire workflow — design

validation, pre-conformance, conformance, regulatory, and car-
rier acceptance — and cover the protocol and RF/radio resource
management (RRM) domains.
ACCEPTANCE TESTING HELPS MNO

GRAB EARLY LEADERSHIP IN 5G
In the summer of 2018, a major MNO began collaborating with
Keysight on 5G network design, development, and testing. The pri-
mary goal of the collaboration was 5G device conformance testing.
Conformance testing ensures that mobile devices adhere to industry
standards and regulatory requirements. Those requirements include
protocol and RF, with measurements such as occupied bandwidth,
receiver performance, intermodulation distortion, and RRM.
Timing was critical. The MNO was preparing to roll out 5G services in
early 2019. It needed to conduct testing on early 5G smartphones and
other devices in the fall of 2018. At the time, the 3GPP conformance
test requirements and test methods were less than 50 percent com-
plete. The MNO needed to develop test specifications and provide
test case scripts for its device acceptance test plans to ensure the
interoperability of the devices it was planning to launch with its 5G
network.
It needed a partner with experience in 5G device testing. In addition

to the evolving nature of 5G standards and test requirements, 5G con-
formance testing is complicated by a dramatic increase in complexity
compared with 4G LTE. Issues include higher frequency ranges, wider
channel bandwidths, and increasing coexistence scenarios. Test envi-
ronments and test schemes are also different between frequency
range 1 (FR1, 410 MHz to 7.125 GHz) and frequency range 2 (FR2,
24.25 to 52.6 GHz). The number of test cases for 5G represents an
exponential increase compared with LTE.
(continued)
(continued)
Solutions
Keysight has invested heavily in 5G. It partnered early with standards-

setting industry leaders to understand the complexities of 5G and
develop solutions that span the entire device development workflow.
Keysight is also a contributor to 3GPP, helping define 5G specifica-
tions and test cases. Although mmWave is new to MNOs, Keysight has
mmWave expertise from decades of experience in aerospace and
defense. The MNO chose Keysight based on that expertise, coupled
with Keysight’s compelling 5G road map and commitment to
collaboration.
Working with Keysight, the MNO realized the value of investing in a 5G

test system that could handle protocol, RF, and RRM testing. The MNO
ultimately chose to leverage Keysight’s portfolio of Network Emulation
Solutions (NES) built on the E7515B UXM 5G Wireless Test Platform,
including Keysight’s:
• S8701A Protocol R&D Toolset
• S8704A Protocol Conformance Toolset
• S8705A RF/RRM DVT & Conformance Toolset
Results
Following the engagement with Keysight and the rollout of its 5G net-
work, the MNO became an early leader in 5G. Thanks in part to its col-
laboration with Keysight on device acceptance testing, the MNO was
able to launch 5G services commercially in the spring of 2019. Within
five months, the MNO had amassed more than 1 million 5G mobile
subscribers, becoming the first MNO in the world to achieve this mile-
stone. In addition to mobile data subscriptions, the MNO has success-
fully launched focused 5G services in areas such as smart factories,
smart media, virtual reality, and augmented reality.
Ramping Up Device Manufacturing

5G brings new opportunities for device manufacturers but also
introduces significant challenges associated with accelerated
timelines and high technical complexity.
To keep up with the demand for high-volume manufacturing of
5G devices, manufacturers need to accelerate their time to market
and reduce testing cost. Key strategies to implement include the
following:
»» Multi-device testing: Testing multiple devices at the

same time is critical to increase production capacity and
reduce the cost of test. Device makers can use parallel
device testing to push the concept to its limits by using
instrumentation designed for multi-device testing.
»» Adopting a common measurement science: Many device
makers adopt a siloed approach to device development and
test, missing out on the time-to-market efficiencies they
could gain by adopting a common measurement science
across the device workflow.
»» Leveraging high-performance instrumentation: Testing
each device faster is another strategy device makers can use
to accelerate the testing process and increase their produc-
tion output while reducing the cost of test. Instrumentation
featuring quad-core controllers and leveraging a high-speed
backplane provides ultra-fast data processing. Advanced
sequencing techniques and single-acquisition multiple
measurements help accelerate test execution.
»» Deploying flexible test equipment: Device manufacturers
need to control the costs of acquiring test assets and
operating the assets over their useful life. Modular test
platforms and software licenses help control capital and
operational expenditures.
»» Utilizing financial services: Device manufacturers need to
adjust test capacity quickly and easily and modify their
manufacturing test operations to meet volume goals and
target dates while conserving capital. Operating leases
provide instant access to leading technologies with a lower
impact on budgets.
Optimizing gNB Performance

5G NR is being deployed around the world to deliver faster data
rates and unprecedented reliability to wireless communications.
New base station types have emerged, defined according to the
frequency range and the antenna configuration of the equipment.
5G base stations are called gNodeB (gNB) and fall into three
categories:
»» C refers to base stations with antenna connectors.

»» O refers to units with no antenna connectors.
»» H refers to units that use a hybrid approach with some
antenna connectors accessible in the system between
modules and an integrated antenna in the base station
assembly.
The industry uses numerals to denote the frequency range, FR1

(410 MHz to 7.125 GHz) or FR2 (24.25 GHz to 52.6 GHz). Type
1-C base stations are tested using a conducted approach, like 3G
and 4G base stations, but all the testing for O units must be done
over the air in a radiated type of test. A 5G base station needs to
support an increasing number of channels for applications like
spatial multiplexing and beamforming. The level of integration is
also increasing, even in FR1. The market is moving toward more
type 1-O base stations.
Conformance testing requires a good understanding of 3GPP spec-

ifications. 3GPP technical specification (TS) 38.104 and 38.141 are
essential documents. The tests are organized into chapters, with
Chapter 6 covering transmitter characteristics, Chapter 7 covering
receiver aspects, and Chapter 8 covering receiver performance. In
addition, Chapter 4 is important because it covers the manufac-
turer’s declarations that define base station types, classes, and
other important aspects, and each test case has a unique signal
configuration derived from the manufacturer’s declaration. Using
test solutions that facilitate the interpretation of 3GPP specifi-
cations, simplify the test setup, and automatically generate test
plans helps speed up conformance testing significantly.
Network equipment manufacturers (NEMs) need to accelerate the

workflow from R&D, integration, and design verification to man-
ufacturing test for high-performance mmWave base stations and
small cells. Evolving 3GPP standards expand the complexity of the
physical layer while adding OTA test requirements for mmWave
bands. A common graphical user interface (GUI) and software
facilitates high asset utilization and a fast transition from R&D
to design validation and manufacturing. Solutions that serve all
bands also save space and reduce support and maintenance costs.
IN THIS CHAPTER
»» Enabling service agility
»» Implementing O-RAN
Chapter 3
Accelerating the
Transformation to
O-RAN
5
G is a key driving force behind the migration to Open Radio
Access Networks (O-RAN). Network densification increases
exponentially with 5G, and mobile operators need to adopt
standards-based networks to improve resource utilization. In
addition, the existing network infrastructure and traditional
fronthaul technologies are less able to address the increased
demand, flexibility, and bandwidth coming with 5G. To evolve to
5G, mobile network operators (MNOs) need O-RAN. This chapter
discusses O-RAN initiatives, opportunities, and challenges.
Overcoming Traditional RAN Challenges

Service agility requires moving new services into production
quickly. Proprietary components and interfaces in a traditional
RAN limit service agility. By virtualizing services into network
functions and using cloud-scale operators that provide flexibility
at a lower cost, operators can achieve service agility and cloud-
scale economics. This is the goal of O-RAN.
CHAPTER 3 Accelerating the Transformation to O-RAN 19
The O-RAN Alliance is a group formed in February 2018 by five
global operators to define the next-generation radio access net-
work (RAN) architecture. The organization defines the specifica-
tions, reference architecture, and interfaces between the various
subcomponents that form the O-RAN.
The O-RAN Alliance has adopted two core principles:
»» Openness: With O-RAN, operators can work directly with

radio frequency (RF) contract manufacturers, companies that
specialize in graphics processing units (GPUs) and field
programmable gate arrays (FPGAs), and virtual cloud
infrastructure providers. They can mix and match compo-
nents and work with specialists to create powerful and
unique solutions. O-RAN increases competition in the
ecosystem to the operators’ advantage while embracing
open-source software.
»» Intelligence: 5G generates a significant amount of data,
making it humanly impossible to analyze it and take
corrective actions on the network — whether it be to add
capacity or deploy certain services in specific regions — in a
timely manner. With its multiple interface points, O-RAN
promotes the use of AI and machine learning (ML) to collect
data, perform analysis, and feed information back to the
network in an automated fashion. Self-driving networks will
deliver a significant reduction — 40 to 50 percent, according
to various studies — for network service providers.
The O-RAN Alliance is the result of a merger between the Virtual-

ized Radio Access Network (xRAN) Initiative and the Centralized
Radio Access Network (C-RAN) Alliance, whose purpose was to
define virtualized RANs.
It includes nine working groups, each focused on a specific area,

