INTRODUCTION

WhatisHistory?
Historyreferstowhathappenedinthepast.Itisarecordofpeople’slives,behavioursandactivities;th
eirglories,successes,failuresandcruelties.Ithelpsustounderstandwhatishappeningaroundusand
helpsustoprepareforthefutureastoday’ssocietyhasbeenshapedbydecisionsofthepast.Theseacti
vitiesaretheoneswhichbringchangetothepast.Knowingaboutthepasthelpsustoavoidmistakesan
dunderstandhowweareliving.

Environmentofhistory
Theenvironmentisvitalbecausethroughthatpeoplebehaveincertainways.Theenvironmentaffect
swhatpeopleeat,wearandthesheltertheybuild.Thereforethewaypeopletrytocontroltheenvironm
entdeterminestheircourseofhistory.

FactorsofProduction
Productionisanactofproducinggoodsoritems.Therearethreefactorsofproductionwhichareland,la
bourandwealth;theseareregardedasagentsofproduction.Iflandandwealthareasharedequallyth
ere’slesschanceofconflictbutifthereisunequaldistributionconflictoccursamonggroupsortribes,th
isconflictisusuallyreferredtoastrouble.Peoplemaketheirownhistorythroughproductionandstrug
gle.

StagesofHistoricaldevelopment
 Stage1:Primitivecommunism
Inthisstagepropertywasequallysharedbythecommunityandworkwasdonetogether.Food,wealth
andotheritemsweresharedbythecommunity.

 Stage2:Slavery
Inthisstagepeoplehadgainedcontroloverthepoorandweakerpeople.SlavesPerformedtaskslikepr
oducingandthesewerealsoforcedtodowhattheirmasterswanted.

 Stage3:Feudalism
Inthisstageagriculturewasthemainmeansofproduction.Landwasownedbyafewpeopleknownasl
andlordsandthemajorityworkedforthelandlords.

 Stage4:Capitalism
Inthisstageownershipofmeansofproductionwasinthehandsofafewpeople.Wealthwasproducedb
ymachinesandworkersworkedinFactoriesandmines.Therewasunequaldistributionofwealth.

Stage5:Socialism
AccordingtoKarlMarxthiswasthehigheststageofdevelopmentandinthisstageequalitywillberestor
edandwealthwillbesharedequallyanditwillalsobeownedbythegovernment.

Historicalevidence
 Oraltradition
Thesearenarratedbyelderstotheyoung.Usuallytheyareinterviewedandinformationispassedfrom
onegenerationtoanotherthroughthewordofmouth.

Advantages
 Easytogetinformation.

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 Easytounderstand.
 Youcanaskquestions.
 Everymemberofthesocietycanhaveaccesstotheinformation.

Disadvantages
 Informationcanbeeasilyforgotten.
 Thenarratorcanalsomakedeliberatelies.
 Theremightbealotofexaggeration,biasordilutionofinformation.

 Writtenrecords
Thesearefactswrittenbypeopleofthepast.Thesefactscanbefoundinlibrariesorarchives.Informati
oncanbegroupedintoprimaryandsecondaryevidence.

 Primaryevidence
Thesearediaries,lettersorjustinformationwrittenbyactualduresse.g.RulersandAdministratorsw
howroteofficialletters.

 Secondaryevidence
Thisinformationisfoundinpublishedbooksanditisananalysisofprimaryevidence.Thereforeaperso
nwhoanalyses,studiesorwriteshistoricalinformationiscalledahistorian.Ahistoriansearchesforfac
tsaboutpasteventsandthesefactsarecalledevidences.

Advantages
 Informationcanbestoredforalongtime.
 Informationcouldbefromactualduress.

Disadvantages
 Onlytheliteratecanusethissource.
 Onemaywritewronginformation.
 Youcannotaskquestions.
 Recordsmaygetlost.
 Informationcanbedistorted,exaggeratedorforciblyimplied.

 Archaeology
Thisisascientificwayofstuddingremains,objectsandartefactsofthepaste.g.pottery,hoesandjewe
llery.TheseartefactsofthefastaredugoutfromthegroundathistoricalsitessuchasGreatZimbabwe,
KhamiandOldBulawayomonuments.Theytelluswhatpeopleate,howtheyobtainedtheirfood,howt
heydressedandequipmenttheyused.DatesareobtainedthroughascientificwayofdatingcalledCar
bonDating.
Advantages
 Itismorereliablethantheothertwosourcesasitcannotbedistortedorforciblyimpliedasonewillbede
alingwiththeoriginalremainsorobjects.
Disadvantages
 Themethodisexpensivei.e.CarbonDating.
 Itneedsskilledpeopletofindtheinformationordiscovertheobjectfromahistoricalsite.
 Ifnotcarefulinformationofdifferentgroupsofpeoplemaybemixedup.
 Objectsorremainsmaybedestroyedthereforehistoryofaparticulargroupislostforever.
A.D.–Anno-Domino(AfterDeath).
BC.–BeforeChrist.
Evolution

Firstpeopleandtheirevolvements/developments

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 Africawasthecradleofmankind,itisthoughtthatthefirstpeopleemergedontheAfricancontinentand
evolvedoveralongperiodoftimeintoHomoSapienSapien(Thescientificnameforpeopleastheyaret
oday).Evolutionisaprocessofchangefromanimals(apes)tohumanbeings(HomoSapienSapien)ov
eralongperiodoftime.CharlesDarwinisthemanwhoproposedthetheoryofevolution.Hearguedthat
manevolvedfromanimals.Inthetheoryofevolution,CharlesDarwinarguesthatdifferencesexistbet
weenthesamegroupsofanimalsifexposedtodifferentenvironments.Withinthedifferentenvironm
ents,someanimalsmaydieandsomesurvivethosethatsurviveproducedescendantswhicharediffer
entfromtheoriginalspecies.Theseanimalsthenspreadouttoreplacetheseoriginalspecies.

Evolution
Africaisregardedasthecradleofmankind,soitisbelievedthatthefirstpeopleemergedontheAfricanc
ontinent.SeveralarchaeologistsfoundmanydiscoveriesofskeletalremainsinAfricaandamongthe
mwereDrLouisandMaryLeakywhodiscoveredseveralskullsatOlduvaiGorgeinTanzania.In1959th
eLeaky’sfoundaskullwithlargegrindingteethwhichwasanexampleofanAustralopithecusRobustu
s.

Hominidskkkk
Thesewerecreatureswhichweremorelikehu-
mansthanapes.Theylivedonearthmillionsofyearsago.Theywerenotapesormonkeysandneitherw
eretheyhuman.Thesehominidsbecameextinct.TheywerebelievedtoliveinEasternandSouthernA
frica.Remainsofthesehominidshadbeenfoundcoveredindriedlakesandthesehistoricalremainsar
ealsoknownasfossils.

 Romapithecus
Itistheancestorofallapesandhumanbeings,theylivedmillionsofyearsago.Itwasnotanape,homini
dorhumanbeingbutadifferentcreaturealltogether.

 Australopithecus
Itlivedmillionsofyearsago.Theseweresmallcreaturesthatwhenfullygrownlookedlikea12yearold
andcouldn’twalkupright.Theyaretwotypeswhichwere:
 AustralopithecusRobustus
Itwassometimescalledthenutcrackerasitwasabletocrunchandgrindhardfoodlikenutsasithadlarg
egrindingteeth.ItwasalsocalledZinjathropus.
 AustralopithecusGracilis
ThesehadsmallteethofaboutthesamesizeandithadnospecialisedtasksliketheRobustus.Itatealls
ortsoffoodlikehumanbeingsoftodayeat.TheAustralopithecusdidnotmaketoolsbutusedtheirteeth
.

 HomoHabilis(Skilfulman)
SurvivedovertheearlyStoneAgeperiod.Itwasthefirsthominidtotalkusinglanguages,tousetoolsa
ndthesetoolswerecalledOldwansastheywerefoundatOlduvaiGorge.Habilinesprobablygotmeatb
yScavenging,theywaitedforlionsandhyenastofeastonthemeattheywould’vekilledandatetherem
ains.Meatformedasmallpartoftheirdiet.

 HomoErectus

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 Theworderectmeanstowalkupright.Theyusedhandaxesandcleaverstochopdowntrees,branches
andfordigging.PeoplewereabletomaketoolseasilyandthisperiodwasreferredtoastheearlyStoneA
ge.TheHomoerectuslearnedtousefiretodriveanimalsaway,protecttheirshelteratnight,tocookan
dkeepthemwarm.

 HomoSapien
TheysurvivedduringthemiddleStoneAgeperiod.Theyusedflextoolsforcuttingmeat,scrappingski
nsandmakingtipsofweapons.Theyusedgluetostickapoleonawoodenhandle.Agreateruseoffirewa
snoticed.Theybegantobuildshelterattheircampsmadefrombranches,stonesanddrygrass.

 HomoSapien(Neanderthals)
TheysurvivedduringthemiddleStoneAgeperiod.Theylookedafterthesick,buriedthedeadandbelie
vedinlifeafterdeath.Theydroveanimalsovercliffsasgroups,trapped,killedandsharedmeatequally
.

 HomoSapienSapiens
ThepeopleoftodayarecalledHomoSapienSapien.TheycontinuedwiththemiddleStoneAgeperiodb
utdevelopedfutureStoneAgetools.Futurechangesarenoticedduetoenvironmentalchangesthatis
thereasonwhypeopledifferbecauseofdifferentenvironments.

Effectsoftoolmaking
Toolmakingaffectedpeople’slivespositivelybymakingproductioneasier.Itwaseasierbecausethey
usedthetoolsforgatheringfoode.g.fruitsandinsects.Thisalsobroughtcommunicationandtheirlan
guageprogressedandthiswaswhereearlylanguageemerged.Thetransitionfromcollectingtohunti
ngestablishedanimportantbaseforthefuturehumandevelopment.Bythispeoplelearnthowtotake
careofthemselves.Thestruggleforsurvivalhelpedthehumandevelopmentincrease.

Earlyagriculture.
Itisaverybighelpinghandintheprocessofdevelopment.Inthisstagepeoplebegantodomesticatean
imalsandtobreedtheyoungonesoftheanimal.SomeofthemajorcropswhichwerefirstgrowninAfric
ae.g.TaffwhichwasfirstgrowninEthiopia.Toolsofagriculturesuchashoeswereused.Somegotmore
landthanothersresultinginslaveryandsomeofthepeoplegainedcontroloverothers.Inthisthefirstcl
asssocietiesbegantoemerge.

EGYPTANDKUSH

InEgypttwogreatcivilisedgroupsexistedwhichwereEgyptiansandKushians.TheNileRiverinEgypti
sthelongestriverinAfrica.IthastwogreattributarieswhicharetheBlueNileandtheWhiteNile.TheNil
ewasthecentreoflifethroughtrade,transportandagriculture.TheearlypeopleoftheNilehadtolearn
tounderstandtherivertocontrolitsflooding.Damwallswerebuilttostopthewaterfromfloodingthevi
llages.Canalswerealsobuilttohelpwaterrunthroughthefields.TocalculatethisEgyptiansneededac
curatemeasurementsthereforetheydevelopedearlyformsofmathematicsandGeometrywhichthe
ycalledGeometrics.EgyptianscameupwiththreeseasonswhichthecalledArket(thetimeforplantin
g),Peret(thetimeforharvesting)andShemou(thetimewhentheNileriverflooded).Dayswerecount

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 edbyphasesofthemooncalledmonths.Thefloodcyclestartedafterevery365daysandeachmonthha
d30daysandthatleftthemwith5extradayswhichtheycalledHeryouRenepet.

Egyptianwriting
ThemostvitalstepstocivilisationweretheinventionofEgyptianwriting.TheEgyptiansadoptedapict
urewayofwritingcalledHyroglyphics.ThemostimportantrecordsoftheEgyptianswhichhavecome
downtousareonpapyrus(paper).AtfirstEgyptianscurvedtheirwritingonstonese.g.onthewallsofE
gyptiantombsandtemples.Theylearnthowtomakepaperfrompapyrusreedswhichgrewfreelyonth
eNilebanks.Inkwasmadebymixingsootandvegetabledye.TheEgyptianhandwritingiscalledHiero
glyphicswhichmeanspicturewritingorsacredcarvings.

Wholearnttowrite?
 Pharaohsandtheiradvisers.
 Priestslearnttointerpretsacredwriting.
 Scribesastheyworkedincivilservicesandwedprofessionalwriters.
 Sonsofrichmanlearnttowriteaspartoftheireducation.

Whatdidtheywrite?
 Theykeptrecordsoftheireverydaybusiness.
 Playsandstoriesofallkindsmostlyaboutthegods.
 Lettersofstatebusinesstoforeigncountriesorpersonalletters.
 Booksofmedicine,signsandmoralbasedonreligionpractisesaswellassocialquestions.
 Scribeswerepresentinfieldstorecordthesizeoftheharvestsothatpropertext/
recordcouldbeassessed.
 FromthisideamodernmandevelopedwritingforcommunicationandEgyptianwritinghasthusmade
agreatcontributiontoourpresentcivilisation.

Agriculture
Cropssuchaswheat,barleyandsorghumweregrown.Theirfoodwasmadeupofbreadandfishfromth
eNile.Theykeptalotofsheepandgoatsbutfewcattle.Theiranimalsweremainlyforpayingtaxestothe
Pharaoh.Theyalsogrewflexwhichhelpedthemtomakecloth.

Shaduf
Itwaslikeaseesaw,abucketwasfastenedtooneendtoapoleandaheavystonetotheotherside.Thepo
lethensupportsthecrossbeamlayeredacrosstoshortwoodenposts.Whenthebucketisdippedintot
heriver,aheavystoneactsasacentreweightandthebucketcanriseeasilyandtippedintotheirrigatio
ncharets.TodaywehaveirrigationinmostofourcountrybuttheideawasborrowedfromEgyptandasy
earspassedbyEgyptiangrewcropsasaresultoftheirrigationsystem.

Pyramids
PyramidswerethemightiesttombsofallbuiltbythePharaohsfortheirburials.Togethertherewere80
pyramidswhichwerebuiltneartheNile.ThefirstpyramidwasbuiltforPharaohZhozaanditwasdesign
edbyanArchitect/
Imhotep.Itwasmadeoutofatomblayeredoutofdifferentlevelsandthisgaveanimpressionofstepsa
nditwasgiventhenameHeroe.ThelargestwasbuiltforPharaohKhufuanditstandsatGizinearthecity

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 ofCairo,ittookmanyyearstobuildandmanymenwererequiredfortheconstruction.Pyramidswereb
uiltduringtheseasonofShemouwerenoworkwasdoneinthefields.

Egyptianbeliefs
 Theybelievedinlifeafterdeathandlookedforwardtothesamekindoflifewhichtheywerelivingoneart
hinthenextworld.
 Thebookofthedeadwaslisted2sinswhichamanhadtoavoidwhichwerecheatingandkilling.
 TheEgyptiansbelievedthesoulleftthebodytobejudgedbyOsiristheunderworldgod.
 Theheartofthedeadwasplacedonahugescaleandweighedagainstitssins,guiltysoulswereatonced
evouredbythejackalheadedgodAnubisbutgoodsoulsenteredtheworldofthedeadandthecompany
gods.
 Thesoulthathadbeenjudgedworthofeternallifecouldeventuallyenterthebodybutonlyifitwasprop
erlypreservedandlaidinatomb.
 There-
entryofthesoulintothebodyexplainedwhyEgyptianspreservedthebodyofthedead(mummified).
 Forkingsandrichman,thepreservingprocessofthebodywouldlastover2months,vitalorganswerefi
rstremovedandstoredinAlaboJarswhilstthebodyitselfwasdriedandtreatedwithspicesofessence.

NB:MuchofEgyptianculture,writingandwaslostandotherpointchangedundertheruleoftheGreeks
,however,theGreekslearntmorefromEgyptianarts,religion,architectureandscience.

Egyptiangods
Horus–Theskygod,hiseyeswerethemoonandthesun.
Ptah–Heinventedthearts,thegodofthecapitalmenu.
Hathor–Shewasthegoddessofbeauty.
Osiris–Hewasagodoftheunderworld.
Rechoralchty(Ra)–Hewasthesungod.

 ThewordPharaohcamefromPer-auwhichmeansgreathouseofleader.
 Pharaohwastheheadofstateandhighpriest;hegovernedwiththeassistanceofAdvisors,Generalsa
ndPriests.
 ThePharaohwasseenasagodanddifferentfromotherhumans.
 Womenplayedaveryimportantruleinthestateand4womenbecamepharaohsthemselves.
 MeansofproductionanddistributionofwealthwasinthehandsofthePharaoh.
 Buildingofthetempleandminingwerestatebusinesses.
 MostpeoplewerepeasantfarmerswhoworkedandlivedonlandwhichbelongedtothePharaoh.
 Landwasgivenaspaymenttothepriest,officialsandsoldiers.
 Landwhichwasownedcouldbepassedfromparentstotheirchildren.
 ThosewhoworkedforthePharaohwerepaidinregulargiftslikegrain,fishandotherthings.
 Therewerealsocraftedpeoplewhowereinvolvedaspottersandsculptors.
 Thesurvivaloftheeconomyofthesocietydependeduponthegrowthanddistributionofland.
 Peasantfarmersgrewwheatandbarley.
 Breadandbeerwasmadefromgrainaswellasvegetablesandfruitswerethestaplefood.
 Landwastoowetforcattleraisingtherefortheymainlykeptsheepandgoats.
 Glassesweremadefromsand.

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 Egyptianlaw
 Menandwomenwereequalbeforethelawinrelationtoroyaldecisions,legalpractisesandpenalties.
 Theyhadequalrightstopropertyaswellasjustice.
 Afamilywasconstitutedofmother,fatherandchildren.
 Astrictcodeofethicswaskept.

ImportanteventsinEgyptianhistory
Historicalevidencewasobtainedfrom
 Oraltradition.
 Writtenrecords.
 Archaeology.

AhistoriancalledManethosortedthekingsintodynasties.Adynastyisalineoffamilyrulers.Hedivided
theperiodsinto3kingdoms.
 Theoldkingdom(2750-2200BC)
 Themiddlekingdom(2150-1800BC)
 Thenewkingdom(1580-1100BC)
Theintermediatewastheperiodbetweendynastiesandnorecordswerekeptduringthisperiodbetwe
encivilwarsandforeigninvasions(Darkages).

Theoldkingdom
ThefirstpharaohwasMeneswhounitedlowerandUpperEgypt.Hewasaleaderfromthesouthandhisc
apitalwasMemphis.The1stand2nddynastiesworkedhardin
UnitingasocietyduringthethirddynastythefirstpyramidwasbuiltforPharaohZozeratSakkara;pyra
midswereburialplacesforPharaohs.PharaohZozerwasthefounderofthethirddynasty;hispyramid
wastheonlyonewithsteppedsides.Threemorepyramidswerebuiltduringthefourthdynastyandthe
sehadsmoothsides.PharaohKhufu’swasthegreatestandisoneofthewondersoftheworld.

Themiddlekingdom
PharaohMenthuhotepofthe11thdynastyworkedhardtoreuniteEgyptonceagain.Hissuccessorsext
endedthepowerovertherichNubiaattheSauté.DuringthisperiodPharaohsputtheirsonsascorerule
rs.Duringthe13thdynastythePharaohsweremoreconcernedaboutthesouththatthenortherndefen
cesbecameweak.GroupsofinvadersfromAsiabegantoenterthecountryandtheseforeigninvaders
wereknownasHyksos.TherulersThebesfoughtawarofliberationagainsttheHyksosandthiswarlast
edfor50years.

Thenewkingdom
Betweenthe18thand20thdynastiesEgyptbecamepowerfulagain.PharaohsofthattimewereAmenh
otepI,ThutmoseIandQueenHatshepsutI.theystrengthenedandattendedexternalaffairssuchasb
uildingtemples.DuringThutmoseIII’sreignEgyptbecameanimperialistpowerrulingovercitystate
sofPalestine,SyriaandLebanon.DuringthereignofAmenhotepIIIheconcentratedmainlyontheinte
rnalashewasmoreinterestedincultureathomethanabroad.DuringhisreignatempleatLuxorinthev
alleyofkingswasasightofoneofthemostimportantofallarchaeologicalfindings,themummifiedbod
yofTutankhamenwasfoundin1922ofthe18thdynasty.GreatimportantEgyptianevidencewasfound
inhistomb.

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 THEEARLYPEOPLEOFCENTRALANDSOUTHERNAFRICA

THESAN
TheSanwerethefirstknowninhabitantsofCentralandSouthernAfrica.Theywerehunter-
gatherslivinginhighlymobilisedgroupsbetween20-
50peopleeitherfollowinggamearoundthecountryorlivingincloserhythmwiththelandanditsseaso
nsormaintainingamoresettledlifedependingonseals,shellfish,crayfish,birdsandfruitsforfood.Th
eSanshaveleftalastingrecordoftheirlivesthroughathousandpaintings.Thesehunter-
gatherershavestillsurvivebutinsmallnumbersintheKalaharidesert.Theirphysicalappearanceiss
mallinstructure,brownincolourandtheyhaveuniqueclicklanguages.TheSanwerestoneagepeople
sotheydidnotusemetalssotheirweaponsweremadeofwood,stoneandbones.Theydidnotdomestic
ateanimalsandcultivatecrops.Nopotterywasmadeinsteadtheyusedostricheggshellsforstoringan
dholdingliquids.TheSanwerenomadsastheywerealwaysonthemoveinsearchofgameandplantfoo
dsotheydidnotbuildpermanentshelter,theypreferredrockshelterfortemporaryshelter.Achiefcon
trolledtheirresourcesonbehalfofthegroupbackinthedaybeforethearrivalofshelter.Anumberoffis
hboneswerefoundincavesandthisindicatesthattheywereaccomplishedfishermen.Sliversofbone
sandwoodsharpenedateachendwereusedtohookfishwhichwerealsocaughtbymeansoftidaltrap
madefromwallsconstructedbyriverSanda.

Socialandculturallife
 TheSanhadnosenseofownership.
 Disputesweresolvedbyagroupknownasaconsensus.
 Thestatusofwomenwasrelativelyequal.
 TheSanofbothsexworemanyornamentsmadeofseed,berries,shellandsmallpiecesstucktogether
asnecklacesandbraceletstheyusedostrichandtortoiseshellstocarryandstorewater.
 Movementtodifferentcampsiteswasorganisedbyagroup.
 Theirlifestylewasprimitivecommunism.
 TheSanmenwereresponsibleforhuntingandfishing,theywentonlonghuntingtripsandtheywouldg
atherHordiaGordidniandchewthebittermiracleplanttosupresstheirappetite.
 Thewomendidmostofthegatheringofplantsandthatincludedwildfruitandberriesaswellasleaves,s
temsbulbs,corms,androotofavarietyofplants.
 Theywereverygoodhuntersthatknewthewaysoftheanimalstheyhunted.
 TheSanhadtodevisemanydifferenthuntingtrapsintheformofpartscoveredbyleaveswhichwasano
therwayoftrappingtheanimals.
 Anotherwaywasextractingpoisonwhichwasthenusedtohunt.
 Themeatwascookedfreshorsmokedanddriedforlateruse,onlysmallquantitieswerepreservedthis
waybecauseithadtobecarriedwhenthegroupmovedtothenextplace.
 Clothingwaslightforeasymovement,menworelineskirtswithashortskininfronttiedonthewaist,an
dtheyalsousedskincloaksandblanketstokeepthemselveswarmespeciallyintemperateclimates.
 LeatherworkwascommonandleatherwasmadeintoNedbagforcarryingfood,stringbagswerewove
nfromgreatfibre.
Rockpaintings

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 Theypaintedonrocksandincavewallsandengravedoneggshells.Theserockpaintingshavegivenus
alotontheirlifestyle.TheserockpaintingsshowthattheSanweretunedtotheirenvironment.

Sanbeliefs
 Theypaidtributetothechief.
 TheybelievedinGod.
 Theelandwasconsideredthemostspiritualanimal.
 Thetaughttheirchildrenthroughoraltradition.

THEKHOIKHOI

TheotherearlyinhabitantsofCentralandSouthernAfricaweretheKhoisanherdersorKhoiKhoi.Thee
arlyEuropeanscalledthesepeoplethe“Hottentots”meaningstammers.Theexactoriginofthesepeo
pleisstillbeingdebatedbyhistorians.TheoldtheorywastheKhoiKhoimigratedfromEastAfricawitht
heirlivestockandsettledinSouthernAfricabutrecenthistoricalevidencehasshownitisnottrue.Itisb
eingarguedthattheKhoiKhoiwereamongtheoriginalinhabitantsofthearea.Itisalsoknownthatsom
eoftheSanpeopleadaptedtothechangesintheirenvironmentandbegantodomesticateanimalspro
bablyabout2000yearsago.TheKhoiKhoiwasoriginatedfrompastoralcultureandlanguagewasfoun
d.Theexactplaceoforiginofthesepeopleisstilldebatedandsomesaytheyoriginatedfromthenorther
nplaceofBulawayoandmigratedtoEastAfricawiththeirlivestockinSouthernAfrica.However,recen
tevidencearguesthattheywereamongtheoriginalinhabitants.Itisalsoknownthatsomeofthesanad
optedchangeintheenvironmentandbegantodomesticateanimals.

Economicsystem
 Majoreconomicsystemwasbasedonlifestyleandproduction.
 Theyraisedlonghornedcattleandfattailedsheepandgoats;cattlewereasymbolofwealthandpresti
ge.Theirwayoflifewasorganisedaroundtheirlivestocktherefortheymovedfromplacetoplacedurin
gdifferentseasonsinsearchofpastureandwaterfortheanimals.
 Animalswerekeptformeat,milkandblood.
 Husbandryofsheep,goatsandcattleprovidedastablebalanceddietandallowedtherelatedKhoiKhoi
peopletoliveinlargegroupsthanthepreviousinhabitants.
 AstimewentonKhoisanbegantogrowcropsandavarietyofotherplants.
 LiketheSanbothsexeswereinvolvedintheeconomicactivities.
 Apartfromherdinganimalsmensometimeshuntedwildanimalsformeatandskinforclothing.
 Womenmilkedcowsandgoats,gatheredrootsandberriesandalsomadepottery.
 TheKhoiKhoiindustrywasmoredevelopedthanthatoftheSan.
 Theirtechnologyincludedcarvingsofshallowdishes,boneivoryandsmeltingandsmitingofiron.
 TradingofsomeofthesetimeswasdevelopedwithtradersfromtheFarEastwhooftencametothesout
hoftheeastcoastofAfrica.
 Theyalsoextractedsaltfromthesaltmineralspringsthroughevaporationinsoapstonedishes.

