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Biodegradable Materials
and Their Applications
Scrivener Publishing
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Phillip Carmical (pcarmical@scrivenerpublishing.com)
Biodegradable Materials
and Their Applications
Edited by
Inamuddin
and
Tariq Altalhi
This edition first published 2022 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA
and Scrivener Publishing LLC, 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA
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Contents
Preface xxv
1 Biodegradable Materials in Electronics 1
S. Vishali, M. Susila and S. Kiruthika
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Biodegradable Materials in Electronics 3
1.2.1 Advantages of Biodegradable Materials 4
1.3 Silk 5
1.4 Polymers 7
1.4.1 Natural Polymers 7
1.4.2 Synthetic Polymers 8
1.5 Cellulose 10
1.6 Paper 11
1.7 Others 13
1.8 Biodegradable Electronic Components 16
1.9 Semiconductors 17
1.10 Substrate 18
1.11 Biodegradable Dielectrics 18
1.12 Insulators and Conductors 19
1.13 Conclusion 19
Declaration About Copyright 20
References 20
2 Biodegradable Thermoelectric Materials 29
Niladri Sarkar, Gyanaranjan Sahoo, Anupam Sahoo
and Bigyan Ranjan Jali
2.1 Introduction 29
2.2 Biopolymer-Based Renewable Composites:
An Alternative to Synthetic Materials 32
2.3 Working Principle of Thermoelectric Materials 35
2.4 Biopolymer Composite for Thermoelectric Application 36
v
vi Contents
xxv
xxvi Preface
The Editors
July 2022
1
Biodegradable Materials in Electronics
S. Vishali1*, M. Susila2 and S. Kiruthika1
1
Department of Chemical Engineering, College of Engineering and Technology,
SRM Institute of Technology, Kattankulathur, Tamil Nadu, India
2
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, College of
Engineering and Technology, SRM Institute of Technology, Kattankulathur,
Tamil Nadu, India
Abstract
The generation of E-waste is escalating both in developed and developing coun-
tries. The impact on the environment and human health is huge due to the toxic
chemical components. E-waste management needs more sophisticated technol-
ogies, where it could be carried out only by developed countries and due to
the various associated challenges, developing countries could not. The usage of
biodegradable material could act as a better replacement to address this issue.
The possibilities of using the biodegradable material in the field of electronic
industry and the advantages, challenges, limitations associated with it are dis-
cussed in this chapter.
1.1 Introduction
In today’s modern communication world, users demand high speed, high
data rate communication, and reliable short-range communication. The
latest smart electronic gadgets that communicate are catching up in med-
ical, elderly assistance, fitness, and whatnot. These electronic gadgets have
improved our day-to-day lifestyle and communication with anyone in any
corner of the world. These electronic gadgets have taken control in almost
all communication, medical, entertainment, environment monitoring,
Inamuddin and Tariq Altalhi (eds.) Biodegradable Materials and Their Applications, (1–28) © 2022
Scrivener Publishing LLC
1
2 Biodegradable Materials and Their Applications
agriculture, and health care [1–4]. On the other hand, these electronic
devices have created a massive amount of electronic waste, a big challenge
as new devices are hitting the market almost every day. This fast-growing
e-waste is dumped directly on land, as recycling is difficult in these devices.
Most of the materials are toxic, which definitely will pollute land, air, and
water [5].
With the world’s second huge population of 1.39 billion [6], India faces a
hasty risk under the E-waste and other wastes. India is the world’s second-
largest producer of mobile phones and one of the top 4 countries for poten-
tial E-waste output [7, 8]. Approximately 80% to 20% of discarded and
partially obsolete electronics are illegally dumped in India from the United
States and the European Union [9]. According to the Global E-Waste
Monitor Report 2020, India’s e-waste generation has increased over 2.5
times to 3.23 million metric tonnes in the 6 years leading up to 2019.
Around 70% comes from the government, private sector, and IT indus-
try [10, 11], with 15% coming from the home household, which delivers a
wide variety of white goods and other electrical devices [12]. In India, the
top 3 states, which contribute more amount of E-waste, are Maharashtra
(19.8%), Tamil Nadu (10.1%), and Uttar Pradesh (9.8%). Maharashtra gen-
erates the most E-waste, whereas Delhi has the most per-capita consump-
tion. This reveals that Delhi faces a significant threat of 388 environmental
pollutions, resulting in deteriorating air quality and bad health. In terms of
electrical items, the mobile phone had the most significant share of 366%
in 2017 and was followed by other components. Due to inadequate legisla-
tion, the country again obtains fractionally out of dated and trash electron-
ics from western countries, just as television, personal electronic goods,
monitors and accessories, projectors, laptops and mobile phones, among
others [13–16]. It is also vital to create and implement safe and ecologically
friendly technology, including initiatives, systematically. The sources of the
e-wastes are given in Figure 1.1.