as follows:
»» WG1: Use cases and overall architecture. Identify the use

cases and requirements and plan the overall architecture of
O-RAN and proof-of-concepts.
»» WG2: RAN intelligent controller (RIC), non-real-time
(non-RT) aspects, and A1 interface. Specify the artificial
intelligence (AI) enabled RIC (non-RT) functionality for opera-
tional supervision, intelligent radio resource management
(RRM), and A1 interface (used between the orchestration/
network management system [NMS] layer with non-RT RIC
and eNodeB [eNB]/gNodeB [gNB] containing near-RT RIC).
»» WG3: RIC, near-RT aspects, and E2 interface. Specify the
RIC (near-RT) architecture that enables control and optimiza-
tion of RAN elements and resources via the E2 interface
(used between the non-RT RIC and central unit [CU]/
distributed unit [DU]).
»» WG4: Next-generation fronthaul interface (NGFI)
specification. Specify the open fronthaul interface (NGFI-I)
between the DU and the active antenna unit (AAU) based on
C-RAN and xRAN’s work.
»» WG5: Key interfaces and stack reference design. Focus
on the design of the open CU, RAN virtualization, and splits
with the interfaces intersecting with 3rd Generation
Partnership Project (3GPP) specifications.
»» WG6: Cloudification and management and orchestration
(MANO) enhancement. Specify the virtualization layer and
hardware, decoupling of virtualized network functions (VNF)
and NFVI, and MANO enhancements.
»» WG7: White-box hardware. Specify and release a complete
reference design to foster a decoupled software and
hardware platform.
»» WG8: Stack reference design. Develop the software
architecture and release plan for the O-RAN central unit
(O-CU) and O-RAN distributed unit (O-DU) based on the
O-RAN and 3GPP specifications.
»» WG9: Open x-haul transport. Focus on the transport
domain consisting of the transport equipment, physical
media, and control/management protocols associated with
the transport network underlying the assumed Ethernet
interfaces (for fronthaul, mid-haul, and backhaul).
In addition, the Test and Integration Focus Group (TIFG) is

responsible for defining the overall approach for testing and inte-
gration. TIFG is working with the O-RAN Test Integration Center
(OTIC) to establish centers around the world for O-RAN compo-
nents compliance certification.
The founding members of the O-RAN Alliance were all network

operators (AT&T, China Mobile, Deutsche Telekom, NTT DOCOMO,
and Orange), but they enabled many new entrants. In addition to
MNO members (34 as of July 2021), more than 210 other contribu-
tors are now involved, including network equipment manufactur-
ers (NEM), chipset vendors, and companies that build stacks and
radio elements. Operators can also select software from various
vendors to use their preferred solution for each function.
Understanding O-RAN Basics

RAN deployment for 4G and earlier generations relied heavily on
closed proprietary network hardware and software from the same
vendor. O-RAN breaks down the traditional hardware-centric
RAN into building blocks and connects them using open and stan-
dardized interfaces.
Here are the main components of an O-RAN network:
»» O-RU: Refers to O-RAN radio unit (O-RU). Performs the fast

Fourier transforms (FFT), some beamforming, and precoding.
»» O-DU: Handles the media access control (MAC), radio link
control (RLC), and high physical (H-PHY) layers.
»» O-CU: Handles the packet data convergence protocol (PDCP)
layer between the network and the user equipment (UE).
»» RIC: Includes the non-RT RIC and RT RIC that gather informa-
tion from the O-DUs, O-CUs, and O-RUs; perform analytics;
and use AI and ML to generate suggestions for these
network elements to optimize the RAN.
The fronthaul is the connection between the baseband unit (BBU)

and remote radio head (RRH). It becomes much more challenging
with 5G. A lot more data needs to go back and forth because
of higher bandwidths and more antenna ports using massive
multiple-input/multiple-output (massive MIMO) technology,
leading to the use of the following solutions in O-RAN:
»» High-level split (HLS): Splits the higher layer between the

DU and the CU.
»» Low-level split (LLS): Splits the lower layer between the RU
and the DU.
With O-RAN, the O-RU sits at the edge, the O-DU sits in the mid-
dle and performs some of the processing, and the interfaces are
standardized. Operators can use different vendors for the CUs,
DUs, or RUs because the components are much more interoper-
able, and the protocols are clearly defined. But 5G brings about a
bandwidth explosion in the fronthaul that requires a new inter-
face between the BBU and the RRH. The enhanced Common Public
Radio Interface (eCPRI) interface reduces the bandwidth require-
ments by moving all the physical (PHY) layer functionality to the
RUs, but RU complexity increases tremendously. That’s where the
functional splits (see Figure 3-1) come in.
FIGURE 3-1: 5G functional splits.
Option 8 is a split option that puts all the PHY layer functionality
into the DUs, keeping only the antennas at the edge.
But because the bandwidth requirements increase significantly

with 5G, even a nominal scenario requiring 200 or 300 gigabits
of transport between the DUs and RUs is untenable. Option 7.2
provides an optimal split between the DUs and RUs. The PHY layer
is divided into low-PHY and high-PHY: The low-PHY stays in the
RUs and the high-PHY stays in the DUs.
Moving from the DUs to the CU typically means an upper layer

split or HLS (Option 2). Processor-intensive functionality moves
to the CU while the remaining part of the stack — such as the MAC
and RLC layers, along with the high-PHY — stay in the DUs. You
can split at the control level with an interface between the DUs
and the CU.
Addressing conformance and
integration challenges
While providing greater flexibility in how networks are built,
O-RAN also represents a paradigm shift for operators. Until now,
a base station was a single entity coming from a single network
vendor, so it was tested as a unit. With O-RAN, the base station
consists of different components coming from different vendors;
even subcomponents may come from different suppliers.
MNOs need to put these various elements together and ensure

that the components they source from different vendors work
together seamlessly. Components need to both interoperate and
conform to the specifications. Performance is also a key area of
focus to control the amount of bandwidth between the O-DUs and
the O-RUs.
Many aspects must align between the DUs and the RUs for the
whole system to work. The good news is that solutions are availa-
ble to overcome these challenges, and more will emerge.
The migration toward more open fronthaul interfaces comes with

many challenges. You’ll need to test more units and perform peer
emulation between all the O-RAN components. You’ll also need to
conduct conformance, interoperability, and performance testing
for all these components.
Deploying O-RAN
The conversation around O-RAN has shifted from whether the
technology is commercially viable to discussions of when, where,
and how to deploy O-RAN. Several operators have started O-RAN
deployments, including Rakuten Mobile, Dish Network, and
Vodafone. Deloitte Insights estimates that there were 35 active
Open RAN deployments worldwide at the end of 2020.
In the deployment phase, verifying O-RAN network performance

from the user perspective is essential. Having multiple UEs suc-
cessfully attach and send/receive data from/to the network is one
of the most important network verification tests.
Data tests help measure the capacity and quality of service of

the O-RAN network. You’ll need to perform downloads, uploads,
data transfers, and ping tests as well as record and analyze 5G NR
signal parameters, radio resources, latency, and different layer
throughputs to optimize the network.
IN THIS CHAPTER
»» Moving to 5G standalone (SA) networks
»» Living on the edge with multi-access edge

computing (MEC)
»» Looking at 5G observability challenges
»» Ensuring 5G device and network security
Chapter 4
Advancing Virtualization,
Cloudification, and MEC
I
n this chapter, you explore the role of virtualization, cloudifica-
tion, and multi-access edge computing (MEC) in helping mobile
network operators (MNOs) evolve to intelligent, open networks
and the new observability and security challenges brought by
these technologies.
Evolving from 5G NSA to SA

The first rollout of 5G networks are non-standalone (NSA) deploy-
ments that focus on providing higher data bandwidth and relia-
ble connectivity for enhanced mobile broadband (eMBB) use cases.
This rollout is in line with the 3rd Generation Partnership Project
(3GPP) specification that encourages early deployments of 5G net-
works and devices under NSA operation to accelerate deployments.
A 5G NSA environment only requires upgrading the 5G radio

access network (RAN) because it uses the 4G core, known as
evolved packet core (EPC). MNOs who wanted to be the first to
offer 5G speeds to their subscribers started with NSA and planned
to implement 5G standalone (SA) once the standard was ready
and the technical complexity of managing 4G and 5G in the same
physical space was addressed.
CHAPTER 4 Advancing Virtualization, Cloudification, and MEC 25
Most operators opting to deploy NSA first choose 5G NSA option
3X (NSA3X). This option allows different types of user equipment
(UE) to connect to the network, but it can’t deliver many 5G
capabilities. Dual connectivity (DC) also reduces UE battery life.
MNOs move to 5G SA by introducing the 5G core (5GC) network in
parallel to the EPC network. They can transition to 5G SA via sev-
eral options including option 2 (SA2), 5 (SA5), and 7 (SA7), with
most opting for SA2. (Refer to Chapter 1 for more details, includ-
ing a figure about 5G NR deployment options.)
But operators are increasingly going straight from 4G to 5G SA.