PoliticalandSocialorganisation
 Thevillagesettlementwasrelativelylargeoftenwelloverhuntedpersons.
 Theydidnotliveincavesbecauseoftheirlargenumbers.
 Theybuiltdomeshapedhutsfromyoungbranches.

ZJC NOTES Page 9

 Theycoveredthemwithmatsfromreedsandsometimeswithanimalskins.
 Hutswerearrangedinacircleanddomesticanimalswereoftenkraaledovernightwithinthecircle.
 Eachvillageconsistedofmemberofthesameclanandagroupofmaledescendantsofaparticularance
storwiththeirwivesandchildren.
 Theyoungpeoplewereinitiatedatadulthoodatabout18yearsandmarriagecouldtakeplaceafterthe
ceremony.
 Thegroompaidlobolaintheformofanoxfortheweddingfeast.
 Afterthemarriageahutwasbuiltforthecouplenearthebride’smother’shut.
 UnliketheSantheKhoisancommunityhadmoreorganisedsystemofauthority.
 Eachvillagehadaheadman,itwasahereditarypositionpassedtotheeldestsonofthefoundingancest
orforeverygeneration.
 Headmanmadedecisionssuchaswhenandwheretomove.
 Theyalsoactedasmediatorsorjudgesincriminalandcivildisputes.
 Seniorpeoplehadmoreprivilegesthanthejuniorse.g.theylivedinhousestotherightoftheelderwhils
tjuniorslivedtotheleftside.
 Eachfamilyhadtheirownhut;however,childrenwhowereolderlivedwiththeiragegroup.
 TheKhoisanwerepolygamous(morethanonewife).
 Severalvillageswereunitedintoalargerunitcalledatribe.
 TribeshadakinshipbaseandweremadeupofanumberoflinkedclanswithaSeniorityofoneoftheclan
sbeingrecognised.
 Theheadoftheseniorclanwasrecognisedasthechiefofthetribe.
 TheextantofthetriballandwasnotdefinedbyexactboundariesbutreferencetolandTokaywaterhole
.
 Tribalchiefscontrolledoutsideaccesstotheirresources.

Religiousbeliefs
 TheKhoisanbelievedinasupremebeing.
 Theybelievedinspiritsofnaturalforcesespeciallywaterandrain.
 TheygavespecialsignificancetothemoonwhichtheyviewedasaphysicalmagnificationoftheSupre
meBeingassociatedwithheaven.
 Thetimeofanewandfullmoonwasaspecialoccasionfordancing.

THEIRONAGESOCIETIES

TRANSITIONFROMTHELATESTONEAGE
 Politicalchanges
 Permanentsettlementswereestablished.Therewasalotoffoodsopeopleabandonedtheideaofmovi
ngfromplacetoplaceinsearchoffood.
 Villagecommunitieswerecreated.Thisledtoformationofclassesi.e.chiefsandsubjects,richandpoo
r.
 Populationincrease.Astheeconomyimprovedpeoplegotenoughfoodtostoreforthenextseason.Pe
oplebecamehealthyduetobalanceddietthusleadingtopopulationincrease.
 Rivalsamongstvillages.Villagesfoughttocontrolresourcesandweakervillagesweredestroyedbyst
rongerones.Thisledtocreationofarmiesasawayofsecuringland,cattleandgrain.

ZJC NOTES Page 10

 Decisionsweremadebyasmallandpowerfulgroupcalledaconsensus.

 EconomicChanges
 ThenewironusersdidnotcompletelybreakawaywiththepastStoneAgeandcontinuedtohuntandga
thertosupplementtheirfood.
 However,theybegantominemineralscopper,gold,silverandironoreweremined.Hoesandaxeswer
evitalforminingashoeswereusedtodigformineralsandaxesforcuttingtreestouseforthefurnace.Be
foreIronAgethesemineralswereignoredandregardedascolourfulrocks.Goldandcopperwereproc
essedintojewelleryandIronwasusedtomaketools.Thesewereusedforinternalandexternaltrade,e
xternallywithSwahili,ChineseandOmanontheIndianOceancoast.
 Bantufarmersbegantopaymoreattentiontofarmingalthoughagricultureisbelievedtohavebeguni
nthelateStoneAge.Avarietyofcropsweregrowne.g.millet,sorghumandpumpkins.Thesebecamet
hemainsourceoffoodthoughhuntingandgatheringwerestilldonebutonasmallscale.
 Theykeptcattle,sheepandgoats.Goatsandsheepwerekilledformeatbutcattlewerevitalasitwasco
nsideredasasymbolofwealth.Theywerekilledonspecialoccasionse.g.deaths,rainmakingceremo
niesandbirths.
 Thiswasmainlydonebywomenandpotterywasdecorated,itwasusedforstoringgrain,waterandmil
k.
 Theystartedpayingtributetotherulingclassasasignofrespectbythesubjects.Tributecouldbeinthef
ormofcrops,irontools,minerals,cattleandlabour.
 Theytradedinternallyandexternally,theytradedwithforeignersfromPersiaandArabia.Theytraded
goldandivoryandsometimescopperforcloth,silkandglassbeads.Internallytheyexchangedsurplu
sgoods,surplusgraincouldbeexchangesforirontools,potsandlivestock.

 SocialChanges
 Theearlyagepeopleabandonedlivingincavesandbegantoliveinpoleanddaggahuts.
 Therewasdivisionoflabourwhichindicatedspecialisationofjobs.Menwentforminingasitwasdange
rousandwomenconcentratedonhouseholdchores.
 Specialisationledtoexchangeofgoodsamongstneighboursespeciallyintimesofcrisise.g.blacksmit
hcouldexchangeaxesandhoesforcattle,sheepandgoats.
 Gapsbetweendifferentclassesbroadened.
 Chiefdomsemerged.
 Polygamywaswidelypractised.Itwasvitalforsocialstatusofapersonbecausethemorewivesoneha
dthemoreonewasrespected.Thisalsomeantalotoflabourinthefieldsandagoodcropyield.
 Theboychildwasvaluedmorecomparedtothegirlchildbecauseheperpetuatedthefamilyname.
 Lobolawaswidespreadanditwasintheformofcattle,hoes,beadsandlabour.
 Theybelievedinlifeafterdeaththerefortheyburiedthedeadwiththeirbelongings.

Impactofthechanges
 Foodwasnowinabundance.
 Huntingbecameeffectiveduetonewirontools.
 Tradebecameveryimportant.
 Morepermanentsettlementswerebuiltthereforpeoplestayedatoneplaceforalongtime.
 Exploitationofwomenandchildrenbymenandalsoexploitationofmenbyothermanbegan.
 DisplacementofearlierSaninhabitants.
 Formationofchiefdoms/states.

ZJC NOTES Page 11

 Tributewasintroducedwherebysubjectswouldpayorgiveatokenofappreciationtotheirrulers.
BantuMigration
Bantuarepeoplewhospokerelatedlanguages.TheyoriginatedfromSudan(Benuecrossregion)and
arebetweenCameroonandNigeria.

Migration–
Themovementofagroupofpeoplefromoneregiontoanotherandtheymovedwiththeirlivestock(cat
tle,sheepandgoats).

ReasonsforMigration
 PopulationPressure–Aspopulationincreased,theBantuwereforcedtomovetospaciousareas.
 BadClimaticConditions–
Someareasweretsetseandmalariainfestede.g.CongoForests.Theseareasbecameunfavourablea
ndthereforetheymigrated.
 LandExhaustion–ThelandbecameexhaustedandtheBantumigratedinsearchoffertilelands.
 PoliticalAndSocialProblems–
Successiondisputesandcivilwarsweregreatlyexperienced.SomeBantuwererunningawayfromcr
uelchiefsafterpracticingwitchcraft.MostBantuthereforemigratedandmovedtoCentralandSouthe
rnAfrica.Therefore,itisrelatedtointroductionofIronAgehenceEarlyIronAge.

Results
 Introductionofnewfarmingmethods.
 Settlementsbecamemorepermanent.
 Newweapons/toolsweremadeleadingtobetterhuntingandfarming.
 Landpreviouslyunoccupiedbecameoccupied.
 Specializationofjobsresultedinfarmers,miners,huntersetc.
THELATESTONEAGEANDEARLYIRONAGE
TheEarlyIronAgeistheperiodwhichfollowedtheLateStoneAge.TheearlybegantobepracticedinCe
ntralAfricainAD300.TheBantuareassociatedwiththeEarlyIronAge.TheyabsorbedSanhunter-
gathers,theybroughtwiththemirontoolswhichchangedmodeofproductioni.e.Howpeopleobtaine
dnecessitiesoflifee.g.clothes,foodhousingetc.TheIronAgewascalledtherevolutionaryperiodther
eforeitledtotheformationofStates.

PoliticalChanges
 Permanentsettlementswereestablished.Therewasalotoffoodsopeopleabandonedtheideaofmovi
ngfromplacetoplaceinsearchoffood.
 Villagecommunitieswerecreated.Thisledtoformationofclassesi.e.chiefsandsubjects,richandpoo
r.
 Populationincrease.Astheeconomyimprovedpeoplegotenoughfoodtostoreforthenextseason.Pe
oplebecamehealthyduetobalanceddietthusleadingtopopulationincrease.
 Rivalsamongstvillages.Villagesfoughttocontrolresourcesandweakervillagesweredestroyedbyst
rongerones.Thisledtocreationofarmiesasawayofsecuringland,cattleandgrain.
 Decisionsweremadebyasmallandpowerfulgroupafterreachingaconsensus.

EconomicChanges

ZJC NOTES Page 12

 Changeoftoolsandtheirresults

LATESTONEAGE
Thehand-
axewasblunt,difficulttousewhencuttingdowntr
eesforagricultureanditwasalsoheavy.
Usedthestonetippedarrowforhuntinganditwas
difficulttokillalotofanimals.
Stoneknifeswereusedforcuttingmeat.
Mostpeoplehadnofoodtostoreforthenextseaso
n.
Farmingwasdoneonasmallscale.
Populationwasstableasfoodwasscarce.
Peoplecoulddieearlybecauseofdiseasesassoci
atedwithmalnutrition.
Fishwascaughtusingbaskets.
EARLYIRONAGE
Handaxewasnowlighterandsharperthereforeit
waseasiertoclearlargepiecesoflandforagricult
ure
Usedirontippedarrowsforhuntinganditwaseasi
ertokillalotofanimals.
Ironknifeswereusedforcuttingmeat.
Alotofpeoplehadfoodtostoreforthenextseason
.
Farmingwasdoneonalargescale.
Populationincreaseasfoodwasinabundance.
Peoplecouldlivelongerbecausetheyateabalanc
eddiet.
Fishcaughtusingironfishhooks.

 Mining
Itcameduetoirontechnology.Copper,gold,silverandironoreweremined.Hoesandaxeswerevitalfo
rminingashoeswereusedtodigformineralsandaxesforcuttingtreestouseforthefurnace.BeforeIro
nAgethesemineralswereignoredandregardedascolourfulrocks.Goldandcopperwereprocessedin
tojewelleryandIronwasusedtomaketools.Thesewereusedforinternalandexternaltrade,externall
ywithSwahili,ChineseandOmanontheIndianOceancoast.
 Cultivation
Avarietyofcropsweregrowne.g.millet,sorghumandpumpkins.Thesebecamethemainsourceoffoo
dthoughhuntingandgatheringwerestilldonebut,onasmallscale.

 Pastoralism
Theykeptcattle,sheepandgoats.Goatsandsheepwerekilledformeatbut,cattlewerevitalastheywerec
onsideredasasymbolofwealth.Theywerekilledonspecialoccasionse.g.deaths,rainmakingcerem
oniesandbirths.

 PotteryMaking
Thiswasmainlydonebywomenandpotterywasdecorated,itwasusedfor
storinggrain,waterandmilk.

 Tribute
Itwaspaidtotherulingclassasasignofrespectbythesubjects.Tributecouldbeintheformofcrops,iro
ntools,minerals,cattleandlabour.

SocialChanges
 TheearlyIronAgepeopleabandonedlivingincavesandbegantoliveinpoleanddaggahuts.
 Therewasdivisionoflabourwhichindicatedspecialisationofjobs.Menwentforminingasitwasdange
rousandwomenconcentratedonhouseholdchores.
 Specialisationledtoexchangeofgoodsamongstneighboursespeciallyintimesofcrisise.g.blacksmit
hcouldexchangeaxesandhoesforcattle,sheepandgoats.

ZJC NOTES Page 13

 Gapsbetweendifferentclassesbroadened.
 Chiefdomsemerged.
 Polygamywaswidelypractised.Itwasvitalforsocialstatusofapersonbecausethemorewivesoneha
dthemoreonewasrespected.Thisalsomeantalotoflabourinthefieldsandagoodcropyield.
 Theboychildwasvaluedmorecomparedtothegirlchildbecauseheperpetuatedthefamilyname.
 Lobolawaswidespreadanditwasintheformofcattle,hoes,beadsandlabour.
 Theybelievedinlifeafterdeaththereforetheyburiedthedeadwiththeirbelongings.

Impactofchanges
 Foodwasnowinabundance.
 Huntingbecameeffectiveduetonewirontools.
 Tradebecameveryimportant.
 Morepermanentsettlementswerebuiltthereforepeoplestayedatoneplaceforalongtime.
 Exploitationofwomenandchildrenbymenandalsoexploitationofmanbyothermanbegan.
 DisplacementofearlierSaninhabitants.
 Formationofchiefdoms/states.
 Tributewasintroducedwherebysubjectswouldpayorgiveatokenofappreciationtotheirrulers.
THEGREATZIMBABWESTATE

ItissituatedsoutheastofMasvingoandisbelievedtohavebeenbuiltbytheShonapeoplearoundA.D.1
200.Ourcountrytookitsnamefromtheruinswhicharecomplexandbeautiful.1200to1500ADsawth
eriseofTheGreatZimbabwe.Itwasestablishedonahillandhadseveraloutlyingareas.GreatZimbab
wewasbelievedtohavebeenbuiltbytheKarangaoftheShonatribe.ThewordZimbabwecomesfromt
heShonaword“Dzimbadzamabwe”.ThewallcoveringTheGreatZimbabwewasknownasTheGreatE
nclosure.OtherMadzimbabweareChisvingo,Nhavayatumbare,Mapungubwe,Naletale,Msimbira,
Manekweni,Tsindi,Khamietc.

OriginsoftheState
Itisbelievedthatthekingdomrosetointercontinentaltrade,thistheoryisreferredtoasthetradestim
ulustheory.Itisarguedthatthestateowesitsoriginsfromitscontrolofgoldtrademinedacrossthewho
leoftheZimbabweplateau.Astraderspassedthroughthestatetheywereforcedtopaytax.Themilitar
ystrengthofthekingdomenabledthemtoforcetributarykingdomstopaytax.Otherhistoriansalsoar
guedthatthestateroseasaresultoftheruler’sabilitytoaccumulateandcontrolcattle.
OneofthesedevelopingIronAgevillagesgrewintothebiggestandstrongeststateofitstime.Ithadap
opulationofmorethan10000people.Thegreatwallsofstonewereasymbolofitspower.Thewallssho
wthedevelopedintoaprosperousandwellorganisedstate.Thewallswerebuiltfromgranitewhichwa
scarefullyfittedandsetinstraightlines.Thewallswerebuiltlooselywithoutwatertoholdthemtogeth
er.Stonewallswerebuilttofitintothesystemofdomesticlifeandhouseswerebuiltinsidethem.Thebir
dsculpturesfoundatGreatZimbabwehavebecomethesymbolofthemodernstateofZimbabweasar
eminderofthecountry’slonghistory.

FactorsleadingtotheriseofGreatZimbabwe

 StrongArmy
GreatZimbabwehadalargepopulationwhichenabledittofightanddefeatenemiesthroughitsarmy.
Thosewhoweredefeatedwereincorporatedintothearmy.

ZJC NOTES Page 14

 GoodAgriculturalandGrazingLands
Agriculturewaswidelypracticed,cropssuchasmillet,sorghumandmaizeweregrownandfoodwasin
abundanceleadingtothegrowthofthestate.Goodgrazinglandledtoincreaseofcattle,cattlewerethe
ndistributedtothesubjectsthroughasystemcalled“Kuronzera”andcouldalsobeusedtopaylaboure
rshiredtoconstructthestonewallsandthisbroughtthecommunitytogetherasthepoorandrichwerec
ateredforthusleadingtotherise.

 EnoughMineralWealth
TheygotgoldfromMapungubweandMapela,ironandcopperwerealsoplenty.Thisfacilitatedtradeb
etweenShonaandPortugueseatSofala.Internationaltradewasthroughtheeastcoast.Traderswho
passedthroughGreatZimbabwehadtopaytax;taxalsocamefromtributarykingdomsleadingtopros
perityofGreatZimbabwe.
 Religiouscentre
ItisbelievedtobeaHungwereligiousshrineasevidencebytheHungwesoap
Stonebirdfoundthere.However,somehistoriansdisagreewiththeideathatthe
Religionledtotheriseofthestate.

ReasonsforbuildingtheGreatZimbabwe
 Asanexpressionofprideandancestralachievement.
 Asareligiouscentre-
theShonawerebelievedtobeconnectedtoGod“Mwari”,whomtheyworshipedthroughancestralspir
its.
 Asatradingcentre-
itisbelievedthattheGreatZimbabwewasbuiltfortradeandothereconomicactivities.Buildings,used
forstoragepurposesarestillthereaswellasartefactsfromthefareast¸MiddleEastandChina.
 Asaformofshelter.
 Toreflecttheking’spower.
 Forprestigiousreasons.
 Tocontrolsubjectsaswellastoseparatekingfromthecommonpeople.
Forprivacy
 AstheKing’scourt
 Asafortressintimesofwar.
 Asanadministrativecentre.

TheGreatZimbabwe
 Itismadeofgranitestoneandthestoneswerecutintoalmostthesamesizeandarrangedinstraightlin
es.
 Nowaterorcementwasusedandthisiswhythebuildingsareunique.
 TheGreatZimbabwehastwomaincomplexes:
 Acropolis
 Temple
 Thetemplewasoftenreferredtoasthegreatenclosure.
 Itwasthecentreofadministration.
 Spiritmediumshelpedthekinginmakingdecisions.
 TheAcropoliswasmadeupofanumberofenclosures.
 ThiswastheoldestpartofGreatZimbabwe.

ZJC NOTES Page 15

 Thehilltopwasprobablyacentreforrainmakingceremonies,soapstonebirdswerefoundandthesebi
rdswereusedtointerpretthevoiceoftheHungwe,(shiriyamwari)God’sbird.
 Easternenclosurewaswherethespiritualadvisorsoccupied.
 Sacredbirdswerefoundindicatingtheimportanceoftheareaasareligiouscentre.
 Theseniorwiveslivedatthe“imbahuru”,whereasthejuniorwiveslivedatthevalleyenclosures.Thisw
assuggestedbypotsandornamentswhichwerefoundthere,thesewerelinkedtowomen.

PoliticalOrganisation
 Thekingwastheheadofthestateandsupervisedtrade,commandedthearmy,receivedtributeandju
dgedallcasesthatwerebroughtbeforehim.
 Chiefswerebelowthekingandhadtobesubmissive,theseincludedprovincialchiefsanddistrictchief
s.
 Theypaidtributeasloyaltytotheking.
 Theyalsocollectedtributefromthesubjectsandruledtheirownareas.
 Villagechiefsandvillageheadscontrolledvillages;theyweresubmissivetothekingandpaidtribute.
 Religiousleadersconductedreligiousceremoniesandadvisedthekingwhenruling;theywerepartoft
hecouncil.

ZJC NOTES Page 16

 King

Council

Provincial
Chiefs

District
Chiefs

Village
Chiefs

Village
heads

Subjects

Economicactivities
 Cultivation
Theypractisedcultivation-
grewcropssuchasmillet,sorghum,pumpkins,barley,wheatetc.Menclearedlandforagricultureand
helpedwhenharvesting.Womenandchildrendidmostoftheworkinthefields.

 Pastoralism
Theykeptcattle,sheep,andgoats.Cattlewereregardedasasymbolofwealth,theywerekilledonrare
occasionse.g.funeralsandstatefunctions,theyobtainedmilkandhidesfromcattle.Cattlecouldbeex
changedforgrainandotherfoodstuffsintimesofdrought.TheycouldbeusedforpayingLobola;many
wivesmeantmanychildrenandalotoflabourinthefields.Goatsandsheepprovidedthemwithmeat,hi
desandmanure.

ZJC NOTES Page 17

 Trade
GreatZimbabwewasthecentreoftrade.Internallytheyexchangedgrainfordifferentitemstheydidn
othavee.g.hoesandspears.Externally,theytradedwiththeChinese,ArabsandSwahili.Theyexport
edgrain,irontools,hides,basketsetcinexchangeforglassbeads,brassware,seashell,cloth,saltetc.
 Mining
Thiswasmainlydonebymen.Theyminedgold,copper,ironetc.CopperwasfoundinHurungweandw
asusedtomakejewellery.GoldwasfoundinMapelaandMapungubweandwasgotthroughshaftandal
luvialmining,itwasusedformakingjewelleryandironwasusedtomaketools.

 HuntingandGathering
Thisremainedpartoftheirdiet.Huntingwasdonebymen,butonaverysmallscale.Animalssuchasleo
pards,lions,kudusandimpalaswerekilledfortheirskinsandelephantsforivory.Womengatheredsm
allinsectsandberries.

 Craftwork
Thiswasdonebybothmenandwomenespeciallyweaving.Theyproducedclothwhichwascheap,but
ordinarypeoplestillworeanimalskin“Nhembe”.Potterymakingwasvital,potsweremadeforstoring
grain,water,milkandbeer.

 Tribute
Thiswaspaidbythesubjectstotherulingclassintheformofgrain,toolsandcattle.

 Raiding
Neighbouringstateswereraidedforcattle;grain,andwomen.Womenwereincorporatedintothestat
e.

 Fishing
Ironfishhookswereusedforfishing.Fishsupplementedtheirdiet.

SocialandReligiousorganisation
 PeopleworshipedGodthroughspiritmediums.
 Spiritmediumswerevitalforinstallationofnewchiefs.
 ThekinghimselfconsultedGodthroughspiritmediumsespeciallyintimesofdrought.
 Theybelievedinlifeafterdeathandthereforetheyburiedthedeadwiththeirbelongings.
 Beerwasbrewedattraditionalceremonies.
 Theywerenationalspiritscalled“Mhondoro”andancestralspiritscalled“Vadzimu”.
 Familiesconsultedancestralspiritsintimesofillnessandcrisis.
 SoapstonebirdsweretheirreligioussymbolthereforeGreatZimbabwewasthespiritualheadquarter
softheShonaancestors.
 Peopleofthesametotemwerenotallowedtogetmarried.
 Menhuntedontheirsparetimeandwomenspecialisedinchildbearing.

DeclineofGreatZimbabwe
 Overpopulation

ZJC NOTES Page 18

 GreatZimbabwebecametoobigastatethatthekinglostcontrolofthestate.ThisiswhyNyatsimbaMut
otamovedawayfromGreatZimbabwe.
 Thisalsoencourageddiseasesleadingtodeathofsomeandmigrationofsome.Withtheeverincreasin
gpopulationfarminglandbecameexhausted.

 Civilwars
Peoplewouldfightagainsteachotherintimesofdroughtsoastogetfood.

 Successiondisputes
Withtimepeoplebegantofightforleadershipandthoseleadersthatwereweakerhadtheirpositionsta
kenbythosewhowerestronger.SomewereevenforcedtomoveawayfromGreatZimbabwe.

 Shortageofsalt
ThisiswhyNyatsimbaMutotamovedawayfromGreatZimbabwe.

 Landexhaustion
Withtheeverincreasingpopulationfarminglandbecameexhausted.

 Shortageoffoodsupplies,mineralsandgrazinglands
Shortageoffoodsupplies,mineralsandgrazinglandsaffectedtradenegativelyleadingtothedownfal
loftheeconomy.
 Thestatebecametoolargetobecontrolledbyoneking.

 Outbreaksofepidemicskilledalotofpeople.

THEMUTAPASTATE
THEMUTAPAEMPIRE
ItcanbereferredtoasMonomutapa,MunhumutapaandMwenemutapa.TheNameortitleMutapaca
mefromaShonaverbrootTapa.HistorianshaveusedothermeaningsmunhuinShonawhichmeansp
ersonandwhencombinedwithMutapameansapersonwhoforciblytakessomeone’spropertyorakid
napper.Thisnamedescribesthestrategyusedtoestablishhisempire.AmongthiswasthedeclineifGr
eatZimbabwe,abandonedresources,accessibilitytoforeigntradeandaweaknessofthelocalpeople
attheDande.

Oraltraditionhasitthatsometimeinthe15thcenturyacertainNyatsimbaMutotasonofChibatamatosi
ofGreatZimbabwewassentbyhisfathertosearchforsaltintheDandearea.HemovedfromGreatZim
babweinsearchofsaltandwasaccompaniedbyhissonMatope,daughterNehandaandNyakatonjeav
isitortotheGreatZimbabwe.Mutotathedecidedtotakeovertheareaandmarkedthebeginningofthe
MutapaEmpire.TheDandeareawasabandonedandhadelephants,goldandsalt.Theavailabilityoffe
rtilelandandrichpastureintheDandeareawasimportantintheriseoftheempire.Theweaknessfrag
mentedtheTongaandTavarawhofailedtojoinforcesandrepeltheMutapaandpresentedMutotawith
anopportunitytoconquerwithease.HeestablishedtheMutapastatearound1400ADandlatermoved

ZJC NOTES Page 19

 hisCapitalfromGreatZimbabwetoChitakoHillnearMtDarwin.AftertheconquestoftheentireDande,
MutotadiedandwassucceededbyhissonMatopewhothenexpandedthestateintoalargekingdomw
hichsomesourcesdescribesasanempire.HeexpandedtheareatoMozambiqueandtookcontroloffor
eigntradingcoastalongtheIndianOceancoastwhichwasakeytotrading.Thestatewassaidtohave6p
rovincesDande,Barwe,Pura,Guruuswa,ManyikaandUteve.

