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- Effective listeners should deliberately reduce the influence of their own

viewpoint until they have first understood the speaker’s ideas.

 In language learning, some teaching methods, such physical response, involve

students by simply listening and responding. There two distinction involve in
listening learning process and these are:

1. Intensive Listening – in which learners attempt to listen with maximum

accuracy to a relatively brief sequence of speech.
- more effective in terms of developing specific aspects
of listening ability.

2. Extensive Listening – in which learners listen to lengthy passages for

general comprehension.
- more effective in building fluency and maintaining
learner motivation.

Prepared by:
CECILE B. BATU, Ph.D.

C. WRITING
Writing is a medium of human communication that involves the representation of a language
with symbols. It is the process of using symbols (letters of the alphabet, punctuation and
spaces) to communicate thoughts and ideas in a readable form.
A composition of writer’s thinking starts with letters, creating a word, to a group of words,
turning it to a sentence, and later on, composing a paragraph.
A paragraph basically is a collection of related sentences dealing with a single topic. It is a
series of sentences that are organized and coherent, and are all related to a single topic.

The Basic Rules:

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 The basic rule of thumb with paragraphing is to keep one idea to one paragraph.
 If you begin to transition into a new idea, it belongs in a new paragraph.
 You can have one idea and several bits of supporting evidence within a single
paragraph. You can also have several points in a single paragraph as long as they
relate to the overall topic of the paragraph. If the single points start to get long, then
perhaps elaborating on each of them and placing them in their own paragraphs is the
route to go.
 Do not use word contractions in Academic and Formal Business writing.
 Avoid using Passive Voice instead use Active Voice sentences.

A. ELEMENTS OF PARAGRAPHS
To follow a writer’s line of thinking, reader’s need a message that is sensibly
organized. Writer must shape the material into an organized unit of meaning. So, in setting
out to organize a message, writer’s face deliberate decisions:
What do I want to emphasize?
What do I say first?
What comes after that?
How do I stay on the track?
How do I end?

As with the decisions with the content, a writer’s decision about organization are
guided by the audience’s expectations. Most useful messages – whether in the form of a
book, chapter, news article, letter or memo- usually a common organizing pattern:
introduction, body and conclusion.
The introduction previews the discussion and reveals the subject and purpose of the
message. Here the writer makes a commitment to the readers about what will be said.
Knowing immediately what to expect, readers can follow the message more easily.
The body delivers on the promise implied in the introduction, with a full explanation
of the main point. This section has unity in that everything expands on the main point. And it
has coherence in that the thought sequence is one continuous link idea to idea.
The conclusion brings the message to a perceptible end, instead of just stopping.
Often, the main point is re-emphasized.
In just about any message, the shape of an organized unit of meaning is basically the
same. This shape is best illustrated in the form of a standard support paragraph, a type of
paragraph that develops a single main point in enough detail to convey the writer’s exact
meaning.

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Examples:
1. Computer literacy soon will be a requirement for virtually all educated people.
2. A video display terminal can endanger the operator’s health.
3. Chemical pesticides and herbicides are both ineffective and hazardous.
Each of these topic sentences only introduces a certain way of seeing subject. Without
supporting explanations, we couldn’t possibly grasp the writer’s exact meaning. Consider, the
third sentence:
Chemical pesticides and herbicides are both ineffective and hazardous.
Imagine that you are a researcher for the Epson Electric Light Company and you have
been given this task: determine whether the company should begin spraying pesticides and
herbicides under its power lines, as many other utilities are doing or should continue with its
manual ways of minimizing foliage and insect damage to lines and poles. If you simply
responded with the preceding statement, your manager would have a number of questions:
Why exactly, are chemical pesticides and herbicides ineffective and hazardous?
What are the problems? Can you explain?
By answering these questions while writing your report, you provide the necessary
supporting details:
Introduction: Chemical pesticides and herbicides are both ineffective and
hazardous.
Body : Because none of these chemicals has permanent effects, pest populations
invariably recover and require respraying. Repeated applications cause pests to develop
immunities to the chemicals. Furthermore, most pesticides and herbicides attach species other
than the intended pest, killing off its natural predators; thus, actually increasing the pest
population. Above all, chemical residues survive in the environment for years, often carried
hundreds of miles by wind and water. This toxic legacy includes such biological effects as
birth deformities, reproductive failures, brain damage and cancer. The ultimate victims of
these chemicals would be our customers.
Conclusion: Therefore, I recommend we continue our present control methods.
Most paragraphs in tech. writing, follow this introduction- body-conclusion structure.
The key is to begin with a clear topic ( or orienting) sentence that states a generalization.
Details in the body support the generalization.
In this connection, well- written sentences are not enough to make your writing clear
and understandable. Sentences must be further organized into meaningful units of thoughts.
Readers look to the first one or two sentences in a paragraph to orient themselves, to
align their perceptions with the writers. When readers know what to expect, they can follow
more easily. By introducing your way of seeing something, the topic sentence gives readers a
framework for understanding your message. Without this orienting framework, readers