5G SA deployments are accelerating as the market matures, net-
work infrastructure elements for 5G SA become more available,
and operators want to deliver new services leveraging network
slicing. Network slicing enables operators to “slice” their net-
work architecture into multiple networks to meet specific service
requirements for latency, reliability, mobility, and throughput.
Embracing MEC
MEC delivers cloud computing capabilities and an IT service
environment at the edge of the cellular network. It allows com-
pute resources to be deployed closer to the edge of the network,
in effect transporting cloud capabilities to the edge to overcome
latency and network reliability issues.
MEC offloads client-compute demand given the higher availa-

ble communication bandwidth from the client. It allows for lower
demand on the network for predictable compute demands by
placing them closer to the client. It can also be used to optimize
the network function itself, because of its large, distributed com-
pute capability.
MEC also allows for greater flexibility in applications. For exam-

ple, applications can be architected to run in the client, on the
edge, in the cloud, or split across multiple domains to optimize
performance, power consumption, and other aspects.
MEC enables offloading traffic at the edge, saves network band-

width, and makes achieving latency requirements possible.
Enabling 5G Observability
With 5G and Open Radio Access Network (O-RAN), the number of
interfaces in mobile networks increases greatly, and there is room
in the specifications for interpretation. These factors increase the
need for more precise data correlation and analytics.
While the 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) specifies the

RAN interfaces, the O-RAN Alliance, which develops the O-RAN
specifications, also adds new interfaces to open the mobile net-
work at different points and provide flexibility in implementation.
Operators need to tap into a lot more points to get the information
they’re looking for.
Some of the open interfaces the O-RAN Alliance works on are the
following:
»» A1: Interface used between the orchestration/network

management system (NMS) and the 4G or 5G base station
»» O1: Interface that connects the orchestration/NMS to the
O-RAN network elements
»» E2: Interface used between the non-real-time RAN intelligent
controller (non-RT-RIC) and the O-RAN distributed unit
(O-DU)/O-RAN central unit (O-CU)
»» F1: Interface used between the O-DU and the O-CU
»» X2: Interface used between 4G base stations and the
5G base station called gNodeB (gNB)
»» Xn: Interface used to pass control and user plane
information between gNBs, 4G base stations capable
of communicating with gNBs, or both
CHAPTER 4 Advancing Virtualization, Cloudification, and MEC 27
The growing number of interfaces increases the data flow in the
network that needs to be observed. More splits of the protocol
stacks also increase the need for data correlation and analysis.
Filtering/correlation capabilities for nodes (combination of mul-
tiple network elements) for the network end to end (E2E) are also
needed.
Chapter 3 covers the different O-RAN network elements and the

functional splits in greater detail.
Ensuring Security
With 5G, networks become increasingly distributed, and more
components move to the edge of the network, creating the need
for better security. Massive IoT increases the number of devices at
the network edge exponentially.
According to the June 2021 Ericsson Mobility Report, by 2026 there

will be 5.4 billion cellular IoT connections — more than three
times the amount of cellular IoT connections in 2020.
Security requirements for network infrastructure, devices, and

consumers increase massively with 5G. 5G also needs to fill the
security gaps from previous generations of cellular technology in
user authentication and data encryption.
5G brings two key security enhancements:
»» Location-based subscriber authentication to only allow real

subscribers to access network services
»» Security-level adaptation with network slicing to increase the
level of security for specific virtual networks or services
Leveraging cryptography, 5G will deliver a higher level of security

among mobile networks from different MNOs and control access
to network services. Stronger encryption (256-bit algorithms
versus 128-bit in 4G) will also help 5G networks address potential
attacks from quantum computers.
IN THIS CHAPTER
»» Realizing the 5G opportunity
»» Looking to the future with 6G
Chapter 5
Expanding Wireless
Connectivity to Enable
Innovation
I
n this chapter, you explore the endless possibilities of 5G: new
services, new industries, and new revenue streams. You also get
a glimpse of the future — 6G.
Recognizing New Opportunities

5G networks deliver faster and more reliable communications.
They open doors to exciting new opportunities, including the
Internet of Things (IoT), autonomous vehicles, fixed wireless
broadband, and faster video viewing, to name a few. The follow-
ing sections take a closer look at them.
New services
5G expands the portfolio of services that mobile network opera-
tors (MNOs) can offer consumer and business customers. Some
CHAPTER 5 Expanding Wireless Connectivity to Enable Innovation 29
examples of new consumer services enabled by 5G include the
following:
»» Enhanced video leveraging 4K, 8K, and 360-degree formats

»» Live streaming sports and entertainment
»» Vehicle connectivity and entertainment
»» Music and gaming applications
For business customers, 5G enables new services such as the
following:
»» Smart factory automation and safety applications

»» Remote mining, drilling, and other hazardous operations
»» Connected vehicle fleets
»» Remote health diagnostic services
New industries
Smart homes, smart cities, and multiple industries (such as
health, retail, smart grids, and remote factories) have a common
thread — they’re using more and more devices and sensors that
communicate with one another and the rest of the world.
Many of these devices are mission critical, whereas others may

send high-definition video, requiring high availability and very
low latency. Yet another set of devices may send small data pack-
ets relatively infrequently (for example, every few hours, days, or
weeks). Some examples of new industry use cases that are emerg-
ing with 5G include the following:
»» Industrial applications: Groups like the 5G Alliance for

Connected Industries and Automation (5G-ACIA) are working
to help manufacturing, mining, petroleum, and other
industries to leverage wireless connectivity that is now more
reliable with lower latency than in previous wireless genera-
tions, replacing wired connections and improving opera-
tional efficiency and flexibility. Private networks enable
factories and other enterprises to operate dedicated, on-site
networks to improve efficiency, manage capacity, and
maintain security. Applications include advanced predictive
maintenance to reduce equipment downtime, precision
control and monitoring to increase machines’ range of
motion, and AR to enable humans to manage specific tasks
remotely.
»» Logistics and freight: These devices and sensors typically
require lower data rates but need wide coverage and reliable
location information.
»» Smart grid: A smart grid requires low-latency sensors to
regulate the use of utilities such as electricity, natural gas,
and water. Leveraging digital information, such as the
behaviors of suppliers and consumers, allows the smart grid
to improve the efficiency, reliability, economics, and
sustainability of the production and distribution of these
resources.
»» Remote medical: Collaborating on a medical case with
other surgeons located thousands of miles away was a use
case scenario discussed as part of the 4G Long Term
Evolution (LTE) rollout. It can become a reality with the
extreme bandwidth, low latency, and high availability of 5G
networks.
»» Hazardous areas: The ability to remotely explore mining
areas or shut down a nuclear power plant during an
emergency — in a fraction of the time required for human
interaction, and without risk to human life — is possible
with 5G.
New revenue streams

5G will enable new revenue streams for MNOs, device manufac-
turers, service providers, and many other enterprising ventures.
Fixed wireless access (FWA), real-time and near-real-time enter-
tainment services, augmented reality (AR) and virtual reality (VR)
applications, and autonomous vehicles are just a few examples.
Defining the 6G Vision

6G will enable exciting new use cases above and beyond those
available with 5G. In addition to the next-level evolution in auton-
omous driving and smart manufacturing, 6G will enable innovative
applications by combining sensing, imaging, and precise timing
with mobility, and by truly leveraging artificial intelligence (AI)
and intelligent networks. By further integrating communications
technologies into society, 6G technology will bring mixed-reality
experiences and immersive telepresence to life, while playing a piv-
otal role in achieving global sustainability, improving society, and
increasing productivity across industries.
However, ubiquitous wireless intelligence requires engineering

6G technology to deliver much higher performance than 5G with
capabilities measured not only in updates to existing key per-
formance indicators (KPIs), but also in new KPIs driven by the
uniqueness of the 6G vision. Early 6G targets represent a 10–100x
increase over 5G for KPIs such as peak data rates, latency, and
density. 6G also increases the importance of KPIs related to jitter,
link budget, and other technology aspects (see Figure 5-1).
FIGURE 5-1: 6G targets.
The need for wider bandwidths will require the use of frequencies
above 100 gigahertz (GHz) to enable ultra-high data-rate short-
range networks. Precise timing requirements will bring time-
engineered networks and new applications but will also require
changing the way networks operate. Delivering on 6G targets
will demand significant advances in computing and networking
architectures, chipset designs, and materials.
Privacy and security concerns will get increased focus on all net-
work layers, including new focus on physical (PHY) layer secu-
rity. The use of AI will also be fundamental to optimize network
operation, fight attacks, and facilitate recovery. A digitized, data-
driven society with instant and unlimited wireless connectivity
will lead to continued exponential growth in data traffic and con-
nections and will demand a hyper-flexible network. These aspects
will bring spatial spectral efficiency and connectivity challenges.
Extreme modulation bandwidths, ever-shorter wavelengths, and

higher propagation and atmospheric loss in the sub-terahertz
(THz) and THz spectrum will require reduced beamwidth and
increased antenna and device integration. Radio resource opti-
mization and intelligent networking will also require innovation
in radio frequency (RF), baseband, and system design to reduce
power consumption.
Significant technical challenges lie ahead for wireless design

and test engineers. 6G is in its infancy and will require years of
research, but wireless communications technology evolves fast.
As 5G is being built, the industry needs to prepare for 6G.
IN THIS CHAPTER
»» Addressing standards, regulations,
network, and security requirements
»» Conducting device performance tests
»» Testing your air interface in the field
»» Using real devices on your network to

ensure high quality of experience (QoE)
Chapter 6
Ten Steps to 5G
Deployment Success
T his chapter identifies ten steps you must take in order to

help ensure 5G deployment success for your organization.
»» Step 1: Ensure that devices meet 3rd Generation

