Modulo A: grammar, linguistics,

translation
Translating texts- Margherita Ulrych (pp. 15-114)

1. Translation issues: past, present and

future
1. Issues in the past
1.1. Relativity in translation theory

Thinkers have always argued about what should be the right approach for translation: on the one hand,
there is word-for-word translation, which is ST (source text)-focused and SL (source language)-oriented; on
the other hand, there is imitation, where the ST serves as a model to create a brand-new text.
An example of this relativity on translation theory can be detected in Savory’s twelve rules for the
translator which can be applied depending on the type of text. These guidelines can be grouped in six
couples because of their complementarity:
• Give the words of the original/ give the ideas of the original.
• Create an original work/ create a translation.
• Use the style of the original/ use the style of the translator.
• Write a contemporary work (same “historical language”) of the original/ write a contemporary
work of the translator.
• Add or omit from the original/ never add or omit from the original.
• A translation of verse should be in prose/ a translation of verse should be in verse.

1.2. History of translation

1.2.1. Ancient Rome

Cicero (1st century BC) was the first one to speak in favour of imitation and Horace (contemporary of
Cicero) asked translators to be faithful to the meaning of the text rather than its word order.

1.2.2. Middle Ages

In the Middle Ages word-for-word translation was the most practised, especially with sacred texts (ex. the
Bible): in fact, the word order had been divinely ordained and could not be altered; it didn’t matter if the
text was difficult to understand in other languages because sacred texts are a mystery themselves.
St. Jerome and Martin Luther were the first ones that translated the Bible using the imitation process: both
based their versions on the way people speak in market places, so that most of the population could read
and understand the sacred text. In this sense, it was an audience-oriented translation which didn’t care
about the word order. It is important to know that Martin Luther believed he was chosen by God to
interpret the sense of the Bible, though.

1
 1.2.3. Renaissance

A French scholar, Etienne Dolet (1540), formulated the first translation theory, suggesting translators to be
faithful to the sense of the text in order to render the author’s intentions in the TT (target text). He gave
translators 5 basic guidelines:
• Understand the sense and content.
• Have a perfect knowledge of SL and TL (target language).
• Be faithful to the meaning of sentences.
• Use everyday speech and avoid foreign words or neologisms.
• Use a harmonious style to please the TT reader.
Joachim du Bellay believed that only imitation could recreate the genius of an author in another language.
It is important to notice the pre-eminence of French scholars in translation theory because of French
gaining more and more centrality following the decline of Latin. That is why French translators (mainly
interested in literature) wanted to give pleasure to their readers.

1.2.4. 17th century

John Dryden first categorises translation in England dividing it into three types: metaphrase (word-for-word
translation), paraphrase (rendering the true sense) and imitation (using the ST as a model to create an
original text). Dryden himself preferred an approach between metaphrase and paraphrase to make the text
clear to the TT readers.

1.2.5. 18th century

Alexander Frases Tytler thought that the rules of translation were too free and established three principles:
• Transcript the idea of the ST.
• Use the same style of the ST.
• Create a text with the same ease of the ST.

1.2.6. 19th century

Romanticism brought its ideals of individualism, of national languages and cultures and of freedom of the
creative force: the translator then became a creative genius who enriches the literature of TL bringing also
a relativism on tastes.
Goethe identified three types of literary translation:
• The foreign culture of the SL enters the TL culture.
• The sense of the ST is rephrased in TT to make it understandable.
• The translation involves both SL and TL producing a sort of symbiosis between them.
In Victorian England translation was asked to lead the TL reader closer to the ST, that is why the translator
was considered just as a technician who serves the ST.
Matthew Arnold asked translators to focus mainly on the aesthetic effect (the most important according to
him) to render in the TT the same feelings of the ST.

1.2.7. 20th century

Benjamin preferred literal translation rather than a TL-oriented translation.

Benedetto Croce thought that translation was impossible because every speech act is unique and
unrepeatable even within the same language.

2
2. A modern approach to translation
Nowadays, thinkers believe that there isn’t just one right approach to translation, but each text is unique
and leads the translator to have different priorities. In present days, the main part of translation is of
technical texts (ex. manuals, scientific papers, documents, advertising…).
In the 20th century, Nida proposed two basic orientations for translation: one that aims at formal
equivalence (matching form and content), the other aiming at producing in the TT the same effect
produced in the ST. Translators should look for the closest natural equivalent (closest because a translation
can never completely match the ST) (natural because the TT should be easy to read in the TL, and not look
like a “third language”). Nida also suggests translators to analyse the text as a whole, in order to better
understand the context and the style of the author.
Newmark distinguishes between semantic translation and communicative translation: the former aims at
rendering the exact contextual meaning of the ST (as long as the semantic structures allow), the latter
attempts to produce in the TT readers the same effect that the ST had on its readers.
It is important to notice that nowadays there are no fixed principles for translation, but only general rules
to follow as guidelines depending on the text you are translating.

3. Future trends
Recent research has led to developments in machine translation, even though it differs from the human
art: in fact, the rules underlying the whole process must be precise and explicit because of the precision
required by computer programs. Moreover, computers can’t avoid ambiguity in translation without any
rules. Recent studies are trying to help computers simulate human verbal behaviour, but at present they
can translate without many mistakes only informative or denotative texts written in a neutral style.
In this field human intervention is fundamental: a human translator can pre-edit a text to favour the literal
translation made by a computer. Humans can also post-edit a text depending on the hypothetical users of
the TT: if the reader is an expert, he may not need a precise translation, but if a mistake can convey an
incorrect message or the reader needs a top-quality translation, the post-editing process must be made.
However, machine-translation (MT) is a great utility to reduce the volume of translation work.
Another area which is developing is machine-aided-translation (MAT): it consists in huge data banks that
can be called up for consultation. Translators can also select options from the range of translations and
data banks are improving more and more including even some contextual reference.
MT should not be seen as a threat for translators because some text-types need human translation and
computers help specialists in their job. That is why translators should familiarise with MT, knowing that
computers always depend on human action: only the human translator can decide if a translation is either
correct or not.

3
2. Language functions and translation
1. Language functions
Being a translator doesn’t mean that you only know the two languages you need to translate (SL and TL),
but also you must be able to interpret the linguistic and extralinguistic context of a speech act. In this
sense, translators must understand the underlying functions of a communicative act and render it into the
TT respecting the formal and functional levels of the SL and the grammatical rules of the TL.

1.1. Speech acts

J. Austin noted how all utterances have a communicative force following their meaning. He distinguished
three acts that can be performed by an utterance:
• Locution: the literal meaning of the utterance.
• Illocution: the communicative force within the utterance.
• Perlocution: the effect of the utterance on the addressee.
These three acts together make up speech acts, which can be categorised in six broad categories:
• Representatives: represent a state of affairs (ex. stating).
• Expressives: convey the speaker’s attitude towards something.
• Verdictives: evaluate and convey a judgment.
• Directives: try to influence the receiver’s behaviour.
• Commissives: convey speaker’s commitment to a course of action (ex. promising).
• Declarations: the utterance performs the action involved (ex. baptising).
A good translator can render the ST in the TL as a series of interrelating speech acts using natural
equivalents in the TL.

2. Microfunctions and macrofunctions

Macrofunctions refer to larger stretches of discourse. Before analysing the major functions of language let’s
look at the elements of any speech event:
• Addresser: sends the message.
• Addressee: receives the message.
• Context: setting of the event, either social or physical context.
• Message: form of the message (grammatical choices) and information carried (the topic).
• Contact: medium through which the message is conveyed and the physiological connection
between addresser and addressee.
• Code: the language system used (ex. English, sign language, semaphore).
Each of these elements determines a macrofunction (which in turn determines the structures used):
• Emotive function: expresses the addresser’s feelings with the use of the 1st person, interjections
and personal language.
• Conative function: tries to affect the addressee’s feelings with vocatives, imperatives and the use of
the 2nd person.
• Referential/informative function: carries extralinguistic information on context with many
adjectives, passive and stative verbs, a frequent nominalisation and the use of the 3rd person.
• Poetic/aesthetic function: it is the form chosen for the message and refers to rhythm and figurative
language.
• Phatic function: establishes a contact between the addresser and the addressee.

4
 • Metalingual function: it is the ability of a language to speak about itself to clarify meanings.

3. Language functions, text types/discourse genres and translation

strategies
Classifying the ST into text types helps the translator understand the author’s intentions and the kind of
language that should be used in the TT. Generally speaking, texts are multifunctional but there’s one
macrofunction that predominates and determines the text type. Each text type requires a specific
translation strategy:
• Expressive text: it is author-centred and SL-centred. In translation it requires personal components
to be maintained.
• Referential/informative text: it is text-centred and TL-centred. When translating you must convey
the message accurately.
• Conative text: it is reader-centred and TL-centred. When translating you have to pay attention to its
communicative function (ex. persuading, warning…).
• Poetic/aesthetic text: it is centred on the form of the message and requires a particular attention to
stylistic aspects in translation.
• Phatic text: it is centred on social contact and needs a proper translation of standard phrases with
standard equivalents.
• Metalingual text: it is centred on language itself and has a lot of explanations to be rendered in the
TL.

4. Rhetorical functions
Rhetorical functions are strategies used by the author of the ST to achieve a precise desired effect in his
work. A text is generally made up of a sequence of rhetorical functions but there’s only one that
predominates (the dominant contextual focus):
• Expository text: it can be either descriptive or narrative. The focus of descriptive texts is on objects
and relations in space. Narrative texts, instead, focus on events and relations in time.
• Argumentative text: its focus is on relations between concepts.
• Instructive text: it focuses on the future behaviour of either the addresser or the addressee.
A good translation should convey also any shift in contextual focus.

5
3. Context and culture
1. Context, co-text and context of situation
Context gives the reader of a text the circumstances (verbal and non-verbal) of an utterance, helping
disambiguate within different meanings for different situations. Translators must be able to recognise its
clues because language is deeply influenced by its socio-cultural context.
The anthropologist Malinowski (20th century) made the first distinction between the co-text (the linguistic
context), the context of situation (the extra-linguistic context, the immediate situation) and the context of
culture (the complete cultural background underlying every speech act).

2. Context of culture
First, culture is a term used to define the way of living of a determined society which conditions people’s
behaviour. Languages are connected to culture, reflecting the conditioning it has on people’s behaviour.
The principle of language relativity (also known as Sapir-Whorf hypothesis) claims that languages influence
the way communities perceive the same reality and is in contrast with Noam Chomsky’s principle of
language universal, that is to say the hypothesis of a universal non-linguistic semantic structure underlying
every language (and deeply connecting all languages). A more moderate view is that the lexical distinctions
reflect the cultural features of the SL. In this sense, each text is culture-bond (especially a vocative one) and
for this reason it is difficult to translate it, considering that many times the translator needs to adapt the
cultural features to make the TT understandable (ex. stereotypes are cultural-specific and they need to be
substituted with the right cultural-specific equivalent in the TL).
Translation can be problematic if there’s distance between the two cultural backgrounds. However, the
meaning of a text can be preserved by means of compensation, a process that solves the non-
correspondence of lexical categories due to a cultural distance between SL and TL. In this case, translators
can use notes to translations to clarify some cultural-specific features thanks to their communicative
competence.

3. Context of situation
The linguist J.R. Firth distinguished a series of variables present in the context of situation: participants,
action, features of the situation, effect of the verbal action. Hymes proposed a similar set of variables: form
and content of the message, setting, participants, intent and effect of communication, key, medium, genre
and norms of interaction. Communication needs utterances which are both linguistically correct and
appropriate to the socio-cultural context.

6
4. Register
Halliday defined register as a device that reflects conventionally-accepted types of discourse for different
social contexts. Moreover, he refers to it as one of the two broad categories of language variation, the use-
related one (differently from dialect, the user-related one). Then, he defined three variables in the context
of situation (and then in the register): the field of discourse, the tenor of discourse and the mode of
discourse.
Register refers to how language works in different situations. That is why it helps reconstruct the context of
any speech act, even though it is difficult to define its boundaries: on the one hand there’s restricted
language which is the only register that allows just fixed messages (ex. international language of the air)
and do not pose problems to translation, on the other hand there’s spontaneous conversation which is the
most free register and whose boundaries can’t be defined.

4.1. Field of discourse

It refers to what participants are doing with language (the event or activity taking place) and includes the
topic of the interaction and the shared or unshared knowledge of the participants about the topic. This
variable can be easily identified with lexical items. Registers in the SL can have equivalent ones in the TL
and need to be rendered.

4.2. Tenor of discourse

The tenor of discourse refers to the role relationships between the participants (which is influenced also by
their familiarity and by the addresser’s attitude towards the message). Martin Joobs defined five levels of
formality depending on the tenor (from the highest to the lowest): frozen, formal, consultative, casual,
intimate. A simpler division only includes three: formal, neutral, informal. Anyway, the task of the
translator is to ensure that the tenor is consistent, that is to say that all the lexical elements in the text
belong to the same level of formality.
It is important to notice a phenomenon called hedging that happens whenever the writer doesn’t want to
be involved and linked to what he is translating: in this case he uses passive and impersonal structures to
mark the distance between the text and him.
Analysing the tenor can provide the translator an important clue to understand the writer’s attitude
towards the message in order to render it properly.

4.3. Mode of discourse

It concerns the role of the language in the situation and refers to the chosen medium and the channel
through which the communication takes place. An informal text written to be spoken requires ellipses,
contracted forms, idioms and proper register-related features. A text written to be spoken presents all the
markers of direct speech and reference to the context of situation.

5. Dialect
It is the second broad category of language variation and is user-related. It includes geographical varieties
(regional dialects), social varieties (social dialects), temporal varieties (temporal dialects) and personal
varieties (idiolects).