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cannot possibly grasp your exact meaning. Consider, the following paragraph, those topic
sentences have been left out:
Besides containing several toxic metals, it percolates through the soil leaching out
naturally present metals. Pollutants such as mercury invade surface water, accumulating in
fish tissues. Any organism eating fish – or drinking the water – in turn, faces the risk of heavy
metal poisoning; moreover, acidified water can release heavy concentrations of lead, copper
and aluminium from metal plumbing, making ordinary tap water hazardous.
After one reading, are you able to provide point for the paragraph?
Could you restate the message accurately in your own words? Probably not, even
after a second reading. Without the orientation of a topic sentence, you have no framework
for understanding the information in terms of its larger meaning. And because you don’t
know what to look for, you can’t figure out where to place the emphasis: on polluted fish, on
metal poisoning, on tap water? Without the organizing thread provided by a topic sentence,
you have no way to tell.
Now, after inserting the following sentence at the beginning, reread the paragraph:
Acid rain indirectly threatens human health.
In the light of this organizing point, the exact meaning of the message becomes
obvious. The topic sentence gives us a framework by:
1. Naming the subject of the message(acid rain)
2. Stating the topic – the writer’s specific viewpoint on the subject (that acid rain
threatens human health)
3. Forecasting how the message will be developed (through an explanation of the
process) in response to the reader’s central questions: how exactly does acid rain
threaten human health?
A topic sentence is the key to understand the whole paragraph and it ought to appear
first in your paragraph unless you have good reason to decide otherwise.
Before you can write a good topic sentence, you must identify your purpose, based
on what you know of your reader’s needs. Then you can tailor your topic sentence to meet
those needs.
Assume, you are writing a report about whales, intended for readers you’d like to
recruit as members of the Save-the-Whales foundation. First, you must decide exactly what
point you want to make about whales. And when that point becomes part of your topic
sentence, it must provide enough direction for you to develop a worthwhile paragraph. Avoid
topic sentence which leads nowhere:
Examples:
1. Whales are a species of mammal.
2. Whales live only in salt water.

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The point in your topic sentence must be focused enough to be covered in one
paragraph. Avoid broad and abstract topic sentence:
Examples: 1. Whales are interesting animals.
What is meant by interesting? Their breeding habits, migration patterns, the way they
exhibit intelligence or something else?
Whales seem to exhibit some intelligence.
Whales are fairly intelligent.
Whales are highly intelligent.
You decide the final sentence as your point most accurate. Think of ways to make this
topic sentence more informative. Readers will be asking: “Highly intelligent relative to what?
So you decide to relate whales to whales’ intelligence to that of other mammals.
Whales are among the world’s most intelligent mammals.
You have a clear direction for developing support in the body section. Let us look at
some other directions your topic sentence might have taken.
A good indication of whales high intelligence is the way they play in game like
patterns.
Like children, a group of whales can spend hours playing tag.
 Depending on your purpose and your readers’ needs, you can make any main
point more and more specific by focusing on smaller and smaller parts of it.
The paragraph should then deliver what the topic sentence promises.
In this connection, after sentences, the most basic unit of thought in writing is a
paragraph. The indention of the first sentence of a paragraph tells the reader that a new unit
of thought follows:

1. UNDERSTANDING TOPIC SENTENCES AND SUPPORT SENTENCES

A paragraph develops one main idea, which is usually stated in a sentence called the
topic sentence. Every other sentence, every fact, example and detail, should support
the topic sentence.

 TOPIC SENTENCE
A good topic sentence captures the general idea of the paragraph better than
any other sentence.
The topic sentence states the main idea of the paragraph.
The topic sentence is usually found at the beginning of a paragraph, where it
gives a preview of and direction to the sentences that come after it, as in the following

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example. Notice that all of the other sentences in the paragraph support the main idea
with facts.
TOPIC SENTENCE Controlling the entry of the foreign pests is the job of
the Department of Agriculture. Some DA inspectors work
around the clock at 100 ports of entry. In a year’s time, they
inspect some sixty-four million pieces of baggage carried by air
travellers from foreign countries. They also meet about 62,000
ships and inspect roughly five million pieces of seagoing
baggage. On the Palawan border, they check more than forty-
five million automobiles annually and about 100,000 railroad
cars. They also screen some sixty million pieces of mail and
examine about four million cargo shipments.
Sometimes, however, the topic sentence comes at the end of the paragraph,
where it draws a conclusion or functions as a summary. In the
following paragraph, the topic sentence, which is at the end,
states the conclusion of the preceding ideas and adds a finishing
touch.
SUPPORTING SENTENCES Smoke curled from under the eaves and rose
from the roof. Flames shooting from the window arched
upward toward the sky. Some of the floors and interior walls
thundered downward, spraying sparks and glowing cinders
through lower doors and windows. The building could not be
saved. (Topic Sentence)
Less frequently, a topic sentence comes in the middle of a paragraph, especially
when the paragraph is a part of a longer piece of writing. In
such paragraphs the beginning sentences may function as a
transition between paragraphs as well as an introduction to the
topic sentence. In the following example, the first sentence
paves the way for the topic sentence.

INTRODUCTORY SENTENCES
Dancing and chanting to the rhythmic beat of the drums,
Polynesian students give visitors to the Polynesian Culture
Center a glimpse of Hawaii’s past. Through its exhibitions of
the Polynesian’s Culture Center shows visitors the many
elements of Hawaiian culture brought to Hawaii by its original
inhabitants,(Topic Sentence),the Polynesians, For example, the
Center shows the similarities between Polynesian and Hawaiian
villages with lie-size models. In addition, the Center
dramatizes Hawaiian legends of ancestors journeying
across the ocean in large canoes of hollowed logs. Gardens
of banana, sweet potato, taro and breadfruit plants exhibit

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the food carried by the ocean travellers to their new home.