At present, initial steps were taken to select materials to use in the devices
used for a short period to be biodegradable, nontoxic, and safe to use. Also,
researches have been concentrated on packaging materials for these elec-
tronic devices, which takes years for decomposing. Because the residues
are harmless byproducts, designing and developing electrical gadgets
from renewable or biodegradable materials is of significant interest. This
“green” electronic device must be mass-produced on a substantial indus-
trial scale using low-energy and low-cost technologies involving nontoxic
or low-toxic functional materials or solvents [17]. Biodegradable materials
should be decomposed, disintegrated, dissolved by natural organisms or in
Biodegradable Materials in Electronics 3
CELLPHONE
ELECTRONIC SCANNERS
DEVICES
COPIERS
KEYBOARD
MOUSE
aqueous solutions and not be adding to pollution [18]. This chapter high-
lights different biodegradable materials that are used in the fabrication of
electronic equipment.
RESISTOR
INSULATOR
CAPACITOR
TRANSISTOR
ELECTRODE
THERAPEUTIC DEVICES
OPTOELECTRONICS
SENSORS
SEMI-CONDUCTOR
1.3 Silk
The protein fiber that is natural in its form, obtained from silkworm lar-
vae’s cocoons (Bombyx mori), is named silk. Fibrin and sericin are the two
primary proteins in this polypeptide polymer. Fibroin is predominantly
made up of repeating units of glycine, serine, and alanine that allow for
inter-chain hydrogen bonding, which gives silk fibers their mechanical
strength. Now, silicon-based electronics are fabricated onto silk material
[30, 33]. The minimal tensile strength made the silk into a nonbiodegrad-
able material and an external component is required for its degradation.
United States Pharmacopeia also confirmed it. The enzymes crumble the
fibroin into lower amino acids and accelerate the degradation rate, making
the aspect of the enzyme as high. Silk is another natural-based material
used both as substrate and conductors [34, 35].
6 Biodegradable Materials and Their Applications
1.4 Polymers
Insulators and conjugated conducting polymers are the major divisions
of the application of polymers in organic electronics. Insulators work as
dielectrics or substrates in electrical devices, whereas conjugated polymers
serve as conductors or semiconductors. The processing compatibility of
the device is the basis for the selection of the polymer to act as a substrate.
Depending on their Fermi level, conjugated polymers can be in the form of
either semiconducting or conducting. Biodegradable polymers are made
up of both flora and fauna components. The polysaccharides sourced from
the plant (dextran, alginate, and cellulose) and animal (chitosan, colla-
gen, silk) are the main variety of naturally made components. Because of
their inbuilt enzymatic degradability, these naturally produced materials
are used in various temporary applications. On the other hand, synthetic
polymers are often physiologically inert, have more predictable physical
properties, and maybe chemically molded degradation profiles [45].
However, the following models restrict the types of biodegradable, pro-
tective materials that can be used as substrates:
PDPP-DP
A completely decomposable semiconductor polymer and disintegrable
flexible circuits were validated using diketo pyrrolo pyrrole (DPP) and
p-phenylenediamine, the semiconducting polymer PDPP-DP, which
showcase its mobility in a higher manner. It could be disintegrated within
a month duration with the help of iron electrodes, cellulose substrate and
Al2O3 dielectric [60].
Melanin
Melanin is a polymer that occurs naturally and has been discovered to have
electrical properties. Its conductivity is highly influenced by temperature,
physical form, and hydration status. It could create dual ionic properties
when it absorbs water [61]. This biodegradable semiconducting material,
which is utilized in tissue engineering, takes a minimum of 8-week span
for complete degradation [62].
PEDOT
The derivative of the well-known conjugated polymer polythiophenes is
poly 3, 4-ethylene dioxythiophene (PEDOT). PEDOT is an electronically
durable polymer under the physiological case. Its applications are found in
transistors, ionic pumps, actuators, and polymer electrodes. It brings heart
and skeletal muscles electrically active after electrochemical polymeriza-
tion [63].