Partnership Project (3GPP) standards, industry regula-
tions, and your network requirements. Each release of
the 5G standard introduces new capabilities that require
new technologies. Ensure that your devices meet 3GPP
standards, as well as any relevant industry regulations and
your unique network requirements.
»» Step 2: Assess the cybersecurity hygiene of 5G devices.
The attack surface grows exponentially with billions of
connected mobile devices, Internet of Things (IoT) devices,
and Wi-Fi networks and endpoints. Assess the cybersecurity
posture of your 5G devices thoroughly and frequently.
»» Step 3: Verify device connectivity performance for an
optimal user experience. 5G devices will access different
radio access technologies (RATs), including 5G New Radio
(NR), 4G Long Term Evolution (LTE), and Wi-Fi. Operators
need to evaluate real-world performance and handovers
CHAPTER 6 Ten Steps to 5G Deployment Success 35
between radio networks. This real-world evaluation is known
as the inter-RAT handover test.
»» Step 4: Check that radio access network (RAN) elements
conform to specifications. Before release into the market,
all 5G devices and base stations must meet a minimum level
of performance. 3GPP and the O-RAN Alliance define what
and how to measure for compliance against the core
specifications.
»» Step 5: Perform interoperability testing for seamless
interaction. Open Radio Access Network (O-RAN) brings the
disaggregation of 5G base stations into various elements.
Validating interoperability and performance against
expected use models helps ensure seamless interaction.
»» Step 6: Stress your RAN and core networks with 5G
traffic. Ensure that your RAN and core networks meet your
high performance, low latency, and robust reliability
requirements under load.
»» Step 7: Ensure that your infrastructure runs in a virtual,
cloudified environment. To migrate from 5G non-standalone
(NSA) to standalone (SA), you need to take advantage of
network functions virtualization infrastructure (NFVI) and
virtualized network functions (VNF), using virtualization,
containerization, and cloud technologies.
»» Step 8: Measure and analyze the air interface in the
field. The physical layer standards in 5G NR Release 15 and
beyond define a flexible air interface to support the many
use cases expected in 5G. Field test your air interface to
ensure that it performs as expected.
»» Step 9: Test your network with real devices to assess
performance. Stress test your network with 5G user
equipment (UE) traffic under different use case scenarios to
ensure that it meets key performance metrics like high data
throughput, reliability, and low latency.
»» Step 10: Observe 5G traffic to ensure high QoE for
subscribers. 5G and O-RAN increase the number of
interfaces in mobile networks, and the specifications leave
room for interpretation. Ensure complete observability using
precise data correlation and analytics.
Glossary
3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP): A mobile communications
industry collaboration that organizes the development and manage-
ment of mobile communications standards.
5G New Radio (NR): Shorthand for 5G NR, the standard for a new
orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM) based air interface
designed to support 5G devices, services, deployments, and spectrum.
NR describes 5G in the same way Long Term Evolution (LTE) describes 4G.
active antenna unit (AAU): An antenna that contains active electronic

components such as transistors, unlike an antenna with passive
components such as metal rods, capacitors, and inductors.
base station: A fixed communications location that is part of a wireless

network. Referred to as “eNodeB” (or eNB) in LTE and as “gNodeB” (or
gNB) in NR.
baseband unit (BBU): A component of the base station that handles

radio communications and radio control processing functions. The
baseband unit converts data into a digital signal and sends it on to the
remote radio head (RRH), which then converts it into an analog signal. In
a centralized radio access network (C-RAN) architecture, the baseband
unit is usually geographically separated from the radio head.
carrier aggregation (CA): A major feature introduced with Long Term

Evolution Advanced (LTE-Advanced), enabling mobile network operators
to combine multiple carriers in fragmented spectrum bands to increase
peak user data rates and the overall capacity of the network.
cellular vehicle-to-everything (C-V2X): A 3rd Generation Partnership

Project (3GPP) standard describing a technology to achieve the passing
of information between vehicles and roadway infrastructure to facilitate
road safety and traffic efficiency.
central unit control plane (Cu-CP): A logical node hosting the radio
resource control (RRC) and the control plane part of the packet data
convergence protocol (PDCP).
Glossary 37
central unit user plane (Cu-UP): A logical node hosting the user plane
part of the packet data convergence protocol (PDCP) and the service
data adaptation protocol (SDAP).
centralized radio access network (C-RAN): Also called cloud RAN, a

radio access network (RAN) architecture that separates baseband
functions from antennas and remote radio heads (RRHs), and pools
baseband functions in centralized baseband units (BBUs).
centralized unit (CU): Provides support for the higher layers of the
protocol stack such as the service data adaptation protocol (SDAP),
packet data convergence protocol (PDCP), and radio resource control
(RRC) layers.
channel state information (CSI): Refers to known properties of a

communication link. 5G New Radio (NR) specifies a new beam manage-
ment framework for CSI acquisition to reduce coupling between
measurements and reporting to control different beams dynamically.
component carrier (CC): One carrier of either Long Term Evolution

(LTE) or New Radio (NR). In the context of carrier aggregation, multiple
component carriers are aggregated together for an effectively wider
bandwidth.
control and user plane separation (CUPS): A foundational concept for

5G networks that enables operators to independently scale the control
plane and user plane of the mobile network as needed.
cross link interference (CLI): A reference signal that enables the

network to assess and mitigate downlink (DL)/uplink (UL) cross-
interference between cells and user equipment (UE).
cyclic prefix orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (CP-OFDM):

An orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM) technique that
uses cyclic prefixes instead of null guards, protecting OFDM signals from
intersymbol interference (ISI).
device under test (DUT): DUT, equipment under test (EUT), system
under test (SUT), and unit under test (UUT) are all terms used to refer to
a device undergoing measurement procedures.
discrete Fourier transform spread orthogonal frequency-division

multiplexing (DFT-s-OFDM): An optional modulation format used in the
uplink (UL) in 5G New Radio (NR), DFT-s-OFDM uses the mathematical
concept of discrete Fourier transform to encode (spread) digital data on
multiple frequency channels in a frequency-division multiplexing scheme,
decreasing the peak-to-average-power-ratio (PAPR), and thus decreasing
demand on transmit amplifiers. Used in user equipment (UE) UL radio
systems. Mandatory in Long Term Evolution (LTE), optional in NR.
distributed unit (DU): Provides support for the lower layers of the
protocol stack such as the radio link control (RLC), media access control
(MAC), and physical (PHY) layers.
downlink (DL): The path of transmission from the base station to the
user equipment (UE). In 5G, the downlink (DL) waveform is orthogonal
frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM).
dual connectivity (DC): Carrier aggregation of Long Term Evolution

(LTE) and 5G New Radio (NR) carriers. Evolved-universal terrestrial radio
access-new radio (EN-DC) enables dual connectivity between NR and
LTE/evolved universal mobile telecommunications system terrestrial
radio access networks (E-UTRAN). New Radio dual connectivity (NR-DC)
enables dual connections that are both NR, including frequency range 1
(FR1) and frequency range 2 (FR2).
enhanced mobile broadband (eMBB): One of three key use cases

defined in 5G New Radio (NR), eMBB refers to target 5G peak and
average data rates, capacity, and coverage as compared to conventional
mobile broadband (MBB). eMBB specifies a 5G design capable of
supporting up to 20 gigabits per second (Gbps) in the downlink (DL), and
10 Gbps in the uplink (UL).
evolved node B (eNodeB or eNB): Base station connected to the

network that communicates wirelessly with mobile handsets in a 4G
Long Term Evolution (LTE) network or 5G non-standalone (NSA) mode.
evolved packet core (EPC): The core network of the 4G Long Term
Evolution (LTE) system. The EPC features a flat architecture to handle
voice and data efficiently. It requires a few network nodes to be involved
in the handling of traffic. EPC serves as an anchor in the initial imple-
mentations of 5G NSA systems.
fast Fourier transform (FFT): An algorithm that computes the discrete

Fourier transform of a sequence, or its inverse.
field programmable gate array (FPGA): An integrated circuit designed

to be configured by a customer or a designer after manufacture.
fixed wireless access (FWA): A type of wireless broadband data

communication between two fixed locations and connected through
wireless access points and equipment.
frequency range 1 (FR1): One of two frequency ranges prescribed by