(Supporting Sentences).

Whatever its position, the topic sentence will always state the idea that provides
the logical connection among all of the other information in
the paragraph.

 Writing the Body

The body of your paragraph contains the supporting details that explain and
expand on your central idea and it also support material answers the questions about
your topic sentence you can expect from readers: says who? What proof do you have
to support your claim? Can you give examples?
To answer these questions, you brainstorm your topic, listing everything
you know about.
After selecting those facts that support the main idea, you arrange them
in related categories. You now have three categories of general evidence, which
are further supported by details.
With your topic sentence and supporting details on paper, you are ready
to write conclusion.

 Writing the conclusion

Your concluding statement signals readers that the discussion of the central
idea stated in your topic sentence is ending. It usually ties the paragraph together by
summarizing, interpreting or judging the facts. If the paragraph is part of a longer
report, your conclusion can also prepare readers for a subsequent paragraph.
An introduction-body-conclusion structure should serve most of your
paragraph needs in report writing. Begin each support paragraph with a solid topic
sentence and you will on target.

2. UNDERSTANDING UNITY AND COHERENCE

A good paragraph has unitybecause all of the information
supports the topic sentence. It has coherencebecause the ideas
flow naturally from one to another.
 UNITY
In a unified paragraph, all of the sentences stick to the main idea
presented in the topic sentence. A paragraph has unity if all of its sentences
relate closely to the topic sentence.

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A paragraph is unified when all its parts work toward the same end- when
every word, phrase, and sentence explains, illustrates and clarifies the
central idea expressed in the topic sentence. Paragraph unity is destroyed
when you drift away from your stated purpose by adding irrelevant details.
Example: A Dis-unified Paragraph
Whales are among the most intelligent mammals ever to
inhabit the earth. Scientists studying whales rate their
intelligence on a level with higher primates because of their
complex group behaviour. For example, these impressive
mammals have been seen teaching and disciplining their young,
helping wounded fellow whales, engaging in elaborate sexual
foreplay and playing in definite game like patterns. Whales
continually need to search for food in order to survive. As
fish populations decrease because of overfishing, the
whale’s quest for food becomes more difficult.

When you write a paragraph, check to make sure that all of the
sentences belong. In the following paragraph, for example, the fourth and
the fifth sentences do not fit.

Every student should develop a good speaking voice. (Topic

Sentence) A strong, clear voice indicates that a speaker is
confident of his or her knowledge of ideas. A good speaking
voice aids class discussions because more students become
involved if they can hear each other’s comments. Mumbling
can indicate shyness or unwillingness to cooperate. Or a
student may speak indistinctively because of the braces on his
teeth. (Unrelated Information) Finally, the speaking so that
others can easily hear suggests that the speaker is interested in
the topic and cares enough to contribute.

 COHERENCE
In a coherent paragraph, supporting information is arranged in a logical
order and linked with transitions, repetition of main words and in some
paragraphs, with concluding sentence.
A paragraph is coherent when it hangs together and flows smoothly in a clear
direction – when all sentences are logically connected like links in a chain,
leading toward a definite conclusion.

Orders for Supporting Information

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When supporting information is presented in a clear, logical order, the reader can
sense where the paragraph is going.
The supporting information in a paragraph should be presented in a logical
order.
Five orders are most frequently used to achieve a logical flow of ideas.

ORGANIZATION OF PARAGRAPHS
Order Use
Chronological( Time) Gives a sequence of events; tells what
happened first,
second, third and so
on
Spatial ( Space) Arranges details from nearest to farthest, top
to bottom, left to right,
and so on
Order of Importance Ranks information from least important to
most important or vice
versa
Comparison and Contrast Presents similarities and differences between
items
Developmental Arranges information from one point in the
topic sentence to
another.

When a topic sentence calls for the description of an action, the recounting of an
incident, or the explanation of a process, the most effective order is usually chronological
order. With chronological order, you would present supporting information in a time
sequence, usually from first to last.
 One way to damage paragraph coherence is to use too many short, choppy
sentences. Two other ways to damage coherence are: to place sentences in the
wrong order and to use insufficient transitions and other connectors to link related
ideas.

Paragraphs developed logically

Once you have identified your reader and purpose, and gathered your
supporting details, you will have to arrange these details in a way that makes the

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most sense. Following a logical sequence within a paragraph simply means that
you decide on which idea to discuss first, which is the second, and so on. The
sequence you select for any paragraph will depend on your subject, purpose, and
reader’s needs. Some possibilities are as follows:

Spatial sequence
A spatial order of development begins at one location and ends at another.
This order is most useful in a paragraph that describes a physical or geographical
item or a mechanism. Simply describe the parts in the order in which readers
would actually view the: left or right, inside to outside, etc. the writer has chosen
spatial order that proceeds from the needle’s base (hub) to its point:

Chronological sequence
A paragraph describing a series of events or giving instructions is most
effective when its details are arranged according to a strict time sequence: first
step, second step etc.

Example sequence
Often a topic sentence can best be supported by specific examples, usually
arranged for greater emphasis.

Effect –to - Cause Sequence

A paragraph that first identifiesa problem and then discusses its causes is
typically found in problem- solving reports.

Cause- to – Effect Sequence

In a cause-to-effect sequence, the topic sentence identifies the cause( s ) and
the reminder of the paragraph discusses its effects.

Definition Sequence
For adequate definition, a term may require a full paragraph.