10 Biodegradable Materials and Their Applications
PPy
PPy was among the first conducting polymers to be explored because of
its vast range of uses in bioelectronics and sensors. The most popular way
to make PPy is to oxidize pyrrole using ferric chloride or electrochemical
polymerization. It is commonly applied in the immobilization of biolog-
ical molecules. The examinations uncovered that nerve cells planted on
PPy film had a higher pace of endurance and augmentation than control
groups [64].
The man-made eco-friendly polymers have been employed in the for-
mation of the dielectric layer, OFET device. It takes 70 days for complete
degradation [65, 66]. Highly conjugated polymers, which include poly-
thiophene, polypyrrole (PPy), polyaniline (PANI), polythiophene, and
PEDOT, have been formed and effectively consolidated into different opto-
electronic gadgets [67].
1.5 Cellulose
Cellulose is the most well known and most economical biodegradable
polymer obtained from regular sources. Cellulose filaments are mostly
acquired from the wood mash, which is found in plants as microfibrils,
and are taken out from the source (wood chip, stem, or other plant parts)
through pulping strategies. It is made by pressing damp cellulose fibers
together and drying them into flexible sheets. The major characteristics
that make the cellulose apply in the fabrication of electronics are abun-
dant, eco-friendly, less weight, durable at high temperatures, and effortless
processing. It is relatively advanced than noncarbohydrate lignin. These
factors made it a capable substrate material in electronic applications viz.,
solar cells, FETs and OLEDs [68–72].
The crystalline region of cellulose is played as a source for the extraction
of cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs), which possess the solitary properties as
liquid crystallinity, good mechanical strength, and aspect ratio. The prop-
erties help in the making of the long-range form of semiconducting poly-
mer. Immobilization of functional groups onto it helps in boosting the
dielectric properties, thin-film transistors (TFTs). Another work utilized
a cellulose-based particle gel as a door dielectric layer to make electrolyte-
gated OTFTs. The flimsy electrolyte film was ionically conductive, had
solid electronic protection and adaptability, and had remarkable dielec-
tric qualities and high capacitance. Moreover, because of the presence of
prompted charge transporters at the dielectric-semiconductor interface,
Biodegradable Materials in Electronics 11
1.6 Paper
Paper is the most ancient and least expensive biodegradable sheet made
from plant or wood-derived cellulose. It is made by dewatering a weak
suspension of cellulose mash (sourced from wood and grass) and after-
ward getting it through a screen before squeezing and drying it into a
sheet. With contemporary roll-to-roll manufacturing technology, paper
output now reaches 100 km/h. It is extensively applied in recorded as a
hard copy, printing, bundling, cleaning, and an assortment of modern and
development tasks. Compared with the existing substrates involved in the
electronics industry, the price of the paper is low. Being a biodegradable
material with sophisticated production technology and low price made the
paper substrate a better choice for the electronics sector. The fabrication of
12 Biodegradable Materials and Their Applications
a thin film transistor (TFT) on a paper strip design was created by Brody
in 1960. The drawback found there was an absence of flexibility. It was later
overcome by the development of conjugated polymers, functional inks. In
recent years, there was much growth in the single transistor, integrated
circuits, and so on [84, 85].
The electronic circuits on paper are used to synthesize resistors, batter-
ies, consumer electronics, packaging, polymer solar cells, and LEDs. The
Whitesides team exhibited electronic circuits on paper, like customarily
printed circuit sheets (PCBs), yet are fundamentally less expensive and
foldable to build three-dimensional designs. Expendable frameworks for
the military and country security will profit from these paper-based elec-
tronic circuits. Its utilization as an alter apparent “electronic envelope” to
get the security of bundles [86].
Paper has, as of late, been displayed to function as a substrate for both
arrangements prepared polymer sun oriented cells and color sharpened
sunlight based cells. Paper-based OSCs were made utilizing a lean semi-
transparent unmodified paper substrate. The variety of cells could be
collapsed in stages without forfeiting execution. It could also withstand
submersion in water without deterioration because of the plastic lamina-
tion [87–89].
Radio recurrence recognition (RFID) labels [90] electroluminescent
gadgets, electro (thermo) chromic shows [91, 92], touchpads [93], and sen-
sors [94] are, for the most part, instances of electronic gadgets that utiliza-
tion the paper substrate. The common limitations observed in the usage of
paper substrates in electronic devices are porosity, vapor passability, and
high coarseness [95].
These issues are ordinarily tackled by covering or overlaying poly-
ethylene, polypropylene, wax, or aluminium hindrance layers. The costs
required here gave a plan to cover with watery scatterings of colors and
folios followed by calendaring to minimize surface harshness and poros-
ity. Calcium carbonate, kaolin, starch, PVA, latex are the familiar coatings
used for similar purposes [49]. To prevent water harm, vapor penetration,
silicon and acrylic originated insulators are used [86, 96].