5G New Radio (NR). FR1 covers sub-6 gigahertz (GHz) frequency bands,
including some used by previous standards. FR1 ranges from 410
megahertz (MHz) to 7125 MHz.
frequency range 2 (FR2): The second of two frequency ranges pre-

scribed by 5G New Radio (NR); FR2 includes the millimeter-wave
(mmWave) frequencies and ranges between 24.25 gigahertz (GHz) and
Glossary 39
52.6 GHz. Bands in FR2 have a shorter range and higher available
bandwidth compared to bands in FR1.
full-dimension multiple-input/multiple-output (FD-MIMO): A MIMO

technique added to the 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP)
specification in Release 13 that extends MIMO concepts to work in three
dimensions: azimuth (horizontal), control (range), and elevation (vertical).
graphics processing unit (GPU): A specialized integrated circuit designed

for parallel processing and used for video and graphics rendering.
high-level split (HLS): A gNodeB (gNB) option that splits the higher
layer between the distributed unit (DU) and the central unit (CU).
International Telecommunication Union (ITU): A United Nations

agency responsible for information and communications technologies.
The ITU created the standard that sets forth the requirements for 5G
networks, devices, and services.
Internet of Things (IoT): The network of physical objects that are

embedded with sensors, software, and other technologies for the
purpose of connecting and exchanging data with other devices and
systems over the Internet.
key performance indicator (KPI): A metric that quantifies how mobile

phones and other user equipment (UE) perform on a network.
Long Term Evolution (LTE): A standard for wireless broadband

communication for mobile devices and data terminals.
Long Term Evolution Advanced (LTE-A): Also known as LTE Release 10,
LTE-A is one of the two mobile communication platforms officially
designated by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) as the
first 4G technology (the other is LTE-Advanced Pro). It specifies data
rates of 500 megabits per second (Mbps) maximum upload speed and 1
gigabit per second (Gbps) maximum download speed with a latency
(round-trip) of 5 milliseconds (ms).
Long Term Evolution Advanced Pro (LTE-Advanced Pro): Also known

as 4.5G, 4.5G Pro, 4.9G, and pre-5G, its feature functionality is defined in
3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) Releases 13 and 14. An
evolution of LTE with speeds up to 1 gigabit per second (Gbps), LTE-
Advanced Pro incorporates new functionality, including 256 quadrature
amplitude modulation (QAM), full-duplex multiple-input/multiple-output
(FD-MIMO), LTE-Unlicensed, LTE IoT, and other technologies to evolve
existing networks towards the 5G standard.
Long Term Evolution Internet of Things (LTE IoT): Also known as