Reasons Sequence
A paragraph that provides detailed reasons to support a specific viewpoint or
recommendation is often used in job-related writing. For emphasis, the reasons
usually are arranged in decreasing or increasing order of importance.

Comparison / Contrast Sequence

A paragraph discussing the similarities or differences (or both) between two or
more items often used in job-related writing.

3. UNDERSTANDING EMPHASIS
Emphasis is the principle of the paragraph composition in which the important
ideas are made to stand.

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 it is very important that the main points of the writer should be evident inside
the paragraph.
 the idea should be made to stand from the rest of the elements inside the
paragraph.
 in establishing emphasis, the main idea of what the author or the writer wants
to say should show to have more importance.

WRITING AN ESSAY
An essay is composed of a group of related paragraphs that works together to present
one main point. Once you understand the basic structure of an essay, you can adapt the form
to fit to different topics and assignments.

The Parts of an Essay

An essay has three parts: (1) an introduction, which presents the main point of the
essay; (2) a body, which consists of two or more paragraphs that support or explain the
essay’s main point and (3) a conclusion, which summarizes the main point and brings the
essay to a close.

The Introduction
The introduction is a vital part of an essay. It indicates the purpose of an essay, telling
whether the essay will be expository or persuasive. The most significant function of an
introduction, however, is to present the thesis statement.
The introduction indicates the essay’s purpose and presents the main point in a
thesis statement.
Most introduction begins generally, with background information or an incident and
then lead into thesis statement.
Example:
Introduction
In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, whalers put to sea for two to three years a
time. Armed only with harpoons, lances and daring, they brought back needed whale oil,
bone and ivory. In the twentieth century, however, high speed boats, explosive harpoons and
gigantic floating factories have mechanized the killing process. Whale are being killed in
great numbers even though synthetic materials can be used in place of whale products. The
International Whaling Commission (IWC) has recently outlawed factory ships, but whales
remain in danger of extinction. (Thesis Statement) Whale will survive only if the IWC
declares a worldwide moratorium on hunting whales and if pirate whalers are stopped.

The Body

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Each paragraph in the body should support the thesis statement with examples,
details, facts, reasons or incidents. The supporting information should be organized by means
of subtopics.
The body of an essay develops the thesis statement, treating one subtopic at a
time.
The following chart lists common orders for arranging subtopics and suggests sample essay
topics that might best developed using each other.

ORDERS OF SUBTOPIC IN THE BODY OF AN ESSAY

Orders Sample Topics
Chronological (Subtopics arranged in a time How to clean a topical fish tank
sequence)
Spatial (Subtopics arranged by location or Some places to visit in Maine
position)
The structure of a hydroelectric power plant
Order of Importance(Subtopics arranged The need to tighten security on large university
from least important to most important or campuses
vice versa)
Reasons for establishing a work/study program at
school
Developmental( subtopics of equal Some of the benefits of a lower speed limit
emphasis arranged logically)
Three of the best rivers in the country for
canoeing

The Conclusion
The conclusion is usually a short, separate at the end of the essay. It generally begins
with a reminder of the thesis statement. The conclusion should leave the reader feeling that
the topic has been covered thoroughly. In many cases, you may want to make the last
sentence of the conclusion a clincher- a forceful sentence that drives home the main point.

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The conclusion refers back to the thesis statement and brings the essay to close.
The following conclusion demonstrates these functions.
(Reminder of thesis statement) Only by ending all hunting of whales be preserved. If the
killing of whales continues unchecked, the noble animals described in (clincher)Melville’s
Moby Dick will soon become as legendary as Moby Dick himself.

Prepared by:
NYMPHA M. REYES
RUBY T. GALANG

B. PARAPHRASING
Paraphrasing means changing the wording of a text without deviating from the
meaning of the original source. It is an attempt to restate valuable information using your
own words maintaining the true meaning of the content source. Your effective paraphrasing
skills shows your ability to understand the meaning of the source material and prevents you
from committing plagiarism.

*Plagiarism is an act of stealing and passing off (the ideas or words of another) as one’s own
or to commit literary theft. (Merriam Webster’s Online Dictionary)

Paraphrasing Techniques:

1. Using Synonyms or word substitutes

a. Use Thesaurus to find the appropriate synonym
b. Use definitions
c. Change word forms
d. Change words to phrases, phrases to clauses

2. Restructuring the sentence

a. Change quotation from direct to indirect

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b. Change voice of the sentence

Barriers to implement extensive green roof systems: A Hong Kong study

Xiaoling Zhang, LiyinShen, Vivian W.Y. Tam & Winnie Wing Yan Lee
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews
Volume 16, Issue 1, January 2012, Pages 314-319
Abstract
Air pollution problems caused from the development of infrastructures are getting serious, in which air
flow is reduced and heat is trapped among high-rise buildings. In order to mitigate these problems, various
methods have been developed in previous studies. Extensive green roof has been identified as one of the
most important means to mitigate these problems and implement sustainable development principles in the
building features. Governments world-wide have been introducing various policies and regulations for
promoting extensive green roof particularly for building projects. However, the existing buildings in many
large cities such as Hong Kong display few extensive green roof features. Hong Kong is one of the most
densely populated cities with many high-rise buildings. This paper examines the major barriers encountered
in promoting extensive green roof systems for the existing buildings in Hong Kong. Case study approach is
adopted to investigate how and why the barriers can hinder the implementation of extensive green roof
features. Research results show that lack of promotion and incentives from governments and the increase
maintenance cost are identified as the top barriers to the implementation. The paper concludes by providing
further suggestions and actions that can help mitigate these existing barriers.