7
 5.1. Geographical dialects

One of the most iconic examples of geographical dialects is English. In fact, it has phonological differences
and variations in spelling, vocabulary and grammar depending on the region (ex. British English and
American English). A good translator should have the ability of recognising the right dialect when
translating (ex. whether BrE or AmE), even though experts are trying to narrow the gap between all these
geographical variations.

5.2. Social dialects

Social dialects have a rarely complete cross-cultural overlap and they are difficult to be rendered in the TT.
It is important to remember that social dialects often represent a social hierarchy, and translator must be
careful when choosing the right alternative to render them. If you don’t know which dialect to choose in
the TT, the best alternative is using a standard form, not to alter the underlying meanings of the ST.

5.3. Temporal dialects

Temporal dialects reflect the changes that occur in language through time. Ultramodern terms can’t be
traced in dictionaries and translators have to coin neologisms or paraphrase the meaning of the term in the
TT. The choice of using or not a determined temporal dialect depends on the request of the commissioner
(ex. trying to reproduce the language of the time or adapt the whole text to modern standards). However,
the only imperative in this case is “be coherent with the sense of the ST in translation”.

5.4. Idiolects

Idiolect refers to personal and individual speech habits, which are unconscious expressions of an
individual’s personality. Maintaining it in the TT can add depth to the character, but also a component of
writer’s personality.

8
Language to language- Christopher Taylor (pp. 10-106)

1. Linguistics and translation

1. Language structure (and the organisation of information)
The linguist Ferdinand de Saussure distinguished between the syntagmatic sequence of a language and its
paradigmatic system: the former is the horizontal nature of sentence structure in terms of the word order
and function; the latter is the vertical nature of system (the different linguistic options everyone can
choose).

1.1. Structuralism

Structuralism is a name given to a group of American linguists whose leader was Leonard Bloomfield. They
analysed the constituent parts of sentence structure, in particular with Bloomfield’s notion of immediate
constituent analysis which splits sentences into their component parts (like the Italian analisi logica and
analisi gramaticale). Translators just need to find the autonomous units (stand-alone parts of the sentence)
and translate them singularly.

1.2. Universal structure

Noam Chomsky was the first one to define a universal structure consisting of underlying structures that
may be stable all the time. In fact, according to him, only the surface grammar changes through time. This
definition was applied to translation by Eugene Nida with the name of kernel sentences: kernels are the
minimal structures in a language, they are common to all languages and originate all the other elements. If
the ST is reduced to kernels, it is easier to translate.

1.3. The Prague School

The Prague School was emerging in Europe while the Structuralist movement was emerging in USA. One of
the most important studies attributed to it is the concept of functional sentence perspective (FSP): it sees
the sentence divided into a theme and a rheme. The theme is usually at the beginning of a clause and refers
to the given information about the context and co-text; the rheme is at the end of the clause and contains
new information to keep the reader interested. The relative weighting of new information in a sentence
determines the level of communicative dynamism: theme has a low communicative dynamism because it
contains already-known information, while rheme has a high communicative dynamism because of its new
information.

1.4. A functional approach (Halliday)

According to M.A.K. Halliday, rheme sometimes can precede theme (which, however, can be found only at
the beginning of a clause, even previously mentioned in the co-text or known to be shared knowledge).
Halliday’s information focus (where the important new information is stored) is usually at the end of the
English clause, an unmarked position, but can be marked in some way (ex. adverbial expression).

9
 1.5. Cohesion

Cohesion refers to the links within the discourse and is created by words themselves, while coherence
concerns the semantic links between concepts. Cohesion is achieved in different ways: conjunction (ex.
and), anaphoric reference (something previously mentioned in the text), cataphoric reference (something
that will be mentioned further in the text), ellipsis (ex. doesn’t and not does not), repetition (ex. fear…
fear), synonyms (words with similar meaning), semantically-related items (ex. antonymy and hyponymy).

2. Lexis and terminology

It is difficult to separate grammar from lexis, which is why the analysis of lexis involves also grammar and
we speak of the lexicogrammar of a language (a combination between the paradigmatic system and the
syntagmatic sequence). First, we should distinguish between words and terms: words can be ambiguous,
polysemous, collocation-bound or register-sensitive while terms are unambiguous, monosemic, invariable
and independent of context. The only problem with terms in translation is the need of the right equivalent
in the TL because in theory there is just one perfect equivalent.

2.1. General lexis

Before translating, experts must think hard about the meanings of the words with different strategies: the
componential analysis (which creates a semantic picture of the lexical item), the collocation (which
concerns the way words combine) and the issue of proper names.

2.1.1. Componential analysis

It consists in breaking every word into its components to catch the total meaning of the lexical item and its
semantic features. Translators can then start from this consideration in terms of semantic components
paying attention to the dangers of false cognates (false friends).

2.1.2. Collocation

Collocation concerns the organisation of words. Some collocations are more predictable than others
because of a higher frequency (ex. read a book) or in case of a fixed idiom (ex. the last straw that broke the
camel’s back), which can sometimes form surprising combinations (ex. to ride a crisis) depending on the
flexibility of the language within the confines of acceptable collocation. This can cause lots of problems in
translation. However, the interlingual identifying of extended collocational patterns can be useful for
translators because many times languages have equivalent predictable collocations.
Many times, journalists substitute terms with items in an unexpected collocation. The problem in
translation occurs when the marked collocation makes no sense in the TL (ex. it’s just not ice-hockey, it’s
just not cricket). In these cases, translators have to transform the collocation according to the illocutionary
intent of the ST. There are three kinds of transformation: reformulation (which includes reordering and
changing some words), abbreviation, expansion (ex. POTUS for President Of The United States).

2.1.3. Proper names

Great figures have their names translated in many languages, even though this happened more with figures
from the past than with figures more recent. In fact, nowadays only the names of royals, countries,
principal cities and major geographical elements (ex. rivers, lakes, mountains…).
Translators in this case, need to clarify cultural knowledges in translation by adding embedded phrases,
clauses in apposition, footnotes, endnotes and brackets.

10
Names that do not carry any significant semantic load have become fossilised and don’t require translation,
differently from names that carry another meaning that need the imaginative faculties of the translator.
Generally speaking, names of fictional characters aren’t translated.

2.2. Terminology

The constant development of science and technology is contributing to the growth of terminology, because
of new concepts to be labelled.

2.2.1. Languages for special purposes (LSP)

Languages for special purposes (LSP) have introduced a degree of order into the labelling process. Terms
are created to represent new concepts in the lexicon of the language and are based on pre-existing items in
the language. New terms should be free of ambiguity or a separate lexical unit in case of an already existing
element (ex. window can be the physical one or the one used in computer language). Terms should have no
synonyms and be defined analytically in order to avoid ambiguity in technical terms. For this reason, field
glossaries classify and categorise terms by generic relations (which refer to the class of concepts) and
partitive relations (the various types of the general class), being helpful for multilingual glossaries and
translators.

2.2.2. Terms and translators

Specialists are a sort of rudimental translators that give analytic definitions of new terms, but since
technology develops too fast, it has led to a process of division of labour, giving birth to professional
translators (who also find bilingual equivalents of terms). The existence of any bilingual equivalent of terms
depends on the equivalence between two conceptual fields: in this case, translators can translate
immediately the term or choose the foreign term (using it as a loan-word or a calque). Generally speaking,
Italian adopts English terms if there is no equivalent or legal jurisdiction. Translators that have no technical
background usually look to the data collections (ex. dictionaries, glossaries, data-banks…) to find the best
translation, even though terms often have more than one equivalent.

2.2.3. Term formation

New terms are created on the model of already existing terms or creating patterns and are not necessarily
of one lexical word (ex. pressure screw). Term formation differs for different languages: English prefers
nouns and adjectives in which each one determines the following one (ex. pressure screw: pressure
determines which kind of screw it is) while Italian uses prepositions and nouns and each lexical item is
determined by the following one (ex. vite a pressione: the kind of vite is determined by the following a
pressione).

2.2.4. Lexical density and term density

We speak in terms of lexical density when we refer to the proportion of lexical words (that have
recognisable concrete or abstract referents) compared to that of function words (ex. prepositions,
conjunctions…). In general, written text are more lexical dense because the author writes a more
concentrated discourse while technical texts are more term-dense (which means they have more terms
compared to the number of lexical words and function words). Corpus-based devices help measure term
density.

11
 2.3. Lexicography and the use of dictionaries

Dictionaries nowadays give information about morphology (ex. irregular plurals, prepositional
constructions…), spelling and pronunciation, lexical breakdown (words are presented in their base form, all
the affixes summed up to the base form make up a vocabulary block), ambiguity (homonymy, polysemy
and homography) which is solved by separating homonymous (creating different headwords) and labelling
the different meanings for polysemy. However, dictionaries can’t capture every meaning and use of a word.
Translators should use both mono- and bilingual dictionaries to capture all the shades of a word and to find
the best translation.

2.3.1. Corpora

A corpus collects recorded text material and allows people to search for a term’s frequency of use, its
collocation range and to call up all the collocates of an item to analyse their frequency patterns. Corpora
are useful because they give you some information about the use of a determined combination of words. In
fact, words co-select (they blend together to form a single unit) making grammatical borders blurred.
Corpora can group phrasal verbs according to their sense, reveal eventual discrepancies in the use of a
given lexical item in the singular and plural. Translators use corpora to predict some translation solutions in
given contexts.

3. Translation strategies
The linguist Malone defined nine translation strategies: equation and substitution, divergence and
convergence, amplification and reduction, diffusion and condensation, reordering. The first eight are
presented as pairs, as they are mirror images of one another, the last one is a stand-alone strategy.

3.1. Equation

Equation looks for the equality of meaning. There are five ways to achieve equation:
• Loan words: they represent absolute equality. In fact, they are words taken directly from the SL.
• Equivalent terms in SL and TL: even if sometimes common use prefers the loan word (ex. basket for
pallacanestro).
• Neologisms: they often appear as loan words in other languages (ex. the English neologism
software). However, they do not represent a perfect equivalence because of different cultural
associations and different pronunciations in the TL.
• Calque: the TL adapts a word from the SL to its own morpho-phonological framework (ex. taggare
from tag).
• One-to-one equivalence: it is the widest form of equation used and refers to perfect equivalents
(ex. man = uomo).
One of the most well-known traps associated to equivalence is that of false cognates (false friends).
However, there are partial cognates that have a transparent translation but only in some situations (ex.
direttore = director, editor, headmaster, conductor…). Many times, words in the SL have a higher frequency
than their equivalents in the TL, which is why you often have to change the translation to find a word with
the same sense and frequency. Word-for-word translation is justified precisely in case of true cognates,
where the two meanings coincide.
Well-known quotations acquire a standard translation as the time goes by, which are the commonly-known
versions in other languages (ex. to be or not to be, that is the problem = essere o non essere, questo è il
dilemma).

12
 3.2. Substitution

It is the antithesis of equation and it is required when there’s no equivalent as such (ex. the straw
that broke the camel’s back = la goccia che ha fatto traboccare il vaso).

3.3. Divergence

This strategy consists in choosing a term from a potential range of alternatives or grammatical paradigms
(accountant = ragioniere, commercialista, contabile depending on the context). Some linguistic or
extralinguistic clues (the context) can help the translator with the choice.

3.4. Convergence

It is the opposite of divergence and happens when some alternatives are translated with a single
word in the TL (ex. ragioniere, commercialista, contabile = accountant).

3.5. Amplification

Amplification consists in adding more elements in translation to clarify the meaning of some concepts
distant from the culture of the TL. Translator’s notes or brackets are required when the SL takes for granted
some components or concepts. They are often used in technical writing not to break the rhythm of the text.

3.6. Reduction

Reduction omits some elements in the TT because of redundancy (ex. carta geografica = map).

3.7. Diffusion

Diffusion adds some expressions according to the linguistic patterns of the TL. It provides more elaboration
to the TT (ex. magari = if only I could).

3.8. Condensation

Condensation omits some expressions according to the linguistic patterns of the TL making some
expressions in the TT more linguistically economic (ex. to look at = guardare). Generally speaking,
English is more concise than Italian, and this leads to the creation of strings of nouns and adjectives in
the English clause in which every element has a different function. Epithets are adjectives that
indicate a quality of the head noun while classifiers are nouns that indicate the subclass of a head
noun. Deictic terms, instead, show that a specific subset is being referred to.
Condensation is important for text cohesion via a network of grammatical and lexical references:
anaphoric reference (something previously mentioned), cataphoric reference (something that will be
mentioned further in the text) and exophoric reference (from outside the text).

3.9. Reordering

Reordering is studied in the field of comparative syntax. In general, it requires the translator to
operate inversion procedures, even if sometimes they are not needed for linguistical or rhetorical
reasons. Each language has its own specific word order which is formal, functional and meaning-
oriented. Reordering is required when the ST and the TT match perfectly but in an inverted form. For
example, the English passive form needs to be reordered in translation: Italian responds with either

13
the passive form, an impersonal construction or the active form with impersonal agents. Italian
passive form is less frequent also because it is impossible to use continuous verb forms with this
structure. This example explains us how important is that translators know the lexicogrammar of the
two languages.

14
2. Translating meaning in context
1. Semantics (basic concepts)
Semantics believes that it is possible to make general statements about all languages. The basic concept
refers to the possibility to translate (at least roughly) in any language because the basic facts about
meaning in all languages are parallel. Perfect translation is, in this sense, an elusive concept (because
“perfect” translation could involve form, content or both of them).