Factorsleadingtotherise
 Successfulagricultureandpastoralism
Dandewasasuitableareaforagricultureasitreceivedfavourablerainsandalotofanimalswerekeptd
uetogoodgrazinglande.g.cattle,sheepandgoats.

 Availabilityofminerals
Richingoldandiron,thesecouldbeusedformakingjewelleryandtoolsrespectivelyandthuspromotin
gtrade.

 Accessibilityoftheareatointernationaltrade
DandelayintheareabetweenIngombe,IledeandSwahilitradecentres.

 Presenceofpoliticallyambitiousleaders
Theseleadersbecameeffectiveinleadershipduetotheirstrategicplanning.

 Strongarmy
Couldraidandconquerothernearbyandweakerlocalpeoplee.g.TongaandTavara.
 DeclineofGreatZimbabwe

Thisforcedsomepeopletomoveawayandsearchforbetterareassince
GreatZimbabwewasoverpopulatedhenceriseofnewstatese.g.Mutapa.
Politicalorganisation
 King
Hewastheoverallruler.Hewasalsocommanderofthearmyofabout3000-
5000soldiers;Soldiersweretreatedbywitchdoctorsbeforeheadingforabattleforthemtobestrong.
Hereceivedannualtributeandmadefinaldecisionsinpoliticalandjudiciarymatters.Heelectedchiefs
butfirstconsultednationalspirits.

 Council(Dare)
Thecounciladvisedthekingwhenruling.ThecouncilincludedPriestoftheMwaricult,councillors,blac
ksmiths,armycommanders,sonsofprovincialchiefs,king’smother,queen’smother,queenandkin
g’sbrothersandsisters.

 ProvincialChiefs
ProvincialchiefsruledprovincessuchasGuruuswa,Mbire,Manyika,Barwe,Uteveetc.Thepositionof
chiefswashereditaryandtheprovincialchiefswereeitherrelativesofthekingorfriendsoftheking.Th
eycollectedtheroyalfireonceayearfromMunhumutapaasasignofrespect.Theypaidtributetotheki
ng.Theygavetroopstothekingintimesofwar.Theydistributedlandtodistrictchiefs.

 Districtchiefs

ZJC NOTES Page 20

 Thesewereunderprovincialchiefs.Theirpositionwashereditary.Theypaidtributetotheking.Theyal
socollectedtributefromthesubjectsintheformofivory,cattle,grain,goldandlabour.Theydistribute
dlandtothepeople.Theyalsotriedcasesbroughtbeforethem.

 Villagechiefs
ThesewereunderDistrictchiefs;theydistributedlandtothepeopleandtriedcasesbroughtbeforethe
m.Theypaidtributetothekingandalsoreceivedtributefromthesubjects.Theirpositionwasheredita
ry.

King

Council

Provincial
Chiefs

District
Chiefs

Village
Chiefs

Village
heads

Subjects

ZJC NOTES Page 21

 Economicorganisation

 Cropcultivation
Theygrewmillet,sorghumandpeas.Theyalsogrewexoticcropslikemaize,watermelons,tobacco,p
otatoesandcitrusfruits.Theypractisedshiftingcultivationwherebyapieceoflandwaslefttoliefallowf
or2ormoreyearstogainitsfertilitybeforeanothercropwasgrown.
 Pastoralism
Theykeptcattle,sheepandgoats.Cattlewereasymbolofwealthandthosethathadmanycattlehadm
anywives.Theseanimalswereimportantforhides,meatandmilk.
 HuntingandGathering
Huntingwasdonebymenandwasanimportantsourceofmeatandhides.Gatheringwasdonebywom
enandtheygatheredberries,rootsandinsects.

 Trade
Theypractisedbothinternalandexternaltrade.Internaltradeinvolvedbuyingandsellinggoodsamo
ngtheMutapa.Theyexchangedsurplusgrain,salt,cattleandirontools.Localpeopleknownas“Vasha
mbadzi”facilitatedtrade.TradingstationswereZumbo,TeteandSena.

 Mining
Theyminedgold,silver,ironandcopper.Miningwasdoneduringthedryseason.Theypractisedshaft
mining.Gold,copperandsilverwereusedtomakejewelleryandironwasusedtomakeirontools.

 Blacksmiths
Theymadetoolsforagriculturelikehoesandaxesandtheyalsomadeweaponslikespearsandarrows.

 Craftwork
Womenmadeavarietyofpotswhichtheytradedtoearnvastamountsofwealthintheformofgrain,goa
tsandsheep.TheMutapaalsomadebasketsandwoodcarvings.

 Fishing
Fishsupplementedtheirdiet.

 Raiding
Neighbouringstateswereraidedforcattle;grain,andwomen.Womenwereincorporatedintothestat
e.

 Tribute
Thekingreceivedannualtributeintheformofcattle,gold,ivory,agriculturaltoolsandlabour.

SocialOrganisation
 TheMutapastatehadpeopleofdifferentdialectse.g.Karanga,NdawuandZezuru.
 Therewasgenderawarenesswhenallocatingduties.Menwerepartofthearmyandhuntedwhilstwo
menwereinvolvedinhouseholdchorese.g.cooking,takingcareofchildrenetc.
 Peopleofthesametotemwerenotallowedtomarryoneanother.
 Theybelievedinlifeafterdeathandsotheyconsultedfamilyspirits,clanspiritsandnationalspirits,thi
swasusuallydoneintimesofwar,droughtandharvest.

ZJC NOTES Page 22

 Familyspiritswerebelievedtohelpfamilymembersachievetheirambitions.
 Clanandnationalspiritsalsointervenedinpoliticaldisputes,successiondisputesandinter-
clandisputes.
 Theybelievedinavengingspirits(Ngozi).
 TheybelievedinGodthecreatorofmankindwhomtheyworshipedthroughtheirancestors.
 Theypractisedpolygamy.

PORTUGUESEPENETRATIONOFTHEMUTAPA

Duringthe15thcenturyPortugalwassendingexplorationvoyagestocentralAfrica.Oneoftheexplore
rsVascoDaGamareachedtheCapeofGoodHope.Therefore,thePortuguesewerethefirstEuropeans
tosettleintheIndianOceancoast.TheydiscoveredthesearoutetoIndiaandtradingactivitiesbetwee
nCentralAfricaandeastcoast.TheyinvestigatedthepresenceofgoldatSofalaandKilwa.Thetwoport
swereusedtoacquiregoldandivoryfromMutapastateandinexchangegotIndianspicesfromIndia.

Reasonsforpenetration
 ToestablishanumberoftradingpostsintheinteriorespeciallytheZambezi.
 Togathermoreinformationontradeespeciallypresenceofgold,ivoryandalcohol.
 TodriveanySwahilitradersfromtheinteriorsotheycouldtakeovertradewithinAfricanstates.Theye
stablishedSenaandTetearound1530s.
 LatertheydevelopedinterestinAfricanpolitics;theydidnotaimforthisinthebeginning.
 LatermovedinlandtoavengethedeathofFrGoncaloDaSilveira.
 TospreadChristianity.

Developments

 AfterthedeathofMatopetherewerequarrelsoverleadership.
 In1494ChikuyoChisamarengubecameking;hewasthefirstkingtohaveaEuropeanvisitorcalledFer
nandezaPortuguesetrader.
 FernandezgavethekingandgunpowderandMunhumutapawasabletoexpandhisempire.
 AfterthedeathofChikuyoin1530NeshangwebecamekingandwassucceededbyChivereNyasoroin
1550whocrushedtheTavaraintherevoltandassymbolofthedefeattooktheirtotemasNzou.
 Chiverediedin1560andhiseldestsonNegomoMapunzagututookovertheleadershipandwasassiste
dtogovernbyMrChiuyu.

 ThePortuguesePriestswerepushed/
encouragedtomoveintotheinteriortoconvertMutapaandhispeopletoChristianity.Acatholiccalled
FrGoncaloDaSilverabecameagreatfriendofthekingandhismotherandtheMuslimtraders(VaMwen
ye)wereangeredwhenthekingandhismotheragreedtobebaptised.In1561theVaMwenyeplotteda
ndkilledDaSilveraanddumpedhisbodyinapond.FrGoncaloDaSilveiradeathgavethePortugueseac
hancetoattackMutapaastheywereagainsttheircontactwiththeMoors.
TheIn1570thePortuguesekingsentanarmytoMutapatoavengethedeathofDaSilveraandbecauset
hePortuguesedidnotknowtheareasowelltheywereeasilydefeatedeventhoughtheyhadsuperiorw
eapons.1567FranciscoBarrettowassentbythePortuguesetoinvadeMutapasoastoavengethedeat

ZJC NOTES Page 23

 hofFrGoncaloDaSilveiraaswellasdrivingawayMuslims.Unfortunatelyhediedbeforeinvadingasthe
yreachedMutapaduringtherainyseasonandwereaffectedbydiseases.In1574-
FatherVascoFernandesHomemwassenttogetherwith400men.BeforereachingManyika,hefa
cedresistancefromChiteve.ChiteveKingwasdefeated,butthePortugueserealisedthattheareahad
littlegolddeposits.MostsoldierssentbythePortuguesefacedoppositionfromtheTongaandcouldn’ti
nvadeMutapa.For35yearstherewaspeaceinMutapa.
In1607MunhumutapaGatsiRusereaskedforPortuguesehelptofightarevoltfortheleadershipinretu
rnforsilverminesatChikovaandothermines.However,herefusedtotellthemthelocationofthesilver
minesandthepeopleofMutaparefusedbecausetheyhadseenandPrazeroandPortugueselandowne
rs.AsmoreandmorePortuguesearrivedtheytookmorelandandcattleandforcedpeopletoworkinth
efieldsandformedtheirownprivatearmy.Theybecamewild,lawlessandnolongerobeyedtheMunhu
mutapa.PortuguesebeganrefusingtopaytributetoMutapa;MutapastoppedtradewiththePortugu
eseandceasedPortuguesepropertiesandthePortuguesedeclaredwarbutlaterbegantopaytribute.
ThenextMutapakapararidzetriedtoexpelthePortugueseaftertheyrefusedtopaytributebuthewas
overpoweredandreplacedbyMavuraMhanduwhoagreedtoservethePortugueseandbecomeapup
petking.ThenewrulingMutapaMavurawasbaptisedtoPhilip.In1629Mavurasignedanagreementw
iththePortuguese,Portuguesehadfreedomto:
 Buildchurcheswhenever/wherevertheywanted.
 TraveltoanypartofMutapaastraders.
 DriveawayMuslimsfromMutapa.
 MineinMutapa.
ThePortugueseestablishedTete,Sena,Kilwa,Zumbo,Sofala,QuelimaneandLuanze.

HowtheytookoverMutapaState
 MutapawasmadeavassalstatebythePortuguese;thePortuguesebegantodemandtributefromvas
salchiefs.
 VassalchiefsrebelledagainsttheMutapa;MutapaturnedtothePortugueseforprotection.
 AtfirstPortuguesewantedanalliancewiththeMutapasoastoreplaceSwahiliandMoortradersingold,
silverandivory;theyalsowantedtospreadChristianity.
 MoortraderscontinuedtoestablishmoreroutesintotheinteriorandthisinfluencedPortuguesetoma
kecontactswiththeinterior.

 HowevertheMutapa:
 Losttherighttogiveanygoldbearingterritoriestootherwhites.
 HadtopaytributetothePortuguese.
 1652,MunhumutapaMavuradiedandwassucceededbyDomingos.Domingoswasassassinatedand
Nyenyedzitookover.
 NyenyedziwassucceededbyNyakunembiri,NyakunembiriappealedtoChangamireDombotoassis
thiminfightingthePortuguese;togethertheydestroyedthePortuguesepowerandkilledmostoftheP
ortuguese.
 NoPortuguesewereseeninMutapauntilcolonisationwhenBSACtookoverMutapa.
 MutapastatewasnowunderChangamireDombo,Mutapastatewasdead.

DeclineoftheMutapaState

ZJC NOTES Page 24

 Inexperiencedleaders-
therewereinexperiencedleaderswhotookoverafterthedeathofMatope(1450)e.g.Nyahuma.
 Overpopulation-thestatebecametoolargetobecontrolledbyoneking.
 CivilwarsandSuccessiondisputes-
thiswasduetopowerstrugglewithintheMutapae.g.vassalchiefswhoroseagainsttherulingMutapa.
NyahumawaskilledbyChangaandlaterChangawaskilledbyNyahuma’ssons.TheStatebecamepoli
ticallyweak.
 PortugueseInfluence-
theybroughtChristianitywhichdestroyedthetraditionalreligionoftheMutapapeople.
 ShortageofSaltandMinerals-thisaffectedtradewhichoncemadethestateaprosperousone.
 DeathOfManyPeople-Outbreaksofepidemicskilledalotofpeople.

THEROZVISTATE
TheRozvikingdomwasalsoknownastheChangamirestate.TheStateisbelievedtohaveexistedbetw
een1445and1695.AccordingtooraltraditionChangawhobrieflyruledtheRozviinthe1490swasthef
irsttousethetitleChangamire.ChangawassonofMatopeandaslavewife.Afterhisdeathhissonadopt
edthetitleChangamireandmovedtoGuruuswaareasouth-
westernZimbabwe.TheChangamireStateappearedtohavedisappearedfor150yearsonlytore-
emergeinthe1680’sasaverystrongstateundertheleadershipofChangamireDombo.Hewasbeliev
edtobeonceaherdsmanofMunhumutapaMukombwe.ChangamireDombowasalsoknowntobeam
agician.
OtherschoolsofthoughtbelievetheRozvioriginatedfromtheTorwaState.ChangamireDomboconq
ueredtheKarangaandestablishedhimselfintheButwa/
Buchwaarea,laterheconqueredtheMutapa,UteveandManyikaareasundertheleadershipofChang
amire’ssonNegomo.Inthe1670sitisbelievedtohavegatheredfollowersanddeclaredindependence
andwasforcedtomoveawayfromtheMutapatowardsthesouthwestwerehefought,conqueredanda
bsorbedtheTorwaandKarangapeoplethenheestablishedhisownpowerfulstateandCapitalcalledD
anamombe.ThestateadoptedthenameRozvifromtheShonanameKurozva“Defraud”or“Destroye
rs”,soonaftertheRozviembarkedonaconquestprogramfromsurroundingareasdefeatingtheMuta
pa,UteveandManyika.Alltheconqueredpeoplewereforcedtopaytribute.ThestatestretchedtoLim
popo.Itexisteduptothe17thcentury.Changa’sRozviincludedChangamire,ChangamireDombo,Ch
angamireNegomo,ChangamireNechagadzike,ChangamireNechapingura,ChangamireRupanda
manhanga,ChangamireGumboremvura,ChangamireChirisamhuruandChangamireTorwechipi/
Tohwechipi.

Militarystrength
 ChangamireDombodefeatedthePortugueseinmanybattlesbetween1684-1695.

ZJC NOTES Page 25

 ChangamireDombowassaidtohavehadspecialpowerslikechangingthecolourofcattle,makingrain
andmakingsoldiersbrave,however,thePortuguesethoughthewasawizardormagician.Themayha
vebeenbecauseoftheclevertricksheusedinbattle.
 Hesoldierswouldoftenformahalfcirclearoundtheirenemy.
 Dombosoldiersusedmanykindsofweaponslikewoodenclubs,assegais,spears,bowandarrows,co
whidesasshieldsandRozviofficialsusedguns.
 MamboreceivedgunsfromthePortugueseastributethereforethehighestrankingRozviofficialshad
guns.

PoliticalOrganisation
 Mambowasheadofstate,histitlewashereditary,successionwascollateralandchieftainshipwaspas
sedfromfathertoson.
 Thekinghadthedutytoinstallnewchiefs.
 ProvincialandDistrictchiefswereresponsibleformaintainingpeaceandorderintheirareas;theyalso
collectedtributeonbehalfoftheking.
 Vassalchiefsalsopaidtributetothekingasasignofloyalty,failuretopaytributemeantgreatpunishme
ntbymilitaryleader(Tumbare).
 Tumbaretookoverasleaderwhenakingdieduntilanewonewaselected.
 Themambowasthecommanderofthearmy;hehadaverystrongarmywhichmaintainedpeaceands
ecurityinthestate.
 ThearmypossessedgunsacquiredfromPortuguesethroughtradethereforetheycouldraidneighbo
uringstateseasily.Itwasalsousedtopunishrebelliouschiefsandsubjects.
 Themamboconductedreligiousceremonieswiththehelpofpriests.
 TheKingwasadvisedbymilitaryleadersandprovincialgovernorswhenruling.
 Hewasheadofthejudiciaryandhemadesuretherewasfairness.
 Mambodistributedlandtoprovincialchiefs.
 Headmanwasresponsibleforsupervisinghomesteads.

EconomicOrganisation
 Cropcultivation
Theygrewmillet,sorghumandpeas.Theyalsogrewexoticcropslikemaize,watermelons,tobacco,p
otatoesandcitrusfruits.Theypractisedshiftingcultivationandburningfarming.
 Pastoralism
Theyrearedcattle,goatsandsheep.Theygotmeat,milkandhidesfromthoseanimals.

 HuntingandGathering
Huntingwasdonebymenandwasanimportantsourceofmeatandhides.Gatheringwasdonebywom
enandtheygatheredberries,rootsandinsects.

 Trade
Theypractisedinternalandexternaltrade.Theyexchangedcattleforgrainintimesofdraught.Theye
xportedgold,ivory,iron,copperandlead.Theyexchangedthesewithclothes,beads,seashells,guns
andcandleswiththePortuguese.

 Mining

ZJC NOTES Page 26

 Goldwasthemainmineral,itwasminedatBuchwa.Theyalsominedcopper,ironandlead.Ironwasuse
dtomanufacturetoolsandweapons.Copperwasusedtomakebangles.

 Tribute
AllsubjectsandPortuguesepaidtribute.Ataninstallationofnewchiefsthechiefwasobligedtopaytrib
uteasassignofalligiancethereforethechiefpaidtributetothekingannually

 Craftwork
Theymadewoodcarvingsandpottery.

 Blacksmithing
Blacksmithsmadeirontools.

 Fishing
Itsupplementedtheirdiet.

 Raiding
Theyraidedneighbouringstatesforcattleandwomen.
Socialorganisation
 Peoplewereorganisedintohomesteads.
 Alinageheadensuredgoodconductionsofreligiousceremoniesandotherceremonies.
 Therewassexualdivisionoflabour;manhadseveralsocialdutieswhichincludedherdingcattle,buildi
nghouses,makingtools,skinninganimalsetc.
 Femalesdidhouseholdchoressuchastakingcareofchildren,cooking,gatheringfirewoodandwildfru
its,fetchingwaterandmakingpottery.
 HomesteadswererelatedintoMoyototem.
 Theybelievedin“Mwari”whomtheyworshipedthroughShonapriests
 Shonapriestslinkedthelivingandthedead.
 TheybelievedmambodescendedfromGod.
 Ancestralspiritswerealsovital;therewereotherspiritswhichtheybelievedtoliveinmountainsandpo
olsofwater.
 Theypractisedto“kuronzera”wherebythosewithoutcattleweregivenbythekingtouseformanurea
ndmilk,butwerenotallowedtosellthemorkillthem.
 Theysanganddancedonimportantoccasionslikeweddings,funeralsandreligiousceremonies.
 Territorialmediumssolvedsuccessiondisputes.
 Spiritmediumsformedmembersofmambo’scouncilandcouldmakedecisionsforthestate.

DeclineoftheRozviState
 Civilwarswhichwerethenfollowedbysuccessiondisputeswhichdisruptedothereconomicactivities.
 Droughtalsocausedthedeclineassomepeoplemovedtofavourablepartsoftheareaanditalsoweake
nedtheireconomy.
 Somepeoplemovedtofavourablepartsoftheareaanditalsoweakenedtheireconomy.
 Overpopulation-thekinglostcontrolandledtosomepoliticaldivisions.
 AttacksbyNgunigroupsrunningawayfromMfecane-
theywereattackedbyZwangendabawhenhewasdefeatedbySoshangane.Theywerealsoattacked
andincorporatedintotheNdebeleState.

ZJC NOTES Page 27

 DeclineinTrade-
theylostcontrolintradewhichoncemadethemveryprosperous,limitedtechnologymademiningdiffi
cultandelephantpopulationwasdecreasingrapidly.
 ComingofEuropeans-theywerefinallydestroyedbytheBSACledbyCecilJohnRhodesin1890.

THENGUNISTATESOFSOUTHERNAFRICA

TheNgunipeoplelivedinfertilelandalongtheeastcoastwhichisnowSouthAfrica.TheywereBantupe
oplewhounderstoodeachother’slanguageseventhoughtheyspokedifferentdialects.TheywereXh
osa,Khumalo,Zulu,Tembu,MthethwaMpondo,Ndwandwe,andothers.

Socialsystem
 Membersofonefamilylivedtogetherinafamilycompoundofscatteredhomesteadsbuiltinahalfcircle
withthecattlekraalbuiltinthesidesofhillswiththehutsfacingtowardstheeast.
 Thehomesteadhadupto1000hutswiththemotherofthehomesteadlivinginthecentrehut.

Economicsystem
 Ngunipeoplewerebothcultivatorsandpasturewhichmeanstheycultivatedaswellaskeepingwhole
herdsofcattleandgoats.Cattlewereherdedbysmallseparategroupsofpeopleeachherdorganiseda
roundaroyalclan
 Amongtheircropsweresorghum,kidneybeans,pumpkins,melons,gourds,milletandothergrains.T
obaccoandmaizewerecultivatedlater.
 Cattleprovidedmeat,hidesandmilkwhichwereimportantintheNgunidiet.
 Cattlewerealsousedtocarrygoods.
 Nguniwomenmadeclaypotsforcookingandcarryingwater.
 TheNgunipeoplewerehunters,thechiefworeleopardskins.
 Womenworecopperandironbeadsasjewellery;theyalsoworeearrings,ivorybracelets,shellsfeath
ersandvariousbuttons.
 Landwaspropertyofthechiefdomandthekinghadthepowertodistributelandandnobodycouldbede
privedofthisimportantmeansofproductionandcouldnotbesohardastherewasplentyofit.

Politicalsystem
 Thechiefwaspolitical,military,judicialandkingdomheadtohelphispeople.
 Hegavefinaljudgementincourtcasesandcarriedoutreligiousritualsbutwasnotadictator.
 Hispowerwasapopularassemblyandbyasystemofadvisorycouncilswhichwasmadeupallimportan
tdecisions,thissystemwascentralisedbutlooselyadministered.

HistoricalchangeinNguniland
Whydidthechangecomeattheturnofthe19thcentury?
 TheNguniclansuddenlychangedandbeganfightingamongstthemselves.
 ThisfightingweldedtheZulunationintothemostpowerfulstateofitskindinAfrica.

ZJC NOTES Page 28

 SomeclaimthatthechangeswerecausedbythecomingoftheEuropeansandbetterfightingmethods
.
 Otherssuggestthatthisoccurredasaresultofthestrainscausedbythepopulationgrowthandlandsh
ortage.
 Thiscountrywasfertileandfreefromdiseases
 Naturalincreaseinpopulationandshortageofland,thiscausedinternalconflictsinapastoralsocietyi
nneedofgrazinggrounds.
 Chiefsbegantoimprovetheirmethodsofwarfarechangedfromagameofskilltoaseriousstrugglefors
urvival.

DingiswayooftheMthethwa
Inthelate18thcenturyDingiswayoremovedhisbrotheraschiefandtookovertheleadershipoftheMth
ethwaclan.DingiswayowasaninnovativemanwhointroducedrevolutionarymethodsofwarfaretoN
guniland.Heabolishedlonginitiationceremonieswereyoungmenandwomenofthesameagegroup
nolongerhadtoattendcircumcisionschoolsweretheywereinitiatedintomanhoodandwomanhoodb
yelders.InsteadDingiswayotooktheyoungmanintohisarmyingroupsofthesameage.Heorganised
themintomilitaryunitscalledregimentssotheycouldachievetheirmanhoodonthebattlefield.Dingi
swayo’sarmysparedpeoplethedefeated.BythetimeofhisDeathin1818hedefeatedmanychiefsinN
guniland.Hehadcreatedanempireunitedbyhisruleandbyhisarmy.InthiswayDingiswayocreateda
standingarmyinwhichhissoldierscouldstudyandpractisenewmethodsoffighting.

RiseofTshaka
Tshakawasbornin1787.HisfatherwasSenzangakhona,aZuluchiefandhismotherwasNandi.Senza
ngakhonaandNandiwereneverformallymarriedthereforTshakagrewupwithhismotheramongthe
Langani,GwabeandfinallyMthethwa.TshakajoinedtheMthethwa’sageregimentandprovedtobev
erybraveasaregimentalleader.HebecameDingiswayo’smilitaryadvisoratatenderage.WhenSenz
angakhonadiedin1816,TshakaseizedtheZuluthrone;hewassupportedbyDingiswayoandbecame
theZuluchief.Zulumeansrainorheaven.ZuluStateissaidtohaveoriginatedfromamancalledZuluka
NtombelawhoprobablywastheancestoroftheZuluclan.

Factorsleadingtotherise
 Competitionforfertileland
InNgunilandtherewaspopulationincreaseandatthesametimeherdsalsoincreased,peoplebegant
ofightforcontroloflandforcultivationofcropsaswellasgrazinganimals,thereforeTshakaprovedtob
everypowerfulanddefeatedalotofstateshencehisrisetopower.

 CompetitionfortradewithPortuguese
Portuguesewantedcattle,freshmeatandivory.Thenumberofcattleastatehadthemoreitwouldsup
plymeattothePortuguese.TheZuluhadalotofcattleandcontrolledhuntinggroundsforivory,therefo
reTshakaemergedaspowerful.

 MilitarymethodslearntbyTshakafromDingiswayo.

 Tshaka’sambitiouscharacter
Tshakawasteasedbyhispeersashegrewup,sohewasdeterminedtoprovetothemthathecouldachie
vesomethinginlifeandbecameachief.

ZJC NOTES Page 29

 Militaryreforms
 Assegai/Shortstabbingspear
Tshakaintroducedtheassegai,whichencouragedhandtohandfighting;itmadesurethattheenemy
waskilled.Lossofthisassegaimeantharshpunishment/
execution.Anystabatthebackwasconsideredcowardiceanditattractedpunishmentofdeath.

 Bare-footed
Soldierswenttowarbare-footedsoastoincreasespeed.

