Lesson 1 - Electrical Circuits 1

PART 1:
DC CIRCUIT BASICS
DIRECT CURRENT
DEFINITION
It is a current that remains constant with time.
OHM’S LAW
DEFINITION
The current (I) flowing in an electrical circuit is directly
proportional to the applied voltage (V or E) and inversely
proportional to the equivalent resistance (R) of the circuit.
𝑉
𝐼=
𝑅
OHM’S LAW
POWER EQUATION
𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼
𝑃 = 𝐼2 𝑅
𝑉2
𝑃=
𝑅
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
DEFINITION
A closed conducting path through which an electric
current flows or is intended to flow. Categorized as Series,
Parallel or combination of both.
Electric circuit is an interconnection of electrical elements

ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
1. SERIES CIRCUIT
The load resistances are connected end to end .
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
2. PARALLEL CIRCUIT
The load resistances are connected across each other.
PROPERTIES OF SERIES CIRCUIT
1. RESISTANCE
The total resistance equals the sum of the resistances
connected in series.
𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + ⋯ 𝑅𝑛
2. CURRENT
The same current flows through all the components.
𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 = 𝐼3 = ⋯ 𝐼𝑛
3. VOLTAGE
The sum of voltage drop across each component is equal
to the applied voltage.
𝑉𝑇 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 + ⋯ 𝑉𝑛
4. POWER
The total power equals the sum of the individual power
of each resistance.
𝑃𝑇 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 + 𝑃3 + ⋯ 𝑃𝑛
PROPERTIES OF PARALLEL CIRCUIT
1. RESISTANCE
The inverse of the total resistance of the circuit is equal
to the sum of the inverses of the individual resistances.
1 1 1 1 1
= + + +⋯
𝑅𝑇 𝑅1 𝑅 2 𝑅 3 𝑅𝑛
2. CURRENT
The total current is equal to the sum of the branch
currents.
𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 + ⋯ 𝐼𝑛
3. VOLTAGE
Voltages in parallel branches are equal.
𝑉𝑇 = 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 = 𝑉3 = ⋯ 𝑉𝑛
4. POWER
The total power equals the sum of the individual power
of each resistance.
𝑃𝑇 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 + 𝑃3 + ⋯ 𝑃𝑛
SAMPLE PROBLEMS IN DC CIRCUITS
QUESTION NO. 1
Find the total resistance (Req) of the circuit.
QUESTION NO. 2
Find the total resistance (Rab) of the circuit.
QUESTION NO. 3
If you need a 1.25 kΩ resistance and you only have resistors
of 5 kΩ, how many of these available resistors you should
connect to get a 1.25 kΩ value?
QUESTION NO. 4
Two resistors of 10 and 15 ohms, are connected in parallel.
The two are then connected in series with a 5 ohm resistor. If
they are connected across a 12 volt battery, what are the
current and power?
QUESTION NO. 5
When a 20-V emf is placed across two resistors in series, a
current of 2.0 A is present in each of the resistors. When the
same emf is placed across the same two resistors in parallel,
the current through the emf is 10 A. What is the magnitude of
the greater of the two resistances?
ELECTRICAL NETWORKS
TYPES OF NETWORKS
❑ PASSIVE NETWORK
With no source of emf.
❑ ACTIVE NETWORK
Contains one or more than one sources of emf.
ELECTRICAL NETWORKS
ELEMENT OF A NETWORK
❑ BRANCH – represents a single element such as a voltage
source or a resistor.
❑ NODE/JUNCTION – is the point of connection between two
or more branches
❑ LOOP – is any closed path in a circuit.
❑ MESH – a closed path that does not enclose any other
closed paths (empty).
ELECTRICAL NETWORKS
MESH VS. LOOP
A loop is any closed path
which can have smaller loops
inside.
A mesh is a closed path

without any smaller loops can
be made inside.
ELECTRICAL NETWORKS
MESH VS. LOOP
Here, another loops inside
loop 1 can be made through
R1-R4-R2 or R2-R3
While in mesh 1, there’s no

more loop that can be made
inside the loop of R1-R4-R2.
ELECTRICAL NETWORKS
MESH VS. LOOP
REMEMBER:
A mesh is a loop but not all

loop is a mesh.
CIRCUIT ELEMENTS
CIRCUIT SOURCES
❑ IDEAL INDEPENDENT SOURCE
It is an active element that provides a specified voltage
or current that is completely independent of other circuit
elements.
❑ IDEAL DEPENDENT (CONTROLLED) SOURCE