1.1. Reference

As seen in the previous chapters, individual items in a text are of essentially two types: function words that
perform just grammatical functions (ex. articles, prepositions) and lexical words which refer to something
that exists in the world, outside the text, either concrete (ex. an elephant) or abstract (ex. love). The words
or expression used to refer to a referent (objects, events or actions) are known as referring expressions.
Translation seeks a perfect match between referring expressions in two languages (which is quite rare).
A text is a semantic unit made up of grammatical units:
• Morphemes: they can be a recognisable word (ex. boy) or a grammatical feature (ex. -ly for forming
adverbs).
• Words.
• Nominal and verbal groups: they can be of a single word (ex. dog) or a complex word formation (ex.
members of Parliament).
• Clauses.
• Sentences: they can be simple, more elaborate in terms of parataxis (coordination) or more
elaborate in terms of hypotaxis (subordination).
The meaning of an individual unit can change from being an isolated word (ex. heavy) to being part of a
group (ex. heavy smoker) or forming part of a clause. In fact, the elements of a text combine to form
chunks of meaning. For this reason, the process of minimal semantic bracketing breaks the text into few
meaningful chunks to better analyse it before translating.
It is important to remember that words are created to define and describe things and events that
characterise the culture of a community. In this sense, things can exist in one culture and not in another,
which makes the translating process difficult. However, Roman Jakobson distinguished three kinds of
translation: intralingual (within the same language), interlingual (between two different languages) and
intersemiotic translation (from the verbal to the non-verbal).
Anything can be translated, if not by one-to-one equivalents, then by loan words, specification (adding
information to explain) or description (descripting a concept to clarify it).

2. Context
Context is the general situation of an idea or an event and helps understand it by two processes: bottom-up
(an analysis of the sequence of clauses) and top-down (an analysis of the situation).

2.1. Scenarios, frames, etc.

A scenario represents the stereotypical components of a definable situation. Intertextuality refers to the
linguistic components that draw on words or expressions that a person has heard before in similar
circumstances. Translators must respect all the linguistic choices of the ST to recreate the same scenario in
the TT. In this work, they are helped by the expectations based on a scenario which can predict the

15
progression of the discourse. The most convenient way of describing a context is to list its components.
Firth found four (participants, action, objects and events, effects) while Hymes provided another
componential breakdown: participants, message form, message content, setting, medium, intent, effect,
key (the tone), genre and norms of interaction.

2.2. The context of situation (M.A.K. Halliday)

M.A.K. Halliday defined language as a social semiotic, that is to say a vital part of social life, enabling people
to exchange meanings and function in society. His functional grammar (FG) looks at how language works
and what social functions are represented. Halliday’s context of situation consists of three components:
field (the subject matter and the nature of the activity), tenor (the social relationships and the role
structure among the participants) and mode (the organisation of a text whether it is written or spoken and
the use of the language in it). The field of discourse defines the needed terminology, the tenor defines the
suitable register and the mode helps organise the text.

2.3. A contextual mode (J. House)

House defined a series of parameters designed to compare ST and TT to help translate and called them
dimensions. These can be divided into dimensions of language user (geographical origin, social class, time)
and dimensions of language use (medium, participation, social role relationship, social attitude, province).
The dimensions of language user establish the text in space, register, time and any cultural factors affecting
language itself. Medium, participation and social role refer to the context of situation, while social attitude
defines the social distance between the participants and the field defines the topic of the conversation.

2.4. Denotation and connotation

Denotation and connotation are different ways to use the language. Languages have near-synonyms rather
than synonyms, that is to say that words that are referred to as synonyms have some differences in shades
of meaning and usage but do contain many common components of meaning.
Each lexical item has a value, an element of semantic prosody that integrates it with the co-text providing
the pragmatic meaning in each context.
Every lexical item has intrinsically a denotative value, which is the way the item refers to a referent in the
real world (an object, an event or an action). Words, in this sense, refer to an extension of an entity, which
is a past, present or future example of that entity (ex. the word rat refers to all the rats that have existed,
exist or will exist in the future). That is why the denotative meaning covers only the prototype meaning (the
examples of the concept which it refers to). The connotative meaning is an additional value depending on
the context and is a sort of metaphorical meaning. Even proper names may have connotative meanings,
like fictional names that are usually humorous or instructive.
A good translator has to fully understand all the denotative and connotative features of every lexical item
to match them in the TL.

2.4.1. Political correctness

Political correctness requires that some terms to be avoided because certain connotations may give offence
to some members of society are replaced by inoffensive terminology. The general use of masculine can be
avoided by twinning (ex. he or she) or pluralising the referent in question (ex. translators have to…). Some
words generally used as neutral may have a sexist connotation in English, but apart from these more
complex questions, the negative connotations have been recognised and adapted.

16
 2.5. Lexical cohesion/semantic fields

The concept of word association can be discussed in terms of lexical cohesion or, more specifically,
repetition and reiteration:
• Repetition: it concerns the repetition of actual words or grammatically-related items to achieve a
certain rhetorical effect.
• Reiteration: it can occur by near-synonymy, antonymy (the association of pure opposites),
hyponymy (the inclusion of a term in a superordinate category) or semantic field (the association of
vocabulary items in groups).
Technical terms are easier to translate because of their tight semantic field (there’s often just one
equivalent in the TL).
Schemas are mental images of a semantic field, some of the features are universally common, which means
that there’s a perfect matching of certain referents (ex. the ball, the players, the referee = la palla, i
giocatori, l’arbitro).

3. Pragmatics
This discipline analyses the use of language in communication from the point of view of the intentions of
the participants and includes the study of:
• Interpretation of utterances: it depends on the knowledge of the real world.
• Way of understanding the speech acts.
• Structure of the sentence: it depends on the relationship between the participants.
The philosopher Grice formulated the cooperative principle: efficient communication depends on the
recognition of:
• Quantity maxim: do not say too little or too much.
• Quality maxim: tell the truth or what you know.
• Relevance maxim: say only what is relevant.
• Manner maxim: be brief and ordered.
Generally, people stick to these factors and listeners expect them to do it. That is why people can naturally
decode implicatures, that are what speakers actually mean.

3.1. Knowledge of the world

Meaningful communication needs the participants to belong to the same universe of discourse (the same
set of parameters regarding the world they live in), even though people can inhabit different universes of
discourse temporarily or permanently.
The Sapir-Whorf hypothesys claims that language controls people’s way of thinking, and language is in turn
influenced by the cultural environment. The different views of the world are imposed by both language and
culture. However, it claims that translation is impossible, which isn’t completely correct.

3.2. Speech acts

Austin was the first to develop a speech act theory and divides it into locutionary acts (the utterance itself),
illocutionary acts (the intentions of the speaker) and perlocutionary acts (the effect of the act on the
addressee). He also categorised speech acts according to their performative function (their underlying
message).
The term adjacency-pairs describes the way utterances appear in complementary couplets in conversation
(ex. -Good morning -Good morning), while the coefficient of intensity measures the relative force of words.

17
 3.3. The interpersonal element

Pragmatics refers to the use of language in social interaction and interpersonal components determine
lexicogrammar choices of the participants. Moreover, felicity conditions are needed for a successful speech
act.

4. Cultural constraints
One dominant language can establish over other nations through a process that can be described in
terms of increasing density. In these circumstances, intracultural and intercultural differences can be
understood, mediated or tolerated because a common language has a powerful unifying force.
However, since language reflects society’s cultural upbringing and view of the world, there’s a specific
lexis for culture-bound phenomena.
Translators need to know both systems to express the specific view of the world, just like bilinguals
who are always accepted by both cultural communities.

4.1. Culture-bound language

Culture-specific terminology refers to the way of life and social organisation of a determined society.
The culture-bound element in language has to be seen in relation to a vast area of a more universal
language, which isn’t culture-bound. Cultural-bound terms referring to more locally defined
phenomena may need a reduction in translation (from a specific term to a more general one) and
institutional terms may differ in translation due to historical and political reasons. The conceptual gap
existing between SL and TL makes the transparent translation sort of meaningless. For this reason,
there’s the need of using either acceptably understandable translations or explanatory phrases. In
fact, culture-based problems are caused by lexical items that are potentially incomprehensible or
misleading in terms of cultural aspects.
In general, if there’s a cultural equivalent, use it. If there’s no equivalent use, you should choose
among paraphrase (explaining with other words), annotated explanations or deletion (delete
something you can’t translate without changing the meaning of the sentence).

18
An introduction to functional grammar- M.A.K. Halliday (pp. 524-525, 532-574)

1. Around the clause: cohesion and

discourse
1. The concept of text; logogenetic patterns
Text is the product (in the form of writing or talking) of something that happens. Its organisation is
semantic rather than formal and follows the dynamic process of meaning. The concept of cline of
instantiation (a semiotic dimension) explains how the system of a language is instantiated as a text. In this
sense, text is a process of instantiation by reference to the system.
Here’s a list of logogenetic patterns for higher-rank units:

Metafunction Unit System Logogenetic pattern

Logical Clause (nexus) Taxis and logico- Dominant logico-
semantic type semantic type.
Textual Clause Theme Theme selections,
prominence to
organisational path
through field and angles
of assessment.

Info unit Information Accumulation of main

points as elaboration of
a field and
intensification of affect.

Interpersonal Clause Mood Negotiation with one

mood selection,
building up a text into
mood type motifs and
interactant profiles
(interpersonal
selections).

Experiential Clause Transitivity Process type selections,

building up a text into
process type motifs and
profiles of participation.

19
2. The lexicogrammar resources of cohesion
Logogenesis is a concept that refers to how grammatical units create patterns in a text. Lexicogrammatical
systems connect clauses in the text and are collectively known as system of cohesion. Moreover, semantic
and contextual resources help creating and understanding any text. In English, cohesion is achieved
through conjunctions, reference, ellipsis and lexical organisation:
• Conjunction: it includes both conjunction proper and continuity and connects whole clauses, even if
in casual conversation there are less elaborated ones.
• Reference: it links elements in physical contexts with anaphoric or exophoric references.
• Ellipsis and substitution: they refer to the links between referents (elements of meaning). A part of
the structure is left out because it is presumed from what’s said before.
• Lexical cohesion: it depends on the choice of lexical items.
• Logogenetic patterns: they are formed by cohesive selections in the text and take the form of
chains of reference (logogenetic chains). If the patterns are kept longer, they become part of the
instantial system and emerge as major motifs in the text.
There are different types of cohesion with complementary effects, one having to do with the extent of the
elements that are linked cohesively and the other with the location of cohesive resources within
lexicogrammar. The former refers to conjunction that relates to the rhetorical transition (textual transitions
between the whole messages) and to cohesive resources that relate to the textual status (how components
of messages are processed as information). The latter refers to grammatical cohesion (the location of
cohesive resources in lexicogrammar) knowing that each cohesive resource has one or more particular
grammatical unit as its origin.

3. Conjunction
3.1. From clause complexing to conjunction

A clause complex is the most extensive domain of grammatical structure developed out of logico-semantic
relations which link pairs of clauses into nexuses. These relations can be either hypothetical or paratactic
and are marked by conjunction.

3.2. The system of conjunction

3.2.1. Elaboration

There are two types of elaborating relations: apposition and clarification:

• Apposition: elements are re-presented by exposition (ex. in other words) or example (ex. for
example).
• Clarification: elements are clarified by correction (ex. or rather), distraction (ex. by the way),
dismission (ex. in any case), particularisation (ex. in particular), resumption (ex. as I was saying),
summation (ex. in short), verification (ex. in fact).

3.2.2. Extension

Extension involves either addition or variation:

• Addition: it can be positive (ex. and), negative (ex. nor) or adversative (ex. but).
• Variation: it can be replacive (ex. on the contrary), subtractive (ex. apart from that) or alternative
(ex. alternatively)

20
 3.2.3. Enhancement

There are different types of enhancements: spatio-temporal, manner, casual-conditional and matter:
• Spatio-temporal: it consists of temporal and place reference and can be either simple, complex
(with more semantic features) or simple internal (whose order follows the time of discourse).
Simple spatio-temporal enhancements can be following (ex. then), simultaneous (ex. at the same
time), preceding (ex. before that) or conclusive (ex. in the end). Complex spatio-temporal
enhancements can be immediate (ex. at once), interrupted (ex. soon), repetitive (ex. next time),
specific (ex. that morning), durative (ex. meanwhile), terminal (ex. until then) or punctiliar (ex. at
this moment). Simple internal spatio-temporal enhancements can be following (ex. next),
simultaneous (ex. at this point), preceding (ex. up to now) or conclusive (ex. lastly).
• Manner: it can be a comparison or means (ex. by such means). Comparison manner enhancements
can be positive (ex. likewise) or negative (ex. in a different way).
• Causal-conditional: it refers to relations of cause and can be general (ex. consequently) or specific.
Specific causal-conditional enhancements can be of result (ex. in consequence), reason (ex. for that
reason), purpose (ex. for that purpose), conditional positive (ex. in that case), conditional negative
(ex. otherwise) or concessive (ex. despite this).
• Matter: it refers to something that has been mentioned before and can be positive (ex. in that
respect) or negative (ex. in other respects).

3.3. The system of conjunction instantiated in text

Generally, the development of a text involves more than one relation which contributes to the system of
conjunction. Meeting a conjunction while reading a text lets you think about which relation it marks among
different types, even though some conjunctions are ambiguous and implicit ones have unexpressed
semantic relationships, in this case you have to pay attention when you understand a text. English
discourse is characterised by the presence or absence of explicit conjunctions, which is one of the most
influent variables.

4. Reference
It consists of resources for making textual status, that is to say values assigned to elements that guide the
speakers in processing the discourse. There are two types of textual status: theme (which integrates the
information being presented in a clause) and rheme (which retains from the new information presented).
Both theme and rheme are part of the textual structure.
Textual statuses (reference and ellipsis) aren’t structural functions of the clause.