 Ageregiments
Soldierswereorganisedinregimentsaccordingtotheirages.Regimentsweredisciplinedandloyalto
Tshaka,theyweretrainedtofighteffectivelyinbattles.

 Longshields
Longshieldsweredevelopedandweremadeofcowhides.Thefactthattheshieldsweretheheightofa
manmadeitpossibletoshieldsoldiersfromenemies;Theshieldwasalsousedtohookawayenemiess
hields.

 Discouragementofearlymarriages
Earlymarriageswerediscouragedasonecouldnotfightwellthinkingofthefamilyhome,However,sol
dierswhodisplayedskillbykillingalotofenemieslatergotbeautifulwomenraidedduringwar.Raided
menwereincorporatedintotheZuluarmy,sometimestheyfoughtfortotaldestructionbykillingmen,
womenandchildren.Thereforenosoldierwasallowedtomarrybeforeforty.

 Banningofcircumcision
Tshakabannedthesystemofcircumcisionasitpreventedyoungboysfromparticipatinginwar.

 Tshakausedguerrillawarfarebyattackingatnightandattimesambushattacks.
 Tshakausedwitchdoctorstotreatinjuredsoldiers.

 Tshakaemployedspies
Theseweresenttogatherinformationabouttheenemy.Theyhelpedinsettingasuitableregimenttoa
ttacktheenemy.

 Tshakamadeuseofsmokesignalsforcommunication.
 Eachsoldierhadadistinctivehead-gear.
 Cowhornformation
Thisprovedeffectiveasenemiesweredistracted

Economicorganisation
 Theycultivatednearhomesteads,theygrewmaizeandmillet.
 Mentookcareofcattle,manufacturedandrepairedweaponsandotherhouseholdtoolse.g.hoes;the
yalsoconstructedhutsaswellasrepairingthem.
 Someskilfulwomenwereinvolvedinbeadwork;potterymakingandmakingofmats.Weavingwasdo
netoproducemats.
 Theytradedirontoolswitheachother.

ZJC NOTES Page 30

 Theycultivatedandgatheredtoimprovetheirdiet.
 Theykeptcattleformeat,milkandhides.
 Theypaidtributetothechiefintheformofcattle,specialanimalskinsandotherirontools.
 TheypractisedexternaltradewithEnglishtraders;beadsandclothwereexchangedforivory.Ivoryhu
ntedbelongedtotheking.
 Theyalsopractisedhuntingandhuntingpartieswereputintoregiments.

Politicalorganisation
 Thekingwasanabsoluteruler;hewassupremeadministratorthoughhehadacouncilofIndunaswhic
hadvisedhimwhenruling.Thoughhegotadvicehisdecisionwasfinal.
 Dutiesofthekingincluded:
 Allocatingland.
 Distributingcattle.
 Commanderofthearmy.
 ChiefJudge.
 Initiatedinxwalaandinkataceremonies.
 Chiefswerevitalastheyruledtheirchieftaincies.
 Chiefswereloyaltotheking.
 Thestatewasdividedintoregimentaltownsandawomanwaschosentooverrideeachtown.Thiswasa
wayofcontrollingregimentsandalsogaveinformationtoTshakaontheIndunaresponsibleofthattow
n;thisencouragedthecheckingonthebalanceoftheadministration.
 Eachregimentaltownencircledahugecattlepenaseachtownwasallocatedregimentalcattle.
 OutlyingtributarystatespaidtributetoTshakaasasignofrespect.
 Youthsweredividedintomilitarygroupswhichcouldprovideservicetothestatee.g.workingfortheki
ng;theycouldalsoraidandhunt.
 Thekingcontrolledtheirworkleadingtopublicorder.

SocialOrganisation
 TheZulubelievedinGodwhomtheycalledUnkulunkulu.
 Theybelievedinworldlyspirits“Amadlozi”whompeoplewouldcommunicatewithintimesofneed.
 Theybelievedthateverymisfortunethatpeopleencounteredwascausedbysorcery(magicalpractis
e).
 Settlements/militarytownswerecircularandeachsettlementencircledacattlepen.
 Cattlewerevitalastheydeterminedone’ssocialstatus;theywereusedforpayinglobola.
 PolygamywaswidelypractisedsuchthataZulufamilywasbuiltonapolygamousfamily.
 Zulubecamethenationallanguagesothoseincorporatedintothestatehadtospeakthelanguage.
 InxwalaceremonywasinitiatedbythekingandeveryZulumemberhadtoattend.
 InkatawasanationalceremonythatpromotedZuluidentity.

ProblemsfacedbyTshakaduringhisreign
 HismosttrustedIndunae.g.Mzilikaziranaway,thismadethestateweakerandhefeltinsecure.
 Hedidnotgetsupportfromhisfamilyandrelatives.
 HegotmanythreatsfromBritish,NdwandweandBoers.
 Thedeathofhismothermadehimrulewithangerandalsoremindedhimofhisdeath.
 HehadunsuccessfulmilitarycampaignsandwasdefeatedbytheBritish.

ZJC NOTES Page 31

 ImpactofTshaka’srule
 ZulubecameaverylargestateunderTshakaduetoraids,alotofpeoplewereincorporatedintothestat
eandtheStateexpandedfromPongolarivertothenorthi.e.TugelariveruptoIndianoceanintheeast.
 ZuluwasaunifiedStatebecausepeoplewhowereabsorbedhadthesamecultureandlanguage.
 Ageregimentsbroughtyoungpeopletogetherastheynolongerstayedinhomesteads,butregimenta
ltownsthereforetheybecamemoreloyaltoTshakathantheclanhead.
 TheStatebecamedominantinSouthernAfricaandwasknownasthe“fightingmachine”duetomilitar
yreformsintroducedbyTshaka.
 DevelopmentofprideintheZuluStateduetomilitarysuccessinwar.
 TheZuluStatebecameaveryrichstateeconomically;cattleraidedwerealotandpeoplebenefitedthr
oughmeat,milk,hidesandmanureetc.

DeclineofZuluState
 DeathofTshaka
Ineffectiveleaderstookover.

 DeathofNandi
Tshakafeltemptywithoutherasshewashisadvisor.

 Mfecane.
HismosttrustedIndunasranawaye.g.MzilikaziwithsomeoftheZulupeopleandthestatewasweaken
ed.

 Endlessmilitarycampaigns.

MFECANE

ItreferstowarswhichtookplaceamongthenNgunipeoplearoundthe18 thcentury,Ngunipeopleinclu
dedmanygroupsspeakingdialectse.g.Zulu,Mthethwa,Xhosa,Hlubi,Mpondo,Zizietc.Newstatesw
erefoundduetomilitarypowerandtrading.By1820s,onestatehademergedtodominateothers(Mth
ethwaofDingiswayo,NgwaneofSobhuza)i.e.Zulustate.OtherstateswereforcedtomigratefromNg
unilande.g.NdebeleofMzilikaziandKololoofSebetwane.Alotofdestructionresultedaswarfarespre
adtoCentralAfricaasdeathanddestructionwasgreatlyexperienced.ThistimewascalledMfecaneby
theZulumeaning“Greatcrushing”andDifaqanebytheSothomeaning“Scattering”.Itwasalsoreferr
edtoastimeofsuffering,trouble,movementetc.

CausesofMfecane
 EconomicandPoliticaldevelopment
NorthernNgunipeoplewerefarmersduringthe19thcenturyandheavyrainfallwasreceivedleadingto
goodcropyields,theareahadgoodsoilsandvegetationleadingtosurpluses.Asaresultpopulationinc
reased.Aspopulationincreasedherdsalsoincreasedinsizeandthereforecouldnotbemovedfreelyto
thehillsandvillagesforgrazing.Therewasanimbalanceinpopulationdensityandavailableresources
socompetitiontocontrolthebestlandsforagricultureandgrazingpurposesdeveloped.

 Ageregiments

ZJC NOTES Page 32

 Asstatesgrewageregimentsincreasedinimportancee.g.wereAmabuthopromotedunityandprovi
dedanarmyascompetitiontocontrollandincreased,thereforetheroleofthearmybecamemoreimpo
rtantandinitiationceremonieswerebannedsothatyoungmenwouldparticipateinthearmy.

 HuntingandGathering
Thisledtoalargescaledestructionofwildgame.Powerfulstatescouldgetlargerareasforhuntingasth
eycouldoverpowerweakerstates.ElephanthuntingledtoagreaterdemandofivoryatDelagoaBayby
theEuropeans,goodcontrolofsuchtrademeantalotofwealthtoaparticularstate,andthisalsomeant
goodrewardstosubjects.Thedesiretocontroltradeledtogrowthofstates.

 Drought
Rainscametoanendanddroughtwasexperiencedforabouttenyears.Cropsfailed,pastureswithere
dleadingtowidespreadfamine.ThisbecameknownasMadlatulefaminemeaningMadlatulemeanin
g“lethimeatandkeepquiet”.Competitionforscarceresourcesbecamesevereaspeopleraidedeacho
therforcattleandstoresofgrain.

CourseofMfecane
 Whenraidedsomechiefdomsbrokeupandmigrateddisorganisedasdesperatebeggars,theyhadnot
imetopackupfoodorcattle.
 Somemigratedasstrongmenandwomenunderleadershipandmostlikelynottobeg.
 WholechiefdomswereterrifiedoftheZuluanditsraidssomuchthattheymovedtosaferlandswhileso
meremainedandpaidtributetotheZulu.
 NgwaneofSobhuzawasdefeatedbyNdwandweofZwideandmovedtonorthpartofPongolaRiver,his
soldiersadaptedtacticsoftheZulu,MthethwaandNdwandwe.Thismadehimconquerotherweakgro
upsandincorporatedthemintohisnewkingdom(Swaziland).
 SoshanganeofGaza-
NguniwasinZwide’sarmyasoneofthechiefofficers,whenTshakadefeatedtheNdwandwein1818he
escapedandabsorbedsomeimmigrants(Northwards)andhewasabletoconquerSouthernZimbab
weandMozambiquebutwasnotassuccessfulasSobhuzaashispoliticalinfluencewasweak.
 ZwangendabaoftheNgonialsoescapedwhentheNdwandweweredefeated,hefollowedSoshangan
ebutpartedwhenthetwoclashedandlostthebattlein1831andtheNgonitravelledtoNorthwestZimb
abwe.
 ZwangendabahadaseriesofbattleswiththeShonaunderChangamiredynasty,failingtosubduethe
mcompletely.HecrossedtheZambeziriverandfinallysettledinTanzania.
 AfterZwangendaba’sdeaththeyseparated,onegroupsettledinEasternZambiaandtheothergroup
causedhavocinSouthernTanzaniaandMalawiastheyusedNguniwarfaretooverwhelmweakergrou
ps.
 MzilikazioftheKhumalowasalsopartoftheNdwandwe,butpresidedovertheKhumaloclanashewasl
oyaltoTshaka,ZwidehadconflictedwithMashobane,Mzilikazi’sfathersoasaresulttherewashatred
betweenthegroupsandMzilikazisidedwithTshaka,butsoonerconflictedbecauseofresourcesashep
referredtogivethemtotheKhumalothantheZulu.

ImpactofMfecane
 Deathofmanypeopleduetohungerastheylosttheircattle,sheepandgoats.
 Abandonmentofcircumcisionasitkeptyoungboysawayfromactivedutyforalongtimei.e.inthearm
y.

ZJC NOTES Page 33

 DestructionofchiefdomswhichbeganMfecanee.g.Ndwandwe,Mthethwa,Ngwaneandnewonese
mergede.g.KololoofSebetwaneandNdebeleofMzilikazi.
 Somelargeareaswereleftdepopulatede.g.SouthofTugelariver
 SpreadofNgunicultureandlanguagethroughassimilation.However,insomeinstancestheNgunilan
guagewasdestroyed.
 NewwartacticswerespreadinSouthernandCentralAfrica.
 Peoplefromstrongerchiefdomsbenefitedfromtheloottakenfromweakerchiefdoms.
 Leaderswereappointedduetotalentandratherthaninheriting.
 Abalancebetweenhumanpopulationandlandavailablewasestablishedleadingtostabilityintheregi
on.

THENDEBELESTATE
NdebeleMigration

Ndebelemeansmanoflongshields.Mzilikazi’sKhumalowaspartofZwide’sNdwandwebutlaterjoine
dTshaka’sZuluState.In1821MzilikaziwassentbyTshakatoraidtheSotho,Mzilikazithendecidenott
ohandovertheraidedcattle.Tshakasentanarmyasthiswasregardedasrebellionagainsthim;theZul
uarmywasdefeatedbytheNdebele.ItsleaderwasMzilikazisonofMashobaneoftheKhumaloclan.Th
eZuluarmywassentforthesecondtimeandMzilikaziwasdefeatedatNtumbanehillbutsomewarriors
wereleft.In1822theNdebelemovedacrossDrakensburg.Between18221nd1823theNdebelereac
hedOlphantRiverandtheyrestedatEkupemeleni(restingplace).Theycontinuedtoraidneighbourin
gstates,bringingforthcattle,menandwomenwhointegratedintothestate.Ekupemeleniwasnotave
rygoodareaasitwasclosetoZululandandthePediwereathreattotheNdebele,theareaalsolackedgo
odgrazinglandsespeciallyafterthe18323/24draught,sinceitwasrestingplacetheNdebeleheadto
move.TheymovedtoPretoriaandtheirnewsettlementwascalledNhlahlandela,atNhlahlandelathe
yattractedtheSothothroughtheirraidsinBotswana,LesothoandZimbabwe.Theareawasstillcloset
oZululandwhichwasnowunderDin’aniandin1830DinganisentanarmytoattacktheNdebele.TheNd
ebelealsofeltinsecureastheyexperiencedthreatsfromKoraandKhoisan.

 AftertheattackbytheZulutheNdebelewerealsoattackedbytheGriguas,TswanaandKoracontinuou
slyattackedtheNdebeleespeciallyforhuntinggrounds,theNdebelethensentanarmyanddefeatedt
hegroupsbutlostmen,womenandcattle.
 TheNdebelemovedfurthertoMaricoandtheirnewsettlementwasatMasega.
 TheNdebeleleftMasegaduetofrequentattacksandin1837theymovedfurthernorth.
 Atthispointtheydividedthemselvesintotwogroupssincethegroupwastoolargetocontrolandfeed.
 OnegroupwasunderChiefIndunaGundwaneNdiwenialsocalledKalipi.Ithadoldpeople,women,chil
dren,sheep,goatsandMzilikazi’schildren;NkulumaniandLobengula.ThisgroupmovedtoMzingwa
nevalleyhillwheretheyreached
theonceRozvistate,theynamedtheplaceGibixhegu(Nhavayatumbare).
 Thesecondfollowedalongerroute.MzilikaziwastheleaderandwashelpedbyIndunasincludingMagq
ekeni,theymovedwestwardstowardsLakeNgamileadingtotheKalahariDesert.Theymovedeastw
ardstowardsZambezibuttheareawastsetseinfested.

ZJC NOTES Page 34

 WhenMzilikaziheardthatNkulumanihadbeeninstalledasking,herushedtoGibixheguandkilledNdi
weniandsomeofthechiefswhohadinstalledNkulumaniasking.
 NkulumaniranawayandLobengulawashiddenandreleasedwhenMzilikazihadcalmeddown.
 MzilikazithenestablishedhiscapitalatInyathiandin1840inMatabeleland.ItisbelievedtheNdebelea
rrivedinpresentdayZimbabwein1841andfoundRozvistateseriouslyweakenedandestablishedthe
irstateinthenowmoderncityofBulawayo.

 FactorsleadingtotheriseofNdebeleState
 Mzilikaziabilitytorule
HesavedtheKhumalofromTshaka’sruthlessnessbyleadingthem,throughalongjourneyi.e.fromN
gunilandtoZimbabwe.

 Strongarmy
TheNdebelehadaverystrongarmybecauseMzilikazihadlearntalotoffightingmethodsfromTshaka.
ThearmyraidedalotofpeopleforcattleandgrainastheytravelledandwereabletofeedtheNdebele.T
hearmywasalsoabletodefendthepeoplefromenemiesleadingtothecreationoftheNdebelestate.

 Enoughmineralwealth
Theyhadalotofgoldwhichenabledthemtopractisebothinternalandexternaltrade.Theytradedwith
thePortugueseandtheArabshenceprosperityofthestate.

 Strongeconomy
Foodwasinabundanceastheysupplementedraidingwithagriculturethoughagriculturewasonasm
allscale;thisledtogrowthofthestate.

Politicalorganisation
 TheNdebelestatewasmorecentralisedandcoveredalimitedarea.
 AllNdebelecattlewerelocatedwithin80kmofthekings’village
 OutlyingareasoftheRozviEmpirewerekeptintouchthroughambassadorsandtributetotheroyalcou
rtandshrineofMwari.
 ThekingoccupiedcentralandalmostpowerfulpositionintheNdebelestate.
 Thekingwasthecommanderofthearmyandchiefjudge.
 Hewasalsochiefadministratorandreligiousleader.
 Hemademajordecisionsandpoweroflifeanddeathoverthesubjects.
 Hewashelpedtoadministerthestatebyafewwisemenintheadvisorycouncil.
 TheMpakatiwasmadeupofselectedchiefsandmembersoftheroyalfamily;theymadealldecisionsaf
fectingthestate.
 AbiggeradvisorycouncilcalledtheIzikuluincludedallchiefs,eldersknownforwisdom,traditionalcus
tomsandhistory;thesegroupsdiscussedallnationalissuesinaccordancetolocaltraditionbeforerefe
rringthemtoMpakatiandtheking.
 Mzilikaziorganisedhisstateinregimentaltowns.
 Eachtownwasasettlementofsoldierandsupportingcivilian’scommandedbyanInduna.
 TheIndunawasanadministratorofthetownaswellasmilitarycommander.

ZJC NOTES Page 35

 Theseregionalgovernorskeptthekingregularlybriefedontheactivitiesandthestateaffairsofthepro
vince.
 Theregimentaltownsweregroupedinto4provincesheadedbyanappointedchief.
 ProvincesweredividedintoregimentaltownsandanIndunawasinchargeofeachregiment,however,
theirpositionwasnothereditary,someoftheking’swivescontrolledtheprovincesthereforethesewiv
eshadpoweroverIndunas,thisencouragedtotalcontrolofthestateasthewivesreportedanydevelop
mentsandproblemstotheking.

Socio-Politicalorganisation

Thestatewasdividedintothreeclasses:
 Zansi
ConstitutedoftheoriginalKhumalowhoformedaristocracyclass,theymadeup15%ofthetotalpopul
ation;althoughtheywerefewtheywereverypowerfulandprivileged.MostIndunaswereelectedfro
mthisclass;theywerenotallowedtomarryfromEnhlaandHolebutwithtimecould,theEnhlaandhole
werenotallowedtomarryfromZansi.
 Enhla
Thismadeupallelementsthathadbeenincooperatedintothestateeitherbyforceorvoluntaryontheir
journeyfromNgunilandtoZimbabwe.Theymadeup25%ofthetotalpopulationandincludedtheSoth
o,TswanaandKoraetc.theywerenotasprivilegedastheZansibutweretreatedbetterthantheHolecl
ass.
 Hole
ThiswasmadeupoftheShona,Karanga,Leya,Nyayietc;theymadeup60%ofthetotalpopulation.Th
eyweremostdisadvantagedinthestateastheydidmostofthehardworkinthestate.Theywerenotele
ctedasIndunasoranyotherleadershippositionsinthestate.

Economicorganisation
 Cultivation
Theypractisedcropcultivationbutonasmallscalebecausetheareacouldhardly
Receiveenoughrainfall.Theygrewcropssuchasmaize,millet,sorghum,pumpkins,melons,potatoe
s,beansetc.Bothmenandwomencultivatedcrops.

 Pastoralism
Theywerealsopastoralistswhokeptsheep,cattleandgoats.Cattlewereofgreatervaluecomparedto
sheepandgoats.TherewereZebutho(Nationalherds)andInkomoZamatonga(Privateherdsandkin
g’sherds).TherichloanedcattletothosewhohadnoneandthispromotedpeaceamongtheNdebele.C
attlewereusedforlobolapayment,asfoodatfunerals,weddings,inxalaceremonyandintimesofdrau
ght.
 Trade
Ndebelepractisedbothinternalandexternaltrade.ExternallytheytradedwiththePortugueseandAr
absforfirearms,beads,clothandceramics,foreignerswereinterestedingoldandivory.Internallyth
eytradedcattleforgrainandirontoolse.g.hoes,spearsandknifes.

 Raiding

ZJC NOTES Page 36

 WasvitalamongsttheNdebele,theyobtainedfoodyoungmenandwomen.Youngmanwereneededt
obuildastrongarmytodefendthestate;thisalsomeantapowerfulnation.Herdsalsoincreasedthrou
ghraiding.

 Tribute
Itwaspaidbysubjectsasasignofrespect;itcouldbeintheformofcattle,grain,firewood,irontools,leo
pard’sskinandlabour.

 HuntingandGathering
Therewascleardivisionoflabourasmenhuntedandwomengathered.Animalssuchas,Impalas,Kud
usetcwerehuntedwhilstwomengatheredberries,bulbsandsmallinsects.
 Craftswork
Womenwereinvolvedinweavingbaskets;basketscouldbeusedtostoregrain.Potteryworkwasdone
andthushavingpotsforcooking.

 Blacksmithing
Thiswasmainlydonebyandmadehoes,spearsandknives.

Religion
 NgunigroupsworshippedahighGod(Mlimo),MlimoandUnkulunkuluwerethesame,theNdebelead
aptedMlimofromtheTswanaandwhentheyreachedZimbabwetheyadoptedtheShonahighGod(M
wari),MwariwasbelievedtobepowerfulsowhenrainfailedtheyconsultedMwari.
 TheNdebelesentannualgiftsandofferingstotheMwarishrine.
 TheKarangaandRozviworshipped“Mhondoro”alionspirit,powersofGodandancestorscouldbeonly
reachedthroughMhondoroorking.
 Theyheldanannualgathering,inxalaceremonyweretheythankedancestorsforgoodharvests,pros
perityandsuccessespeciallyinmilitarycampaigns.
Ndebele-Shonarelations
 ForalongtimeitwascommonlybelievedthatthecomingoftheNdebelecausedthebreakdownanddis
appearanceofallaspectsofShonalife.
 LobengulaalsobelievedthatMashonalandwasunderhiscontrol;itwassobecausehedidnotknowtow
hatextentoftheareainhabitedbytheShonaspeakingpeople.
 However,theNdebeletooktimetoestablishcontroloftheShonagroupsandevenwhentheydidtheim
pactwasnotalwaysasdisastrousandasbrutal.
 ItisassumedthatdespitetheraidoftheShona,theNdebeleweremoreinterestedinpeacebyexchangi
nggrainandirontoolsforcattleandtheyalsoadoptedsomeShonareligions.
 TheimpactoftheNdebeledominancewasgreatertothosewholivednearthanthosewholivedfurther
away.
 TheinterdependencethatexistedbetweentheShonaandtheNdebeleiswitnessedbytheirwillingnes
sinfightingtogetherduringthefirstChimurengaagainstEuropeanimperialism/occupation.

DeclineoftheNdebeleState

ZJC NOTES Page 37

 Mzilikazidiedin1868andwassucceededbyLobengulain1870,between1868and1870thereweresu
ccessiondisputesbetweenGwabalandaandachiefIndunawhosupportedLobengulaandZwangend
aba’sregimentswhichsupportedNkulumani,ZwangendabaurgedthatNkulumaniwasstillaliveinS
outhAfrica.
 LobengulaexperiencedthreatsfromTransvaal,PortugalandBritain,theywereinterestedacquiring
coloniesforprosperity,andthereforetheyweredefeatedbyBSACin1893.

THESLAVETRADEANDORIGINSOFUNDERDEVELOPMENT

Whatdoesslaverymean?
Itiswhenoneistakenforciblyfromtheirhomeandsold.Onethereforlosestheirfreedomandtheirposs
essionsandnolongerisincontroloftheirlivesandtheyareill-treated.

Originsofunderdevelopment
Wealthofasocietyisnolongerusedforitsowndevelopmentandthisiscalledunderdevelopment.Wea
lthisexportedandthepeoplearerobbedoftheirpotentialbytheirownlabourandresources.Africawas
developingatherownpacemeetingherowntechnologicalneeds,however,inthemidofthe15 thcentu
rychangestookplacethatallowedthenaturalcourseofherhistoryanddevelopment.Europeantrade
rscametoAfricanottolookfortraditionalitemsfortradesuchasgold,ivoryandclothbuttopurchasepe
ople.Itwasthebeginningoftheprocessedofunderdevelopment.TheprogressivedevelopmentofAfr
icawasdisturbedandneverrestored.

TheDemandforslaves
Thesaleofhumanbeingswasaresultofexternaldemand.Thegrowthofpoliticalandeconomicsystem
srequiredtheuseofhumanlabour.ThedevelopmentofmercantilecapitalisminEuropeandAmeri
caledtothesettingupofplantationsandmineswherehumanlabourwasrequiredtoproduceaminean
dwarrantofmineralsandgrewsugar,tobacco,coffeeandbananasneededbyemergingcapitalistsof
Europe.AnumberofareasinSouthAfricaandthemainlandofNorthAmericawerecolonised.

WhywareAfricansEnslaved?
 ItisbelievedthatAfricanswerepreparedandcouldresistdiseases.
 OthersarguedthatAfricahadmanyunwantedpeoplewhocouldbesoldwithoutdisturbingtheexisten
ceofthesocialsystem.

Supplyofslaves
 ThedemandforslavesledtothecaptureorbuyingofmanymillionsofAfricans.
 However,millionsofpeoplediedduringtheprocessofraiding,captureandtransport.
 OnestudysaysthepopulationofEuropeandAsiaincreasedby4timesbetween1650-
1900,whilethatofAfricaremainedstable.
 Theslavebuyerspreferredtheirvictimsbetweentheageof15-
35thusithadaterribleeffectontheAfricanlabourforce.
 MostofthepeoplesoldintoslaveryintheAmericasandtheAtlanticislandscamefromWestAfrica.
 ThePortuguesewerethefirsttoobtainslavesin1518.ThereafterthesupplyofslavesfromWestAfrica
wasmoreascountriessuchasBritain,France,NetherlandsandSpainwereinvolved.