1. Use of Synonyms and Word Substitutes

Thesaurus and dictionaries are excellent resources in finding word synonyms, however,
one must be careful in selecting the appropriate synonym to use. Words that are similar
are not always interchangeable.

a. Use of synonyms

Ex. Air pollution problems caused from the development of

infrastructures are gettingserious, in which air flow is reduced and heat
is trapped among high-rise buildings.

Air pollution concerns caused from the construction of buildings are

becoming worse, in which air flow is decreased and heat is confined
among high-rise buildings.

 Note: The example above is still very close to the original text.

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b. Use definition of terms

Ex. Case study approach is adopted to investigate how and why the
barriers can hinder the implementation of extensive green roof
features.

The study used an in-depth investigation of a single individual group

or event, in this case, Hong Kong Construction industry to explore the
causes of underlying principles to investigate how and why the barriers
can hinder the implementation of extensive green roof features.

 Note: The example above is still very close to the original text.

c. Change word forms

Ex. Governments world-wide have been introducing various policies

and regulations for promoting extensive green roof particularly for
building projects.

Governments world-wide were responsible in the introduction of

various policies and regulations for the promotion extensive green roof
particularly for building projects.

c.1. Use an adverb instead of an adjective

c. 2. Use a verb to replace a noun.

Note: The example above is still very close to the original text.

d. Change from clause to phrase

Ex. In order to mitigate these problems, various methods have been

developed in previous studies.

Various methods to mitigate these problems have been developed in

previous studies.
Ex. Air pollution problems caused from the development of
infrastructures are getting serious, in which air flow is reduced and
heat is trapped among high-rise buildings.

Air pollution caused by reduced airflow and trapped heat among high
rise buildings is getting serious.

 Note: The example above is still very close to the original text.

2. Restructuring Sentences

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a. Change quotation from direct to indirect

Ex. “Research results show that lack of promotion and incentives from
governments and the increase maintenance cost are identified as the
top barriers to the implementation.”

The researchers stated governments’ failure to provide marketing and

reward systems, and high maintenance cost as primary reasons
hampering implementation of green roof systems.

b. Change voice of the sentence

Ex. Extensive green roof has been identified as one of the most
important means to mitigate these problems and implement sustainable
development principles in the building features.

Researchers identified extensive green roof as one of the most

important means to mitigate these problems and implement sustainable
development principles in the building features.

 Note: The example above is still very close to the original text.

This section provides techniques that you can use in paraphrasing. Often, an effective
paraphrase requires you to combine these techniques that you have just learned. It is
important to remember that in academic writing, to paraphrase means to restate precisely
what the original source is saying using your own words. To do this, you need to have a clear
understanding of the content you are trying to paraphrase. You are ready to paraphrase once
you have a clear understanding the material you are attempting to paraphrase.

Prepared by:
VEATA SANTOS

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C. TECHNICAL WRITING
1. FUNDAMENTALS OF TECHNICAL WRITING
1. Definition & Nature
a. Technical writing or report writing is giving an account or description
of an aspect of a particular art, science, trade, or profession, learned by
experience, study, observation, or investigation (Vicente, Soria, Mogol
& Sumaga, 1997).

b. Technical writing is a communication in any field which aims to

convey a particular piece of information for a particular purpose to a
particular reader or group of leaders. It is objective, clear and accurate,
concise and unemotional in its presentation of facts. It also an
exposition about scientific subjects and various technical subjects
associated with sciences; hence, it uses scientific and technical
vocabulary; tables and graphs and figures to clarify and support textual
discussion; and, conventional report forms. (Alcantara & Espina,
2010).

2. Characteristics of Technical Writing

Technical writing also shows the following characteristics:
a. Technical writing treats of subject matter related to science and
technology and, lately has involved other disciplines such as
economics, medicine, psychology, agriculture, radiology, business
administration, and others.

b. Technical writing is characterized by certain elements such as its

scientific and technical vocabulary, its use of graphic or visual aids and
its use of conventional report forms.

c. Technical writing observes impartiality and objectivity, shows extreme

care to convey information accurately and concisely and avoids any
attempt to arouse emotion.

d. Technical writing uses certain complex writing techniques such as

definition, classification, description of mechanisms, description of
processes, exemplification, causal analysis and others.

e. Technical writing has practicality and power.

f. Technical writing used to involve only engineers and architects as its

primary audience. Today, however, technical writing begins to attract
students from many disciplines.

g. Technical writing courses are worthwhile because they have a high

carry-over value beyond the college days.

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3. Properties of Technical Writing

Vicente, et al (1997) emphasized that “Reading a piece of technical

writing leads one to discover its distinctive characteristics which differentiate
it from other types of writing. One distinguishing mark of technical writing is
aptly stated by Rufus Turner: “Truth is the soul of science.” Good technical
writing never misleads or misrepresents. Following is a list of the properties
of technical writing which Zall refers to as the ABC’s of report writing.”