4.1. The nature of reference; types of reference

The textual status has the issue of identifiability. It all starts with a simple question: does the speaker think
that all the elements in a discourse can be recovered or identified by the listener? If so, the listener has to
recover the identity of the elements from somewhere else (ex. the instantial system of meanings built up
by the speaker which can be found during the text). If the elements are not presented as identifiable, the
listener has to establish it as a new element of meaning in the interpretation of a text, in short it is
processed as a new item.
Reference items that point backwards in the text (cataphora) or outwards it (exophora) have the same
forms but differ in the way they are used. Here’s a list of the major kinds of reference:
• Exophoric reference: it lets the listener recover the identity of the item from the environment of
the text and do not contribute to lexical cohesion, because it just links the text to its environment.

21
 • Endophoric reference: it lets speakers recover the identity of items from within the text. It is part of
the process of logogenesis and once a new meaning is introduced, it can be presumed by
endophoric reference.
• Anaphoric reference: it is very common and points backwards in the text, identifying something
that has already been mentioned.
• Cataphoric reference: it is rarer than anaphoric reference and points towards in the text, speaking
about something that will be mentioned later. Only structural cataphoric reference is common
because the reference is resolved in the same nominal group (ex. that cat).
Both exophora and endophora presuppose a referent, but they differ in what is presupposed:
• Co-reference: it refers to the same referent and can be either personal (ex. my, mine) or
demonstrative (ex. this, here).
• Comparative reference: it refers to another referent of the same class and can be either general
(ex. same, similarly) or specific (ex. more, less).

4.2. Personal reference

In personal reference the category of person is used to refer, and it is required primarily in anaphoric
reference. They are either determinative (ex. he) or possessive (ex. his) and usually occur within the theme.
There are two primary anaphoric strategies to track a referent in the text:
• A personal reference item: a personal pronoun or a possessive determiner.
• A specified noun: a proper noun or a common noun modified by a demonstrative determiner (ex.
the rabbit). It is usually used only if you must vary the form during the text (ex. the need to further
elaborate the reference when there are alternative antecedents, the need to indicate the beginning
of a new rhetorical stage).

4.3. Demonstrative reference

Here the reference item is a demonstrative and can be exophoric (points outwards the text), cataphoric
(points forwards in the text) or anaphoric (points backwards in the text). The sense of proximity helps
choose between the demonstratives (ex. this or that) and usually follows the speaker’s point of view: “the”
signals the identity of the reference and is an unmarked demonstrative, while the other demonstratives
(which are marked ones) signal the identity and states how this identity should be established. Locative
demonstratives (ex. here, there) follow the same proximity pattern.

4.4. Comparative reference

Comparative reference establishes a relation of contrast: the identity is signalled by pointing out the
difference between two or more referents (ex. equal or unequal, more or less). They function in nominal
and adverbial groups and refer to features of identity, similarity or difference. They can be also used as
cataphoric reference (points forward in the text).

5. Ellipsis and substitution

5.1. Nature of ellipsis and substitution

Reference is a relationship of meanings (ex. the anaphora has a semantic relationship with a preceding
item). Ellipsis is a form of anaphoric cohesion because it presupposes something by means of what is left
out in the clause. It sets up a lexicogrammatical relationship, that is to say a relationship in the wording.
Non-prominent elements (continuous) are ellipsed, differently from prominent elements (contrastive) that
are present in the clause.

22
Substitution (ex. one) shows where something has been omitted and its grammatical function by means of
a place-holding item.

5.2. Grammatical domains of ellipsis and substitution

There are three main contexts for ellipsis and substitution in English: the clause, the verbal group and the
nominal group.

5.2.1. Ellipsis and substitution in the clause

There are two kinds of ellipsis and substitution in the clause:

• Yes-no ellipsis: you can ellipse the whole clause or part of the clause. The whole clause requires
only polarity (ex. yes-no questions to which you can answer just with “yes” or “no”, ellipting the
whole question). The ellipsis of part of the clause can be of mood (in which you ellipse the residue
and add the mood, like in short answers) or of mood and polarity (which can be implied just if
there’s a change of subject, like in “so do I”).
• WH-ellipsis: you can ellipse the whole clause (by means of only the wh-element or the answer, like
in “Is he at home?” “Who?” or “Who’s at home?” “John”) or just a part of it. When there’s a
residue ellipsed it can be either for wh and mood (ex. “Will you help us?” “I could tomorrow”) or
wh and polarity (ex. “Who will help us?” “Not me”).

5.2.2. Ellipsis and substitution in the verbal group

In this case the predicator (or part of it in the case of a verbal group complex) is ellipsed with the rest of the
residue. A substitution is required: you have to put a non-finite form of the verb to do (except for to be and
to have) to substitute the whole residue.

5.2.3. Ellipsis and substitution in the nominal group

Mass nouns require ellipsis (ex. “Do you want some more wine?” “Red”), while other nominal groups
require substitution: “one” or “ones” substitutes the residue which is ellipsed.

5.3. Ellipsis and reference

Since ellipsis is a semantic relationship, there’s no grammatical constraint in the sentence structure. The
meaning of this reference is “go back and retrieve the missing words”. That is why ellipsis is largely limited
to the immediately preceding clause. There’s a significant difference of meaning between the presuming
term (the substituting one) and the presumed one (the ellipsed one): reference signals the same member,
ellipses signals another member of the same class. Within the nominal group it means that you modify the
thing deictic (ex. this one), numerative (ex. the first one) or epithet (ex. the biggest one). Within the verbal
group it means you have to change the polarity (for ellipsis) or modality (for substitution).
Ellipsis adds certainty to the clause, whereas substitution adds uncertainty.

6. Lexical cohesion
It depends on the choice of lexical items related to those that have gone before. Lexis is organised into a
network of lexical relations which derives from the paradigmatic and syntagmatic organisation of lexis: the
paradigmatic relations concern the lexis as a resource in terms of elaboration and extension; the
syntagmatic relations link in a syntagm lexical items that tend to occur together.

23
 6.1. Elaborating relations: repetition, synonymy and hyponymy

6.1.1. Repetition

The repetition of a lexical item is the most direct form of lexical cohesion and there’s no need of
morphological equivalence. In fact, terms like “dine”, “dinner” and “diner” are part of the same lexical item.

6.1.2. Synonymy

It consists of the choice of a lexical item that is synonymous with a preceding one (ex. sound and noise). If
there’s identity of reference you can choose among synonyms (same level of generality) or superordinates
(higher level of generality). Without necessary identity of reference, that is to say when there is no
particular referential relation, you can still have a cohesive result for synonymy. A special case of synonymy
is antonymy, that links two terms with opposite meanings (ex. woke and asleep).

6.1.3. Hyponymy

Attribution is a based on classification (specific to general): the first lexical item represents a class of thing
and the second one either a superclass or a subclass or another class at the same level of classification.

24
Modulo B: British civilisation
British civilisation- J. Oakland (pp. 2-22, 56-141)

1. The British context

1. Historical growth
Britain’s constitutional title today is the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. These
territories (touched by the North Sea, the English Channel, the Irish Sea and the Atlantic Ocean) are England,
Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland – sharing the second largest island with the Republic of Ireland. In
prehistory, These areas where visited by Old, Middle and New Stone Age nomads; from about 600 BC to 1066
A.D. Britain experienced new settlements By peoples like kills, Belgic tribes, Romans, Scandinavians, Normans
and Germanic tribes. Expansionist and military aims of English monarchs modified Britain’s destiny, putting
effectively under their control Ireland and Wales during the 12th and 13th centuries respectively, while
Scotland was joined dynastically to England in 1603. England, Wales and Scotland created and united in Great
Britain in 1707 and Ireland added in 1801. In 1921, southern Ireland left the union to found its Republic and
Northern Ireland remained part of the UK. The absence of any successful external military invasion of the
islands since the Norman conquest of 1066 A.D. has allowed these nations to develop internally in distinctive
ways. Since the end of the 18th century Britain experienced a period of strong colonialism, supported by the
successive agricultural and, above all, industrial revolutions. Throughout the 19th century, -thanks to its
empire- Great Britain became a world power and a main player in developing western principles of law,
property, business, liberty, capitalism, Parliamentary democracy and civil society. The British Empire
contributed to the creation of their British identification – Britishness –, but, throughout the 20th century,
national identities and the four countries of the union persisted and became stronger and more competitive.
Between the 20th and the 21st century, Great Britain experienced so many change due to the two world wars
in the first half of the 20th century and due to the dismantling of its imperial global power in the second half.
Since the Second World War, Britain had to face new difficulties in the worldwide hegemonic system, for all
the events which characterised the 20th century, such as the rise of nationalisms, of foreign competitions, of
new superpowers and of the Cold War. In Reston sentries, review has rarely seen itself as an integral part of
mainland Europe, and this sense of isolation rose doing the 21st century: a scepticism about Europe and the
historical impulses to national independence and isolationism still appear to condition many British people.

2. Structural change
Through the centuries, national structures developed through peaceful or warlike processes which led to the
foundation of new important structures in state, religion, law, economy, society and politics. Some were born
in a “top-down” form, that is controlled by an elite who imposes its decisions to the mass people; others
were born in a “bottom-top” form, that is directly linked to the common people; this happens with
institutions like sports activities, families, leisure activities, neighbourhoods etc. The coexistence of top-down
and bottom-top structures reveals the plurality of the conflicting “ways of life” characterising the Britishness.

3. Contemporary conditions
Britain today is a complex society characterised by many changes and pluralities. There are some divisions
caused by the independence requests by Wales, Scotland, Northern Ireland and England. Nowadays Britain
is still characterised by disparities between a friend and economically depressed areas. Contrary to the past,
Britons are now more non-conformist, multi-ethnic, individualistic. They feel they have become more
aggressive and selfish; however there are some relatively positive and optimistic results too, such as the fact
that almost half of the population thinks that Britain’s situation is going to improve in the future, even if
Britain keeps fighting against the economic downturn of 2008. Finally we can say that British government

25
made British people think themselves as keepers of an individual independence and liberty: they feel they
are able to live their independence with confidence; from this viewpoint, they are optimistic.

26
2. The people
Britain has always been immigrants’ favourite place. The contemporary British are consequently composed
by people from different part of world. The English language is a mixture of various dialect form (Germanic,
Romance and the other world language). Over the centuries, thanks to the intermarriage some ethnic
features were transmitted to their children until the creation of a contemporary society.

1. Early settlement to AD 1066

England had been uninhabited for centuries. The first people were Palaeolithic nomads came from Europe
(in the past Britain was a part of European land). We divide Prehistory in some ages:
• Palaeolithic Ages (old Stone age)
• Mesolithic age (Middle stone age)
• Neolithic Age (New stone age): people had more skills in stone caving, they built the first village to
grow farms and to tame wild animals, and monuments like Stonehenge. Some groups arrived by the
sea from central Europe or from Iberian (Spanish, Portuguese) and populated Cornwall, Ireland,
Wales, the isle of Man and western Scotland. They introduced a Bronze Age culture
From about 600 BC Celtic tribes arrived into the islands from western Europe. Celts weren’t a unified group;
they were divided into different tribes (who often fought with one another) and had two main languages.
Celtic civilizations dominated the islands until they were overcome by warring Belgic tribes who dominated
until the 55 BC, when Romas arrived (44 BC-409 AD). The term “Britain” probably derived from the Greek
and Latin names given to England and Wales by the Romans. They didn’t mix with the existing population
and introduced some Christian practices and new agricultural methods. After the Roman, Germanic tribes as
the Angles, the Saxon and the Jutes from north-western Europe invaded the country and mixed with the
existing population or pushed it westwards. The country was divided into 7 separate Anglo-Saxon kingdoms
in England, with largely Celtic areas in Wales, Scotland and Ireland. These regions suffered from
Scandinavians (Viking) military invasions, but Scandinavian were defeat. Their presence was reflected in
farming, political institutions and the adaptation of Scandinavian words. The Anglo Saxon were defeated by
French-Norman invaders at the Battle of Hastings in AD 1066 and England subjected to their rule. It
influenced the English people and their language and introduced legal and institutional frameworks, such as
feudal system. Celtic civilizations continued in what are now Wales, Scotland and Ireland which were divided
into separate kingdoms.

2. Growth and immigration up to the twentieth century

“Tribal” and royalist conflict continued in the four nations, that’s why political and military attempts were
made by England to unite Wales, Scotland and Ireland until the English crown. Internal colonization and
political unification of the islands gradually created the British state.
Ireland was invaded by Henry II in 1169. The authority of the England monarchy became more and more
important and Ireland became a client state. Ireland became part of the United Kingdom in 1801 but, after
periods of violence and political unrest, was divided in 1921 into: the Irish Free State (called The Republic of
Ireland) and Northern Ireland (which remains part of the United Kingdom).
Wales remained a Celtic country influenced by Anglo-Norman. Between 1282 and 1285 Edward I’s military
campaign brought Wales under English rule. Wales was integrated legally and administratively with England
by Acta of Union between 1536 and 1542.
The English also tried to conquer Scotland, but they were repulsed at the Battle of Bannockburn in 1314.
Scotland remained independent until the political union between the two countries in 1707 when Great
Britain (England, Wales and Scotland) was born. The UK had become Protestant in religion as a result of the
European Reformation and Henry VIII’s break with Rome. Ireland remained Catholic.