ZJC NOTES Page 38

 ThemainsupplyingregionsweretheSene-Gambia,SierraLeoneandtheGoldCoastofBenin.
 Duringthelatterpartofthe18thcentury,thesupplyoftheslavesfromWestAfricadecreasedbecauseof
thegrowinganti-
slaverymovementsinsomepartsofEurope.ThisforcedtheslavetraderstoconcentrateontheEastAf
ricanregion.
 TheseslaveswereexportedtoOman,PersianGulfandIndia.
 Inthe19thcenturytherewerealsosenttoBrazilandtheCaribbeanislands.
 DuringtheearlydaysofthetradeEuropeanmerchantsobtainedslavesthroughtheuseofforce.Theyh
untedandraidedlocalpeopleofthecoastandlaterthenadoptedmethodsofexchange.
 TheyofferedAfricanmiddlemenimportedandmanufactureditemssuchascloth,metalwork,ornam
ents,gunsandgunpowder,spiritsandtobaccoinexchangeforhumanbeings.
 Themiddlemenwerechiefs,clanleadersandheadmen.
 Thevictimswereweakerethnicgroups,prisonersofwar,criminals,socalledwitchesanddomesticsla
ves.

Abolitionofslavetrade
 Asanti-
slaverymovementsincreasedmoreandmoreslavesweresuppliedtotheArabownedplantationsont
heislandofZanzibarandPemba.
 Itissaidthroughoutthe19thcenturyabout½ofthepopulationoftheseislandsweremadeupofslaves.
 DespitethefactthatitlaageredbehindPortugalintheslavetrade,Britainwastheleadingbuyerofslav
esbythe18thcentury.
 However,Britainwasalsothefirsttoabolishthetradeofhumans.
 SomeoftheleadingBritishabolitionistswereThomasClarkson(Writer),WilliamWilberforce(Memb
erofParliament)andGranvilleSharp(Lawyer).
 TheseandothersthatopposedslavetradewereknownasHumanitarians.
 Slaverywasdeclaredasillegalin1772buttheBritishParliamentdidnotagreeintheabolitionofslavetr
adeuntil1807.
 SlaveryitselfintheAmericaswasnotabolisheduntilmuchlaterandintheBritishcoloniesin1833,how
ever,thetradecontinuedillegallyfrommuchofthe19thcentury.

Effectsofslavetrade
 Slavemigrationaffecteddevelopmentbecauseoflossinhumanresources.
 TheBigmanandthemiddlemanstrengthentheirpoliticalandeconomicpowers.
 Slavelandlordsbecameverywealthy.
 Thestrongmilitarygroupswereabletobuildstrongerstatesasaresultofslavetrade;however,smalle
rstateswerecompletelywipedoutanddestroyedasaresultofslavetrading.
 Indigenousdevelopmentsufferedthroughlossofablebodied.
 Tradingitemssuchasgoldandsaltdeclined.
 Indigenousmining,craftandmanufacturingdeclined.
 TheexchangesystemwasunequaltoonesideandEuropeangoodsdiscourageddevelopment.

THERISEOFCAPITALISM

ZJC NOTES Page 39

Feudalism
Itisawayofproducinggoods.Agriculturewasthemainmeansofproductionandveryfewpeopleknow
nasLandlordsweremasters.SerfsortenantsworkedfortheLandlordsandgotfoodaspayment.Landl
ordsenjoyedmostofthebenefitsandpassedonthelandtotheirchildrenmeaningalandlordwouldalw
aysremainalandlordandaserfaserffortherestoftheirlives.

Capitalism
Itisawayofproducinggoodsbymachines.ThemeansofproductionwasformedbyCapitalistsorBour
geoisieandworkersorproletariatsdidworkforthecapitalistsforverylowwages.Duringthe16 thcentu
rytherewereimprovementsintradeasshipshadbeeninventedsoagroupknownascommercialmiddl
eclassemerged.Tradebecameverysuccessfulduringthisperiodasgold,ivory,spicesandbeadswer
eondemandbyEuropeancapitalists.Thismarkedthefirststagefromfeudalismtocapitalism.

The2ndstageofdevelopmentwasinthe17thcenturywerebygreatgrowthoffactorieswasexperienced
.Thisledtoaclassstruggleaspeoplewerefightingtocontrolthefewresources.Thegrowthofindustrie
sledtothedemandofrawmaterials.

The3rdstagewasaroundthe1870s.Itwasimperialism.Manycountriese.g.Germany,Italy,France,U
.S.A.andJapanetc.begantocompeteforthecontroloftherawmaterials.

TheRenaissance
Therewasarebirthofscience,artsandideasingeneral,beforethisperiodallknowledgewasbasedonC
atholicbeliefssuchaswritingofartfollowedbyAncientRomeandGreekbeliefs.Theperiodbeforerena
issancewascalledMedievalmeaningmiddleage.IntheRenaissanceperiodpeopleweremoreinteres
tedinGeography,Geometricnavigation,biology(workingofthehumanbody).
Painting
Inthemedievalperiodpaintingaboutreligiondominatedaschurchwaspowerful.Whenchurchpower
shadbeenweakened,painters’paintingthroughoutGiettopaintedportraits,animalsandsinsofdirty
lifeandwasthe1stRenaissanceItalianmenRafael,LeonardoDaVinci,MichaelAngeloandDantepaint
edtoshowbeautyandtheymarkedtheperiodofRenaissance.
Architecture
Thisinconcernedwithbuildingstructuressuchaslibrariesandtheatreswereputup.Peruzzi,Rafaelan
dMichaelAngelomadeplansofthisusingmathematics.
Literature
DanteanItalianwriterbecamethefirstintheRenaissanceperiodtousethelocallanguage.Itwaspass
edonfromItalytoseveralcountrieslikeSpain,FranceandEnglandwasWilliamShakespeareandSpe
ncerinEnglandbecamepopular.

IdeasofHumanism
Educationdealtwithhumanmatters(Humanism)ratherthanreligionandchurchrulesofthemedieva
lperiod.Scholarsconcentratedonhumanneedsandsciences.Theseincludedartofpersuadingi.e.his
tory,poetryandethics.ThefirsthumanistwasPetrarch(1304-1374)andhewasanItalian.
Scientist Year Discovery
Copernicus 1473-1545 Earthmovesaroundthissunratherthanthesunm

ZJC NOTES Page 40

 ovingaroundtheearth.
Galileo 1564-1642 Howtomakeaccurateclocks.
Healsostudiedastronomyandhesupportedthei
deathatthesunisstationaryandtheplanetsmov
e.
IsaacNewton 1624-1727 Forceofgravityandhisfamouslaws.
Harvey Thewaywhichbloodmovesaroundthebody.
Gutenberg 1600-1648 Printedthe1stbook.

AchievementoftheRenaissance
 Managedtomakepeoplethinkoutsidespiritual.
 Thingswerenolongersafeforpubliccriticism.
 BeforetheRenaissancekingscouldnotbecriticisedbyordinarypeopleastheyclaimedthattheyhadp
owersoverpeople.

ShortfallsoftheRenaissance
Eventhoughtherenaissancequestionedandchallengedthechurchandtheruleofthetraditionalmon
architdidnotcriticisethequestionsorsystemswhichweredevelopingtotaketheplaceofthechurchan
dthemonarch.

TheReformation
 Itmeansmakingsomethingbetterbyeliminatingfaults.
 ItstartedinGermanyandaimedatrenamingtraditionalbeliefsincludingthoseofthechurch.
 AsreformationideasfledthroughEuropeprotestants/
protestantchurchesemergedandthesefeltthattheCatholicshadgoneawayfromtheoriginalteachin
gs.
 Popeswerenowcorrupttotheextentofaskingsinnerstopaymoneyfortheirsinstobeforgiven.
 Thechurchwasnowbeingaccusedofimmoralityandfailingtodoitsduties.
 Theprintersmadebiblesreadilyavailablesuchthatitmadethepeoplerealisemuchofwhattheyheard
inthechurchhadlittlesupportinthebible.
 ThosewhocriticisedthechurchduringthisperiodwerethekikesofDrMartinLutherKingJuniorandJoh
nCalvin.
 ThenewmodeclassfreeditselffromtheCatholicChurchresultinginmanyreligiousgroupssuchasMet
hodists,AnglicansandProtestants.

TheVoyagesofexploration
DuringthemiddleagesEuropeansbelievedthattropicalseasboiledandifshipssailedwestfromEurop
etheywouldfalloftheearthtothesky.
Whyvoyagesofdiscovery
 TheywishedtofindtheroutetoIndiaandtheSpiceIslands.
 Theywantedtobuysilk,carpetsandscentsfromAsia.
 Theywantedtogetareasandtheirmoneyonthemandbecamerichere.g.PrinceHenrythenavigatorw
holedthesearoutetoIndia.

Explorer Areaexplored Achievement

PrinceHenry. India. HepreparedmapstohelpthePo

ZJC NOTES Page 41


ChristopherColumbus.
VascoDaGama.
BartholomewDiaz.
rtuguesesailors.
AtlanticOcean. DiscoveredAmerica.
RoundtheCapeofGoodHope. OpenedtheroutetoIndiabysea
.
CapeofGoodHope. Passedthemostsoutherlypoint
ofAfrica.

Conclusion
 TheRenaissancebridgedthegapbetweenfeudalandmoderntimes.
 ThefeudalsocietieshadbeendominatedbytheCatholicChurch.
 TheRenaissancewithitshumanistemphasisoftruthandethicalevidencedestroyedtheethicalfeudal
orderwherethechurch’sbeliefsandideasdominated.
 Thechurchhadbeenatthecentreofscientificunderstanding,politicalthoughtsandeducation.
 DuringtheRenaissancetherewasnoware-
examinationofallreligionbeliefsincludingthoseoftheCatholicChurch.
 AgreatreligiousmovementandtheteachingsandstructureofthoseoftheCatholicChurchhadstarte
dinthe16thcenturyinGermanyandspreadthroughouttheworld.
 ThesepredestinesfailedthattheCatholicshadgoneawayfromtheoriginalteachingsanddisciplineso
fChristianity.
 FormanycenturiestheCatholicChurchclaimedgreatwealthfromitssubjectsalloverEuropeanditstr
engtheneditspowerfromfeudalrulers.

THEAGRICULTUREANDINDUSTRIALREVOLUTIONINBRITAIN

CapitalismreplacedfeudalisminBritainwhenwealthwascreatedbynewfarmingmethods.Firstlyba
nkswereestablishedandpeopleborrowedmoneytobuildfactoriesandmachines.Peasantswereforc
edtoworkinfactoriesandsuppliedlabourforcapitalistsforlowwages.Inacapitalistsystemthemains
ourceofsocialstrugglewasbetweentheworkingandthecapitalistclass.Thecapitalistsusedworkerst
omakeprofits.Capitalistsarethereforeparasiticbecausetheycan’tlivewithoutexploitingtheworker
s.BritainisthefatherofcapitalisminEuropeandintheworldingeneral.Itwasmadetheworkshopofthe
worldbecauseofitsindustries.

THEAGRICULTURALREVOLITION
Insteadoffarmingforsubsistence(tofeedthelandlordsandserfs)thelandlordsbeganfarmingtomak
eaprofit.Bythe18thcenturycommercialagriculturewasfullyestablished.Thoseworkinghadnotimet
ogrowcropssotheyhadtobuycrops.

FactorsleadingtotheAgriculturalrevolution
 Wealthfromagriculture.
 Wealthfromindustries.
 Wealthfromslavetrade.
 WealthfromplantationsoftheCaribbeanIslands.
 Improvementsintransport,roads,railwaysandbridges.

TheEnclosuresystem

ZJC NOTES Page 42

 Thiswaswhenlargeopenfieldswerefencedorwalledintostripsofland,eitherforgrowingcropsorgraz
inglandsforanimals.Thepeasantssufferedbecausethe(common)landwasenclosedforthelandlord
s’agriculturesothepeasantshadnomorelandtograzetheiranimalsleadingtothestrugglebetweenla
ndowningandlandlessclasses.

Croprotation
Cropsweregrowninrotationinsteadofleavingthelandtofallow.

Advantagesofcroprotation
 Soilmaintainedfertile.
 Therewasmoreproductionoffood.
 Intensiveuseoflands.

LordTownsendintroducedcroprotation.JohnSinclairandJethroTullwerebiglandownersanddemo
nstratedhowagriculturalcapitalismworked.

EffectsofAgriculturalrevolution
 Strugglebetweenpeasantsandlandlordsoverlandexistence.
 Landlordsbecamerichereitherbybuyingorclaiminglargeareasofland.
 Peasantswereforcedtobecomeagriculturalworkersorindustrialworkers.
 Therewasharshexploitationofdefencelesspeasantsofprofitmakinglandlords.

INDUSTRIALREVOLUTIONINBRITAIN

Industrialrevolutionisthechangeinindustrialmethodsfromhandworktoworkdonebymachinesdri
venbypower.Peoplehadtochangefromworkinginhomestofactories.Productionwasnowonalarges
cale.Britainwasdeterminedtoproducecheapandabundantgoodsinordertosupplymarketsworldwi
deratherthancountrywide.
Comparison

Before
Manufacturingdoneathome.
Goodsproducedwereusedbyfewneighbouringf
amilies.
Societydependedlargelyonland.
¾ofpopulationlivedinruralareasand¼intowns.
After
ManufacturingdoneinFactories.
Goodswereusedforseveralpurposesandsoldto
differentcountries.
Societydependedlargelyonmachines.
½populationlivedintownsand½inruralareas.

CausesofIndustrialrevolutioninBritain
 Desiretoengageinforeigntradebymeansofmerchantfleet,fleetenabledBritaintotradeinmanypart
softheworld.
 Sheusedthemoneyshehadandshegotdevelopedduetoscientificinventionswhichmadeworkeasier
.
 Populationgrowthledtoacreationofabigmarkettomanufacturegoods;domesticindustriescouldno
tcopewithdemandsofpopulationandthusdifferentmethodsofmanufacturinggoodsinlargequantiti
eswereused.

ZJC NOTES Page 43

 MerchantfleetenabledBritishtoconquerabigempirei.e.India,CanadaandovertookthePortssoBrit
ainhadabigmarkettocoverfor.
 StabilityinBritain-asitwasnevercolonisedbyanyothercountry.
 StrongconcentrationwasonEconomicdevelopmentratherthanwar
 Largequantitiesofironorewerevitalfordevelopmentoffactorymachinesandmostfactorymachines
shiftedtosteampower,BritainwasatanadvantageaslargecoaldepositsexistedinSouthWales.
 Inventionofmachinesbyscientists-
thisprecipitatedindustrialrevolutionandthiswaspossibleduetocapitalfromtrade.

FactorsleadingtoIndustrialrevolution
 Establishmentofbanksby1890,therewere70banksinLondonand400inBritain.
 Availabilityofcheaplabourtooperatemachines,landlesspeasantswereturnedintodesperatejobse
ekersandworkedunderharshconditions.
 IncreaseddemandforproduceinEuropee.g.Industrialistshadmoremoneytospendandalsodeman
dfromoverseasmarkets.
 Improvementintransportsparedinindustrialrevolution.
 Rawmaterialsandlabourreachedfactorieseasily,quicklyandcheaply.
 Finishedproductswereeasilytransportedtomarkets.

Power
Morereliablesourcesofpowerweredevelopedespeciallysteamengineswhichreplacedanimalpowe
r,windpowerandwaterpower.Steamenginesusedcoalandthusminingwasdeveloped.ThomasNe
wcomerinventedthesteamengineandJamesWattsimprovedit.Thenewsourceofpowerwasinvent
edbetween1705and1720.

Changesintextileindustry

Textileindustriesrefertocottonmanufacturingindustries.Themanufacturingofclothincludedspinn
ingandweaving.
Spinning-Theprocessofpiecingtogetherwoolandcottontoformyarn.

Weaving–theprocessofintertwiningtheyarnlengthwiseandcrosswisetoformcloth.

NameofInventor year Machineinvented Purposeofmachine

JohnKay 1733 FlyingShuttle. Weaving-
Becamefasterthanspinning
JamesHargreaves 1767 SpinningJenny. Spinning–
Produced11spindlesofyarnatonce.Y
arnswerestrongerforweftandnotstro
ngforwarp.Itcouldbeworkedbyhand.
RichardArkwright 1769 WaterFrame. Spinning–
Producedastrongerwarpthanspinnin
gjourney.Itcouldalsoproduceweftw
hichwasstrongerandcouldworkbywa
terpower.
SamuelCrompton 1779 TheMule. Spinning–

ZJC NOTES Page 44

 itcombinedtheprinciplesofthespinni
ngjennyandthewaterframe.Produce
dstrongeryarnthanbeforeand100spi
ndlesatonce.
EdmundCartwright 1785 PowerLoom. Weaving–
Weaverscaughtupwithspinners.

Results
 Shiftofpopulation
Factoriesshiftedfromriversidestocoalminingcentres,bigtownsbegantodevelopandalargernumb
erofpeoplebegantobeemployedintowns,peoplemigratedfromruraltourbanareastoseekemploy
ment.

 Developmentofmiddleclass
Themiddleclassbecamewealthierthanalllandlordsasmostfactoryownersweremiddleclasspeople.
Themiddleclassincludeddoctors,traders,teachersandlawyers.

 Developmentofworkingclass
Theworkingclasswasforcedbylandlordstoworkinfactories.Theygotverylowwagesandhadpoorwo
rkingconditions.Theirchildrenbecameexploitedbyfactoryowners,butlatertheworkingclassforme
dtradeunionstostandfortheirinterests.
 Improvementinagricultureandtransport
Peoplesurvivedbybuyingfoodintownsastheyhadnowheretogrowcrops.Newmethodsoffarmingm
eantindustrialrevolution.Goodshadtobetransportedtoruralareasthereforeanewmeansoftranspo
rtfortransportationofgoodswasrequired.Roadsandrailwayswereimproved.

 Avarietyofironandsteel
Littlesteelwasproducedfromironandavarietyresultedincheaperandreliableequipment.

 Manufacturingindustriesdeveloped
Between1850and1914Britainexperiencedforeignandstiffcompetitionastherewerefewrawmater
ials.Eachcountryneededrawmaterialsforitsindustriesandmostworkerslosttheirjobs.Thisledtoscr
ambleandpartitionofAfrica.

 Growthofbankingsector
In1750therewerelessthan12banks,butby1773theyhadrisento400.Thiswasbecauseofentrepren
eurswhowantedmoneyfortheirfactoriesandcanals.

 Developmentoflocalgovernment
Withtimevillagesbecametownsasindustrialtownsstoppedbeingindustrialised.Therefore,adminis
trativestructuresbecameobviousandlocalauthoritieswereputinplace.

 Emancipationofwomen
Thiswasalongtermresultoftheindustrialrevolution.Womenwhowenttotownswerelateremployedi
ntextilefactories.Thesewomenreceivedsamerateofwagesasmenwheretheywereemployedinthe
samekindofwork.

ZJC NOTES Page 45

 Childandwomenlabour
Overhalftheworkingforcesintheindustrialsectorwerewomenandyoungboys,someoftheboyswer
easyoungas3years.Thiswasbecausechildrenwerecheaptoemployandobedient(childabuse).

 Riseofrepresentationinparliament
Newindustrialtownswerenotrepresentedinparliament.Wealthymerchantsandmanufactureswer
edeniedadmissiontoHouseofCommonsthereforetherewasagreatdemandforparliamentaryrefor
ms.

EUROPEANIMPERIALISMINAFRICA

SCRAMBLEANDPARTITIONFORAFRICA

Ittookplacebetween1870and1914.AsBritainbegantodevelopinindustries,shebegantoinvestinIn
diaandothercountriesasshecontinuedtogetalotofprofitssoshedecidedtocoloniseAfricasoastocon
tinueprofiting.Around1880stheworldeconomyrecoveredFranceandGermanybeganinvestingby
colonisingAfrica.BritainandPortugalrespondedbydeclaringownershipofmanycolonieshencethei
deaofscramblingandfightingforresources.

Causes
 Politicalfactors
 Nationalism
EuropeancountriescompetedtocoloniseAfricaforsupremacy.AEuropeanstatewhichhadmanycol
onieswasofimportanceandwasofvalue.TheFranco-Prussianwarbetween1870-
71betweenGermanyandFrancewasanexample.ThisgreatlycausedtheexpansionofotherEuropea
nstatesincolonisationofmostofAfricaasmanyEuropeanstateswantedtobevalued.

 Strategicpurposes
OtherpartsofAfricae.g.Egypt,Morocco,Mozambique,AngolaandtheCapewereobtainedtocontrolt
radeintimesofreservoir(peaceandwar).Britain’sinterestinEgyptwastheSuezCanalasitwasafaste
rroutetoIndia.

 Balanceofpower
AftertheBerlincongresswasheldandtheRusso-Turkishwarof1877-
78therewasarealisationbyEuropeancountriesthattherewasnopowerinEuropewhichwasmorepo
werfulthantheothers.ThismeantthatnocountryinEuropecouldexpanditsterritorywithoutrisking
amajorwarhencetheyturnedtoAfricawheretherewasnoresistance.

ZJC NOTES Page 46

 Sourceoftroops
EuropeannationsalsoobtainedcoloniesinAfricasoastoprovideasourceand
basefortroopse.g.FranceobtainedSenegalandBritainobtainedSouthAfricaandusedAfricansfrom
theseterritoriestofightfortheirrespectivesidesduringtheFirstWorldWar.

 Socialfactors
 TociviliseAfrica
ThefactthatEuropewastechnologicallyadvancedmadeEuropeansfeelsuperiortoAfricanstherefor
eEuropeansfelttheyhadthedutytociviliseAfricaandbringitoutofdarknesscharacterisedbycanniba
lismandbarbarism.TheyconsideredAfricanstobelikechildrenwhoneededinstructionsoneverythin
gandtheyweretobedraggedfromtheirbeliefstothecivilisedonesofEurope.

 Toendslaveryandslavetrade
 ThescramblewasalsoasaresultofneedbyEuropeanstoabolishslavetradeandintroduceChristianit
y.SlavetradewaspopularinAfricasootherEuropeansfeltthatitwasunfairtocontinuetreatingAfrican
slikethis.
 Extralivingspaceandsearchforjobs
Thescramblewasalsoasaresultoftheneedtocreateextralivingspaceforgrowingpopulation.Thisw
asbecausemostofthepeopleinBritainhadlosttheirjobsinBritainthereforetheyneededtobeemploy
edelsewhere.

 Economicfactors
 Needforrawmaterials
The19thcenturymarkedtheimportanceofrawmaterials.Industriesbegantoproducegoodsinabund
anceandatfasterrate.Therefore,rawmaterialscouldnotmeetthedemandfortheproductionofgood
s.Thisledtocompetitionforrawmaterialsgold,cotton,rubberandvegetableoil.Whengoldwasdisco
veredatKimberlyandWitwatersrand,newhopeswereraisedforSouthernAfricaespeciallySouthAfri
caandZimbabwewhichwerebelievedtohavesecondrandgold.

 Markets
ThehomepopulationinBritainwaslargelymadeupoflowlypaidworkersandordinarypeoplewhocoul
dhardlybuygoods.Britainimposedhightariffsonimportedgoodsandthismadeitdifficulttosellgoods
toindustrialisedcountries.Asaresult,mostcountrieshadtoseekmarketsinAfrica.

 Searchforinvestment
DuringtheEuropeandepression(1875-
1900)investmentofcapitalbecamelucrativeandthisforcedcapitaliststoviewAfricaasaninvestmen
topportunitybringingalotofprofits.ThisprovedtrueintheKimberlydiamondminesweretheirprofits
doubledortrebledthoseinEurope.

 Populationincrease
Populationofindustrialisedcountriesincreasedanditbecamedifficulttoprovideenoughfoodforthe
m.Therefore,openspaceswereanecessitysoastocaterforallpopulation.Aboveall,Europeangover

ZJC NOTES Page 47

 nmentsfearedthatextraandpoorpopulationcouldriseagainstthoseinpowerasawayofexpressingt
heirneedssotheywantedtoavoidthis.

 Localfactors
ThecolonisationofAfricawouldnothavebeenpossibleiftherewerenoconditionsinAfricathatledtoth
edefeatofAfricansbysettlers.
 ThereweremenwhowerealreadyworkingasagentsforEuropeancountriesandforchartedcompanie
si.e.Mulatoes.
 ManyAfricanstateshadbeenweakenedbydevastatingeffectsofslavetrade.
 MineralsthatwerefoundinAfricaattractedEuropeansettlers.
 SomechiefshadinvitedtheEuropeanstotheirstatesandthisshowedlackofunityamongAfricans.
 Tradersandmissionariesurgedtheircountriestoestablishpoliticalcontrolandthismadeiteasierfort
hemtoaccomplishtheirmissionse.g.CharlesHelm,RobertandJohnMoffatetc.
 Influenceofbusinessmene.g.CecilJohnRhodeswhoinitiatedtheinfluenceofBritaininmanypartsof
AfricaincludingSouthernAfrica.Hehadadreamofpainting“Africared”fromCapetoCairo.

BerlinConference
ToavoidfightingoverclaimtoterritoriesinAfrica,theEuropeancountriescalledameetinginBerlin,Ge
rmanyin1884-
85todiscussanddecideonhowtodivideAfricaamongthemselves.NoAfricancountrywasinvitedtoth
econference;itshowedclearlythatAfricahadlostpowertoEurope.ThefuturepoliticalaffairsofAfrica
weretobedecidedintheofficesofEuropeandnotAfrica.

Aimsofthemeeting
 TodrawuprulesfortheeffectiveoccupationofAfrica.Therefore,Africawasdividedinto20territorialu
nitsknownas‘spheresofinfluence.’
 TheyagreedthatanycountrywillingtooccupyAfricanlandhadtoinformotherinterestedpowerssoas
forthemtomaketheirownclaimsdifferentfromtheonesclaimed.
 Toplananeffectivewayofconquest-
effectiveconquestmeantacolonialadministrativestructureandfailuretodosomeantthatanycountr
yhadtherighttooccupytheparticularcountrythiswasarticle35oftheBerlinConference.
 Toendslaveryandslavetradeinterritoriesoccupied.
 Majorwaterwayse.g.Congo,NigerandZambezihadtobecomeopenfortradetoallEuropeancountrie
s.

Territorialterms
 PortugalwhichhadclaimedtheterritoryatthemouthoftheCongoRiverandgotapieceoflandtothemo
uthofCongo.
 FrenchclaimsalongtheNorthernbankoftheCongowererecognised,thisbecameFrenchCongo.
 GermanyclaimsonTanganyikawererecognised.