A Accuracy
B Brevity
C Coherence
D Confidence
E Emphasis
F Facility
G Grammatical Correctness
H Honesty
I Illustration
J Judgment
K Knowledge
L Logic
M Mechanical Neatness
N Normal Procedure
O Objectivity
Q Quality
S Straight Sentences
T Thoroughness
U Unity
V Veracity and Viewpoint
W Word Choice
Y You-Point
Z Zest

4. Purposes of Technical Writing

Alcantara, et al. (2010) gives the following purposes of technical
writing:

a. It gives information that leads to the accomplishment of specific tasks

and in the making of needed decisions.

b. Technical writing analyses events and their implications like the failure
or certain educational, socio-economic, or political systems; or needed
social changes, like how to save the dying bodies of water in the
country, particularly the Pasig River, Laguna Lake, and the Lingayen
Gulf.

c. Technical writing persuades and influences decisions.

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5. Comparisons between technical writing and the other forms of writing

a. Literary Writing includes poetry, short stories, plays, and novels.

 Authors might draw on experience to create their text;
 It employs figurative word usage, imaginative imagery, dialect,
symbolism, and fictitious characters to present a message.

b. Expressive Writing records a subjective, emotional response to a personal

experience.
 Journal and diary entries are expressive;
 Its goal is to express one’s feelings through description and narration.

c. Expository Writing analyses a topic objectively.

 Its goal is to explain, and thereby reveal your knowledge of a subject.
 After explanation, response from the reader is not expected right away.

d. Persuasive Writing combines the emotionalism of expressive writing with

the analytical traits of expository writing.
 The goal is to sway your audience’s emotional attitude toward a topic.

2. OUTLINES
A. Output/End Products of Technical Writing

Most Common Technical Writing Outputs/End Products include the following:

(http://www.quia.com/files/quia/users/skrichard/TechWriting/Common_Tech_Pap
ers_PDF)

1. Business letter. It is written primarily to transact business.

2. Feasibility report. This reports the financial, economical, and technical

benefits/practicability of a proposed business project.

3. Abstract. It is a summary of a conducted study.

4. Specification. It gives detailed description or assessment or calculations of

requirements, dimensions, materials, etc., as of a proposed building, machine,
bridge, etc.

5. Brochure. It is a pamphlet or booklet containing summarized or introductory

advertising or information about a product, service, or idea purposely written
to attract attention and action of the customers.

6. Memorandum. It is usually a short interoffice communication about company

matters, e.g. on something to be done or acted upon in the future.

7. Instruction manual. It refers to a manual usually accompanying a technical

device or appliance which gives directions for use. It mayalso refer to a set of
directions for work procedures or policies.

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8. Proposal. It is a plan or a scheme proposed to elicit action for a change or

performance which may help solve a problem.

9. Treaty. It refers to a formal written document of agreement between two or

more parties aiming for peace, alliance, commerce, or other international
agreement.

10. Article (books and technical journals). This may refer to an abstract,
summary, introduction and discussion submitted and published in books or
journals.

11. Contract. It is an agreement between two parties enforceable by law in doing

or not doing something.

12. Policy. It contains a definite course of action adopted and pursued by the
government, company management, or any organization.

13. Progress report. It pertains to an account of work on what has been

accomplished during a specified period of time, including future expectations
in the next period.

14. Technical paper. It is a research paper describing a new concept or

development intended for a professional journal or magazine.

15. Laboratory report. This is a record of laboratory tests with corresponding

procedures done. It contains descriptions of the scope, equipment, procedures,
results, and possibly conclusions and recommendations.

16. Survey report. It is an initial report on any subject or product service using
subjects like potential market, labor policies, public opinion, and community
resources.

17. Resumé

B. Outlining (Menoy, 2009)

Menoy (2009) identifies outlining as the fourth in the pre-writing process.

It implies organization of ideas. In outlining, the writer lists downs all ideas
relevant to the topic, sorts them all into major and minor ones, and creates an
outline out of them.

Furthermore, Menoy emphasizes that a good writer uses an outline which

serves as skeletal framework for his composition. Materials are well organized
when an outline is made prior to collecting information or writing the draft.
Indeed, an outline helps the writer present his ideas in an orderly fashion.

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Systems used in outlining:

1. Alphanumeric (number-letter) system
It makes use of Roman and Hindu-Arabic numbers as well as uppercase and
lowercase letters.

Examples:

I.
A.
1.
a.
(1)
(a)
(b)
(2)
b.
2.
B.
II.

1.
1.1
1.1.1.
1.1.1.1.
1.1.1.1.1.
1.1.1.1.1.1.
1.1.1.1.1.2.
1.1.1.1.2
1.1.1.2.
1.1.2.
1.2.
2.

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3. USE OF GRAPHIC AIDS

Menoy (2009) emphasizes that in doing oral and written reports, graphic aids
and other visual aids are important. They not only help the listeners or readers
understand the materials, but also make them retain these materials. Reporters must
remember this principle: “What is seen is better remembered than what is heard.”