27
Contemporary Britain is not a homogeneous country but an unstable union of four nations. Despite the
tensions between the four nations, there was internal migrations between them due to such factors as:
religious and political persecutions, trade, business and employment immigrants have had a significant
impact on British society. They have contributed to financial institutions, commerce, industry and agriculture,
and influenced artistic cultural and political development.
Over the centuries England improved its agricultural techniques and industries that attracting European
immigrant (Dutch, Italian, Germa) who had financial and industrial skills. Some immigrants stayed only for
short periods, other remained and adapted to British society while preserving their cultural ethnic identities.
Agricultural and commercial developments were reflected in changing populations concentrations. In the
past Britain had an agriculturally based economy and its people lived in villages in the countryside. From the
19th century people settled around wool ports on the west coast and coastal towns in East Anglia, and market
towns in the West Country and the Cotswolds. from around 1700 this migratory flow decreased.
A central development in the English history was the industrial revolution that took place in the 18th century,
which transformed Britain from an agricultural economy into an industrial country. Due to the factory towns
birth people moved from the countries to the city in search of job. The industrial revolution reached its height
during the early nineteenth century favouring a new internal migration flow which created new ethnic
conflicts but also some integration.

3. Immigration from 1900

Immigrants historically had relatively free access to Britain. Economic immigrants and asylum seekers caused
public and political concern. During the First and Second World War Jews, Poles and refugees from Nazi-
occupied Europe and from soviet bloc countries settled in Britain. Unfortunately, they became victims of
discrimination above all for the colour of their skin. before the Second World War Commonwealth
immigrants came from Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, India and Pakistan went to Britain to
work in public transports, catering and iron and textile industries. In the 1970s non-white people had become
a familiar sight in other British cities, but they tended to settle in the central areas of industrial cities
(ghettoization), this provoked the isolation of some ethnic groups from the majority white population. Some
of non-white communities have increased and work, others have experienced problems with educational
disadvantage, unemployment, isolation, alienation and discrimination. That's because Britain possesses a
hidden racism based on le legacy of racial superiority, which has hindered the integration of non-white
population into the larger society. So many New Commonwealth immigrants were coming to Britain in 1962
when the government approved 2 acts:
• The Immigration Acts: to restrict the number of all immigrants entering the country
• The Race Relations Acts: to protect the rights of those immigrants already settled in Britain
The Commission of Racial equality was established in 1976, applied the Race Relations Acts and worked for
the elimination of discrimination; and promoted equality of opportunity. It was replaced by the Equality and
Human Rights Commission in 2007. Despite their good intentions they have been criticized for their
performances. Some people would like stricter controls on immigrant entry and refugees, nowadays
immigrant and race remain problematic. Over the years Britain had introduced laws to regulate immigration.
Firstly, people who wish to enter Britain are divided into specific categories like short-term visitors, such as
students, who require visas and sometimes work permits. People from the EU state have the right to seek
work and live in Britain, non-Eu unskilled application are no longer accepted. Secondly in 1981 the
Government approved the Nationality act which provides that to obtain British citizenship, applicants must
now demonstrate knowledge about life in Britain, reach an acceptable level of English proficiency, attend a
citizenship ceremony and swear a citizenship oath and pledge to the Queen and the country.

4. Ethnic minorities
The last census shows that the minority ethnic category increased by 53 per cent since the 1991 census
(minority ethnic’ refers only to non-white and mixed groups and excludes people from white minorities).

28
There are also many other ethnic minority communities in Britain, which are usually classified as white:
immigrants from the Republic of Ireland, Old Commonwealth (Australia, Granada and South Africa), EU
(Germany, Spain, Italy and France) and from USA.

5. Population movements from 1900

In the 20th century after the second industrial revolution people moved from the country to the cities in
search of job. After the First and Second World War and its bomb damage, people went away from the
centres of big cities such as London, Manchester and Liverpool. New Town in rural areas were created to
accommodate the displaced population. Still today many people choose to live at some distance from their
workplace in rural areas.

6. Attitudes to national, ethnic and local identities

The Scots, Welsh, English and Northern Irish regard their various identities so the use of terms “Britishness”
and “English” to describe the people of the UK isn’t correct. This stereotype was created because when the
UK was born the state power was mainly concentrated in London. The Scots and Welsh have historically
tended to be more aware of the difference between their nationalism and Britishness, see themselves as
different from the English and regard their cultural feeling as crucial.
Welsh people generally are very conscious of their differences from the English. Their national and cultural
identity is grounded in their history, literature and festivals. Today many Welsh people still feel that they are
fighting for their national identity against political power in London and the erosion of their culture and
language by English institution and language.
Similarly, Scots generally unite in defence of their national distinctiveness because of historical reactions to
the English. They are conscious of their traditions, which are reflected in cultural festivals and separate legal
and religious system. There has been resentment against the centralization of political power in London and
alleged economic neglect of Scotland. Scots are divided by 3 languages, different religions and regionalisms.
In Norther Ireland still today there are differences between Nationalist who want to separate from the
Crowns, and Unionist who wish to continue the union with Britain.
Some critics think that is possible for an individual belonging to an ethnic minority to feel British. Despite this
the welsh, English and Scots seemed increasingly to be defining themselves more in terms of their individual
nationalities, rather than as British.
From the 1970s onwards some critics and politicians wanted to separate the development of cultural groups
and to preserve their ethnic identities within Britain. Others deny the value of such a position, seeing it as
“ethnic tribalism” and argue for the assimilation under a British identity.
We must remember that British nationhood has been created by invaders and immigrants who have brought
their individual contributions to a British identity. Critics argue that this experience and a common citizenship
allow the British to define Britishness in civic terms. Britishness becomes a contemporary set oh shared
values, beliefs, opinions and identities which encompass a way of life and the promotion of inclusiveness.
Finally, Britishness is the most inclusive and non-discriminatory terms to describe the people who comprise
the UK.

29
3. Politics and government
Analysing the political history of Great Britain and Ireland of the past 800 years helps understand the
growth of the UK and its modern changes (ex. the Brexit). Over the past years, London has centralised
several authorities and now has an important legislative authority (the UK Parliament, the government and
the Prime Minister).
Changing social conditions resulted in the growth of political parties, the extension of vote and the
devolution of power (1998, 1999), while the political structures are still debated, due to a general sense of
disillusionment and a too strong centralisation. It is argued that the UK Parliament has lost control over the
government, whose political power bypasses the Parliament, and that political advisers are too influential
nowadays. Many people think that the British political system must be reformed to make it more efficient.
In 1997 the Labour government made a sort of political modernisation, but it created more problems than
it had solved.

1. Political history
Since the beginning, English political history has always influenced all the other countries of the UK: Wales
(annexed to England in 1536, 1542), Scotland (annexed to England in 1707) and Ireland (annexed to the UK
in 1801 and declared independent in 1921).

1.1. Decline of the monarchy and the rise of Parliament

While early monarchs generally accepted advice and limitations on their authority, later kings ignored this
tendency. That is why King John was forced to sign the Magna Carta (1215). This document is considered as
a comerstone of English liberties, even though it protected the aristocracy rather than the common
citizens. It restricted the power of the king (forcing him to take advice) and claimed that nobody could be
imprisoned without trial.
This restraint encouraged embryonic parliamentary structures (ex. in 1275 they established the two Houses
of the actual Parliament). However, the Parliament was too large to rule the country. For this reason, a
small Privy Council (royal government outside the Parliament) developed. It slowly lost authority but still
exists nowadays.
The Tudors (1485-1603) tried to return to royal dominance, favoured by the weakening of aristocracy by
internal conflicts (ex. the War of the Roses). Tudor kings started to summon the Parliament just to raise
money. This situation continued until the Parliament forced King Charles I (Stuart) to sign the Petition of
Rights in 1628: in this way, the monarch couldn’t raise taxes without the Parliament’s approval. However,
Charles I ignored this petition and tried to arrest the leaders of the Parliament, but failed. A Civil War broke
out and Charles was beheaded.
In 1649, the monarchy was abolished, and Britain was ruled as a Protectorate by Oliver Cromwell: this
“republic” resulted soon unpopular, though, and Charles II was restored by the Parliament (1660), that now
had the power to impose more reforms.

1.2. The growth of political parties and constitutional structures

During 17th century, more organised political parties developed. Two groups became dominant: the Tories
(blue, royalists) and the Whigs (yellow, republicans and protestants). From then on, British political power
will generally shift between two main parties (the so-called British two-party politics).
After the so-called Glorious Revolution (William of Orange, first constitutional monarch, succeeded James
II, the latter had tried to rule without the Parliament consent), royal powers were furtherly restricted in
favour of the Parliament under the Declaration of Rights (1689). The Glorious Revolution had also created a

30
division of powers between an executive branch (the king and Privy Council), a parliamentary legislative
one and a judiciary one (independent of both the former).
The influence of the Parliament over the king grew over the 18th century because George I of Hanover
lacked interest in British politics. He preferred the Whigs to the Tories and appointed Robert Walpole as his
Chief Minister (1721), who increased the parliamentary role and is considered as the first Prime Minister of
the UK.
However, the Parliament authority wasn’t absolute, and some later monarchs tried to restore royal power.
In any case, George III was obliged to appoint William Pitt the Younger as his Tory Chef Minister, that made
the charge of Prime Minister really develop.

1.3. The expansion of voting rights

Although parliamentary control grew during 18th and 19th centuries, there was still no widespread
democracy in Britain, that is to say that most people couldn’t vote yet, and corruption was very common.
With the First Reform Act (1832) and, mainly, the Later Reform Acts (1867, 1884), the Whigs gave the vote
to men with property and a certain income. Working-class males gradually gained some representation in
Parliament in 19th century.
Women aged 21 have been allowed to vote since 1928, and in 1969 the age limit was reduced to 18 for
both males and females, because women’s social and political positions were gradually improving (ex.
Pankhurst’s suffragettes movement).

1.4. The growth of government structures

The actual British government structures date back to 18th and 19th centuries. Government ministers
weren’t generally members of the House of Commons and gradually became more and more responsible to
the Commons rather than to the monarch. The monarch’s Chief Minister gave life to the actual Prime
Minister and, little by little, the government started to be formed from the majority party in the House of
Commons, while the largest minority party became the Opposition.
Historically, the House of Commons became the main element in Parliament and its authority was
subsequently restricted by the House of Lords.
During 19th century, the political parties grew more organised and reflected the modern struggle between
opposing ideologies: the Tories became the Conservatives and the Whigs developed into the Liberal Party.
However, the latter declined with the emergence of the new Labour Party, even though it merged with the
Social Democratic Party, giving birth to the Liberal Democrats.
The Labour Party became the main opposition party to the Conservatives, being supported by the trade
unions, the working class and some middle-class voters.

1.5. The contemporary British political framework

Britain has now a multi-level governance model, whose levels have specific functions and influence each
other. It has a constitution, a monarch (the formal head of state), a Parliament with many government
departments. The European Union (EU) has increasingly affected British politics, but the UK kept a sort of
independence.

31
2. Constitution and monarchy

2.1. The constitution

Differently from the general tendency, in Britain there’s no clear separation of powers:
• Monarch: formally head of state, he has no executive powers and is formally a member of
Parliament.
• Parliament: consisting of the House of Commons, the House of Lords and, formally, the Monarch, it
has the supreme power of making laws.
• Government: it has the executive power and governs by passing its policies through the Parliament
as Acts of Parliament.
• Judges and the Supreme Court: they have the judicial power, which is independent of the
legislative and executive branch, and interpret the Acts of Parliament. The Supreme Court
preserves the independence of the judiciary from the Parliament.
All the branches operate according to the constitution, which consists of distinctive elements: statute laws
(Acts of Parliament), common laws, judge-made case laws, ancient documents and EU laws.

2.2. Criticisms of the constitutional system

The British constitution was admired in the pas for its stability and adaptability with a balance of authority.
However, it has often been criticised: for example, there are few effective parliamentary restraints upon a
strong government, or there is a lack of constitutional safeguards for citizens against state power. These
features are particularly dangerous when the UK government are too centralised.
Several governments tried to avoid these accusations by providing the population with the documents used
as the UK constitution. However, these publications can be easily manipulated. Moreover, many people
claim that it would be better to have a written constitution to control authorities, which belong to a
political system that doesn’t fit well to the complex British society.

2.3. The monarchy

State and government business are carried out in the name of the monarch. However, the Crown is
sovereign by parliamentary and popular approval. The monarchy is the oldest British institution and there is
hereditary succession to the throne (interrupted only once by Oliver Cromwell), but only if the monarch is
protestant.
Nowadays, the monarch has only formal constitutional roles (head of state, head of the executive, judiciary
and legislature, “supreme governor” of the Church and commander-in-chief of the armed forces). Many
public office-holders have to swear allegiance to the Crown.
The king or the queen is expected to be politically neutral and cannot act unilaterally (without the
parliamentary consent). In fact, he can act only on the advice of government ministers. The Crown can give
(or deny) the royal consent, can open and dissolve the Parliament, can appoint ministers and advise them.
A central power of the king is the appointment of the Prime Minister, even though this person is generally
the leader of the political party that has the majority in the House of Commons.
Critics of the monarchy argue that it lacks adaptability, is undemocratic and expensive, it is associated with
aristocratic privilege. Some people claim that the monarchy still sustains class divisions and hierarchy.
Others wish the continuation of the monarchy, because it is popular, has adapted to modern requirements
and is a symbol of national unity (being the personification of the state) with more prestige than politicians.

2.4. The Privy Council

This institution developed from a small group of royal advisers into the executive branch of the monarch’s
government. Its position declined because of the growing strength of the Parliament. Today, the Privy

32
Council advises the monarch on the approval of government business that doesn’t need to pass through
the Parliament. Its Judicial Committee is the final British court of appeal.