Results
 AfricanslostpowerandindependencetoEuropeans.
 AfricabecameasourceofrawmaterialsneededbyEuropeancapitalists.
 AfricawasunderdevelopedasprofitsweresentbacktoEurope.
 Africanslosttheirlandandwereforcedtoproducelabourinfarms.
 SlaveryandslavetradebegantobeexperiencedinAfrica.
 AfricanslosttheircultureinmostareasduetointroductionofChristianity.

ZJC NOTES Page 48

 Technologicalchangeswerenoticede.g.biggershipsweremadetocarryweaponsandlargercargo,b
etterweaponswerealsomade.
 Shiftofpopulationasmostpeoplemovedfromruraltourbanareasduetoconstructionofindustriesan
dmarkets.
 Africansgainedskillsincarpenting,metalwork,buildingetc.
 Developmentoftransportsysteme.g.railwaylines,roadsandtelegraphlines.
 Establishmentofsocialservicese.g.schoolsandhospitals.
 ImprovementofagricultureduetotheAgrarianrevolutionwherebynewcropsandfarmingmethods
wereintroduced.

COLONISATIONOFZIMBABWE
ItwaspartofimperialismbroughtforthbythescrambleforAfricainthe19 thcentury.Mainlyfourgroups
ofEuropeansi.e.Germans,British,BoersandPortuguesewereinterestedintheLimpopoZambeziare
a.

British–
ThoughtsecondrandgoldwaspresentacrossLimpopoandintoZimbabwe.Theyalsowan
tedtostopBoersfromexpandingintoCentralAfrica.

Portugal–
wantedtooccupyZimbabwesoastolinkhercoloniestoSouthEastAfrica.Portugalwasf
amiliarwithtradewiththeMutapaandmineralsintheterritories.

GermansandBoers–
Theydreamtofexpandingtheirterritoriesandthereforehadtooccupya
ndcoloniseAfricanstatese.g.CecilJohnRhodeswhocolonisedZimbab
we.

EarlyEuropeancontactswithZimbabwe
 ThePortuguesetradedinMashonalandfromtheearly16thcentury.
 OtherEuropeanmissionaries,tradersandAdventistsvisitednorthofLimpopointhe1820s.
 RobertMoffatwasoneofthefirstmissionarieswhopavedthewayoftheBritishoccupation.
 HesignedatreatywithMzilikaziin1836whichwascalledtheMoffattreatyof1836whichestablishedfri
endshipbetweentheCapeGovernment(TheBritish)andMzilikazi.
 Between1836and1868whenMzilikazidiedhealsosignedatreatywiththeBoersbutwasnotthatimpo
rtant.

Reasonsforcolonisation
 Expectedmineralwealth
EuropeansbelievedthatasgoldwasdiscoveredattheRandin1886,itwasmostprobablyitalsoexisted
inZimbabwewhichcouldbecomethesecondgoldbearingarea.PreviouslyPortugalhadbenefitedfro
mgoldtradeinMutapa.ThiscausedBoers,BritishandPortuguesetooccupyZimbabwe.However,the
Britishwonthefight.

 Presenceofgoodsavannahsoils.

ZJC NOTES Page 49

 AcrosstheLimpopotherewassuitablelandforEuropeancommercialagriculture;thiswouldinturnbri
ngaboutprofitstoBritain.TheBritishturnedtolandafterrealisingthattherewasnosecondrandgoldt
heyenvisaged.

 Rhodesimperialism
HefeltthattheBritishwereasuperiorraceintheworldduetotheircivilisation
Therefore,hefeltitwastheirdutytociviliseAfrica.HeintendedtoseizeSouthernRhodesiaduetohisdr
eamtooccupyCapetoCairo.

 CompetitionbetweentheBritishandPortugueseforZimbabwe
BritainhopedtouseZimbabweandCentralAfricatransportroutestolinkSouthAfrica
andEastAfrica,thiscouldbedonebytheCapetoCairorailway.PortuguesewantedtolinkMozambique
andAngola.

 Goodclimaticconditions
Zimbabwewasbelievedtohaveacoolclimatefavourableforgoodhealth.ThisexplainswhyCecilJohn
RhodescametoZimbabwetorecoverfromhisill-health.

 Considerablepopulationofelephantsforivory
ThiswouldpromotetradeandEuropewouldgetalotofprofitsincetherewasgreatdemandforivory.

 Illiterateleaders
MostAfricanleaderswereilliterate.Therefore,theywerecheatedinsigningtreatieswithEuropeans.

Stepstakentocolonise
 Taticoncession(1870)
ItwassignedbetweenLobengulaandJohnSwinbourne.ItwascreatedontheborderlandsofMatebele
landandBechuanaland(Botswana).Swinbournewasgrantedpermissiontosearchforgoldandother
mineralsinthatparticulararea.

 Goblertreaty(July1887)
ItwassignedbetweentheBoersandtheNdebeleanditwasafriendshiptreaty.PietGobblernegotiated
thesigningofthetreaty.

Terms
 EnforcedpeacebetweenMatebelelandandSouthAfricaRepublic(Transvaal).
 LobengulawasregardedasaParamountchiefandanally.
 LobengulahadtoassisttheBoerswithtroopsifaskedtohelp.
 AnyonewithapassfromtheTransvaalPresidenthadtherighttohuntandtradeinMatebeleland.
 AllcriminalswhocouldhaveescapedfromSouthAfricaweretobesentbacktoSouthAfricabyLobengu
la.
 SouthAfricaRepublictoappointacouncilwhichwouldresideinMatebelelandandadministratejustice
tothosewhomightviolateLobengula’slaws.
LaterLobengularenouncedtheGobblertreatyarguingthattherewerenoindependentwitnesseswh
enthetreatywassigned.AlsoBoersweretheonlyoneswhocouldreadconsideringthepeoplewhohad
signed.TheTransvaalgovernmentinsistedthatthetreatywasstillvalid.Rhodeswasforcedtoactquic

ZJC NOTES Page 50

 klysohesentJohnMoffattonegotiateatreatywithLobengula;hewantedMatebelelandtobeaBritishs
phereofinfluence.

 Moffattreaty(11Feb1888)
RenouncedtheGobblertreatyof1887.

Terms
 PeacetoprevailbetweentheBritishandtheNdebele.
LobengulanottodealwithanyotherpowerwithoutpermissionfromtheBritishhighcommissionerinS
outhAfrica.

TheRuddConcession(30October1888)
RhodessentalawyerRochfordMaguire,hisfriendCharlesRuddandFrancisThompsonwhospokeNde
belewelltonegotiatetheRuddconcession.LobengulawasunwillingtosignthetreatybutoneofhisInd
unascalledLotshemisledhimintosigningtheRuddconcessionbecausehewasbribedbyThompson.
OtheragentsofimperialismatLobengula’scourtwasamissionaryRevCharles.D.Helm,hepretende
dtobeLobengula’sfriendassaidhewassomeonewhodidnottakesidesbutwasadvancingtheinterest
ofBritain.HepersuadedtheNdebelekingtosigntheRuddconcession.LobenguladidnotrealisethatH
elmwasactuallybeingpaidbyCecilJohnRhodes.

 Terms
Lobengulawaspromised:
 £100permonthforanunspecifiedperiod.
 1000loadingriffles.
 100000roundsofammunition.
 Agun-boattobeplacedontheZambeziRiver.

InturnLobengulawould:
 GrantminingrightstoCecilJohnRhodes’men.
 Grantthempowertodoallthingstheydeemednecessaryinordertocarryouttheirminingactivities.
 TogivelegalrightstoCecilJohnRhodes’mentostopotherfortuneseekerssuchasBoerstoenterMateb
eleland.

Non-verbalterms
 Onlytenwhiteswereallowedtomine.Theywerenotallowedtomineneartowns,theyhadtosurrender
theirfirearmstotheking.
 ObeyNdebelerules.
 Digoneholeatatime.

NB:AfterreceivingtheRuddconcession,RhodesrushedtoBritaintoapplyforaCharter(awrittendocument
)toenablehimtoformacompanyfortheoccupationofZimbabwe.

ZJC NOTES Page 51

 OCCUPATIONOFZIMBABWEBYEUROPEANSETTLERS

CecilJohnRhodes
 CecilJohnRhodesmadeanefforttocoloniseasmanyAfricancountriesaspossible,hewantedtopaintt
hecontinentred.
 HehadmovedawayfromBritainasaresultofhisillness.
 Hesawbusinessopportunitiesandstartedtwobusinesses:
 BSAC(BritishSouthAfricanCompany).
 Kimberly.
 HetracedhisgoldmineandsawthatthebeltwasreachingZimbabwesohethoughtofcolonisingtheco
untry.
 Rhodeswasanimperialistatheart;hewantedtoconstructarailwaylinefromCapeinSouthAfricatoCa
iroinEgypt.
 HefeltthattheBritishwerethefinestraceofall;hespentsleeplessnightsthinkinghowluckyhewastob
eBritish.
 HeeventoldStarrJamesonthattheyareluckytobelongtothefinestflowerofcivilisation.

TheCharter

TheCharterwasgrantedon29October1889.

Objectives
 Constructionofarailwaylineandtelegraph
 Encouragementofmigrationandcolonisation
 Developmentofmining
 Promotetradeandcommerce

TheCharteralsoincludedthat:
 ImperialgovernmenthadfullcontrolofSouthernRhodesiaandcouldactupontheadviceofthe
Secretaryofcolonies.
 ThecompanytohaveitsheadofficeinBritain
 Religioninthecountrywasnottobeinterferedwith
 Rhodeswasgivenpermissiontooccupythecountryfor25yearsandafterthatpermissionhad
begrantedrenewedfortermsoftenyears.
 Rhodeshadtomaintainapoliceforceandundertakepublicworks.

ZJC NOTES Page 52

 CeciljohnRhodesformedtheBSACfortheoccupationofZimbabweandaBoardofDirectorswasforme
dtoleadtheBSAC.AdvertsweremadeofEngineers,MinersandDoctorsetc.Manyapplied,butonly20
0wereaccepted.Everymemberwaspromised3000acresoflandand15goldclaims.Apoliceforcewas
alsoformedtoprotectthemembers.Armymembersandtheirwagonswerereferredtoasthe‘Pioneer
Column.’

ThePioneerColumn
 ItwasamarchregardlessofwhatLobengulasaid.
 SoonafterbeinggrantedtheCharter,RhodeswenttoSouthAfricatogatheragangofmercenarieswhi
chhecalledthepioneercolumn.
 TheGangconsistedof200mercenariessupportedby500policemen.
 Toreducedangerofconflict,adecisionwasmadetoavoidMatebelelandandmarchintoMashonaland.
 F.C.Selousledthewaymarkingtreestobecuttomakearoad.
 About170wagonsfollowedhimandthenearestNdebelevillagewasleft150kmnorth.
 LobengulasenthismentoaskthemwhytheyweremarchingbutwerebrushedasidebyColonelPenne-
fatherwhowascommandingthePioneerpolice.
 OnthewaythePioneercolumnestablishedFortTuliandfromthereFortVictoriaandthenFortChartera
ndonSeptember121890theygottoSalisburyandhoistedtheBritishflaganddeclaredMashonalando
ccupied.
 AstheyestablishedFortCharterontheirway,asegmentofitheadedbyJamesonbranchedoffandtrek
kedtoMashonalandtopre-amptheeffortsofthePortuguesewhoweredrivingfromtheeast.
 ThewholeaimofthiswastoseizetheeastandestablishBeiraasanindependentPortfornewBSACterrit
ory.
 ThemostimportantShonaChiefMutasawaspersuadedbyJamesonandhispartytosignatreatyknow
nastheMutasatreatyonthe14thofSeptember,2daysaftertheestablishmentoffortSalisbury.

TheWarofdispositionof1893(Anglo-Ndebelewar)

 TheNdebeleKingdomwasdoomedfromthemomentRhodesdecidedtocoloniseZimbabwe.

Causes
 ConflictsovercontroloftheShona
TheBritishandtheNdebelewantedtheShona,butfordifferentpurposes.TheNdebeleneededthemfo
rraidsandtheBritishasasourceoflabour.TheBritishpreventedtheShonafromthecontinuousNdebe
leraidsthereforethetwoclashed.

 Boundaryissue
AfterreachingMashonaland,JamesonmarkedaboundarytoseparateMashonalandandMatebelela
ndontheInyathiandShashirivers.ThisangeredLobengulaashecontinuouslyaskedwhoJamesonw
as,todemarksuchaboundary.Therefore,Lobengularefusedtoaccepttheboundary.

 Railwaylink

ZJC NOTES Page 53

 TheBritishfeltthattheNdebeleblockedtherouteofcommunicationbetweenSalisburyandMafeking(
SouthAfrica)astheyintendedtoconstructarailwaylinetolinkSalisburyandMafekingthroughMateb
eleland.SucharouteminimisedcoststoSouthAfrica.ThisseemedtobeimpossibleastheyfearedLob
engulaandabovealltheyhadnotinvadedMatebeleland,butMashonaland.

 FailuretofindsecondrandgoldinMashonaland
BritishfailedtogetasmuchgoldastheyexpectedsotheythoughtitwasinMatebeleland,theyalsobelie
vedthatMatebelelandwasbuiltonahillofgold.

 Richsoilsandcattle
TheBritishwantedthegoodgrazinglandsandgreatherdsofNdebelecattle.Theybelievedtheywould
makealotofprofitfromagricultureiftheyfailedtogetthegold.

 TheNdebelewerewarninglight
TheywereamilitarythreattotheBritish.

 QuickVictoriouswar
TheNdebelewarwouldmakeRhodespopularinBritain;theywantedtofightanddefeattheNdebeleas
soonastheypossiblycould.

 TheVictoriaIncident
In1891,LomagundiandChibiwerekilledbyLobengula.LobengulacontinuouslyraidedtheShonainM
asvingowhowereprovidinglabourtotheBritish.May1893,somemenunderheadmanGomaracutso
me500yardsoftelegraphwirebetweenFortTuliandFortVictoria.Gomarapaidthefinedemandedbyt
heBritishusingLobengula’scattle.AnotherChiefBerestoleLobengula’scattleandLobengulabecam
efuriousandsentanarmyunderMunyawoandUmgandanitoteachGomaraandBerealesson.ByJulyt
hearmyreachedMasvingo,burntdownhomes,killedmenandtookyoungchildrenandwomeninZim
utoandotherareasinMasvingo.

 Farmsandmineswereattackedandalotofcattleweretakeneventheonesbelongingtothewhites.
 ShonastoppedprovidinglabourinEuropeanfarmsandminesinMasvingo.
 TheNdebeledemandedthehandoveroftheShonawhohadtakenrefugeinwhitefarmsandtowns.
 LendyrefusedtocomplyandameetingwasheldbetweenUmgandani/ManyawoandJameson/
LendyandthiswascalledtheVictoriaAgreement.
 TheyagreedthattheNdebelehadtowithdrawfromtheVictoriadistrictwithin2hoursandacceptthebo
undaryproposed.
 JamesonfeltthattheNdebelearmyhadnotgoneasfarasexpectedsoheattackedthemkilling30peopl
eincludingUmgandani.Lobengulabecameangryandsoughtrevenge.
 WarbecameunavoidablebetweentheBritishandtheNdebele.
 AftertheVictoriaincident,LobengularefusedmonthlypaymentsaspertheRuddconcession,Rhodes
begantobuyhorsesfromSouthAfricaandlookedforvolunteerstooccupyMatebeleland.
 Eachvolunteerwaspromisedafarm(3000acres),15goldclaimsandhalfthecattlecapturedinMateb
elelandtobesharedamongstvolunteers.
 ThefirstcolumnleftHarareleadingtoBulawayo,thesecondleftVictoriaandmettheHararecolumnne
arKwekweandthelastcolumnleftBotswanaandwentdirectlytoMatebeleland.

ZJC NOTES Page 54

 CourseoftheWarinMatebeleland
 ThewarbeganinOctober1893,theNdebeleprepared18000menwhere-
asBSAChad3500menincluding2000Tswanaauxiliaryfighters.
 Thecompanymovedfasterasithadhorses.
 Itusedmodernweaponse.g.machineguns,gunpowdersandwagonstohelpintheprovidingofwarm
aterial.
 TheNdebeleusedspearsandshields.
 ThefirstbattlewastheShangani(25October1893).
 TheNdebelecameatnightandkilledpeoplecampedoutside.
 BysundowntheNdebeleweredefeatedandsomeoftheirwarriorsdied.
 ThesecondwarwasatMbembezi(November1893).
 TheNdebeleroutedtheLaagerbytheriveratnightandthreeNdebeleregimentsambushedit.Afierce
battlewasfoughtandtheNdebelelostduetoinferiorweapons.
 WhenJamesonandcompanyenteredMatebelelandthefounditdeserted.Jameson’splantocaptureL
obengulawasinvain.
 AllanWilsonwassenttofetchforLobengula,theShanganiRiverfloodedbeforehecouldcrossover.
 TheNdebelekingattemptedtopreventawarwiththeEuropeansbyofferingthem2bagsofgoldasape
acewishofgift.
 However,thegolddidnotreachStarrJamesonleadingtothewarofdispositioninwhichthesettlerssuc
ceededintakingthelandfromtheNdebeleanddestroyingthestate.
 TheNdebelearmyattackedWilsonandhismen;theywereslaughteredwiththeirhorses.
 In1894LobengulawassaidtohavediedofMalaria.TheNdebeleIndunaslosthopeandsurrenderedth
emselvestotheBSAC.

Results
 TheNdebeleweredefeated.
 Matebelelandbecamecompanyterritory.

Chimurenga1

ZJC NOTES Page 55

 Chimurengameanswarofliberation.ItwasalsoknownastheChindundumaduetothefoundersboom
ingsoundswhichwereusedbyEuropeansagainstAfricans.
 BecauseofthewarsweremanyandthefactthatboththeShonaandtheNdebeletookpartinthewarrefl
ectthewidespreadtooppositiontocolonisation.Theyhadsimilarproblemsandunifiedtofightthesett
lers.

Causes
 Lossofland
Landbelongedtocommunityandnotthechiefeveneverythinginiti.e.animals,firewood,fruittreeset
c.TheBritishpeggedfarmsinbestareasinthecountryownedbyShonaandNdebele.TheNdebeleand
ShonaweredrivenawayfromtheirfarmsandhadtoworkaslabourersforEuropeansandfarmswhicho
ncebelongedtothem.Therefore,theyfeltoffendedanddegradedwhentheirlandwastakenawayfro
mthem.Theyhadtofighttoregaintheirlostland.

 Introductionofreserves
GwaaiandShanganireserveswerecreatedfortheNdebeleaftertheirdefeat.Reservescouldnotacco
mmodatealltheNdebeleandwereveryhot,dryandtsetseinfested.SomeNdebelerefusedtooccupyt
heareas,buttonoavail.

 Lossofcattle
Cattlewasasymbolofwealth,theydistinguishedchiefsfromsubjects;richfrompoor.Policeboyshelp
edintheadministrationofthecountry,butabusedtheirpowersastheybegantodemandcattle,goats
andsheepfromAfricansandthusbecameunpopular.Thesettlersthemselveslackedcapitaltoinvesti
nRhodesiasotheystolecattlefromAfricans,raidedthemandsubjectedthemtotaxesespeciallychief
swhofailedtosupplythelabourrequired.Theywereeitherpunishedorforcedtopayafineintheformof
cattle.

 Taxation
Thecompanyintroducedhuttaxin1894.Everyadultwasmadetopayadollarforeveryhuthehad.The
motivebehindthiswastoforceAfricanstoleavetheirhomesandbeemployedandaccommodatedbyt
hesettlersonfarms.BoththeShonaandtheNdebeleresisted,thecompanyseizedgoats,cropsandca
ttlefrompeoplewhofailedtopaytax.Animalsweredriventothehillsandhid.

 AbuseofAfricanwomen
In1903thecompanyintroducedimmoralitysuppressionact.ItmainlyaffectedtheShona.Nowhitew
omanwastohavesexualintercoursewithablackman.PoliceboysalsotookadvantageandabusedAfri
canwomenaswhiteswereinterestedinblackwomenandnolawgovernedit.Africansresentedthisass
omehusbandslosttheirwivesforever.Whitesnevermarriedandyetin-
lawsexpectedlobolaaccordingtotheircustom.Therefore,Africansfeltthatwarwastheonlysolutiont
oendthis.

 Forcedlabour
Thecompanyforcedblackmentoworkforthewhitesforacertainperiodoftimeperyear.TheNdebelea
ndShonaranawaytothehillstoavoidbeingoverworked.Somechiefsandheadmenopenlyresistedfo

ZJC NOTES Page 56

 rcedlaboure.g.aMutokoheadmanwaspunishedbyreceivingtenlashesandafineof6goatsand3hea
dsofcattle.ThesjambokwasappliedonAfricanstoforcethemtowork;attimeswholevillageswerebur
ntforfailingtoprovidelabour.ThisdisruptedAfricanwayoflifecompletely.

 Ndebeleconfidence
IntheAnglo-
Ndebelewarof1893,someregimentsdidnotparticipate.Therefore,theyfeltthatasacombinedforce
theywoulddefinitelywinthewar.Theyweresodeterminedtore-
establishtheirsupremacyinMatebelelandthereforetheywereveryconfident.

 Natural/Physicaldisasters.
FavourablerainwasreceivedinbothMatebelelandandMashonaland,butthereaftertheareawasstru
ckbyadrought.Hugeswarmsoflocustdevouredthefewcropsleftandthisworsenedthesituationandf
aminewasbeingexperienced.Rinder-
pestswipedhugeherdsofcattleandthiswasassociatedtotheShonahighPriestatMatoposMlimo/
Murenga,thespiritbelievedthatthewhitehadtobedrivenawayfromMatebelelandandMashonaland
foralltheseproblemstobesolved.

 Lossofindependence
TheNdebelewereforbiddenfromchoosinganotherkingafterthedeathofLobengula;theyhadtofight
thewhitestoregaintheirindependenceaswellasanopportunitytochooseanewking.TheShonaalsof
eltthatthesettlersdidnotsignanytreatieswiththem,buttheyhadalsolosttheirindependence.

UprisinginMatebeleland
 March1896,whiteattacksbeganwiththekillingofThomasMurdockaminer.
 March1896,about30whiteswerekilledastheNdebeleattackedfarmhouses,missionsandcollabora
tors.
 NdebelewereorganisedbyhighpriestUmluguluwithhelpofregimentalIndunase.g.Nyandaandoth
ers.
 OfficialsofMwari/MlimosuchasMkwatiandSiginyamatshehelpedUmlugulu.
 Mkwati’sshrinewasatNtabazikamamboanditbecamethecentreofthewar.
 AroundJune1896,thewhitesgotreinforcementsfromSalisbury,SouthAfrica,BotswanaandBritain
;therewereabout2050troopsaltogether.
 TheNdebeleweredefeatedatUmguzainJune1896andthisimpliestheyretreatedmostlyintotheMat
oposhills.
 TheNdebeleweredefeatedastheyfacedfoodshortages,mostoftheircropsweredestroyedaswellast
heirgrainstores.
 NtabazikamambowasstormedandforcesgatheredaroundMkwatiwerewarbrokeup.
 Rhodesbecameafraidofthewarbecause:
 ItwasbecomingexpensiveastheNdebeleweretakingtoolongtodefeat.
 Mineshadcloseddownsothecompanywasrunningaloss.
 TheBritishparliamentwasabouttowithdrawtheB.S.A.C.chartertoruleRhodesia.
 WarhadbeguninMashonalandsoRhodeswasnotabletofighttheNdebeleandtheShonaatthesameti
me.
 Whiteswerelosingintermsofbothmanpowerandresources.

ZJC NOTES Page 57

 Rhodesthereforequicklysettledanagreement.
TheNdebelewerepromised:

1. Supplyofbothfoodandseeds.
2. SalariesforIndunas(aristocracies)e.g.UmlugulutheIndunaofGwandadistrict.
InreturntheNdebelewereaskedto:
1. Surrenderalltheirweapons.
2. Handoverallwhoperformedallthenumeroussettlermurders.
ThewarendednotbecausetheNdebeleweredefeated,butbecauseofasettlement.

MashonalandUprising.
 SuprisedthesettlersastheyfeltthattheyprotectedtheShonafromNdebeleraids.
 SignsofwarhadbegunatChiefMakoni’scourtinManicaland.
 June1896,firewasseenathilltopsaroundHartley(Chegutuarea),itspreadtoMazoe,Murehwa,Mtok
oHeadlandsandMakoni;itwastheirsigntobeginthewar.
 Mwarireligiousleadersunitedparamountchiefs,theseincludedMkwatiwithhisheadquartersatNtab
azikamambo.
 InwesternMashonaland,Mashayamombe’skraalwasthecentreofrebellion.
 Settlerswerekilledincludingtraders;Beatriceminewasattackedaswellasareas70kmaway.
 KaguviandNehandacoordinatedpeople,KaguviworkedwithChinamora,Chikwaka,Nyandoro,Zvi
mba,Mangwende,Mashayamombe,Rusikeetc.
 NehandaworkedwithChiweshe,Hwata,Nyamweda,Negomo,Nyachuruetc.
 Fightingwasorganisedatlocallevelsbytraditional,political,andmilitaryleaders.
 Shonausedguerrillawarfare,theywouldattackandafterattackingtheywouldhideandpretendtobe
ordinarypeople,thereforemanysettlerswerekilled.
 WhiteswereoutnumberedandabouttobedefeatedsosettlersaskedforreinforcementsfromBritain,
WhitesburntdownShonavillagesandseizedtheircattle.
 AforceofhorsetroopsattackedMashayamombe;thesettlersuseddynamitesonShonacaves.
 Mashayamombetogetherwith230peoplewerekilledwhilstescaping.Asaresultparamountchiefsw
eredefeatedonebyoneandtheseincludedMakoni,Mangwendeetc.
 Spiritmediumswerehunteddown.KaguviwascapturedinOctober1897andNehandainDecembera
ndtheywerebothhungon27April1898.
 ChiefMaponderawhowasalsoactivediedinprison.
 1903ChimurengainMashonalandended.