It is an active element in which the source quantity is
controlled by another voltage or current.
CIRCUIT ELEMENTS
SHORT AND OPEN CIRCUIT
❑ SHORT CIRCUIT is a circuit element with resistance
approaching zero.
❑ OPEN CIRCUIT is a circuit element with resistance

approaching infinity.
RESISTOR TRANSFORMATION
1. DELTA TO WYE
The equivalent resistance of each arm to the wye is
given by the PRODUCT of the two delta sides that meet at its
end divided by the SUM of the three delta resistances.
1. DELTA TO WYE
2. WYE TO DELTA
The equivalent resistance of each side of the delta is
given by the SUM of the product of each two wye arms
divided by the wye arm resistance opposite to the delta arm
being calculated.
2. WYE TO DELTA
CUBICAL CONNECTION
7
𝑅𝐴𝐵 = 𝑅
12
3
𝑅𝐴𝐶 = 𝑅
4
The above shortcuts are only applicable 5

when the given resistance is the same on 𝑅𝐴𝐷 = 𝑅
all elements.
6
SOURCE TRANSFORMATION
DEFINITION
It is the process of replacing a voltage source VS
in series with a resistor R by a current source is in
parallel with a resistor R, or vice versa.
𝑣𝑠 = 𝑖𝑠 𝑅
𝑣𝑠
𝑖𝑠 =
𝑅
VOLTAGE AND CURRENT DIVISION
VOLTAGE DIVISION
This occurs when resistors are connected in series.
Voltage divider equation is only

applicable for TWO resistors in
series.
VOLTAGE AND CURRENT DIVISION
CURRENT DIVISION
This occurs when resistors are connected in parallel.
Current divider equation is only

applicable for TWO resistors in
parallel.
QUESTION NO. 6
Use source transformation to find vo in the circuit:
QUESTION NO. 7
A constant voltage source with E = 60V is delivering power to
a series combination of 100 ohms, 200 ohms and 300 ohms.
Calculate the voltage across the 200 ohms resistor.
QUESTION NO. 8
Two 10-ohm resistors in parallel are connected in series to a
5-ohm resistor. The combination is connected to a 24 volt dc
source. What is the power in watts dissipated by the 5-ohm
resistor?
PART 2:
NETWORK THEOREMS
NETWORK THEOREMS
1. KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS
❑ KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT LAW (KCL)
✓ States that the algebraic sum of currents entering a node
(or a closed boundary) is zero.
✓ The sum of the currents entering a node is equal to the
sum of the currents leaving the node.
NETWORK THEOREMS
1. KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS
❑ KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW (KVL)
✓ States that the algebraic sum of all voltages around a
closed path (or loop) is zero.
✓ Sum of voltage drops is equal to the sum of voltage
rises.
QUESTION NO. 9
Find vo in the circuit shown:
QUESTION NO. 10
Find the current in 8-ohm resistor in the circuit shown:
NETWORK THEOREMS
2. THEVENIN’S THEOREM
This states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be
replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage
source VTh in series with a resistor RTh, where VTh is the open-
circuit voltage at the terminals and RTh is the input or
equivalent resistance at the terminals when the independent
sources are turned off.
NETWORK THEOREMS
❑ Finding RTH:
1. Open the resistor terminal (where the current or voltage is

unknown).
2. Turn off all independent sources.
3. RTH is the input resistance of the network looking
between the open terminals a and b. (RTH = RN)
NETWORK THEOREMS
❑ Finding VTH:
1. Open the load resistor terminal.

2. VTH is the voltage across the open terminals a and b.
NETWORK THEOREMS
3. NORTON’S THEOREM
This states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be
replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a current
source IN in parallel with a resistor RN, where IN is the short-
circuit current through the terminals and RN is the input or
equivalent resistance at the terminals when the independent
sources are turned off.
NETWORK THEOREMS
❑ Finding RN:
1. Open the resistor terminal (where

the current or voltage is unknown).
2. Turn off all independent sources.
3. RTH is the input resistance of the network looking between
the open terminals a and b. (RTH = RN)
NETWORK THEOREMS
❑ Finding IN:
1. Open the load resistor terminal.