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CLASSIFICATION OF GRAPHIC AIDS (Menoy 2009)

GRAPHIC AID FUNCTION KINDS

Pie (Circle/Sector) To present proportions and Solid – consists of sectors

graph percentages bound together and
differentiated by color
shading, etc.
Exploded – consists of
sectors shown separately

Column (Bar) graph To compare quantities Vertical – consists of

standing columns
Horizontal – consists of
lying columns

Line graph To show progress or Single line – consists of only

development one line
Multiple line – consists of
many lines differentiated by
color, form, or thickness

Surface graph To present proportions and Single-surface – consists of

quantities only one layer or stratum
Multiple-surface – consists
of several layers or strata;
also called strata, belt, or
band chart

Map chart To show geographical data Geographical map – consists

and how things are put of places or locations.
together Other maps – used not for
geographical purposes, but
for other purposes

Figure graph To present quantities in the

form of figures

Photograph To show how a thing looks

like
Organizational chart To present the liens of
responsibility and
accountability in an
organization

Table To present a large body of Formal – consists of titles or

numerical and other data headings, and legends, etc;
usually in grid form
Informal – lacks some items
found in a formal table

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GRAPHIC AID FUNCTION KINDS

Schematic diagram To show how a thing works

or is organized

Flow chart To show chronology of Strip chart – has strips of

events in a narrative or paper to cover the items
stages in a process presented

Non-strip chart – has not

strips of paper

Tree chart/diagram To present a classification or

an analysis

Drawing/Illustration To show details not available

in a photograph, e.g., parts

4. TECHNICAL REPORTS
Technical Report is an objective, organized presentation of specialized factual
information that are collected, analysed and presented for an immediate and
practical purpose. It serves as the basis on which decisions are made by
authorities concerned in business, industry and government. (Magpayo et al,
1996)

Purposes of Writing Technical Reports

1. To record information for future reference.
2. To ensure accurate, efficient means of transmitting information to different
people in different locations in an organization.
3. To identify problems in management and offer solutions to these problems
after conducting a thorough investigation.
4. To improve standards for effective performance of the job on the basis of
technical reports’ results.
5. To determine order of priority of tasks.

Qualities of a Good Report

1. Good writing is accurate.
2. Good writing is clear.
3. Good writing is concise.
4. Good writing is conventional.
5. Good writing is appropriate to the subject.

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5. BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
Business Communication is also one of the essential products of technical
writing. They are called business letters because they are used for business purposes
and they are aimed to serve three purposes: to sell, to buy, and to promote good
business relationship (Menoy, 2007).

A. Elements of a Business Letter

Unlike a social or a friendly letter (whose parts are limited to heading,
salutation, body of the letter, complimentary close, and signature) a business
letter is composed of the basic and the miscellaneous elements.

Basic Parts
1. Heading
It consists of the sender’s address and the dateline (month, day, and year).

2. Inside Address
It consists of the name of the addressee, his designation, his company and
its business address.

3. Salutation
It serves as the welcome part of the letter.

4. Body of the Letter

It gives the details of the communication and consists of the introduction
(purpose), the body (discussion), and the conclusion (token of
appreciation/building of goodwill).

5. Complimentary Close
It serves as the farewell part of the letter.

6. Signature
It consists of the name of the signatory (sender) and his designation.

Miscellaneous Parts
These parts are optional and therefore may be absent in the letter.

1. Reference Line
It indicates the sequential number of the letter which is used for
reference/filing purposes.

2. Attention Line
It bears the name of the addressee intended to read the letter if such name
does not appear on the inside address.

3. Subject Line
It contains the topic of the letter or the title of the message elaborated in
the body of the letter.

4. Identification notation or reference initials

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It consists of the initials of the sender in all caps and the initials of his
secretary/typist in small letters.

5. Enclosure Notation
It refers to the item or items placed inside the envelope, other than the
letter.

6. Carbon Copy Notation

It refers to the persons going to receive the letter other than the addressee.

7. Postscript
It contains some items that re omitted from the body of the letter and
should be included.

B. Mechanics of Letter Writing

M – Margining
1. The usual margin is one inch on all sides, particularly letters of one-page
length.
2. Short letters or articles of less than one-page long have two-inch or one-and-a-
half margins on the left and right sides.
3. If the report is bound, a half-inch is added to the one-inch.
4. Margins may be justified or unjustified.

E – End Stops (punctuation marks placed at the end of

the sentence)

C – Comma and other Punctuation Mark

H- Hyphenation and Spacing Compounds

A- Abbreviation and Alignment

Abbreviations are used sparingly in technical writing. A business writer
can make use of any of the following forms:

1. Acronyms (CCP, UE, TUCP, AIDS, APEC, GMA, PICPA, PBA, etc.)
2. Clipped or apocopated words (lipo, demo, exam, prelim, semi, lab, lib, eco,
sub, psych, etc.)
3. Blends or portmanteau words (infotech, medtech, techwrite, skylab, enercon,
domsat, scifi, con ass, concon, etc.)
4. Conventional abbreviations (Dr., Atty., Gen., Gov., Cong., Fr., Sr., Jr., Bro.,
etc.)

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 (Unconventional abbreviations are not allowed in formal written business

communication. These include: & (for and), w/c (for which), w/ (for
with), w/o for (without), # (for number, and so on.)

N- Numbers
In business communication, numbers are written as words, figures, or both.
The rules are as follows:

1. Numbers as one digit are written as words.

Ex. There are seven sacraments.

2. Numbers of two or more digits are written as figures.

Ex. There are 27 students who attended the conference.

3. Numbers are written as figures if they precede units of measurements.

Ex. The customer ordered 25 kilos of sugar.

4. Numbers are written as words when they appear first in a sentence or direct
speech.
Ex. Thirty cases of AIDS have been discovered in the Philippines.

5. Numbers are written as words and figures enclosed in parentheses in business

documents and contracts.
Ex. Pay to the order of Dr. Arnulfo Martinez the amount of TEN THOUSAND
PESOS (P10,000.00).
We shall give the teacher ten (10) complimentary copies of the book.