narrowband Internet of Things (NB-IoT), LTE IoT is a 3rd Generation
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CHAPTER XXVII
THE LITTLE STREET SINGER
I T was Christmas Eve, and very nearly dark, when Mrs. Lanier,
driving up St. Charles Avenue in her comfortable carriage quite
filled with costly presents for her children, noticed a forlorn little
figure, standing alone at a street corner. There was something about
the sorrowful looking little figure that moved her strangely, for she
turned and watched it as long as she could discern the child’s face in
the gathering twilight.
It was a little girl, thinly clad in a soiled and torn white frock; her
black stockings were full of holes, and her shoes so worn that the
tiny white toes were visible through the rents. She hugged a thin,
faded shawl around her shoulders, and her yellow hair fell in matted,
tangled strands below her waist; her small face was pale and
pinched, and had a woe-begone look that would melt the hardest
heart. Although she was soiled and ragged, she did not look like a
common child, and it was that indefinable something in her
appearance that attracted Mrs. Lanier’s attention, for she thought as
the carriage whirled by and left the child far behind, “Poor little thing!
she didn’t look like a street beggar. I wish I had stopped and spoken
to her!”
It was Lady Jane, and her descent in the scale of misery had been
rapid indeed.
Since that night, some four months before, when Madame Jozain
had awakened her rudely and told her she must come away, she had
lived in a sort of wretched stupor. It was true she had resisted at first,
and had cried desperately for Pepsie, for Mam’selle Diane, for Gex—
but all in vain; Madame had scolded and threatened and frightened
her into submission.
That terrible midnight ride in the wagon, with the piled-up furniture,
the two black drivers, who seemed to the child’s distorted
imagination two frightful demons, madame angry, and at times
violent if she complained or cried, and the frightful threats and cruel
hints of a more dreadful fate, had so crushed and appalled the child
that she scarcely dared open her pale little lips either to protest or
plead.
Then the pitiful change in her life, from loving care and pleasant
companionship to utter squalid misery and neglect. She had been,
suddenly taken from comparative comfort and plunged into the most
cruel poverty. Good Children Street had been a paradise compared
to the narrow, dirty lane, on the outskirts of the city, where madame
had hidden herself; for the wretched woman, in her fear and
humiliation, seemed to have lost every vestige of ambition, and to
have sunk without the least effort to save herself, to a level with
those around her.
Madame had taken a terrible cold in her hurried flight, and it had
settled in her lame hip; therefore she was obliged to lie in her bed
most of the time, and the little money she had was soon spent.
Hunger was staring her in the face, and the cold autumn winds
chilled her to the marrow. She had been poor and in many bitter
straits, but never before like this. Now she dared not let any one
know of her whereabouts, and for that reason the few friends that
she still had could not help her. She was ill and suffering, and alone
in her misery. Her son had robbed and deserted her, and left her to
her punishment, and, for all she knew, she must die of starvation.
Through the aid of the negro Pete, she had parted with nearly
everything of value that she had, and, to crown her cruelty and Lady
Jane’s misery, one day when the child was absent on a begging
expedition she sold the blue heron to an Italian for two dollars.
The bird was the only comfort the unhappy little creature had, the
only link between the past and the miserable present, and when she
returned to her squalid home and found her only treasure gone, her
grief was so wild and uncontrollable that madame feared for her life.
Therefore, in order to quiet the child, she said the bird had broken
his string and strayed away.
After this, the child spent her days wandering about searching for
Tony.
When madame first sent her out into the street to sing and beg,
she went without a protest, so perfect was her habit of obedience,
and so great her anxiety to please and conciliate her cruel tyrant.
For, since the night when madame fled from Good Children Street,
she had thrown off all her pretenses of affection for the hapless little
one, whom she considered the cause of all her misfortunes.
“She has made trouble enough for me,” she would say bitterly, in
her hours of silent communion with her own conscience. “If it hadn’t
been for her mother coming to me, Raste wouldn’t have had that
watch and wouldn’t have got locked up for thirty days. After that
disgrace, he couldn’t stay here, and that was the cause of his taking
my money and running off. Yes, all my trouble has come through her
in one way or another, and now she must sing and beg, or she’ll
have to starve.”
Before madame sent her out, she gave Lady Jane instructions in
the most imperative manner. “She must never on any account speak
of Good Children Street, of Madelon or Pepsie, of the d’Hautreves,
of Gex, or the Paichoux, or of any one she had ever known there.
She must not talk with people, and, above all, she must never tell her
name, nor where she lived. She must only sing and hold out her
hand. Sometimes she might cry if she wanted to, but she must never
laugh.”
These instructions the child followed to the letter, with the
exception of one. She never cried, for although her little heart was
breaking she was too proud to shed tears.
It was astonishing how many nickels she picked up. Sometimes
she would come home with her little pocket quite heavy, for her
wonderful voice, so sweet and so pathetic, as well as her sad face
and wistful eyes, touched many a heart, even among the coarsest
and rudest, and madame might have reaped quite a harvest if she
had not been so avaricious as to sell Tony for two dollars. When she
did that she killed her goose that laid golden eggs, for after the loss
of her pet the child could not sing; her little heart was too heavy, and
the unshed tears choked her and drowned her voice in quivering
sobs.
The moment she was out of Tante Pauline’s sight, instead of
gathering nickels, she was wandering around aimlessly, searching
and asking for the blue heron, and at night, when she returned with
an empty pocket, she shivered and cowered into a corner for fear of
madame’s anger.
One morning it was very cold; she had had no breakfast, and she
felt tired and ill, and when madame told her to go out and not to
come back without some money, she fell to crying piteously, and for
the first time begged and implored to stay where she was, declaring
that she could not sing any more, and that she was afraid, because
some rude children had thrown mud at her the day before, and told
her not to come into the street again.
This first revolt seemed to infuriate madame, for reaching out to
where the child stood trembling and sobbing she clutched her and
shook her violently, and then slapping her tear-stained little face until
it tingled, she bade her go out instantly, and not to return unless she
brought some money with her.
This was the first time that Lady Jane had suffered the ignominy of
a blow, and it seemed to arouse her pride and indignation, for she
stopped sobbing instantly, and, wiping the tears resolutely from her
face, shot one glance of mingled scorn and surprise at her tyrant,
and walked out of the room with the dignity of a little princess.
When once outside, she held her hands for a moment to her
burning face, while she tried to still the tumult of anger and sorrow
that was raging in her little heart; then she gathered herself together
with a courage beyond her years, and hurried away without once
looking back at the scene of her torture.
When she was far enough from the wretched neighborhood to feel
safe from observation, she turned in a direction quite different from
any she had taken before. The wind was intensely cold, but the sun
shone brightly, and she hugged her little shawl around her, and ran
on and on swiftly and hopefully.
“If I hurry and walk and walk just as fast as I can, I’m sure to come
to Good Children Street, and then I’ll ask Pepsie or Mam’selle Diane
to keep me, for I’ll never, never, go back to Tante Pauline again.”
By and by, when she was quite tired with running and walking, she
came to a beautiful, broad avenue that she had never seen before.
There were large, fine houses, and gardens blooming brightly even
in the chilly December wind, and lovely children; dressed in warm
velvet and furs, walking with their nurses on the wide, clean
sidewalks; and every moment carriages drawn by glossy, prancing
horses whirled by, and people laughed and talked merrily, and
looked so happy and contented. She had never seen anything like it
before. It was all delightful, like a pleasant dream, and even better
than Good Children Street. She thought of Pepsie, and wished that
she could see it, and then she imagined how enchanted her friend
would be to ride in one of those fine carriages, with the sun shining
on her, and the fresh wind blowing in her face. The wind reminded
her that she was cold. It pierced through her thin frock and scanty
skirts, and the holes in her shoes and stockings made her ashamed.
After a while she found a sunny corner on the steps of a church,
where she crouched and tried to cover her dilapidated shoes with
her short skirts.
Presently a merry group of children passed, and she heard them
talking of Christmas. “To-morrow is Christmas; this is Christmas Eve,
and we are going to have a Christmas-tree.” Her heart gave a great
throb of joy. By to-morrow she was sure to find Pepsie, and Pepsie
had promised her a Christmas-tree long ago, and she wouldn’t
forget; she was sure to have it ready for her. Oh, if she only dared
ask some of these kind-looking people to show her the way to Good
Children Street! But she remembered what Tante Pauline had told
her, and fear kept her silent. However, she was sure, now that she
had got away from that dreadful place, that some one would find her.
Mr. Gex had found her before when she was lost, and he might find
her now, because she didn’t have a domino on, and he would know
her right away; and then she would get Mr. Gex to hunt for Tony, and
perhaps she would have Tony for Christmas. In this way she
comforted herself until she was quite happy.
After a while a kind-looking woman came along with a market-
basket on her arm. She was eating something, and Lady Jane, being
very hungry looked at her so wistfully that the woman stopped and
asked her if she would like a piece of bread. She replied eagerly that
she would. The good woman gave her a roll and a large, rosy apple,
and she went back to her corner and munched them contentedly.
Then a fine milk-cart rattled up to a neighboring door, and her heart
almost leaped to her throat; but it was not Tante Modeste. Still, Tante
Modeste might come any moment. She sold milk way up town to rich
people. Yes, she was sure to come; so she sat in her corner and ate
her apple, and waited with unwavering confidence.
And in this way the day passed pleasantly and comfortably to Lady
Jane. She was not very cold in her sheltered corner, and the good
woman’s kindness had satisfied her hunger; but at last she began to
think that it must be nearly night, for she saw the sun slipping down
into the cold, gray clouds behind the opposite houses, and she
wondered what she should do and where she should go when it was
quite dark. Neither Tante Modeste nor Mr. Gex had come, and now it
was too late and she would have to wait until to-morrow. Then she
began to reproach herself for sitting still. “I should have gone on and
on, and by this time I would have been in Good Children Street,” said
she.
She never thought of returning to her old haunts or to Tante
Pauline, and if she had tried she could not have found her way back.
She had wandered too far from her old landmarks, so the only thing
to do was to press on in her search for Good Children Street. It was
while she was standing at a corner, uncertain which way to turn, that
Mrs. Lanier caught a glimpse of her. And what good fortune it would
have been to Lady Jane if that noble-hearted woman had obeyed the
kindly impulse that urged her to stop and speak to the friendless little
waif! But destiny intended it to be otherwise, so she went on her way
to her luxurious home and happy children, while the desolate orphan
wandered about in the cold and darkness, looking in vain for the
humble friends who even at that moment were thinking of her and
longing for her.
Poor little soul! she had never been out in the dark night alone
before, and every sound and movement startled her. Once a dog
sprang out and barked at her, and she ran trembling into a doorway,
only to be ordered away by an unkind servant. Sometimes she
stopped and looked into the windows of the beautiful houses as she
passed. There were bright fires, pictures, and flowers, and she heard
the merry voices of children laughing and playing; and the soft notes
of a piano, with some one singing, reminded her of Mam’selle Diane.
Then a choking sob would rise in her throat, and she would cover
her face and cry a little silently.
Presently she found herself before a large, handsome house; the
blinds were open and the parlor was brilliantly lighted. A lady—it was
Mrs. Lanier—sat at the piano playing a waltz, and two little girls in
white frocks and red sashes were dancing together. Lady Jane
pressed near the railing and devoured the scene with wide, sparkling
eyes. They were the same steps that Gex had taught her, and it was
the very waltz that he sometimes whistled. Before she knew it, quite
carried away by the music, and forgetful of everything, she dropped
her shawl, and holding out her soiled ragged skirt, was tripping and
whirling as merrily as the little ones within, while opposite to her, her
shadow, thrown by a street lamp over her head, tripped and bobbed
and whirled, not unlike Mr. Gex, the ancient “professeur of the
dance.” And a right merry time she had out there in the biting
December night, pirouetting with her own shadow.
Suddenly the music stopped, a nurse came and took the little girls
away, and some one drew down the blinds and shut her out alone in
the cold; there was nothing then for her to do but to move on, and
picking up her shawl, she crept away a little wearily, for dancing,
although it had lightened her heart, had wasted her strength, and it
seemed to her that the wind was rising and the cold becoming more
intense, for she shivered from time to time, and her bare little toes
and fingers smarted badly. Once or twice, from sheer exhaustion,
she dropped down on a doorstep, but when she saw any one
approaching she sprang up and hurried along, trying to be brave and
patient. Yes, she must come to Good Children Street very soon, and
she never turned a corner that she did not expect to see Madelon’s
little house, wedged in between the two tall ones, and the light
gleaming from Pepsie’s small window.
CHAPTER XXVIII
LADY JANE FINDS SHELTER
A T last, when she began to feel very tired and sleepy, she came
to a place where two streets seemed to run together in a long
point, and before her she saw a large building, with lights in all the
windows, and behind it a tall church spire seemed nearly to touch
the stars that hung above it so soft and bright. Her tearful eyes
singled out two of them very near together that looked as though
they were watching her, and she held out her arms, and murmured,
“Papa, mama, can’t I come to you? I’m so cold and sleepy.” Poor
little soul! the stars made no answer to her piteous appeal, but
continued to twinkle as serenely as they have done since time
began, and will do until it ends. Then she looked again toward the
brilliantly lighted windows under the shadow of the church spire. She
could not get very near, for in front of the house was an iron railing,
but she noticed a marble slab let into the wall over the porch, on
which was an inscription, and above it a row of letters were visible in
the light from the street lamps. Lady Jane spelled them out.
“‘Orphans’ Home.’ Or-phans! I wonder what orphans are? Oh, how
warm and light it is in there!” Then she put her little cold toes
between the iron railings on the stone coping, and clinging with her
two hands lifted herself a little higher, and there she saw an
enchanting sight. In the center of the room was a tree, a real tree,
growing nearly to the ceiling, with moss and flowers on the ground
around it, and never did the spreading branches of any other tree
bear such glorious fruit. There was a great deal of light and color;
and moving, swaying balls of silver and gold danced and whirled
before her dazzled eyes. At first she could hardly distinguish the
different objects in the confusion of form and color; but at last she
saw that there was everything the most exacting child could desire—
birds, rabbits, dogs, kittens, dolls; globes of gold, silver, scarlet, and
blue; tops, pictures, games, bonbons, sugared fruits, apples,
oranges, and little frosted cakes, in such bewildering profusion that
they were like the patterns in a kaleidoscope. And there was a merry
group of girls, laughing and talking, while they hung, and pinned, and
fastened, more and more, until it seemed as if the branches would
break under their load.
And Lady Jane, clinging to the railing, with stiff, cold hands and
aching feet, pressed her little, white face close to the iron bars, and
looked and looked.
Suddenly the door was opened, and a woman came out, who,
when she saw the child clinging to the railing, bareheaded and
scantily clothed in spite of the piercing cold, went to her and spoke
kindly and gently.
Her voice brought Lady Jane back from Paradise to the bitter
reality of her position and the dreary December night. For a moment
she could hardly move, and she was so chilled and cramped that
when she unclasped her hold she almost fell into the motherly arms
extended toward her.
“My child, my poor child, what are you doing here so late, in the
cold, and with these thin clothes? Why don’t you go home?”
Then the poor little soul, overcome with a horrible fear, began to
shiver and cry. “Oh, don’t! Oh, please don’t send me back to Tante
Pauline! I’m afraid of her; she shook me and struck me this morning,
and I’ve run away from her.”
LADY JANE, CLINGING TO THE RAILING, LOOKED AND LOOKED
“Where does your Tante Pauline live?” asked the woman, studying
the tremulous little face with a pair of keen, thoughtful eyes.
“I don’t know; away over there somewhere.”
“Don’t you know the name of the street?”
“It isn’t a street; it’s a little place all mud and water, with boards to
walk on.”
“Can’t you tell me your aunt’s name?”
“Yes, it’s Tante Pauline.”
“But her other name?”
“I don’t know, I only know Tante Pauline. Oh please, please don’t
send me there! I’m afraid to go back, because she said I must sing
and beg money, and I couldn’t sing, and I didn’t like to ask people for
nickels,” and the child’s voice broke into a little wail of entreaty that
touched the kind heart of that noble, tender, loving woman, the
Margaret whom some to-day call Saint Margaret. She had heard just
such pitiful stories before from hundreds of hapless little orphans,
who never appealed to her in vain.
“Where are your father and mother?” she asked, as she led the
child to the shelter of the porch.
Lady Jane made the same pathetic answer as usual:
“Papa went to heaven, and Tante Pauline says that mama’s gone
away, and I think she’s gone where papa is.”
Margaret’s eyes filled with tears, while the child shivered and clung
closer to her. “Would you like to stay here to-night, my dear?” she
asked, as she opened the door. “This is the home of a great many
little homeless girls, and the good Sisters love and care for them all.”
Lady Jane’s anxious face brightened instantly. “Oh, can I—can I
stay here where the Christmas-tree is?”
“Yes, my child, and to-morrow there will be something on it for
you.”
And Margaret opened the door and led Lady Jane into that safe
and comfortable haven where so many hapless little ones have
found a shelter.
That night, after the child had been fed and warmed, and was
safely in bed with the other little orphans, the good Margaret sent
word to all the police stations that she had housed a little wanderer
who if called for could be found safe in her care.
But the little wanderer was not claimed the next day, nor the next
week. Time went on, and Lady Jane was considered a permanent
inmate of the home. She wore the plain uniform of blue, and her long
golden hair was plaited in a thick braid, but still she was lovely,
although not as picturesque as when Pepsie brushed her waving
locks. She was so lovely in person and so gentle and obedient that
she soon became the idol, not only of the good Margaret, but of all
the Sisters, and even of the children, and her singing was a constant
pleasure, for every day her voice became stronger and richer, and
her thrilling little strains went straight to the hearts of those who
heard them.
“She must be taught music,” said Margaret to Sister Agnes; “such
a voice must be carefully cultivated for the church.” Therefore the
Sister who took her in charge devoted herself to the development of
the child’s wonderful talent, and in a few months she was spoken of
as quite a musical prodigy, and all the wealthy patronesses of the
home singled her out as one that was rare and beautiful, and
showered all sorts of gifts and attentions upon her. Among those who
treated her with marked favor was Mrs. Lanier. She never visited the
home without asking for little Jane (Margaret had thought it best to
drop the “Lady,” and the child, with an intuition of what was right,
complied with the wish), and never went away without leaving some
substantial evidence of her interest in the child.
“I believe Mrs. Lanier would like to adopt little Jane,” said Margaret
one day to Sister Agnes, when that lady had just left. “If she hadn’t
so many children of her own, I don’t think she would leave her long
with us.”
“It is surprising, the interest she takes in her,” returned Sister
Agnes. “When the child sings she just sits as if she was lost to
everything, and listens with all her soul.”
“And she asks the strangest questions about the little thing,”
continued Margaret reflectively. “And she is always suggesting some
way to find out who the child belonged to; but although I’ve tried
every way I can think of, I have never been able to learn anything
satisfactory.”
It was true Margaret had made every effort from the very first to
discover something of the child’s antecedents; but she had been
unsuccessful, owing in a measure to Lady Jane’s reticence. She had
tried by every means to draw some remarks from her that would
furnish a clue to work upon; but all that she could ever induce the
child to say was to repeat the simple statement she had made the
first night, when the good woman found her, cold and forlorn, clinging
to the iron railing in front of the Home.
But Lady Jane’s reticence was not from choice. It was fear that
kept her silent about her life in Good Children Street. Often she
would be about to mention Pepsie, Mam’selle Diane, or the
Paichoux, but the fear of Tante Pauline would freeze the words on
her lips. And she was so happy where she was that even her sorrow
for the loss of Tony was beginning to die out. She loved the good
Sisters, and her grateful little heart clung to Margaret who had saved
her from being sent back to Tante Pauline and the dreadful fate of a
little street beggar. And the warm-hearted little orphans were like
sisters to her; they were merry little playmates, and she was a little
queen among them. And there was the church, with the beautiful
altar, the pictures, the lights, and the music. Oh, how heavenly the
music was, and how she loved to sing with the Sisters! and the
grand organ notes carried her little soul up to the celestial gates on
strains of sweet melody. Yes, she loved it all and was very happy, but
she never ceased to think of Pepsie, Madelon, and Gex, and when
she sang, she seemed always to be with Mam’selle Diane, nestled
close to her side, and, mingled with the strong, rich voices of the
Sisters, she fancied she heard the sweet, faded strains of her
beloved teacher and friend.
Sometimes when she was studying her lessons she would forget
for a moment where she was, and her book would fall in her lap, and
again she would be sitting with Pepsie, shelling pecans or watching
with breathless interest a game of solitaire; and at times when she
was playing with the children suddenly she would remember the
ancient “professeur of the dance,” and she would hold out her little
blue skirt, and trip and whirl as gracefully in her coarse shoes as she
did when Gex was her teacher.
And so the months went on with Lady Jane, while her friends in
Good Children Street never ceased to talk of her and to lament over
their loss. Poor Mam’selle Diane was in great trouble. Madame
d’Hautreve was very ill, and there was little hope of her recovery.
“She may linger through the spring,” the doctor said, “but you can
hardly expect to keep her through the summer.” And he was right, for
during the last days of the dry, hot month of August, the poor lady,
one of the last of an old aristocracy, closed her dim eyes on a life
that had been full of strange vicissitudes, and was laid away in the
ancient tomb of the d’Hautreves, not far from Lady Jane’s young
mother. And Mam’selle Diane, the noble, patient, self-sacrificing
daughter, was left alone in the little house, with her memories, her
flowers, and her birds. And often, during those first bitter days of
bereavement, she would say to herself, “Oh, if I had that sweet child
now, what a comfort she would be to me! To hear her heavenly little
voice would give me new hope and courage.”
On the morning of Madame d’Hautreve’s funeral, when Paichoux
opened his paper at the breakfast table, he uttered such a loud
exclamation of surprise that Tante Modeste almost dropped the
coffee-pot.
“What is it, papa, what is it?” she cried.
And in reply Paichoux read aloud the notice of the death of
Madame la veuve d’Hautreve, née d’Orgenois; and directly
underneath: “Died at the Charity Hospital, Madame Pauline Jozain,
née Bergeron.”
CHAPTER XXIX
TANTE MODESTE FINDS LADY JANE
W HEN Paichoux read of the death of Madame Jozain in the