A different group of researchers has identified the superior characteris-
tics of the application of paper on the development of electronic devices,
viz., (i) improved performance than the flat plastic substrate (ii) weight
reduction in super-capacitor, approximately in the range of 20% (iii) large
surface area, high porosity became a gained parameter for energy storage
devices [97].
Biodegradable Materials in Electronics 13
1.7 Others
Resin
A resin is a plant or animal-derived bio-based material. Sap or viscous
exudates, for example, can be found in plant resins. Even without phe-
nolic secondary complexes, pitches are hydrophobic unstable and non-
volatile terpenoid intensifies beneath or above the plant surface. Because
of their therapeutic applications, industrial manufacturing of stains and
veneers, and use in incense and fragrance and these chemicals have piqued
researchers’ interest. Plant-based materials, such as amber and copal, for
example, are known to have a high insulating capability. Resins originating
from animals are also available [98].
Shellac
Shellac, for instance, is an insect-sourced resin produced by the Tachardia
lacca bug. It is made from the saliva of female lac bugs obtained from var-
ious tree species in India, Thailand, and China. Polyhydroxy acids, notably
jalaric acid, shellolic acid, and aleuritic acid, make up shellac [99]. It was
commonly used as a barrier to keep moisture from evaporating from citrus
fruits. It is also used in medicinal tablets for coasting and looking through
the region above unaffected areas of the gastrointestinal lot [98].
Generally, shellac has been utilized as a decorative paint for walls and fur-
niture and as a dye for silk and cotton fabric. It has also been used as a glazing
agent on medicines and a wax film on fruits to improve their retain further
[100]. This has been studied as a substrate material for electrical devices in
recent years. The existence of electric insulator and barrier properties was
applied to demonstrate the organic thin-film transistor (OTFT) successfully
[101]. Silk and shellac both give great surface smoothness when placed as
thin sheets. Shellac may easily be formed into 200- to 500-m-thick sub-
strate foils, which are used to make organic field-effect transistors and com-
plementary-type circuits, as well as indigo, a natural semiconductor [102,
l03]. Natural resin shellac has been processed before as the dielectric layer
in OTFTs. It was dissolved in the alcoholic flakes to form various thicknesses
and heated up to 100°C to bring the surface smoothness [104, 105].
Gelatin
The acceptance of gelatin as an absolute eco-friendly and biocompati-
ble substrate for making an organic field-effect transistor (OFET) was
attained in 2010 [106]. Gelatin has a roughness of about 30 nm in the
14 Biodegradable Materials and Their Applications
Aloe vera
The species Aloe barbadensis grows in the desert. Miller, familiar as Aloe
vera, is a delicious plant that fills well in blistering, dry environments. The
leaves contain glucomannans, amino acids, lipids, sterols, and vitamins, as
well as a water-based gel [108]. The gel is economical, simple to use, and
can be used in biocompatible and biodegradable electronics. Thus, Khor
and Cheong [109], who examined the dielectric qualities of normal Aloe
vera gel, suggested that Aloe vera be utilized to advance electronics. An
OTFT with an increased compatibility dielectric layer constructed of Aloe
paste got from new leaves and SiO2 nanoparticles. The electrical qualities
of the device were inspected following production and afterward again
following multiday, uncovering a decrease in electrical properties because
SILK
PAPER
POLYMER
GELATIN
SHELLAC
ALOE VERA
[Inhoud]
II.
Naast den aardbei- en erwtenpluk ging rond op de
akkers [69]woeste rooidrift van bollenkweekers. Van
alle kanten, in diepe voren ingekneld met hun knieën,
schoven ze voort, de rooiers, ’t gloeiend akkerzand in
klauwigen wroet opengravend, den heeten zandstuif
naar zich toewaaiend, de longen in. Hun verschroeide
bronzen koppen, strak en gebukt van ernst, dampten
en zweetten in gloeistof, hun heele lijf ingehurkt,
verteerde in drogen schroei van zand en lucht. De zon
in z’n vroege Juliglorie daverde hoog in ’t eindloos
blauw, ingeschroeid in kringen van roodviolet licht en
gouden kransen, woelend de lichtende hemelzee
rond.—En de lichtlansen harpoenden neer over de
gloeiende akkers, die in dorre, schorre hette
smachtten naar regen.—