I- Italicization and Indention

The following items are italicized in print:

1. Titles of books, magazines, newspapers and periodicals

2. Names of ships, aircraft, and spacecraft
3. Words, letters, and figures when referred to as words letters and figures.
Ex.The word inflammable does not have a prefix.
The letter e is dropped before the suffix ing is added.
The numbers 234 and 578 are even.
4. Foreign words and expressions that have not been assimilated in English
Ex. bon appétit, bon voyage, hasta la vista, etc.
5. Scientific names of plants and animals

C- Capitalization
Generally, capitalization is used to signal the beginning of the sentence or the
presence of a proper noun. Other than these two, the following are capitalized:

1. The first word of the sentence or the sentence fragment.

Ex. Yes. In America.
2. The first word of a direct question

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Ex. The customer asked, “What is the selling price?”

3. The first word of a direct quotation
Ex. The teacher said, “Pass your paper now.”
4. The first word of a line of poetry.
5. Words in titles of books, magazines, newspapers, movies, shows, etc.
6. The first word of the salutation or complimentary close of a letter
7. The names of natural and juridical persons (Mr. Contreras, San Miguel
Corporation)
8. The names of historical periods and events
9. The names of ships, aircraft, and spacecraft
10. Words designating places, races, and languages
11. Words used to address people (Madam President)
12. Words or titles preceding names of people or used as epithets (Saint John the
Beloved)
13. The pronoun I
14. Words designating the Deity
15. The days of the week, the months of the year, and holidays and holy days.
16. Names of courts and treaties
17. Registered trademarks and service marks
18. Names of planets, constellations, satellites, and other heavenly bodies

S- Spellings
Misspellings occur everywhere because writers do not observe the basic rules
in spelling, as follows:

1. Silent e. When adding suffixes, drop the e if the suffix begins with a vowel
and retain the e if the suffix begins with a consonant.
Ex. love + able = lovable love + ly = lovely
like + ing = liking like + ness = likeness
imagine + ation = imagination sore + ness = soreness

2. Final y. When adding suffixes, change y to i if y is preceded by a consonant

and retain the spelling of the word to be affixed if y is preceded by a vowel.
Ex. lady + es = ladies key + s = keys
marry + ed = married pray + ed =
prayed
3. Final consonant. When adding suffixes, double the final consonant if it is
preceded by a vowel and found in a one-syllable word or a two-syllable word
stressed on the final syllable and the suffix begins with a vowel.
Ex. begin + ing = beginning benefit + ed = benefited
occur + ence = occurrence prefer + ence = preference
(stress shift)
4. EI and IE pronounced as long e. Remember to use i before e, except after c.
Ex. believe perceive
relief conceit

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5. Plurals of Nouns. Nouns that end with a sibilant sound (s, z, sh, zh, ch, j, and
x) have es as the plural suffix. Otherwise, the nouns take the s as the plural
suffix.
Ex. bus buses flash flashes girl girls
buzz buzzes test tests
judge judges cent cents
tax taxes

C.ESSENTIAL PARTS OF A BUSINESS LETTER

The Opening
This is an important part of the letter. In the opening sentence or sentences,
the writer should explain what the letter is all about. The writer should involve the
idea, which is of great interest to the reader.

Ex. We are pleased to tell you that your request of August 20 for a one-month
leave with pay is granted. Your record has been of such faithful character that
you have earned the privilege. Your leave will be from October 1 to October
30.

The Closing
The closing sentence or sentences bring to a focus the action desired. It leaves
an echo of courtesy.

While the first sentence of a business letter is a good place stressing the idea
that is of great interest to the reader, the closing sentence is the best place for
expressing an idea that is of prime interest to the reader. The final sentence offers and
excellent opportunity for making a request for action, if that is the purpose of the
letter.

Ex. We appreciate your inquiry and we will send the brochure tomorrow.

 Note: Always thank the people for their services. But let the thanks be
expressed after the service has been performed, not in advance. Thanking in
advance is unwise because the one who thanks in advance leaves the
impression that he wants to save himself the trouble of expressing his
appreciation letter.

D. STYLES OF A BUSINESS LETTER

1. Full-Block Style
Everything under the letterhead is aligned along the left margin.

2. Semi-Block
This is exactly the same as the modified block except that the first line of each
paragraph is indented.

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3. Modified Block
Certain parts of the letter such as the dateline, the complimentary close, the signature
are aligned to the right to help balance the other parts of the letter which have a left
hand alignment.

E. HACKNEYED EXPRESSIONS TO AVOID IN BUSINESS

COMMUNICATION

1. I beg to remain (old fashioned; no longer used in business communication)

2. Pleasure (we take pleasure in) Overformal. Better say, “We are sending or we
are glad to send.”
3. Thank you again (once is enough)
4. Thanking you in advance (a trite device, may antagonize)
5. Pursuant to your order (overformal, better say following your directions)
6. Permit me to say (no permit is needed, just say it)
7. We beg to acknowledge receipt (better – thank you for your letter of …)
8. Attached you will find (overformal, better – we are attaching to, we are enclosing
…)
9. At the present time (now is preferable)
10. At your earliest convenience, at an early date, at the earliest possible moment
(overformal, better say “soon.”)
11. In as much as (just say,, because)
12. Please be good enough to advise (better – please tell us or please let us know)

Prepared by:
JOCELYN Y. ARROZAL
KYLE DIANA R. MANIO

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