Charity Hospital, he said decidedly: “Modeste, that woman
never left the city. She never went to Texas. She has been hidden
here all the time, and I must find that child.”
“And if you find her, papa, bring her right here to me,” said the
kind-hearted woman. “We have a good many children, it’s true; but
there’s always room for Lady Jane, and I love the little thing as well
as if she were mine.”
Paichoux was gone nearly all day, and, much to the
disappointment of the whole family, did not find Lady Jane.
His first visit had been to the Charity Hospital, where he learned
that Madame Jozain had been brought there a few days before by
the charity wagon. It had been called to a miserable little cabin back
of the city, where they had found the woman very ill, with no one to
care for her, and destitute of every necessity. There was no child
with her—she was quite alone; and in the few lucid intervals that
preceded her death she had never spoken of any child. Paichoux
then obtained the directions from the driver of the charity wagon, and
after some search he found the wretched neighborhood. There all
they could tell him was that the woman had come a few weeks
before; that she had brought very little with her, and appeared to be
suffering. There was no child with her then, and none of the
neighbors had ever seen one visit her, or, for that matter, a grown
person either. When she became worse they were afraid she might
die alone, and had called the charity wagon to take her to the
hospital. The Public Administrator had taken charge of what little she
left, and that was all they could tell.
Did any one know where she lived before she came there? No one
knew; an old negro had brought her and her few things, and they
had not noticed the number of his wagon. The landlord of the squalid
place said that the same old man who brought her had engaged her
room; he did not know the negro. Madame had paid a month’s rent
in advance, and just when the month was up she had been carried to
the hospital.
There the information stopped, and, in spite of every effort,
Paichoux could learn no more. The wretched woman had indeed
obliterated, as it were, every trace of the child. In her fear of
detection, after Lady Jane’s escape from her, she had moved from
place to place, hunted and pursued by a guilty conscience that would
never allow her to rest, and gradually going from bad to worse until
she had died in that last refuge for the miserable, the Charity
Hospital.
“And here I am, just where I started!” said Paichoux dejectedly,
after he had told Tante Modeste of his day’s adventure. “However,”
said he, “I sha’n’t give it up. I’m bound to find out what she did with
that child; the more I think of it, the more I’m convinced that she
never went to Texas, and that the child is still here. Now I’ve a mind
to visit every orphan asylum in the city, and see if I can’t find her in
one of them.”
“I’ll go with you,” said Tante Modeste. “We’ll see for ourselves, and
then we shall be satisfied. Unless she gave Lady Jane away, she’s
likely to be in some such place; and I think, as I always have,
Paichoux, that she stole Lady Jane from some rich family, and that
was why she ran off so sudden and hid. That lady’s coming the day
after proves that some one was on madame’s track. Oh, I tell you
there’s a history there, if we can only get at it. We’ll start out to-
morrow and see what can be done. I sha’n’t rest until the child is
found and restored to her own people.”
One morning, while Lady Jane was in the schoolroom busy with
her lessons, Margaret entered with some visitors. It was a very
common thing for people to come during study hours, and the child
did not look up until she heard some one say: “These are the
children of that age. See if you recognize ‘Lady Jane’ among them.”
It was her old name that startled her, and made her turn suddenly
toward the man and woman, who were looking eagerly about the
room. In an instant the bright-faced woman cried, “Yes! yes! Oh,
there she is!” and simultaneously Lady Jane exclaimed, “Tante
Modeste, oh, Tante Modeste!” and, quicker than I can tell it, she was
clasped to the loving heart of her old friend, while Paichoux looked
on, twirling his hat and smiling broadly.
“Jane, you can come with us,” said Margaret, as she led the way
to the parlor.
There was a long and interesting conversation, to which the child
listened with grave wonder, while she nestled close to Tante
Modeste. She did not understand all they said; there was a great
deal about Madame Jozain and Good Children Street, and a gold
watch with diamond initials, and beautiful linen with initial letters, J.
C., embroidered on it, and madame’s sudden flight, and the visit of
the elegant lady in the fine carriage, the Texas story, and madame’s
wretched hiding-place and miserable death in the Charity Hospital; to
all of which Margaret listened with surprise and interest. Then she in
turn told the Paichoux how Lady Jane had been found looking in the
window on Christmas Eve, while she clung to the railings, half-clad
and suffering with the cold, and how she had questioned her and
endeavored to get some clue to her identity.
“Why didn’t you tell Mother Margaret about your friends in Good
Children Street, my dear?” asked Tante Modeste, with one of her
bright smiles.
Lady Jane hesitated a moment, and then replied timidly, “Because
I was afraid.”
“What were you afraid of, my child?” asked Paichoux kindly.
“Tante Pauline told me that I mustn’t.” Then she stopped and
looked wistfully at Margaret. “Must I tell now, Mother Margaret? Will it
be right to tell? Tante Pauline told me not to.”
“Yes, my dear, you can tell everything now. It’s right. You must tell
us all you remember.”
“Tante Pauline told me that I must never, never speak of Good
Children Street nor of any one that lived there, and that I must never
tell any one my name, nor where I lived.”
“Poor child!” said Margaret to Paichoux. “There must have been
some serious reason for so much secrecy. Yes, I agree with you that
there’s a mystery which we must try to clear up, but I would rather
wait a little while. Jane has a friend who is very rich and very
influential—Mrs. Lanier, the banker’s wife. She is absent in
Washington, and when she returns I’ll consult with her, and we’ll see
what’s best to be done. I shouldn’t like to take any important step
until then. But in the meantime, Mr. Paichoux, it will do no harm to
put your plan in operation. I think the idea is good, and in this way
we can work together.”
Then Paichoux promised to begin his investigations at once, for he
was certain that they would bring about some good results, and that,
before many months had passed, Mother Margaret would have one
orphan less to care for.
While Margaret and Paichoux were discussing these important
matters, Tante Modeste and Lady Jane were talking as fast as their
tongues could fly. The child heard for the first time about poor
Mam’selle Diane’s loss, and her eyes filled with tears of sympathy for
her gentle friend. And then, there were Pepsie and Madelon, Gex
and Tite—did they remember her and want to see her? Oh, how glad
she was to hear from them all again; and Tante Modeste cried a little
when Lady Jane told of that terrible midnight ride, of the wretched
home she had been carried to, of her singing and begging in the
streets, of her cold and hunger, and of the blow she had received as
the crowning cruelty.
“But the worst of all was losing Tony. Oh, Tante Modeste!” and the
tears sprang to her eyes, “I’m afraid I’ll never, never find him!”
“Yes, you will, my dear. I’ve faith to believe you will,” replied Tante
Modeste hopefully.
“We’ve found you, ma petite, and now we’ll find the bird. Don’t fret
about it.”
Then after Margaret had promised to take Lady Jane to Good
Children Street the next day, the good couple went away well
pleased with what they had accomplished.
Tante Modeste could not return home until she had told Pepsie as
well as little Gex the good news. And Mam’selle Diane’s sad heart
was greatly cheered to know that the dear child was safe in the care
of the good Margaret. And oh, what bright hopes and plans filled the
lonely hours of that evening, as she sat dreaming on her little gallery
in the pale, cold moonlight!
The next day Pepsie cried and laughed together when Lady Jane
sprang into her arms and embraced her with her old fervor. “You’re
just the same,” she said, holding the child off and looking at her
fondly; “that is, your face hasn’t changed; but I don’t like your hair
braided, and I don’t like your clothes. I must get Mother Margaret to
let me dress you as I used to.”
And Mam’selle Diane had something of the same feeling when,
after the first long embrace, she looked at the child and asked
Mother Margaret if it was necessary for her to wear the uniform of
the Home. “She must wear it while she is an inmate,” replied
Margaret smiling. “But that will not be long, I suspect. We shall lose
her—yes, I’m afraid we shall lose her soon.”
Then Mam’selle Diane talked a long while with Margaret about her
hopes and plans for Lady Jane. “I am all alone,” she said
pathetically, “and she would give me a new interest in life. If her
relatives are not discovered, why cannot I have her? I will educate
her, and teach her music, and devote my life to her.”
Margaret promised to think it over, and in the mean time she
consented that Lady Jane should remain a few days with Mam’selle
Diane and her friends in Good Children Street.
That night, while the child was nestled close to Mam’selle Diane
as they sat together on the little moonlit gallery, she suddenly asked
with startling earnestness:
“Has your mama gone to heaven, too, Mam’selle Diane?”
“I hope so, my darling; I think so,” replied Diane in a choked voice.