3. The UK Parliament: role, legislation and elections

3.1. Role and composition

The UK Parliament is housed in London’s Palace of Westminster. It comprises the non-elected House of
Lords, the elected House of Commons and, formally, the monarch. The House of Lords consists of Lords
Temporal (peers with hereditary titles elected by their fellows and life peers elected by political parties or
an independent Appointments Commission) and Lords Spiritual (Archbishops of York and Canterbury,
senior bishops of the Church of England). The House of Commons has 650 MPs chosen from all parts of the
UK and elected by voters. They represent citizens in Parliament.
The two Houses contain members from the entire UK (elected every five years) and represent people with
varied political traditions.
In theory, Parliament can create, abolish and amend laws and institution for any part of Britain. In practice
today, it needs the action of the government or the devolved bodies of Wales, Scotland and Northern
Ireland.
All three parts of the Parliament have to pass a bill before it becomes an Act of Parliament and law. MPs
also debate political issues and examine government policies and EU legislation.
Nowadays, some people argue that Parliament no longer operates representatively. Moreover, there have
been demands that the House of Lords should be replaced, even though an alternative model is difficult to
be found.
A dissolution of Parliament is ordered by the monarch on the advice of the Prime Minister, has to be voted
by 55% in the House of Commons and leads to a general election to vote for a new Parliament.

3.2. Legislation and procedure

Parliamentary procedure in both Houses is based on custom, convention, precedent and detailed rules: for
example, the House of Commons meets every weekday afternoon. The Speaker is the neutral chief officer
of the House of Commons (John Bercow) and is chosen by MPs. He interprets the rules of the House and is
assisted by three deputy speakers. He protects the House against any abuse of procedure by controlling
debates and votes.
Debates in both Houses begin with a motion (or proposal, bill) which is then debated. The matter is decided
by a majority vote. A bill must pass through both Houses (usually the House of Commons is the first one)
and receive the royal assent (which always happens) before becoming a law.

3.3. UK Parliament elections and the party political system

UK is divided into 650 constituencies for parliamentary elections. Each returns one MP to the House of
Commons. General elections are by secret ballot, although voting is not compulsory. It is argued that the
British people prefer a stronger government.
British elections depend upon the party political system. The parties present their policies in the form of
manifestos during the few weeks of campaigning, even though party activity continues outside the election
period.
Historically, British politics has always been characterised by the alternation of power between two major
parties: the Labour Party is a left-of-centre party which emphasises social justice, equality of opportunity,
economic planning and the state ownership of industries and services; its electoral strongholds are in
Scotland, South Wales and Northern English industrial cities. The Conservative Party is a right-of-centre
party which appeals to people across class barriers; it emphasises personal, social and economic freedom

33
and the individual ownership of property; its strongholds are in England. The Liberal Democrats is the result
of the Liberal Party and the Social Democrat Party merging together and is a left-of-centre party; their
strengths are in local government, constitutional reform and civil liberties; their strongholds are in South-
West England, Wales and Scotland.
Smaller parties are also represented in the House of Commons (ex. the Scottish National Party).
Social class and family tradition used to be important factors in British voting behaviour, but nowadays
people often switch from one political position to another (floating voters). This led the political parties to
move to the centre and adopt policies that are more representative of people’s needs.
The party which wins most of the seats in the House of Commons during general elections usually forms
the government. If no party gains the majority either a minority or a coalition government should be
formed. The second major party at a general election officially forms the Opposition, which tries to
influence the formation of national policy by its criticism. As a result, it takes advantage of any opportunity
to improve its chance at the following general election.
Inside Parliament, party discipline rests with the Whips (chosen among MPs by party leaders). They control
the activity of the parties and the MPs, inform them of forthcoming parliamentary business and ensure that
they attend important debates.
Outside Parliament, control rests with the national and local party organisations. They promote the party
and select the candidates.

3.4. The UK government

It is the executive arm of the political system and is hosted at 10 Downing Street, London. It normally
comprises members of the successful majority party (or coalition) at a general election. Ministers can be
chosen from both Houses and are appointed by the monarch.
The Prime Minister is usually the leader of the majority party in the Commons and can choose and dismiss
his ministers. He was historically the link between monarch and Parliament and has a great power in the
British system of government (like an all-powerful executive president).
The Cabinet is a small executive body in the government made by senior ministers that are chosen by the
Prime Minister. It collectively initiates and decides government policy at his weekly meetings, which are
controlled by the Prime Minister himself (which is argued to have too much power). The complexity of
government business suggest that they can’t fully debate on every issue, but just on broad policies.
Both the ministers and the members of the Cabinet share the collective responsibility for government
actions and policies, which means they have to publicly support a government decision, even if they may
oppose it during private deliberations. A minister also has an individual responsibility for the work of his
government department.
Government departments (or ministries) are the instruments by which the government implements its
policy. They are staffed by the neutral Civil Service (civil servants) who are responsible for the
implementation of government policies, and whose chief is the Secretary of the Cabinet. There have been
accusations about the efficiency and effectiveness of the Service, and civil servants don’t have a good
public image. Moreover, people think that the Civil Service imposes a certain mentality upon its members
to influence their activity, which ministers are unable to combat.

3.5. UK parliamentary control of government

British governments have historically tended to govern pragmatically, but policies are questioned in their
efficiency. It is certain that governments know how far they can go before disappointing the public opinion
and the Opposition. The combination between all of the institutions described below seems to provide a
balance between efficient government and public accountability.
Constitutional theory claims that the Parliament should control the government, however it happens only
in some complicated situations (ex. a debated coalition). In fact, the House of Lords only has the power to
delay the approval of a bill. For this reason, critics argue for a stronger control by the Parliament.
Opposition parties can only oppose in the Commons and hope to persuade the electorate not to vote for

34
the government at the following election. The House of Commons can examine government programmes
at Question Time (30 minutes every Wednesday). In reality, it consists of oral questions and answers, so
that this is a rhetorical and political occasion rather than an analysis of government policy. Standing
committees were established to examine bills during procedural stages, although they have little influence
on actual policy.

3.6. Devolved structures

Devolution (transfer of some political powers from the Westminster Parliament) was first introduced in
Ireland, because of its growing nationalist feelings. Early attempts to achieve an Irish Parliament in Dublin
failed, so hostilities continued in 20th century until the independence of the Republic of Ireland (1921,
1922). Then, Northern Ireland had a devolved Parliament while remaining part of the UK.
Also Wales and Scotland wanted a devolved Parliament, after the precedent of Northern Ireland. This
happened in 1999, when Scotland had a Parliament with legislative powers and Wales had a non-legislative
Assembly. England has no devolved powers. Some critics argue that now the UK is a quasi-federal system
and that this will lead to independence for Scotland and Wales, seeing devolution as a threat to the unity of
the United Kingdom.
Devolution, even though its shaky start, allows these countries to decide more of their own affairs (ex.
education, health, transport, environment, home affairs and local governments) and are becoming more
and more independent. Roles and procedures are generally similar to those at national (UK) level.
Nowadays, the UK is trying to gain a more devolved democracy by expanding the powers of city mayors
(following the model of American mayors).

3.7. Local government

Britain has had a local government system for centuries, which began with the Anglo-Saxon division of
England into countries and small parishes (organised by the monarch’s local representatives). Its growth
intensified during 19th century, until its actual form.
It now provides local services (ex. education, health, fire services, transport, social services) through elected
councils. Although people count on the services offered by local government, the system is languishing at
present and is subject to centralised control.

3.8. Attitudes to politics

Polls reveal that British political parties and politicians don’t rate highly in public opinion, being the less
appreciated group of professionals not answering to people’s questions, lying or being accused of cronyism
(favouring political supporters for public and official positions) and corruption.
Commentators describe an increase in political apathy, particularly among the young, and a scepticism
about politicians’ ability to solve social problems. People therefore appear to be more interested in the
political process and issues than is popularly assumed. Nowadays it seems that no politicians fully represent
people’s needs, which are more oriented to the centre (ex. economic freedom but interventionist policies
in some social areas).

35
4. International relations
Britain’s position as a colonial, economic and political power was in decline by the early decades of 20th
century. In fact, some large colonies had already achieved self-governing dominion status and Britain was
decolonising some African colonies, where the nationalist feelings were growing in power. Two world wars
and Cold War politics forced the UK to recognise its reduced international status, even though it tried to
find a new identity.

1. Foreign and defence policy

Britain today is considered as a medium-sided country facing increasing commercial competition from
emerging global powers. In the 1990s, British foreign policy shifted away from traditional aggressive
unilateral action to persuasive partnerships (overseas objectives can be best attained by persuasion,
cooperation and actively working with other nations). However, some of these commitments are financially
unsustainable and Britain’s foreign policy and self-image do not reflect the reality of its position.
Britain’s defence preoccupations reflect its traditional central position (ex. maintain stable commercial,
economic and political conditions through global connections) and it uses its permanent membership of the
UN (United Nations) to achieve its objectives. However, people think that the current costs of defence and
global commitments could be more profitably directed to solving domestic problems.
The country is a large exporter of goods and services and imports much of its food and basic manufacturing
requirements, while maintaining global connections although it’s increasingly committed to Europe (EU).
However, Britain has its own policy priorities and tries not to be overcome by the European Union.
A special relationship has always existed between the USA and the UK based on a common language,
cultural traditions, history and military partnership, even though this relationship changed depending on
geopolitical circumstances.
Britain’s major defence alliance is with the NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organisation), an organisation that
provides greater security than any member could achieve singularly. All the major British political parties
and the public opinion are in favour of remaining a member of this organisation. In recent years, the EU is
thinking of a similar security and military capability, but the problem is whether it should operate as an
independent organisation or within the NATO frameworks. Some critics argue that this development could
weaken the NATO. The British government’s defence spending has increased capabilities and structures by
reducing the number of armed forces personnel and equipment. Its long-range nuclear weapons continue
to be debated: some want a cheaper nuclear system, others want its cancellation, but Britain is still keeping
it as a defence programme.

2. The Empire and Commonwealth

The British Empire was built up from 16th to the 20th century, though colonisation had begun with the
domination of the islands by the English (12th century). This further colonisation was followed by trading
activities and the establishment of settlements in North and South America. Parts of Africa, Asia and the
West Indies were exploited commercially and later became colonies.
In the late 19th century many large colonies became self-governing dominions and achieved independence,
even though they regarded Britain as the “mother country”. This relationship changed as these countries
established their national identities.
In 1931, the British Empire became the British Commonwealth of Nations and independence was gradually
granted to most of its colonies, letting them choose whether to remain in the Commonwealth or to break
any connection with the colonial past. Most of them remained in the Commonwealth as independent
nations. The present Commonwealth is a voluntary association of independent states without written laws.
In these countries there is evidence of the colonial past (ex. the educational system). The monarch has an

36
important unifying and symbolic function in the Commonwealth, which many times has risked breaking,
and the Prime Minister tries to solve the problems in those countries, even though there have been more
arguments than agreements in recent years.
However, there is no longer the old sense of Commonwealth solidarity and purpose because of the British
increasing interest on the European Union. The mother country has reduced the importance of its role in
this organisation. Some critics argue that the Commonwealth’s long-term future is in doubt.

3. The European Union (EU)

The ideal of a united Europe with strong economic and political institution became attractive after WWII
(World War II), because of the need of a peaceful and prosperous Europe after the destruction of the
previous wars.
In 1957, six countries (West Germany, France, Italy, Belgium, Luxembourg and the Netherlands) signed the
Treaty of Rome and formed the EEC (European Economic Community). Britain didn’t join it because it didn’t
want to be restricted by close European relationships and seeing the Commonwealth and the relationship
with the USA as the right choice. Moreover, British people feared a loss of their identity in a European
organisation.
However, the country’s increasing problems “forced” Britain to attempt to join the EEC, being vetoed by
France of Charles de Gaulle though. In fact, Britain could become a rival in the EEC, according to France,
which couldn’t stand also the British relationship with the USA (specially on nuclear weapons policies).
De Gaulle resigned at the end of 1960s, so that Britain could join and enjoy the benefits of the EEC in 1973,
which at the beginning was based on economic and trade concerns.
The Maastricht Treaty (1992) led to the creation of the European Union (EU), providing for the introduction
of a common European currency, a European bank and common defence, foreign and social policies. The
Lisbon Treaty (2009) reformed many aspects of the organisation. Today, the EU is an important trading
area.
The main institutions involved in the running of the EU are:
• European Council: it consists of government leaders who discuss on broad areas of policy.
• Council of Ministers: the principal policy-implementing and law-initiating body and is composed of
foreign ministers from the member states.
• European Commission: it is the central force of the EU, proposing programmes to the Council of
Ministers. It comprises commissioners chosen from member states, and it is argued to have too
much power.
• European Parliament: it is elected for a five-year term on a party political basis from the EU-wide
electorate. It advises the Council on Commission proposals and determines the EU budget. It is
argued that the Parliament should have more power.
• European Court of Justice: it comprises appointed judges from the member states and interprets
EU laws and treaties to resolve conflicts between member states and the EU.
British membership of the EU has always been difficult, complaining about its contribution to the EU
budget, objected to the agricultural and fisheries policies and opposed movements towards greater
political and economic integration. The EU is “killing” the national identity of Britain, according to
Eurosceptic critics, while Europhiles want economic and political integration in a globalised world (thanks to
the EU). All major political parties are pro-European though. British support for the EU peaked in the 1980s,
but has since eroded and Britain is now the less enthusiastic EU member.