Dutiesandrolesofspiritmediums
 Theypreparedandmobilisedpeopleforwar.
 Inspiredpeopletofight.
 Providedlogisticsneededduringuprising.
 Gavemedicinetowarriors,treatedandhealedthewoundedandthesick.
ReasonsfordefeatoftheShona
 Theyusedinferiorweaponse.g.spears,shields,clubsandarrowswhilstEuropeansusedsuperiorswe
aponse.g.gunsandcannonsandalsodynamite.
 Africanswerenotunitedassomeregimentswereagainstuprisingandthereforedidnotfight.
 Theylosthopeaftertheirleaderhaddied.
 WhitesdestroyedsomeShonacrops,villagesandwatersource.AsaresulttheShonawerestarved.

ZJC NOTES Page 58

 WhitesgothelpfromBritain(1000soldiers).
 Lackedasinglearmyandaleadertocoordinate.
 SurrenderingoftheNdebelemadesettlersconcentrateontheShona.
 Spiritmediumsmisledthepeoplebyinformingthemthatthewhiteman’sbulletsweregoingtoturnto
water.

ROADTORESPONSIBLEGOVERNMENT
Between1890and1897,theBSACfailedtomakeprogressinSouthernRhodesiaeconomicallyandpol
itically.ThiswasduetotheAnglo-Ndebelewar,Chimurenga,rinder-
pestswhichdestroyedcattleandlocustswhichdestroyedcrops.Therefore,thecompanyusedalotofc
apitalonwaraswellasfindingmeansforsurvival.

DevelopmentsinAgriculture
Europeantype Africantype
Theybegantogrowtobacco,maize,cotton,grou Newmethodsoffarmingsuchascroprotationand
ndnutsetc.SouthernRhodesiabecameoneofthe constructionofcontourridgeswereintroduced.
majormaizegrowersandexportedtoBritainfort
hefirsttimein1909.
Marketswereestablishedforexportingtobacco. DomboshavaandTsholotshoschoolsweresetup
bythegovernmenttotrainagriculturaldemonstr
ators.Theywereissuedbadgesormasterfarmer
certificates
In1912thelandbankwasestablishedforexporti Thosewhowereablecouldbuyplotsofabout200-
ngtobacco.ThishelpedEuropeanstoestablishth 300acres.
emselvesonlandastheywereabletogetloans.
TheDepartmentofAgriculturewassetupin1908t Theycouldalsoselltheirproducebutnotonthesa
oimplementagriculturalpolicytowhitefarmers. memarketsasEuropeans.
Researchstatione.g.Gwede1909,RhodesNyan
gaandMatoposEstateswereestablished.
ApricingpolicywhichdiscriminatedagainstAfric
answasimplemented;thelevieswhichwerepaid
wereforonetobeabletosellgoodsproducedwere
toohighthatAfricanscouldnotpay.
Africanswerefurthersubjectedtoforcedlaboura
ndmostofthemlosttheirland.

Industrialdevelopments
 DevelopmentofarailwaylinefromBulawayotoHararein1897andthenHararetoMutarein1898.This
wasvitalfortransportationofequipmentintheindustrialsectoraswellastheexportationofgoods.
 Industrieswerebuiltneartownse.g.Gwelo,QueQueandGatoma.Mostpeoplemovedfromruralarea
stourbanareastoseekemployment.
 AsbestosreplacedgoldasthemostvaluablemineralinSouthernRhodesia.
 Establishmentofelectricitysupplycommissionin1937.Thisproratedtheuseofpowerlines.

ZJC NOTES Page 59

 Legislativecouncil
In1908thefirstlegislativecouncilwaselected.Ithad9members,5electedfromthecompanyand4ele
ctedbythesettlerstorepresentsettler’sneeds.TheChairpersonofthecouncilwasalsochairpersonof
the

Residentcommissioner
TheresidentcommissionerwaselectedbyBritaintocheckifAfricanwerebeingtreatedfairlybytheBS
AC.ThecommanderGeneralcontrolledthecompany’sarmythereforenopoliceforcewastobeusedw
ithoutknowledgeofthecommanderGeneral.

Votersforthecouncil
Avoterwasexpectedtobeabletofillanapplicationformandhadtoearn$100peryearormore.Thisme
antmostAfricanswereexcludedfromvoting.In1898,thesettlersbegantocomplainthattheywereno
tbenefitingascomparedtothecompany.Theyalsoarguedthatminingroyaltieschargedbythecomp
anyweretoohightobenefitordinarypeople.In1925,settlerswonagainstthecompany,insteadofthe
companyruleending1914accordingtothecharter.Moreyearswereaddedassettlerswerebenefitin
gfromthecompany’sinvestments.However,clashescontinuedtoexistbetweenthecompanyandse
ttlers,theyweremainlyforland.Therewasalienatedland(sharedland)andunalienatedland(unshar
edland).Thesettlersdemandedtoknowtheowneroftheunalienatedlandbutthecompanydidnotans
wer.Thecompanyhadreservedlandfortheirunbornchildren.Therefore,thecompanyhandedinthe
governmenttothesettlers,butnottheland.

Administrativeissues
 Thecompanyhadgivenoffaround16millionandthesettlersdemandedtoknowwhowasresponsiblef
orpayingmoneybackaftertheterminationofthecompany.Settlersdemandedthatthecompanywas
responsiblesotheyclashedwiththecompany.
 TheissuewaspassedontoajudicialcommitteeinBritainwhichfinallyruledoutthatlandbelongedtoth
eBritishgovernment.Britainofferedtopay3.5millionascompensationforadministrationdeficits.Th
ecompanywasoffendedasitneededland.
 SouthAfricaofferedalargeramountthanBritainonlyifJoinedSouthAfricaasafifthprovince.
 CharlesCoughlanleaderofthelegislativecouncilwasagainstthejoiningofSouthAfricaandSouthern
Rhodesia;hearguedthatRhodesiahadasmallpopulationandcouldbeswallowedbySouthAfrica.Thi
salsodilutedBritishinfluenceasshewouldbefloodedbytheBoers.
 In1919,CharlesCoughlanformedtheResponsibleGovernmentAssociation(R.G.A.),tofightforares
ponsiblegovernmentinRhodesia.
 Areferendumwasheldon22October1922inwhichCoughlanwonagainstunionists(thosewhovotedf
ortheunionofSouthAfricaandSouthernRhodesia)andthosepreventedSouthernRhodesiafrombei
ngincorporatedintoSouthAfrica,R.G.A.got8774votesandUnionists5589votes.
 1October1923SouthernRhodesiawontheself-
responsiblegovernmentwithCharlesCoughlanasthefirstPrimeMinisterofSouthernRhodesia.
 Thecountrywasdividedinto15districtsandeachdistricthadtosend2memberstorepresentthemint
heparliament.
 Electionsweretobeheldafterevery5years,butAfricanswerestillexcludedfromvoting.
 1923BritainsurrenderedtheAfricanmajoritytothesettlerregime.

ZJC NOTES Page 60

 FederationofSouthernRhodesiaandNorthernRhodesiawasalsosuggested,butitfailed.

ZJC NOTES Page 61

 CENTRALAFRICANFEDERATION
SouthernRhodesia(Zimbabwe),NorthernRhodesia(Zambia)andNyasaland

Federation–
Itiswhenindividualcountrieskeeptheirterritorialgovernmentbutsendsrepresentativestothefeder
alassembly.

Amalgamation–Itiswhenseveralcountriesarejoinedtocomeupwithonecountry.

InthiscaseSouthernRhodesia(Zimbabwe),NorthernRhodesia(Zambia)andNyasaland(Malawi)h
adtobejoinedasonecountry.

ReasonsbehindAmalgamation
 SettlersinNorthernRhodesiawantedtosharetheprofitsofZimbabweangoldfieldaswellastheprofits
fromthecopper.
 ThesettlersinSouthernRhodesiawantedtousethehugereservesofZambialabourastheybelievedt
hatblacksweretheonlyvaluablesourceofcheaplabour.
 SettlerssupportedfederationascustombarrierswouldberemovedsothatSouthernRhodesiaandNy
asalandcouldbenefitasNorthernRhodesiawhichwasapotentialmarketforgoods,thismeantgoodsc
ouldbeexportedandimportedwithoutpayingduty.
 PostwarEuropeanscouldbeattracted.
 WhitesinNorthernRhodesiawouldgettheirterritoriescommissiontosendrepresentativestoamalg
amation.

TheideaofamalgamationwasrejectedasNorthernRhodesiawasnotproducingmuch;theyalsofeare
dthatafewwhitesinNorthernRhodesiawouldnotresistnationalism.
ThereforeGoreBrownasettlerfromNorthernRhodesiacontinuedtosuggesttheideaofafederation.
HefeltthatSouthernRhodesia,NorthernRhodesiaandNyasalandshouldformafederationbutintere
stofEuropeansinSouthernRhodesiahadtoberespectedwhereasAfricantreatmentsinNorthernRho
desiaandNyasalandhadtoberespected.
RoyWelenskyofNorthernRhodesiaandGodfreyHugginsofSouthernRhodesiabegantocampaignfo
rfederationarguingthattherewouldbepartnershipbetweenAfricansandwhitesandyetitwaspartne
rshipofa“riderandhorse”.TheAfricansequatedthepartnershiptothatofaladderwhichtheEuropean
swantedtousetoclimbon.Africansalsosawthisasaninstrumentdesignedtoperpetuatewhiteandra
cistsupremacywhileotherssawitasaploytodelaytheirindependence.ThismeantexploitationofAfri
cans.Africansthereforeprotestedagainstfederation.ProponentsoffederationarguedthataFederal
Statewouldattractmassiveforeigninvestmentthus,stimulateeconomicgrowthintheregion.AFede
ralstatewouldalsomobiliseresourcesasoneunit,thereforeenablethedevelopmentofinfrastructur
esuchaspowergeneration,roads,railwayandindustries.In1953theBritishGovernmentapprovedf
ederation.ThewhitesettlerpopulationofSouthernRhodesiagreatlyoutnumberedthesettlerpopula
tionofbothNorthernRhodesiaandNyasaland.Thispopulationgrowthgreatlyshapedthewaytoward
saFederationandthefuturedevelopments.

StructureofCentralAfricanFederation

ZJC NOTES Page 62

 Itwasmadeupoffivearmsofgovernmentnamely:
 TheFederalgovernment
 ThreeTerritorialgovernments
 TheBritishgovernment

CentralAfricanFederationhadalegislativeCouncilof36seatswhichconsistedof29Europeansand6r
eservedforAfricansrepresentatives.ThesixseatsforAfricanswerenotnecessarilymeantforblacksb
utEuropeansrepresentingAfricanAffairs.ThiswasdespitethatAfricanswerethemajorityandneede
dbetterrepresentation.SouthernRhodesiahad18seats,NorthernRhodesia11seatsandNyasaland
7seatsintheFederalAssembly.ThecapitaloffederationwasSouthernRhodesia(Salisbury).TheFed
eralgovernmentwasresponsibleforkeyMinistriessuchasFinance,ExternalAffairs,Trade,Commun
icationandDefence.TheFederalgovernmentalsoreceivedrevenuefromthethreeterritoriesforitsu
pkeep.EachterritoryhadaterritorialgovernmentledbyaPrimeMinisterinthecaseofSouthernRhode
siaandGovernorsinNorthernRhodesiaandNyasaland.TheterritorialgovernmentscontrolledtheMi
nistriesofLocalgovernment,Land,Agriculture,HealthandAfricanEducation.AfricansinNorthernR
hodesiaandNyasalandwerepartoftheirgovernmentsunlikeinSouthernRhodesiaweresuchapartn
ershipwasunacceptable.Africansgainedlittleastheywereexcludedfromthepoliticalcake.Economi
callytheydidnotgainmucheitherastaxes,pricesofgoodsremainedhigh,discriminationpersistedan
dwagesremainedlowcomparedtothatofEuropeansettlers.Amenitieslikehospitals,educationand
othersalsoremainedseparateforblacksandwhites.

Federationmeant;
 SouthernRhodesiawasbenefittingmorethanNyasalandandNorthernRhodesiaastheKaribaDamw
astobebuiltinSouthernRhodesia,thismeantpromotionoftourismandelectricity.
 UniversityofRhodesiaandNyasalandwastobebuiltinSouthernRhodesia(UniversityofZimbabwe).
 ConstructionofarailwaylinefromNorthernRhodesiatoLourenzoMarques(Maputo).
 Roadsandbridgeswereconstructed.
 Agricultureandindustriesweretobecreated.

However,developmentwasskewedinfavourofSouthernRhodesiaastheCapitaloftheFederalgover
nmentwasinSalisbury.ManyofthedevelopmentswerethusundertakeninSouthernRhodesia.Sout
hernRhodesiaalsoreceived60%oftheFederalrevenue,thusrelationsbecamesourleadingtothecoll
apseoftheCentralAfricanFederation.OtherfactorswhichcontributedtothecollapseoftheFederatio
nwere:
 In1950AfricansinbothNyasalandandNorthernRhodesiacampaignedtoendfederation.
 RacialattitudeofSouthernRhodesia.
 Changingattitudestowardscolonialism.
 Grantingofindependence/selfruleofNyasalandin1962.
 TheBritishgovernmentterminatedtheCentralAfricanFederationin1963.

THESETTLERCOLONIALECONOMY

TheLandQuestion
 ThelandsegregationpolicieswereimplementedandAfricansremainedwithoutlandforAgriculture.
 Theywereforcedtoworkaslabourersinmines,factoriesandmineswhichAfricanswereexploitedasth
eyweregivenlowwagesconsideringtheworktheydid.

ZJC NOTES Page 63

 ReserveswerecreatedforAfricansafterthe1896-97war.
 In1898theorderincouncilorderedthecompanytoprovideenoughlandforAfricans.
 In1902orderincouncilorderedcreationofmorereservesinsteadofredistributinglandasforthe1898
demand.
 Settlersbegantobuylandsuchthatby1902,2/3oftheHighveldwasbelongingtotheEuropeans.
 Thelandcommissionof1914reflectedwhattheythoughtwasfinalby1920,landwassaidtoberedistri
butedasfollows:
 LandboughtbyEuropeans:31484095acres.
 Nativereserves:21203493acres.
 Landnotallocated:43529880acres.
NB:onereallywonderswhatthelandnotallocatedwasfor.

TheLandApportionmentAct(1930)
 Itwasasysteminwhichsettlerswantedtobedividedbetweenblacksandwhitesinsuchawaythatthey
couldkeepsomelandfortheirunbornwhitechildren.
 Outofatotallandof96000000acres,Europeansweregiven49149174acresandAfricansweregiven2
1127040acres.Duringthattimetherewere1081000Africansand50000wereEuropeans.
 ThedevastationoflandapportionmentActisthatitcausedalotofovercrowdinginthereserves.

TheNativeLandHusbandryAct
 ThiswasanefforttoreduceeffectsoftheLandApportionmentActoftheAfricanpopulation.
 Itstatedhowlandinthereservescouldbeusedanddivided.
 Onefamilywasallowedtokeep5cattleonlyandtofarm8acresonly.
 Districtcommissionsdistributedlandwhichhadbeenformerlydistributedbychiefs.itwashopedthat
theNativeHusbandryactwouldpreventAfricansfromcomingtourbanareastoseekemployment.
 Theyalsoexpectedthatitwouldresultinbetterfarmingmethodsbeingused.

EffectsoftheLandActsonAfricans
 ItcreatedaseriouslandshortageamongAfricanpeasants.
 Cropproductiondeclinedas1acrecouldonlyproduceonebagofmaize.
 Africanwereturnedtolowpaidlabourersastheycouldget1mealiemeal,beansandsaltaspayments.
 Africanshadtopayrenttowhites.
 Africanswereforcedoutoftheruralareastotheurbanareastoseekemployment.
 ItcontributedtotheraiseofnationalisminZimbabwee.g.TheAfricanNationalConferenceof1957whi
chaimedatreversingtheLandApportionmentActandrelocationoflandonnon-racialbase.

TheLandTenureAct(1969)
 ItwasintroducedbytheRhodesiaFronttotightentheLandApportionmentAct.
 ItincreasedtheevictionorremovalofAfricansfromEuropeanareas.
 TheLandTenureActcausedsomehardshipsintheAfricancommunity.
 SeveralActswerelaterintroducedtodiscriminateagainsttheblackpeople.

ChiefRekaiTangwena
 HewasanAfricanleaderwhoopposedthepolicyoflandsegregation.
 TangwenalivedaroundtheInyanganiMountains,thislandwassoldtothewhiteswithouthimknowing
andthereforehebecameasquatter.

ZJC NOTES Page 64

 In1962,theRhodesianFrontremovedallsquattersbutTangwenarefusedtomove.
 HewastakentocourtandlostandinJune1968heappealedtothehighcourtandwonthecase.
 TheRhodesianFrontbecameangryinthevictory,abandonedinruleoflawandresortedtoviolenceand
murder.
 September181968,theRhodesianFrontgovernmentevictedRekaiTangwenabyforce,arrestedhi
m,burntvillagesdownandhispeoplefledmountainswheretheylivedwithoutshelter.
 TangwenawaslateraccompaniedbyRobertMugabetoMozambiquein1974andonlyreturnedafterin
dependence.
 TheTangwena’sreturnedtotheirlandandarenowhappilysettled.

RhodesianLaw
 InRhodesiathelawwasusedasaninstrumentforoppressionandunderdevelopment.
 IntheearlyyearsofsettlerrulelawswerepassedtoforceAfricanstoworkforEuropeansbyconfiscatin
gtheirland.
 LaterlawsintroducedpreventedAfricansfromcompetingagainstwhiteinemployment,sellingprod
uceandresidentialareas.
 TherewerealsolawsofgoverningAfricanmovementfromonepartoftheprovincetoanother.
 However,theselawsdidnotstopAfricansfromfightingtoachieveindependence.

LawsPassed
LAW
LandApportionmentAct.
NativeLandHusbandryAct.
LandTenureAct.
IndustrialConciliationAct.
RegistrationofLaboursAct
NativeRegistrationAct.
NativePassesAct.
MaizeControlAct.
CattleLevyAct.
SeditionAct.
UnlawfulOrganisationAct.
PreventiveDetentionAct.
LawAndOrderAct.
(MaintenanceAct)
YEAR PURPOSE
1930 Creationofreservese.g.GwaaiandShangani.
Cheaplabour
1951 DepriveAfricansoftheirland.
Cheaplabour.
1969 DepriveAfricansoftheirland.
Forcethemtoselltheirlabourcheaply.
1934 Togovernlabourrelations.
ThelawstoppedAfricansfromformingtradeunions.
1895 Recordsoffingerprintsanddetailsofeachworker’sv
illage,tribeetc.
1936 ControlledmovementofAfricans.
ForcedAfricanstocarrypasseswherevertheywent.
1937 ControlledmovementofAfricans.
ForcedAfricanstocarrypasseswherevertheywent.
1931 Createdbettermarketingopportunitiesasahigherp
riceofEuropeanmaize.
1934 MadeitpossibleforEuropeanstoselltheircattleforb
etterprices.
1936 Speechesandactionintendedtomakepeoplerebela
gainsttheauthorityofthestatewereforbidden.
1959 AccusedtheleadersoftheA.N.C.ofaddressingignor
antandunwarypersonsinstolenandthreateninglan
guage.
1959 GavetheMinisterofJusticepowertodistinctpeoplec
oncentrationcampswithouttrialinapropercourt.
A.N.C.leaderswerearrestedanddetained
1960 Replacepreventivedetention.

ZJC NOTES Page 65

 AfricanLabourRegulationAct.
MastersandServantsAct.
Preventedpeoplefromleavingtheirjobsandfromst
rike.
Preventedpeoplefromleavingwork.
MadesurelabourwasavailabletoEuropeanmasters
.

MODERNAFRICANNATIONALISMANDLIBERATION
Nationalismisafeelingofonenessandloveforone’scountry.Modernnationalismgrewinoppositiont
ocolonialandothersettleroccupationofthecountry.Theill-
treatmentofAfricansandothersocialandeconomicproblemswhichheldbackAfricandevelopmentle
dtoincreasingprotestsasblacksstruggledtoendoppressionandinequalitythatthesettlerscreateda
ndtriedtokill.Insteadofseeingtheprotestmovementsasasignthatconditionsneedtoimprovethele
gislationsweretightened.DespitethebrutalityandabuseofcolonialgovernmentstheAfricansdidno
tstoptoorganiseandredressthemselves.

Earlyprotestmovements
 AfterthefirstChimurenga,protestmovementswereformedallaroundthecountryanddealtwithgrie
vancesinthoseareas.
 Theleaderscamefromtheblackelitewhichincludedteachers,priests.Tradeunionsandtheworking.
 Theorganisationsformedprotestedaboutparticulargrievancessuchas:
 Land.
 Wages.
 Representationinparliament.
 Educationalopportunities.
 SomeofthemovementswerereformedIndustrialworkersunions,RhodesianBantuvotersassociati
onandBritishAfricanVoiceAssociation.
 However,duringthisperiodtheseorganisationsdidnotdiewithissueofendingminorityrule.

Theriseofmassnationalism
 WhentheWorldWarIIbrokeout,manyAfricansinthecolonyservedinthewartosupporttheircolonial
masters.
 TheRhodesianAfricanswerenotanexpectationduringthewar,peopleofdifferentracesweremadee
qualastheysufferedanddiedatthewarfront.
 Oncethewarwasover,theexperienceofequalitywascarriedhomeandasaresultthenationalistvoice
demandedPoliticalparticipationtogrow.
 Theyfoughtanddiedasequalalongsidewhitesbutoncehometherewerenolongerequalinthesettlers
ystem.
 The1stmassnationalistpoliticalmovementwasAfricanNationalCongress(A.N.C.)in1957andwhos
eleaderswereJamesChikerema,MichaelMalema,JosephMsika,GeorgeNyandoro,JoshuaNkomo,
StandakeSamkangeandEdsonSithole.

ZJC NOTES Page 66

 TheA.N.C.wasbannedinFebruary1959bySirEdgarWhiteandmanynationalistleadersweredetaine
d.

FormationofNationalpoliticalparties

TheNationalDemocraticParty(NDP)
 Itwas1stledbyMichaelMawematheJoshuaNkomotookover.
 AlthoughN.D.P.leadersincludedRobertMugabeandLeopoldTakawira.
 OtherAfricancountrieslikeGhanamadeZimbabwenationalistdemandsstronger.
 In1961representativesforthepartywenttoLondontodiscussanewconstitutionwiththeBritishgove
rnment,however,theywerenotofferedequalrepresentations.
 Thepartywasthenbannedon9Dec1961.

ZAPUandZANU
 ThebanningoftheN.D.P.ledtoformationoftheZimbabweAfricanPeople’sUnion(ZAPU)withJoshua
Nkomoitsleader.
 AfterviolentprotestsinthecountryZAPUwasbannedinSeptember1962,lackofagreementamongth
enationalistsledtotheformationofZimbabweAfricanNationalUnion(ZANU)inAugust1963withNda
baningiSitholeasitsleader.
 InAugust1964bothpartieswerebannedandtheleadersweredetained.

DevelopmentsinSouthernRhodesia
 UnlikeinNorthernRhodesiaandNyasalandwereAfricanscampaignedtoendfederation,inSouthern
RhodesiaAfricanswereexploited.
 MostAfricanswereexcludedfromvotingthereforetheprotestedagainstcolonialrule.
 In1962electionswerewonbytheRhodesianfront(R.F)ledbySirWinstonField.
 IanSmiththreatenedtodeclareindependenceasheclaimedthatmajorityruleshouldnotexistinSout
hernRhodesiabutminorityrule.
 Hedetainedpoliticalleaders,bannedtelevisionsanddeclaredU.D.I.illegalonthe11 thofNovember19
65.
 BritainrespondedbyintroducingsanctiononIansmith.

RevolutionaryNationalism
 On11November1965,IanSmithdeclaredU.D.I.againstAfricannationalism.
 Itbecameclearthatthesettlerswouldnotlistentoblackdemands.
 ZANUandZAPUthensentmoreoftheirleadersoutofthecountrytoprepareforanarmedstruggle.
 ZANUwasallowedtosetupcamp0sinZambia,Ghana,TanzaniaandChinawhilstZAPUorganisedjoin
ttrainingcampswithA.N.C.(S.A.)inZambia,andtheSolventUnion(Russia).
 HerbertChitepowasleaderofZANUanditsMilitaryleaderwasZANLAandJamesChikeremawasleade
rofZAPU’smilitarywingZIPRA.
 Thearmedstrugglebeganonthe28thofApril1966.

TheArmedstruggle
 BecauseofearlydefeatstheGuerrillasbegantolistentothegrievancesofthemasswhichtheyreferre
dtoasNationalgrievances.

ZJC NOTES Page 67

 Theseare:
 Landstruggle.
 Generalpoverty.
 ConstantharassmentbyRhodesianFront.
 Theguerrillas’fullunderstandingofthesegrievancesencouragedpeopletojointhearmedstruggle.
 Politicaleducationwasintroducedtofighterssothattheywouldbeawareoftheexactaimsofthestrug
gle.
 Politicaleducationwasintroducedtofighterssothattheywouldbeawareoftheexactaimsofthestrug
gle.
 Oldmenandwomenprovidedfoodandothersuppliestofreedomfighterswhilsttheyouth,bothboysa
ndgirlswereorganisedintosecuritygroupstowatchenemymovementsandsupplyinformationandf
oodtotheguerrillas.

Financialsupport
 BothZAPUandZANUreceivedpoliticalandfinancialsupportfrompeopleoutsideZimbabwe.
 CountriessuchasTanzania,Mozambique,Angola,Zambia,Ethiopia,Algeria,Yugoslavia,China,Ro
mania,NorthKorea,SovietUnion(Russia)andothersocialistcountriessupportedarmedstruggle.
 Manycountriesintheworldincludingfrontlinestates(Angola,Botswana,Mozambique,Tanzaniaand
Zambia)supportedthefirststrugglesoftheAfricanpeopleandopposedtheillegalstateofRhodesia.
 Theincreasingguerrillastruggleledtothelossofdisciplineandconfidenceamongwhitesettlers.

Settlerresponsetoarmedstruggle
 ThegovernmentcreatedprotectedvillagessurroundedbywireandguardedbyRhodesianforces.Thi
swasaimedatstoppingsupportfortheguerrillas.
 Africanhomeswereburntdown,cropsdestroyedandcattlekilledinordertodenytheguerrillasfood.
 Thousandsweredetainedandhangedforsupportingguerrillas.
 Botswana,MozambiqueandZambiawereattackedbytheRhodesiaFront.
 TheRhodesiangovernmentusedagentstokilltopleadershipoftheliberationmovement.