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by Larry Miller and Jessy Cavazos

LIMIT OF LIABILITY/DISCLAIMER OF WARRANTY: WHILE THE PUBLISHER AND AUTHORS HAVE

ISBN 978-1-119-69362-8; ISBN 978-1-119-69364-2 (ebk)

CHAPTER 1: Realizing the Vision of 5G....................................................... 3

CHAPTER 2: Stepping Up 5G Device and Base Station

CHAPTER 3: Accelerating the Transformation to O-RAN......... 19

Table of Contents iii

CHAPTER 5: Expanding Wireless Connectivity to

CHAPTER 6: Ten Steps to 5G Deployment Success........................ 35

iv 5G & Beyond For Dummies, Keysight Technologies Special Edition

About This Book

If that describes you, you’re in the right place. If it doesn’t, keep

Icons Used in This Book

This icon points out information or a concept that may well be

If you seek to attain the seventh level of nerd-vana, perk up!

Tips are appreciated, but never expected — so keep these useful

Beyond the Book

2 5G & Beyond For Dummies, Keysight Technologies Special Edition

»» Plotting the path to 5G

Looking at 5G New Radio (NR)

»» Multi-gigabit wireless mobile broadband

CHAPTER 1 Realizing the Vision of 5G 3

5G technology promises faster, more reliable, and near-instant

»» Enhanced mobile broadband (eMBB): eMBB refers to the

4 5G & Beyond For Dummies, Keysight Technologies Special Edition

Rel-15 focuses on the high-speed data rates and capacity demands

Figure 1-1 reviews some of the key technologies and benefits in

FIGURE 1-1: 5G NR Rel-15 technologies and their benefits.

CHAPTER 1 Realizing the Vision of 5G 5

A new innovation in 5G NR is bandwidth parts, where the carrier

Unlike 4G, NR allows for scalable OFDM numerology where the

6 5G & Beyond For Dummies, Keysight Technologies Special Edition

FIGURE 1-2: Relationship between subcarrier spacing and time duration.

In an OFDM system, using CP mitigates the effects of channel

Channel state information (CSI), which refers to the known prop-

CHAPTER 1 Realizing the Vision of 5G 7

»» Wider overall channel bandwidths enable sending more data

Enhanced channel feedback improves throughput because the

Operating at mmWave frequencies introduces new challenges

FIGURE 1-3: Beam sweeping and initial access concepts.

8 5G & Beyond For Dummies, Keysight Technologies Special Edition

»» URLLC: Downlink and uplink enhancements, new prioritiza-

CHAPTER 1 Realizing the Vision of 5G 9

FIGURE 1-4: 5G NR deployment options.

10 5G & Beyond For Dummies, Keysight Technologies Special Edition

From FR1 to mmWave FR2

»» Frequency range 1 (FR1): 410 MHz to 7.125 GHz adds

FR1 introduces new challenges for designs — especially in the

Similar to LTE, CA provides larger bandwidths, up to a maxi-

From traditional RAN to O-RAN

CHAPTER 1 Realizing the Vision of 5G 11

Read Chapter 3 to find out more about O-RAN.

12 5G & Beyond For Dummies, Keysight Technologies Special Edition

»» Accelerating time to market in device

»» Maximizing performance in the base

Integrating and Optimizing 5G Devices

CHAPTER 2 Stepping Up 5G Device and Base Station Development 13

A comprehensive suite of tools can help you accelerate your device

Keep the following in mind when preparing for 5G NR conform-

»» Conformance test requirements and test methods continue

Preparing for conformance tests by performing pre-conformance