37
4. The Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland
Northern Ireland is constitutionally a part of the United Kingdom, even though its history is inseparable
from that of the Republic of Ireland. During 20th century, as Britain detached itself from empire and entered
the EU, its relationship with Ireland became problematic.
Ireland was first controlled by Anglo-Norman England in 12th century. Since then, Ireland has always
rebelled, especially during 16th century, when Catholic Ireland refused to accept the Protestant
Reformation. Britain continued its “plantation policy”, by which English and Scottish settlers were given
land and rights over the native Irish and crushed rebellions.
Ireland under British domination was an agricultural country, depending upon its farming produce, even
though crop failures were frequent, and famine reduced the population during 19th century. The people
who remained demanded more autonomy over their own affairs with periodic outbreaks of violence.
In 1921, Ireland was divided into two parts as a result of an attempted solution of the historical problems.
After the Second World War, Northern Ireland developed agriculturally and industrially, and catholic
districts developed in the towns (even though they suffered from discrimination).
Conflicts arose again in Northern Ireland in 1968, when marches were held to demonstrate for civil
liberties. The situation rapidly worsened and violence escalated between Catholics and Protestants. The
British army tried to restore the order but was attacked by both sides, with paramilitary groups.
From 1972, responsibility for Northern Ireland rested with the British government in London that tried to
restore the order, after the Northern Ireland Parliament was suspended, but violence persisted.
At last, multi-party talks concluded with an agreement and a new Northern Ireland Assembly was elected,
and in 1999, some political power was devolved to by the Westminster Parliament and other significant
bodies were created in Northern Ireland to bring together British and Irish elements.
After a period of struggles against the old paramilitary groups (ex. the IRA, Irish Republican Army) when
direct rule from London was reimposed, Northern Ireland finally achieved some devolved powers, despite
disputes in the parties.

38
5. Brexit
We often refer to the process of Britain leaving the Union with the term “Brexit” (the result of the
merging of “Britain” and “Exit”). However, the idea refers to another term used in a similar occasion,
when Greece faced the possibility to leave the EU due to its financial crisis (Grexit). The two situations
differ, though, since UK has always had Eurosceptic citizens, while Greece had economic troubles.

1. The past relationship UK-EU

The relation between the UK and Europe has always been controversial because Britain was an
Empire, but after WWII the decolonisation process made it only a developed country with a strong
economy (also thanks to its special relationship with USA).
This is why UK wasn’t part of the forerunners that established the EEC (European Economic
Community) in 1957 (France vetoed any participation of Britain in it). In 1973, Britain finally entered
the EEC without holding a referendum before the community. For this reason, its membership was
considered as to be ratified by the citizens’ will (in 1975 Britons decided to stay).
The membership in the EU implies the payment of European taxes and Britain, as one of the most
developed countries, had to pay a considerable amount per citizen, which caused dissatisfaction
among British people. So, the Conservative Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher secured a new deal
(which is still valid today) to reduce the UK payment (since she was convinced that the EU was
imposing some rules that overcame British national sovereignty). However, this sharpened the
division between Britain and Europe.

2. Euroscepticism
Finance and economy are the crucial points of the Euroscepticism in the UK. Indeed, in 1992, Britain
signed the Maastricht Treaty that established the new European Union and the adoption of a
common currency (the euro). However, Britain decided to keep its own currency (the Pound Sterling).
In 2007, the Lisbon Treaty established a new constitution of the EU, including the Article 50 (a
mechanism to leave the Union), even though they didn’t think it would be used.
In 2012 Euroscepticism grew thanks to a nationalist party which aimed at leaving the EU (the UKIP).
Then, in 2013, the Prime Minister David Cameron agreed to hold a new referendum.

3. Towards Brexit: timeline

3.1. 2015

3.1.1. October

The House of Commons discussed the Bill proposal for the EU referendum.

3.1.2. November

Cameron wrote the president of the European Council a letter, asking (informally) the EU some
renegotiations to stay in the Union.

39
 3.1.3. December

The European Council discussed Cameron’s reform, but the referendum is officially confirmed in the UK.

3.2. 2016

3.2.1. February

Cameron met the European Parliament to seek for an approval, finding an agreement (a partial success).
However, the referendum is confirmed.

3.2.2. April

The Referendum campaign started: “Britain stronger in Europe” was backed by Cameron, some
Conservative leaders, most Labour MPs, the Lib Dems and other minor parties; “Vote Leave” was backed by
some Conservative members (ex. Boris Johnson), some Labour MPs and DUP (Democratic Unionist Party) in
Northern Ireland; the UKIP had its own pro-leave campaign.

3.2.3. June

Bremainers and Brexiteers seemed to split the country in two, but a pro-remain Labour MP was killed by a
supposedly pro-Leave man. The media emphasised the event to push towards the pro-Remain message.
However, Leave won with 51,9% of votes (June 23, 2016): Leave won in England and Wales, while Scotland
and Northern Ireland voted Remain.
Cameron pledged to resign by October (being a Bremainer) and the value of the British Pound lost about
10% on the currency exchange market.
The Conservative Party could appoint its new leader and future Prime Minister (since no General Election
was called): there was a high chance Boris Johnson might be elected (being a pro-Leave), but he
understood he wasn’t fully supported by his party and quitted the race, letting Theresa May (a former
Bremainer) win the race.

3.2.4. July

Mrs. May had to decide what kind of agreements to keep and at first wasn’t so clear.

3.2.5. October

Theresa May announced a possible timeline for Brexit by the end of March 2017, without the need of a
parliamentary vote.

3.2.6. November

Brexit was at risk because some Bremainers lodged an official complaint asking for a parliamentary vote
upon the process and the creation of a specific Bill.

3.2.7. December

The High Court accepted the complaint and Brexit was slowed down because the Parliament could halt the
process.

40
 3.3. 2017

3.3.1. January

The PM (Prime Minister) opted for a “Hard Brexit” which meant leaving the European Single Market and
the customs union. In the meantime, the House of Commons started debating on the Bill to allow Brexit,
which had to pass also to the House of Lords.

3.3.2. March

The House of Lords proposed an amendment to grant EU citizens living in Britain some essential rights, but
the House of Commons rejected it. The Bill then became an official law (European Union Notification of
Withdrawal Act) and the Brexit process started officially.

3.3.3. April

The PM called a General Election to be held on June 8, 2017.

3.3.4. June

The Conservatives won the most seats at the General Election and Mrs. May formed a new government
with a coalition with Northern Irish, local party DUP. The first round of Brexit negotiations began between
Davis (UK’s Brexit secretary) and Barnier (representative for the process for the EU).
Some of the most urgent issues to be solved were the sum to be paid by the UK before leaving, some rights
to be granted to EU citizens living in Britain and the UK demand for flexibility in terms of trade with the
Union.

3.3.5. July

The second round of Brexit negotiations began. They made some progresses in understanding each other’s
positions on many issues.

3.3.6. August

The UK proposed an arrangement that facilitated the most frictionless trade between the UK and th EU and
all the issues were engaged in detail during the third round of negotiations.

3.3.7. September

The PM offered a transition period after the UK formally left the EU in March 2019, but she doesn’t have a
clear idea on what kind of Brexit should be carried out. During the fourth round of negotiations they found
some agreements on some of the key principles about the issues for Northern Ireland and Ireland.

3.3.8. October

During the fifth round of negotiations the focus was on the legal rights to be granted to EU citizens in
Britain (a sort of special status) and vice versa.

41
 3.3.9. November

The government ensured the rights of EU citizens living in Britain wouldn’t change after Brexit.

3.4. 2018

3.4.1. February

Davis asked for a future economic partnership with EU after Brexit.

3.4.2. March

A provisional deal between UK and EU was found (a 21-month transitional period after March 2019).

3.4.3. June

After the agreement was found, a related Bill received the Royal Assent (The European Union Withdrawal
Act) and the Brexit date was confirmed.

3.4.4. July

Davis was replaced by Raab.

3.4.5. August

The government provided guidance on how to prepare for a no-deal Brexit (hard Brexit).

3.4.6. November

Brexit Secretary (Raab) was replaced by Barclay. The UK had a date of leaving without a final agreement,
being some issues still open problems. The Parliament still needed to approve the final kind of Brexit deal:
this vote was labelled as “The Meaningful Vote”.

3.4.7. December

Tory MPs requested a vote of confidence in Theresa May, who “survived” to it.

3.5. 2019

3.5.1. January

A five-day Brexit debate was scheduled before the Meaningful Vote, which then took place. The
government suffered a harsh loss because the Brexit deal agreed was not satisfactory to the Parliament. So,
Theresa May presented a “Plan B” Brexit deal which was approved after two amendments.

3.5.2. February

The Plan B suffered a defeat in the House of Commons and the PM promised a vote on excluding a no-deal
Brexit or delaying Brexit if she lost the second Meaningful Vote.

42
 3.5.3. March

The PM lost the Meaningful Vote 2 and MPs voted to avoid a no-deal Brexit, but voted to ask the EU to
delay the Brexit date. John Bercow denied a third Meaningful Vote because the proposal had no significant
amendments to the previous one. Theresa May officially asked for a Brexit delay, which was granted.
In the meantime, a pro-Remain march and a pro-Remain petition were organised in London.
Then, the Commons voted to take direct control of the Brexit process bypassing Theresa May. The
Parliament could then propose future Brexit alternatives, and John Bercow allowed the vote for 8 of them
(which are still to be approved).
The PM vowed to resign in case of a positive acceptance of the deal she agreed with the EU and a
Meaningful Vote 3 (March 29, 2019, the former date of Brexit) seemed to have a positive outcome, even
though it was another defeat (with a closer margin this time). The only way seemed then to be a no-deal
Brexit on April 12, 2019, if no deal was approved.

3.5.4. April

The Parliament approved a motion so that MPs could propose their own alternative versions to May’s plan.
The Speaker (John Bercow) selected 8 but none of them was granted a majority. The PM asked for a further
extension beyond April 12, 2019. In the meantime, MPs debated May’s plan to ask for a Brexit delay until
June 30, 2019. Later, a further delay was granted by the EU until October 31, 2019 with the possibility of
leaving earlier if an agreement is found.

4. The transitional period

During the transition period, UK will still be part of the Single Market and under EU laws but will not have a
voice in any related decisions or amendments (so, it won’t be a part of the decisional process).
The border between Ireland and Northern Ireland is a debated issue: UK wants no physical and trade
border, but this would be a violation of EU rules. Maybe, Northern Ireland could enter the Single Market
and the rest of the UK would be outside it. In this case, the EU will restore negotiations from a position of
advantage, since this issue cannot be solved in favour of the UK. Moreover, EU citizens living in the UK will
be granted a special status up to the end of the transitional period.

5. After the transitional period

UK will have complete freedom in terms of economy, trade, border control and internal movement of
people, but it will have to seek single agreements with each country it would like to trade with. For this
reason, goods will cost more (both import and export). Moreover, non-UK citizens will need a passport to
enter the country and vice versa.

43
Modulo D: Language of Tourism
English for tourism promotion- Sabrina Francesconi (pp. 1-33, 71-96)

1. Introduction
This discussion aims to investigate the linguistic functions in tourism promotional text. Adopting Halliday’s
taxonomy, language has a:
• Ideational function, dealing with the expression of the content;
• Textual function, dealing with the creation of the text;
• Interpersonal function, dealing with the interaction language establishes between the sender and
the addressee.
In doing that, Halliday got inspired by Jakobson’s article “Linguistic and Poetics” in which he outlined six
basic communicative functions: emotive –attending to the expressive and subjective dimension of
communication –, conative – concerning the messages effects on his receiver –, referential – dealing with
the expression of content –, phatic – preforming in aspects of socially organised communication –,
metalingual – Dealing with the expression of content – and poetic – dealing with aesthetic aspect –, all
related to all the components of communication: sender, receiver, context, medium, code and message
(the emotive, conative and referential ones had been already theorised by K. Bühler in 1934). In
communication, “text” and “discourse” are very important consents to know: A text is a communication act
which aims to make sense; this communication act is a unit composing discourse. Discourse is not only
language rules and conventions in oral or written texts, but it is also a set of social practices performing
meaning. It also exists a discourse analysis.

1. What do we mean by tourism?

Following Chambers Dictionary of Etymology, the word “tourism” suggests the notion of a circular
movement – tour – undertaken as a quest for pleasure, reducing the action as a hedonistic practice. Instead
the Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary defines tourism as the business of providing services to
tourists on holiday, focusing on the mere economic exchange of tourism facilities for money. But, talking
about tourists’ behavioural viewpoint, if tourists buy a service, they think they own it and they have
absolute power on its related environmental, human and infrastructural elements; The way tourists
perceive otherness determines and is determined by their behaviour.

2. Tourism, sociology, anthropology, ethnography

Due to the fact that tourism is a social phenomenon, sociology, anthropology and ethnography constitute
the predominant critical perspective of tourism studies. Tourism creates impacts on culture, environment,
society and economy of international communities; in fact tourists’ styles are emblematic in order to study
phenomena like globalisation, the sociology of consumption and aestheticization of everyday life.
John MacCannel was the first who opened the sociological debate about tourism with his Tourism in 1976,
analysing social tourist relations and defining them as a separate search for authenticity, as a sort of
pilgrimage in order to give shape to a superficial and boring everyday life.

44
3. Tourism and literature
Scholars like Mike Robinson and Hans C. Andersen considered the mutual relationship between literature
and tourism with their volume Literature and Tourism. They stated that tourist attractions and events
themselves can be approach it as texts.

4. Tourism and economics

Tourism has lots to do with economy; it creates lots of jobs – it globally employs about 100 million people –
and stimulates lots of investments in new infrastructures. It’s always been considered a clean industry, in
opposition to heavy industries, but as it grew up and developed, this dichotomy does not function
anymore. As tourism tends to bring so much money, it should help to improve the living conditions of local
residents and incentive to remain in rural areas rather than move to overcrowded cities.

5. Tourism, law and ethics

As a human phenomenon, tourism needs a legislation too, especially because of the arise of illegal tourism
types such as sex tourism; article 4 of the Global Code of Ethics for Tourism, issued by the WTO – World
Tourism Organisation – in 1999 claims that tourism is to be perceived and experienced as a beneficial
activity for host countries; It can be reached only by respecting – and not by exploiting in – the host.
Symmetrically article 1 advocates corresponsibility as the fundamental value of tourism. It can be reached
only by respecting – and not by exploiting – the host. Key notions such as hospitality have been extensively
investigated: Lévinas’ idea is tightly related to its Biblical sense of love for the stranger as a sublime form of
love for God, as an act of responsibility and obligation too. Derrida instead questions and deconstructs the
notion of hospitality by exploring the notion of power imbalance: if the guest’s more powerful than the
host, he or she may destroy the host space: he or she should respect and valorise it. Conversely, if the
host’s more powerful than the guest, he or she may impose his own cultural and social condition
disrespecting him/her. Then Derrida proposes hospitality as a life value, as a paradigmatic way of
approaching otherness in ethical, socio-cultural and political occasions.