Pearcecommission
 EdwardHeath,theleaderofaConservativepartynegotiatedforasettlementwithIansmithdisregardi
ngthefactthatIanSmithwasnotinterested,Goodmanwasthereforesenttonegotiate.
 However,hefeltthattheBritishGovernmenthadtonegotiate
 ThesettlementhecameupwithmeantcontinuousexploitationofAfricans,someAfricanprotestedby
carryingdemonstrationsinthestreets.
 In1973,IanSmithdesiredtohavetalkswithBishopAbelMuzorewa(UANG)butfailedtoreachanycon
sensus.
 HetriedDrJoshuaNkomoofZAPUbutfailedagain.
 IanSmithbegantofeararmedstrugglefromAfricanssohedecidedtonegotiatewithlessmilitantAfric
anleaders.

InternalAgreement
 BesidesattemptsbySouthAfricaandZambiatoendthewar,attemptswerealsomadebytheU.S.A.
 AmeetingtookplaceandIanSmithannouncedacceptanceofmajorityruleon24December1974,ho
wever,Policearmyandvitalagencieshadtoremaininwhitehands.

ZJC NOTES Page 68

 ThiscalledforgreatoppositionfromAfricanandBritishcalledaConferenceinGeneva,Switzerlandwh
ichfailedagainasIanSmithwasnotreadytoamendanything.
 In1976theAmericanGovernmentsentHenryKissingertheAmericansecretaryofstatetoorganiseth
eGenevaConferenceatwhichIanSmithwastomeetZAPUandZANUleaders,astheyfearedthedefeat
ofIanSmiththroughwarofliberation.However,atthispointSmithdidnotwanttograntmajorityrule.

 Asthecostofthewarbecameburdensome,itledIanSmithtoadopttheideaofnegotiatingwithinternal
leadersasawayofendingthewar.
 AfricanleaderswhosupportedthesettlementincludeMuzorewa,Sithole,ChikeremaandChirau.
 OnMarch31978,theinternalsettlementwassignedandtheleadersagreedtoformagovernmentofn
ationalunity.
 UnderthisarrangementMuzorewabecamePrimeMinisterofthebriefZimbabweRhodesiain1979bu
tevenduringthisperiodthesettlerscontinuedtoholdpoliticandeconomicpower.
 Thesettlementhadbeenadesperateattempttostopthearmedstruggle,unfortunatelythisdidnotha
ppenasMuzorewaandothersdidnothaveanycontroloverguerrillassothestrugglecontinued.

LancasterHouseConference
ItwasheldinLondoninSeptember1979anditlastedfor4months

Memberspresent
 BritishDelegation–LordCarrington–3representatives.
 ZANU–RobertMugabe–57representatives.
 ZAPU–JoshuaNkomo–20representatives.
 ZimbabweRhodesiaDelegation–BishopAbelMuzorewa–20representatives.

 ThePatrioticFrontwasthreateningtofightthecolonialgovernmentandthereforeaConferencewasc
alledfor,theQuestionoflandbecamecriticalatLancaster
 ZANUwantedlandwhichwasownedbythewhitestoberedistributedtotherightfulowneri.e.theAfric
ans.
 Whitesrefusedtohandoverthelandarguingthattheyhadtobepaidforthelandtobereleased.
 ZANUarguedthatifanypaymenthadtobemadetheinternationalcommunitywasresponsible.
 TheBritishgovernmentlateragreedtopaythewhitessothattheyhandoverthelandtheyownedforre
distribution.
 ElectionswereheldandZANUwonthemajoritybox.
 I8April1980independencewasgrantedtoZimbabwe.
 CdeCanaanBananathelatebecamethefirstPresidentofZimbabweandCdeRobertMugabewasPrim
eMinister.

FromliberationtoIndependence
 TheBritishgovernmentinSeptember1979calledthewarringpartiestoaconferenceattheLancaster
House.
 BishopMuzorewaledtheZimbabweRhodesiaDelegationwhileRobertMugabeledthepatrioticfront.
 ThemeetingwaschairedbyBritishforeignsecretaryLordCarrington.

ZJC NOTES Page 69

 TheconferenceendedinDecember1979withanagreementthattheywillbeaceasefirefollowedbyele
ctionsinvolvingallparties.
 IntheelectionsRobertMugabe’sZANUwontheelections.
 Thebirthofanewnationwaswitnessedonthe18thofApril1980withthehoistingoftheZimbabweanfla
g.

Post-independenceZimbabwe
 ThenewgovernmentofZimbabwewasfacedwithseriousproblemsofreceivingeconomyandsocialit
yhadbeendestroyedinthearmedstruggle.
 Fromtheonsetgovernmentstartedtoaddressthepoliticalandeconomicproblemsfacedbythecount
ry.

Socialistideology
 DuringthearmedstruggleZimbabweangovernmentmaterialsupportfromsocialiststates.
 ZANUwasassistedbyChinawhilstZAPUgothelpfromRussia.
 Itisthereforenotsurprisingthatthe1980governmentchosetofollowsocialistideologywhichwastos
upportequalityinthedistributionofwealth.
 However,socialismwasdifficulttoimplementasitdidnotgetwholeheartedsupportfromeveryoneas
somequicklyassumedpersonalwealth.
 Suchbehaviourdestroyedsocialismasitshoweddoublestandardinpractise.
 WiththecollapseofsocialismintheSovietUnion(Russia)in1989Zimbabwebacktrackedandopenlyt
heyacceptedcapitalism.

Politicaldevelopmentssinceindependence

 Althoughtherewasnovotersrollin1980,truedemocracywasachieved.
 Peoplevotedfreelyandtheoutcomeoftheelectionswaswelcomedbythemajorityofthepeoplewhow
antedthewartoend.
 Duringthearmedstrugglethereweremanyarmedgroupsinthecountryanditwasnownecessarytom
aintainpeaceandsecurity.
 AsaresultGeneralSolomonTapfumaneiMujuruwasgiventhattask.
 Amulti-racialCabinetwasappointed.
 However,becauseofmisunderstandingamongthepoliticalgroupsabloodycivilwarbrokeoutinMate
belelandin1982.
 ThisendedwiththeunityagreementofDecember1987andMugabebecamePresident.

EconomicdevelopmentsinceIndependence
 TheZimbabweeconomicproblemsstartedatindependencewhenthegovernmentattemptedtodoto
omuchwitheverylittleresource.
 Amongtheotherthingswereintroductionofeducationatprimarylevelandhealthservicesforotherdi
sadvantagesgroups.
 Atindependencetheeconomywasdeterminedbyforeigncompanies.
 Zimbabwehadgainedpoliticalfreedombutnoteconomicfreedomandasaresultaslateas2000them
ajorityoftheAfricansremainedasworkersandpeasantfarmers.
 However,someprogresshasbeenmadeingivingeconomicpowertoAfricans.

ZJC NOTES Page 70

 Education
 Thecolonialgovernmentaimsineducationwere:
 TospreadChristianitythroughworkofvariousmissionarysocieties.
 Totrainpeoplewhowouldbeusefulforcapitalists’extractionofwealthfromthecolony.
 ForeducationtobeusedasinstrumentstoseparateAfricansfromtheirculture.
 OnlyEuropeanhistorywaslearnte.g.Hitler,Napoleon,Mussolinietc.
 Missionarysocietieswerethefirsttostartformal;schoolsforAfricaninSouthernAfrica.
 ThefirstmissionstationwasestablishedatInyathibyTheLondonMissionarySociety(L.M.S.)in1859.
 In1870a2ndmissionstationopenedatHopeFoundation.
 TheJesuitsfollowedtheL.M.Sin1879andtheDutchReformedChurchestablishedoneschoolnearMa
svingoin1891.
 In1899theGovernmentpassedits1steducationforwhitechildrenandnotAfricans.
 TheordinancealsostatedthatindividualtrainingwastobeincludedinthecurriculumforAfricanchildr
en.
 In1903ordinancewaspassed,itaidedonteachingAfricanChildrenenoughEnglishtobeabletounder
stand.ThereforethiseducationassumedatmakingAfricansbetterlabourers.
 In1946,the1stgovernmentschoolGoromonziwasestablishedanditcourtedforskilledlabourerpowe
rinbothprivateandpublicsectors.
 TheAfricandemandedthatthegovernmenthadtorunwiththeeducationsectorastheydidEuropeane
ducation.
 ThepartnershipbetweenMissionariesandgovernmenthadcontinuedintheeducationsector.

EducationduringFederation
 Duringfederation,thefederalgovernmentbecameresponsibleforeducation.
 However,primaryandsecondaryeducationbecameunderterritorialgovernment.
 Thefederalgovernmenthadalistofresources:TheUniversityofZimbabwewasbuilt.
 Adepartmentofnativeeducationwasestablishedasaseparatebody.
 ThecolonialregimedidverylittletorespondtoAfricandemands.

AfricanEducationSystem
TheeducationduringU.D.I.
 AftertheIllegaldeclarationofIndependencein1965,Africansweretrainedforsemi-
skilledlabourinlocalareas.
 Therewasaplanfortrainingteachersandbuildingschools(306)over10years.
 Africanswhowereallowedtogotothefull4yearsecondaryprogramconstituted12.5%andtheresten
dedatprimaryschool.
 Thiswasbecausegrade7markerswereinstructedtofailtherestafteracertainnumberhadpassed.
 TheSkilledManPowerDevelopmentActandTheIndustrialConciliationActpreventedAfricansfromtr
ainingandworkingintechnicalfields.
 WhitetradeUnionsstoppedblacksfromgettingtechnicaleducationandtraining.

Post-Independenceperiod
 Beforeindependencetheeducationsystemhadfavouredthewhiteminoritywhilsttheywerebottlene
cksforAfricanchildrenwhoforcedthemoutofschools.
 ThissystemproducedAfricanswhowereonlyabletoreadandwritethattheycouldbeacceptedinthem
ines,farmsandindustries.

ZJC NOTES Page 71

 In1981,thegovernmentsetouttoprovidebettereducationalopportunitiesforAfricans.
 Therewastobenodiscriminationineducationongrounds,voiceclassandgender.
 Anexpansionineducationledthegovernmenttointroduceafasttrackteacherinschools.
 Otheruniversitieswereopened/
establishedtorelievetheUniversityofZimbabwetoaccommodatethosefinishingtheirAlevelstudies
.
 Topromotethegirlchild,in1996thegovernmentcameupwiththeaffirmativeactionpolicy,thisencou
ragedfemaleenrolmentathigherinstitutes.
 Sinceindependencetheeducationsystemhasreceivedoutstandingachievements.
 Ontheotherhandthequalityofeducationhasbeenlimitedbylackoffundsandbraindrain.
 Equalityhasalsobeendifficulttoachieveassomeschoolshaveexcellentfacilitieswhilstothershaveto
dowithbareminimum.

ACHIEVEMENTOFINDEPENDENCEINAFRICA

 PartitionofAfricaafter1884ledtotheoccupationofthecontinentbyEuropeancolonialpowerexceptf
or2countries;EthiopiawhichhadbeenindependentthroughoutitshistoryandLiberia.
 TheexploitationofAfricanpeopleandtheirresourcesfollowedasimilarpatternbutinsomecountriest
herewasstrongresistancetocolonisation.
 TheliberationoftheliberationoftheAfricancontinenthasbeenalongstruggle.
 Egyptbecamethefirstcountrytogainindependencein1922.
 ThefirstblackAfricancountrytobecomeindependentwasGhanain1957;thisencouragedotherAfric
annationalistsinotherpartsofthecontinent.

ZJC NOTES Page 72

 LiberationofGhana
Thegoldcoastasitisknownduringthecolonialtimesbecameindependentonthe6 thofMarch1957.Att
hebeginningofthe18thcenturytheBritishcompanyofmerchantssentanofficialtomakeatreatywithr
egionalchief.In1821theBritishgovernmenttookoverthecompanyandin1874theFanteandGaCoa
stalareasbecameaBritishcolonyand2yearslatertheAsanteareawasoccupiedbecauseofitsgold.

Protestmovements
 DespiteafewAfricanshavingbeingmembersoftheAccraLegislativecouncil1877.
 ThecolonialgovernmentkeptAfricansoutoftheseniorpostsinthecivilservice.
 In1897,membersofGhana’s2elitegroupstheeducatedandchiefsformedthegoldcoastAboriginesR
ightsProtectionSociety(A.R.P.S.).
 TheyhadbeenunitedbytheiroppositiontolawswhichdidnotallowAfricanslegalownershipoftheirlan
d.
 Inresponsetogrowingdiscontent,TheUnitedGoldCrossConvention(U.G.C.C.)wasformedin1947.
 TheU.G.C.C.invitedKwameNkrumahagraduateintheUnitedStatestocomebackandbecomethepa
rty’ssecretarygeneral,hewasagoodspeakerandorganiser.
 In1948heandothersweredetainedandastateofemergencywasdeclaredfollowingdemonstrations
andriotsafterhehadcalledforaboycottofEuropeanfirmsuntilfirmswereforcedtolowerprices.
 Theconstitutionof1950gaveAfricansmorerepresentations.
 InFebruary1951,C.P.P.wonthelegislativeelectionsandbecameleaderofgovernmentbusinessesa
ndthePrimeMinisterthefollowingyear.
 In1954heledhispartytovictoryinthenewelections,theregionalandcapitalist’sforcesweremobilise
dagainsttheC.P.P.andtheBritishdemandedanewsetofelections.
 IntheseelectionstheC.P.P.wonagain.

GhanaAfterindependence
 Nkrumah’svictoryinspirednationalistsalloverAfrica.
 Inhisspeechhepromisedhiscountry’ssupporttoAfrica’stotalliberation.
 GhanawasthefirstcountrytotrainZimbabweanguerrillasandmanyotherliberationunits.
 Nkrumahwasoverthrownbyhisarmyin1966anddiedinexilein1972.
 However,NkrumahisrememberedasfatherofAfricanindependence.

THEORGANISATIONOFAFRICANUNITY

Itwasalooseassociationof30Africancountries.TheO.A.U.wasanattempttoestablishanInterAfrica
norganisationofindependentstates.ThenO.A.U.organisedtofightagainstcolonialisminAfrica.

Pan-Africanism
 ThiswasafeelingofAfricaninsideandoutsideAfricatofreethemselvesfromwhitepeople.
 TheoriginsofPan-
AfricanismaretracedtoNorthAmericawerepeoplefromAfricandescentdesiredtoestablishlinksofB
rotherhoodwithAfricansinAfrica.
 Itsaimwastobringtogetheralltheblackpeopleoftheworldinacommonstruggleforfreedom,equalit
yandself-determinationthroughouttheworld.

ZJC NOTES Page 73

 Pan-
AfricanistsbelievedthatAfricaisasingleunitthatshouldunite;therewasadeepculturalunityamonga
llAfricans.
 EuropeandAmericadevelopedbecauseofslavelabourandrawmaterialsfromAfrica.
 BecauseofthesebeliefssomeoftheAfricaninAmericaorganisedAfricanstocomebacktoAfricaandan
umberactuallycameandstayedinLiberiaandSierraLeone.
 ThemovementofAfricanunityandsolidaritywasknownasPan-Africanism.
 WithprominentfiguressuchasHenrySylvesterWilliams,MarcusGarveyandDrWilliamE.B.DuBoise
.
 TheearlyPan-
AfricanistswereKwameNkrumahofGhana,JomoKenyattaofKenyaandJuliusNyerereofTanzania.
 HenrySylvesterWilliamscamefromTrinidadintheWestIndies;hewasthefirstpersontochampionPa
n-
Africanistideasin1900.WilliamsadvisedAfricanchiefstofightagainstcolonialisminordertobeindep
endent.
 MarcusGarveycamefromJamaica,hecalledforblackpeopletoreturntoAfricaandhismovementwas
called“BacktoAfricamovement”.TohelptheblackAmericansgobacktoAfrica,Garveyformedaship
pingcompanyandtoldblackAmericansstoptorelyanddependonwhiteemployers.
 DrWilliamE.B.DuBoise.WasregardedasfatherofpanAfricanism,DuBoiseideasweresharedbymost
afroAmericans.HeregardedAmericaashisnativeland.DuBoisepanAfricanismaimedatencouragin
gandunitingAfricansagainstoppressionandexploitationwherevertheywere.

FormationoftheO.A.U.
 BeforetheformationoftheO.A.U.therewereseveralattemptstocreateanInterAfricanorganisation,
however,theseattemptsfailedbecauseofpolitical,economicandlinguisticdifferences.
 TheindependenceofGhanaspeededuptheprocessandGhana’sfirstblackleaderKwameNkrumahw
orkedontheindependenceofAfricanstates,hewantedtoseeAfricaasonecountry.
 TheseideasoffederationwerenotwidelyacceptedleadingtothesplitamongindependentAfricanstat
esnamelyCasablancaandMonrovia.
 TheyopposedeachotherbecausetheCasablancagroupfavouredafederationforAfricawhilsttheMo
nroviagroupfavouredalooseassociation.
 TheCasablancagroupwasradical,militantandviolentlytothewestwhilsttheMonroviagroupwasver
yfriendlytothewest.
 AlthoughthetwoopposedeachothertheybothagreedontheneedtoformanorganisationwithanAfric
aninterest.
 EventuallyEmperorHaileSelassieofEthiopia,ModiboKeitaofMaliandSekouToureofGuineajoinedt
hetwotogetherleadingtotheapprovalofacharterwhichestablishedO.A.U.inAddisAbabaon25May
1963.

AimsoftheO.A.U.
 TopromoteunityandsolidarityofAfricanstates.
 TocoordinateandintensifytheircooperationandeffortstoachieveabetterlifeforpeopleofAfrica.
 Todefendtheirsovereignty,territorialintegrityandindependence.
 ToeradicateallformsofcolonialismfromAfrica.
 Topromoteinternationalcooperation,havingdueregardtothecharterofUnitedNations(U.N.)andU
niversalDeclarationofHumanRights.

ZJC NOTES Page 74

 PrinciplesoftheO.A.U.
 Thesovereignequalityofallmemberstates.
 Non-interferenceininternalaffairsofthestate.
 Respectforallsovereigntyandterritorialintegrityofeachstateandforitsinalienablerighttoindepend
entexistence.
 Peacefulsettlementsofdisputesbynegotiation,mediation,conciliationorarbitration.
 Unreservedcondemnationinallitsformsofpoliticalassassinationaswellassubversiveactivitiesonth
epartofneighbouringstatesoranyotherstate.
 AbsolutededicationtothetotalemancipationfreedomontheAfricanterritorieswhicharestilldepend
ent.
 Affirmationofapolicyofnon-alignmentwithregardtoallblacks.

TheO.A.U.organsandtheirduties.
ThemostimportantorgansoftheO.A.U.are:
 TheassemblyofHeadsofStatesandGovernment(TheAssembly).
 TheCouncilofMinisters.
 TheCommissionofMediation,ConciliationandArbitration.
 TheGeneralSecretariat.

TheAssemblyofHeadsofStates
 ThesupremeormostpowerfulorganoftheO.A.U.formedbyHeadsofStatesandGovernmentwhichm
etonceayear.
 Decisionsweremadebyaconsensusoragreementor2/3ofamajority.
 Itmadedecisions,policiesandadoptedresolutions.

Policy
making
Approves body
budget

ASSEMBLY OF
HEADS OF STATES
AND
AGOVERNMENT

Makes Adopts
decisions resolutions

ZJC NOTES Page 75

 CouncilofMinisters
 Itismadeupofforeignministersofmemberstatesandmettwiceayear.
 ItpreparedconferencesandagendasandapprovedtheO.A.U.budgetsfortheassembly.

Adopts
budget.
Prepares
Labour Agenda for
The
Assembly.

Cultural co- Makes

operation recommend
ations
THE
COUNCIL
OF
MINISTERS
Transport,
education,
Meets twice
health and
a year
science co-
oparation

Commission
Economic for
and Social co- Mediation,
operation Councilation
& Arbitration
Defence

TheGeneralSecretariat
 ItisthecivilserviceandpermanentorganoftheO.A.U.
 ItpreparesreportsontheO.A.U.activities,keepsalldocumentsandfilesoftheorganisation.
 ItalsowritesminutesandpreparestheprogramandbudgetsoftheO.A.U.foreachyear.

ZJC NOTES Page 76

 ItisheadedbytheChiefExecutivewhoisappointedbytheassembly.

Permanent
organ of
the O.A.U.
Keeps all
Coordinating documents
committees and files of
for liberation the
of Africa. organisation.

The
General
Secretariat
Informatio
Organises n and
meetings. Public
relations.
Prepares
programs and
budgets
annually.

AchievementsandfailuresoftheO.A.U.
 EndofcolonialisminAfricawasO.A.U.’sgreatestachievement.
 Notsuccessfulinendingconflictsandpreventingconflictswhichlefthundredsandthousandsofpeopl
edead,maimedanddisplaced.
 TheO.A.U.failedtopreventandendcivilwars.
 ThefactorsdividedAfrica.
 TheAfricanunityhasremainedadream.
 TheO.A.U.experimentsonAfricanUnityandhasnotbeensuccessfulsofar.

HowtheA.U.wasformed
 TheO.A.U.wasformedtoliberateAfricansfromcolonialism.
 Thiswasitsmajorrolebesidesothersocialandeconomicaims.
 By1999almostallAfricanstateswereliberatedandnoforeignpowerdirectlyruledAfrica.
 ThisdevelopmentmadetheO.A.U.anoldorganisationinanewworldbecauseitsmainaimsofliberatin
gAfricahadbeenachieved.
 ThiswasthusagreedforanewbodywithaimstoaddressthechallengesthatAfricawasfacingintheglo
balvillage.

 CallstohaveaUnitedStatesofAfricawereshotdown.

ZJC NOTES Page 77

 Underthisagreementtherewastobeacontinentalleaderwithfederalgovernmentsinthemembersta
tes.
 TheassemblyagreedtoformtheA.U.atLomeinTogoon11July2000andattheLusakaSummitinZam
biainJuly2001.
 The53membersoftheO.A.U.signedtheconstitutionoftheA.U.,itwascalledtheConstitutiveActofth
eA.U.andon1JulytheA.U.wasformedattheO.A.U.after38yearsoflifeandtheA.U.becameproblems
onthecontinent.

AimsoftheA.U.
 ToachievegreaterunityandsolidaritybetweenAfricancountriesandpeopleofAfrica.
 Todefendsovereignty,territorialintegrityandindependenceofmemberstates.
 TopromoteanddefendcommonAfricaninterestsonthecontinentandbeyond.
 ToencouragecontinentalcooperationthroughtheUnitedNations(U.N.)andUniversalDeclarationof
HumanRights(U.D.H.R.).
 Topromotepeace,securityandstabilityonthecontinent.
 Topromoteeconomiccooperationandsustainableuseofresources.
 ToimprovelivingandworkingconditionsofAfricans.
 Topromoteresearchineducation,scienceandtechnology.
 Toeradicatepovertyanddiseases.

TheorgansoftheA.U.
TheAssembly
 ThisisthesupremeormostpowerfulorganoftheA.U.
 ItwasmadeupoftheHeadsofStatesandGovernment.
 Itmetonceayear.
 TheofficechairmanoftheassemblyisheldforaperiodofoneyearbyHeadofStateorGovernment.
 Decisionsaremadebyconsensus,agreementor2/3majority.
 Theassemblydeterminesthepoliciesoftheunionandadoptscommissions.
 Itmonitorsimprovementsofpoliciesbymemberstates.

ZJC NOTES Page 78

 Assembly

Executive Financial
council. institutions

Economic,
Pan-African Social and
parliament. Cultural
African council.
Union.

Specilised
Court of
technical
Justice.
committees

The Permanent
representative
commission committe.

TheExecutivecouncil
 Itismadeupofforeignaffairsministersofmemberstates.
 Itmeetstwiceayearanditsdecisionsarebyconsensus,agreementor2/3majority.
 Itcoordinatespoliciesinareasofcommoninteresttomemberstates.

SpecialisedTechnicalcommittees
 ThesearecommitteesthatreporttotheExecutiveCouncil.
 Eachcommitteepreparesprojectsandprogrammesandmakefollowupsupervision.
 ItthenreportstotheExecutiveCouncilonprogressbeingmade.

Pan-AfricanParliament
 Thisismadeupofrepresentativesofallmemberstates.
 ThepurposeistoensurefullparticipationofallAfricanpeopleinthedevelopmentoftheirconstituency.
 TheparliamentalsoreportstotheExecutiveCouncilonemergingchallengesandtheprogressmadeo
ndevelopmentprojects.

ZJC NOTES Page 79

 FinancialInstitutions
Thecouncilhadthefollowingfinancialinstitutions:
 TheAfricanmomentaryfund.
 TheAfricanInvestmentBank.
 TheAfricanCentralBank.

TheCommission
 ItworksasthesecretariatoftheAfricancouncil.
 ItconsistsofaChairpersonandagroupofcommissioners,
 Thecommissionersreporttotheassemblywhichalternatesitsstructure,functionsandregulations.

ThePermanentrepresentativecommittee.
 ItiscomposedofpermanentrepresentativestotheAfricanUnion.
 Itsmemberscamefromthememberstates.
 TheirtaskwastopreparetheworkoftheExecutiveCouncilandcarryouttheirconstituents.
 Thiscommitteeworkswithvarioussubcouncilshereandothergroups.

TheEconomic,SocialandCultureCouncils
 Thisisanadvisingorgancomposedofdifferentsocialandprofessionalgroupsofmemberstatesofthe
Council.
 Theworksofthisorganisoutlinedimprovingtheeconomiesofmemberstatesaswellaschangingtheli
vingstandardsofthepeople.
 Italsopromotedcultureexchangesontheconstituent.

ChallengesoftheA.U.
 TheA.U.hastakenoverthepoliticalworkleftbytheO.A.U.
 ThemaintaskfacingtheA.U.istheoneofpromotingdemocracyandgoodgovernmentinAfrica.
 Otherchallengesare:
 Povertyandunemploymentisworsening.
 Internationalterrorism.
 Lackoffinancialresourcestoestablishastandingarmytomaintainpeaceandsecurity.
 Disunityandselfishinterestsamongmemberstateswhichiscausinglackofprogressindevelopment
plans.
 HumanrightsabuseonConstituentisincreasing.
 Africaisstillcheapexporterofrawmaterials.
 Lackofculturalidentity.

ZJC NOTES Page 80