6. Tourism and history

Many scholars say that the origin of tourism may be found in the Grand Tour. Young European aristocrats
tended to finish their intellectual growth through direct knowledge by travelling all over Europe since the
end of the 17th century. The limited accessibility to travel was overcome by Thelmas cook, a Baptist
minister and a bookseller nowadays considered as the pioneer of the package tour. By trying to solve
alcohol problems, he offered to the lower and middle classes the opportunity to spend money on socially
useful trips rather than waste it on alcohol. The first pleasure excursion was organised in 1844, using the
printing machines to compose an early form of brochure, promoting a day trip. WTO reminds us that only
during the 60s tourism became a mass phenomenon, due to improvements in the transport system and the
economic boom after World War II.

45
7. Tourism and geography
As a global phenomenon, tourism interests the whole Earth; but not every country benefit from tourism
equally: only three out of the top 10 world destinations are non-European countries (China, Mexico and
Hong Kong) and things won’t change in the future: this represents one of the greatest touristic problem.

46
2. Tourism promotion texts
1. Tourism and language
Cohen and Cooper studied transcultural linguistic phenomena occuring in contact between tourists and
locals. MacCannell states that there is a characteristic defamation of language; it’s important to underline
the power of both metaphor and metonymy, because they are transvaluing mechanisms, that is they can
draw on their internal resources for meaning: they can function as languages.

2. Tourism and linguistics

Two are the main difficulties of linguists interested in the field of tourism: the lack of a specialised critical
tradition in the linguistics of tourism and the interdisciplinary nature of the touristic field. When we talk about
touristic language, we are talking about a specialised language, a micro-language referring to a microcosm;
We could make a difference between the notion of restricted language – used in cases of codes adopting
certain sentences of general language in specialised communication, such as standard messages and set
phrases – and special language – such as code Q, a non-linguistic code for telecommunication based on
specific conventions. M. Gotti instead suggests the adoption of a “specialised discourse”, which avoids the
constraints and offers the lexical, phonetic, morphosyntactic and textual resources of general language.
Talking about the psychological issues of the marketing strategies used in tourism, Graham Dann provided a
strong contribution: he discussed the properties, the techniques and the registers of the language of tourism,
treating it like a general language.

3. Tourism texts
Tourism–related textual productions undergo a systematic proliferation of distinction we can notice from a
genre to another one: those which imply booking forms and business letters don’t offer such textuality,
because of its high degree of nominalisation. Conversely, there are highly articulated tourism – related
publications such as essays, articles, studies and volumes whose degree of specialisation varies according to
the readership. Calvi points out that the most interesting tourist publications are those addressed to the
public: he outlined four main genres: webpages, brochures, magazines and guides. With reference to them,
he identified the main distinctions among these tourist genres. If we study linguistic viewpoint of tourism
process, we end up analysing the following parameters:
• Medium: texts can be written or audio but, more often, they combine more resources adopting
multimodality. Regarding written texts, we can also distinguish between what Dann terms literary or
informational resources. Regarding instead oral texts, word-of-mouth is undoubtedly the most
effective source of tourism information, because of its high degree of authenticity and reliability,
because it bases on another visit was direct reports of good holiday experiences;
• Stage of trip at which tourism texts are referring: we can have a pre-trip texts (such as brochures or
catalogues having a promotional function in order to persuade the traveller to visit the place), on-
trip texts (such as guides for informational purposes) and post-trip texts (such as postcards and
souvenirs);
• Target: preferences vary depending on age, sex, social class, cultural background and personal
hobbies;
• Reading function and modality are even important because the style and the structure of the text
verifies depending on what the readership wants;
• Length naturally depends on the modality of the tourism text.

47
3. “Longing for Italy…” the language of
“post-tourism”
1. The post-tourist
Post-tourism is the tourism scenario we are experiencing nowadays; the post-tourist is not constrained within
the claustrophobic space of high culture anymore: he really enjoys pieces of what is generally considered
kitsch. The post tourist is aware of the playful, immediate and consumable essence of tourist pleasures he
demands. And so post-tourism promotional language boats its persuasive techniques.

2. The meaning(s) of nostalgia

No soldier can be meant in two ways: the first one refers to its original clinical connotation, that is the
definition of the pathology of homesickness, firstly coined in 1688 by the Swiss physician Hofer, A
psychological disease caused by a prolonged, undesired and imposed spatial distance from home. The second
connotation of the word emphasises the sentimentality of a nostalgic approach, as a regretful, emotional
longing for an earlier time, like Romantic age intellectuals used to do in a pathetic tension. Tourism exploited
these feelings felt by tourists in order to offer them the possibility to savour the delights of mourning this
weakness of theirs. So nostalgia is taken as a push factor which advantages tourism process.

3. Longing for nostalgia

The concept of nostalgia is etymologically connected to the word home: paradoxically the point of arrival is
the same of departure, from whose tourists are escaping -that is their home-. To attract tourists, brochures
tend to use informal and familiar language to address readership. Home is conceptually connected to
warmth, protection, power and pleasure. These brochures tend to focus on customers’ egocentrism, by
treating them as children that want to be satisfied; but, as many tourist critics observe. Nostalgia is a
painful longing for an authentic and unique origin whose object of desire is a return that aims to testify to a
longing for return. That is that the desire is in itself. This is the centre of post tourism.

4. Metaphors of jewels and the post-tourist destination

Metaphors in tourist texts are very important; a metaphor is made up by a tenor —the concept to be
expressed – end of vehicle – the image, acting as the concept conveyor –. A metaphor relocates the meaning
of a concept carrying it Beyond its literal context; these are fluid figures just because they act a transposition
in sematincs and it’s largely used in tourist texts for its persuasiveness. Specifically, they try to minimise the
effects of the unfamiliarity that could exist dealing with places that are objectively unfamiliar to people who
don’t know them. Tourist text aim to propose these places as familiar, as “home”, so they use metaphors to
reduce the physical and cultural distance creating an illusion of immediate knowledge, by using a known
vehicle to make the tenor – that he is the unknown place – closer and closer to the readership. Furthermore,
brochure compilers very often draw on the jewel semantic field to create effects of exclusiveness to provide
a tourist idea of richness (by describing a place as a gem, sapphire, jewel or crown).

48
5. Alliteration and the post-tourist experience
Repetition plays a crucial role too; alliteration – that is the repetition of initial sounds in two or more different
words across successive sentences – offers one of the most successful prosodic techniques, working on the
first medium of comprehension humankind has ever learned: sound. The attention to sound repetition and
rhythm grants to the readership a sense of protection and familiarity, two sensations so fundamental in order
to push tourists to the effective booking of the trip. Thomas Cook stated that rhythm recalls the regular sound
of the mother’s heartbeat in the womb and the vital processes of the body, and this has a calming effect on
the readership. Alliteration is also important because it grants message memorability, prosodic recurrence
and readership positive attitude and response.

6. Key adjectives and the post-tourist response

Key adjectives, finally, our valuable and powerful words which allow the reader to enter a discursive space
and acquire control over it. From the advert is a few points, they offer direct entrance into the addressee’s
mind, in order to push him or her to the booking of the trip. Keywords boast social accessibility, and
pervasiveness, by reflecting the readers’ language. Very often key adjectives are chosen in order to pre-
determine tourists’ psychological reactions and responses, by using active participial adjectives which
dynamically anticipate the reaction the tourists on holiday should have. These key adjectives are developed
into three different stages depending on their function: those which belong to the first stage, that is the
grabbing stage, are for example “intriguing” and “attractive”. The second stage of capture includes adjectives
like “fascinating”, “charming”, “stunning” and “overwhelming” for its sensorial and psychological intense
involvement and the third stage is that one of captivation, such as those which focus on the durability of the
trace in the reader’s mind, such as “lasting”, “memorable” and “unforgettable”. In fact, nostalgia is conceived
as a circular and never-ending process of attraction, capture and captivation – that is the permanence of the
remembrance of the experience in the tourist’s mind and memory –.

49
Sea, sex and the unspoilt countryside- Gloria Cappelli (pp. 47-49, 59-72, 82-83, 117-119, 132-137,
193-194, 225-232, 291-297, 311-315)

1. Advertising
1. Authenticity, strangehood, play or conflict?
Professionals of the tourism industry know that there are different types of travellers, and they try to appeal
to them by different means; there are four major theoretical perspectives on tourism:
I. The authenticity perspective focuses on the search for authentic experiences: the tourist is a sort of
pilgrim travelling to discover the ride attractions which become symbols of a different culture;
II. The strangerhood perspective focuses on the desire of the tourist who wants to see things different
from his or her own reality;
III. The play perspective sees tourism as a play in which popular pleasures and fun are the key concepts;
IV. The conflict perspective focuses on the contrast between societies: the local people enact their
traditions showing the contrast between their culture and the tourists’ culture.

2. A few key notions

In tourism ads two key notions are tense and magic: these concepts are largely exploited to persuade tourists
and to create attractiveness through the four perspectives we just saw. Tense is used to create fascination
thanks to the attractiveness old times create; magic instead is created sometimes thanks to the names of
hotels, resorts and attractions themselves, or also by using moods and specific verbs which create the
“magic” effect. A mood largely used is the euphoria technique, adopted fence to positive adjectives and
quantities – extraordinary, great –. Creating contrasts and keywords are largely used too. So much attention
is paid to them and similes and metaphors are very often added. Ego-targeting is often aimed to be reached
in order to make the visitor feel unique, to make him feel that everything has been organised just for him.
For this reason tourism language can be considered a language of social control. Topics are categorised
through acronyms, like:
• RRR: Romanticism, rebirth and regression, category focused on the beauty of the countryside
and the enigmas of history;
• HHH: Happiness, Hedonism and Heliocentrism refer to the “here-and-now” happiness,
intertwined to the informal entertainment of pleasures;
• SSS: Sea, (Sun), Sex and Socialisation, almost overlapping with HHH category;
• FFF: Fun, Fantasy and Fairytales, focused on childhood magic promotion, and other elements
related to a sort of dream reality.
Language naturally undergoes some specialisations due to the specificity these categories have.

3. Introducing brochures
Brochures can be very diverse: they may be printed in books or booklet format or made available in electronic
format for the potential customer to read online or to download. They may be in full colour or in black-and-
white and they may aim to inform, to attract or to do both.

50
4. Commercial and promotional websites
The Internet has revolutionised not only the way in which tourism-related businesses advertise but also the
way in which the word is spread as a form of indirect promotion for ventures, destinations and attractions.
Tourist webpage are 24 hour stores, visible everywhere at any time and this makes them a very powerful
advertising tool. The reductive space available in webpages pushed the language to be more concise and to-
the-point. Furthermore, links offer the visitors the possibility to choose their own path while surfing the net,
and this obviously makes their experience better. The content of website has a higher concentration of
keywords and key phrases, in order to rank the website higher in the search engine. An ideal website tourist
text is the so-called five paragraph essay, the traditional essay made up of five paragraph whose first one is
the most important because it sums up the key concept. Many techniques are used more in websites, such
as acronyms, abbreviations, reductions in order to grant conciseness. Testimony, instead, is a very important
technique which aims to suggest to the reader that the product evaluation is coming from a peer and it is
therefore credible and impartial: this technique uses the first person in the oration of events.

5. Guidebooks
Guidebooks vary remarkably in style and register; they’re more information on rather than promotional.
Most great books are both cultural and practical and have a comparable structure: they normally provide a
better are you amount of information on the geography, history, art, culture and the nature of the area;
the cultural overview is generally followed by a few pages containing practical information about postage,
transportation, currency et cetera.

6. Features of Tourist Guidebooks

Guidebooks tend to use many techniques to manage the cultural gaps between the tourists culture and the
culture of the destination country. In this sense, guidebook becomes a motherly item, because suggests –
like a mother does – to her little child what to do and what not to do in order to manage cultural gaps. So
here the writer has the power of the mediator between the two cultures, becoming a teacher-instructor.
Metaphors, similes and stereotypes help him in this task, in order to reassure tourists in their cultural gap
with the culture of the destination. In guidebooks both positive and negative evaluations are provided, even
if attenuated. Finally irony is generally used to minimise cultural misunderstandings.

7. Travelogues, trip reports and reviews: travellers’ voices

Travelogues (real-time online travel blogs), trip reports and reviews share so much, even if they have many
differences. They’re all expressions of the tourists voice: so they’re not written by professional writers with
a promotional or informational intent but by tourists willing to share their experiences; this makes their
productions very descriptive and subjective, characterised by a first-person narration. Coming to the
differences, travel logs are not certain to be read (writers could just write them for their own); reviews,
instead, have the precise aim of sharing good tips about travelling. In this sense, these genres are the perfect
development of the testimony technique which uses a person as a witness of a well-lived experience in order
to push tourists to go on holiday. But in these productions many negative appraisals can be found, and they
are not generally mitigated as often happens in guidebooks. Travelogues can be future-oriented, contrary to
reports which are memoirs naturally referred to the past. Reviews are slightly different from the other two:
there are shorter, poor innovation and richer in evaluative elements, such as positive and negative adjectives;
they tend to use irony and they are generally argumentative as they support an evaluation of the experience.

51
These post-trip writing travellers contribute through the “language of testimony” (we already explained that)
and the language of promotion by acting as promoters just like the magazines they consulted before the trip.

52