2. Find the VTH across the terminal, IN=VTH/RN
3. OR short the load resistor terminal and solve for the
current, IN, flowing through it.
QUESTION NO. 11
For the network shown in the figure, determine the current in
the 0.8 Ω resistor using Thévenin’s theorem.
QUESTION NO. 12
Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit of the circuit shown.
NETWORK THEOREMS
4. SUPERPOSITION THEOREM
This principle states that the voltage across (or current
through) an element in a linear circuit is the algebraic sum of
the voltages across (or currents through) that element due to
each independent source acting alone.
NETWORK THEOREMS
4. SUPERPOSITION THEOREM
1. Turn off all independent sources except one source. Find
the output (voltage or current) due to that active source using
any other theorems.
2. Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent sources.
3. Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all the
contributions due to the independent sources.
QUESTION NO. 13
Using the superposition theorem, find 𝑣 in the circuit
QUESTION NO. 14
Use superposition to find 𝑣𝑥 in the circuit:
NETWORK THEOREMS
5. NODAL ANALYSIS
1. Select a node as the reference node. Assign voltages to the
remaining nodes. The voltages are referenced with respect to
the reference node.
2. Apply KCL to each of the non-reference nodes. Use Ohm’s
law to express the branch currents in terms of node voltages.
(Tail minus Head)
3. Solve the resulting simultaneous equations to obtain the
unknown node voltages.
QUESTION NO. 15
Find the value of voltage at node 1 in the given circuit.
SOLUTION NO. 15
MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER
CONCEPT
Maximum power is transferred to the load when the
load resistance equals the Thevenin’s resistance as seen from
the load (RL = RTh).
𝑉𝑇𝐻 2
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
4𝑅𝑇𝐻
QUESTION NO. 16
Find the value of the load resistance (RL) for maximum power
transfer. Determine the maximum power also.
PART 3:
INSTRUMENTATION
DC AMMETERS
DEFINITION
It a device that measures and indicates the amount of
current flowing through a component by connecting it in series
with the element to be measured. The most common type is D’
Arsonval ammeter which is consist of moving coil, spring and
permanent magnet.
DC AMMETERS
D’ ARSONVAL AMMETER
As current passes through the coil, a magnetic torque
causes the coil to move. The amount of movement is
determined by the size of the current. By attaching a needle
to the coil, an indication of the size of the current is obtained.
DC AMMETERS
D’ ARSONVAL AMMETER
IDEAL PRACTICAL/REAL
has some resistance but it is
The internal resistance is 0 Ω
made as low as possible
The needle deflection is directly
proportional to current, which the needle deflection is not
implies that the meter space is exactly proportional to the
marked off with uniform spacing amount of current
between the divisions
AMMETER ERRORS
CALIBRATION ERROR
It arises from the fact that the meter face may not be
accurately marked. The size of calibration error for a specific
ammeter maybe obtained from the manufacturer’s data
sheet. The specification for this error is in terms of full-scale
current, the greatest inaccuracy will occur for small deflection.
AMMETER ERRORS
RESISTANCE ERROR
A real ammeter will add resistance to the branch. This
added resistance always reduces the current in any real
circuit.
AMMETER ERRORS
ACCURACY
𝐼𝑤𝑚 𝑅𝑜
=
𝐼𝑤𝑜𝑚 𝑅𝑜 + 𝑅𝑚
Iwm – current with meter

Iwom – current without meter
Ro – equivalent resistance
Rm – internal resistance of ammeter
AMMETER ERRORS
PERCENT OF LOADING ERROR
Percent error in the ammeter reading due to loading
effects.
%𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = 100 − %𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑦

SAMPLE PROBLEMS IN INSTRUMENTATION
QUESTION NO. 1
In the given figure, assuming there’s no calibration error, what
does the ammeter reads if: (a) it is ideal? (b) it has an
internal resistance of 100Ω (non-ideal)?
A
QUESTION NO. 2
From the same circuit, if the ideal ammeter has calibration
error of +1.5%, with full-scale current of 100 µA, what is the
range of current that the ammeter reads?
A
QUESTION NO. 3
In the given figure, the ammeter has a resistance of 100Ω
and full scale current of 2 mA. Find the accuracy of the
ammeter.
DC AMMETERS
AMMETER SHUNT
An ammeter with a full – scale current of Ifs can be
shunted by a resistor in order to measure current greater than
Ifs.
DC AMMETERS
AMMETER SHUNT
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT: Required Shunt Resistance:
𝐼𝑓𝑠
𝑅𝑆𝐻 = × 𝑅𝑚
𝐼𝑇 − 𝐼𝑓𝑠
DC AMMETERS
AMMETER SHUNT
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT: Ammeter Input Resistance:
𝑅𝑆𝐻 × 𝑅𝑚
𝑅𝑖𝑛 =
𝑅𝑆𝐻 + 𝑅𝑚
QUESTION NO. 4
An ammeter with a meter resistance of 50 ohms and a full–
scale deflection current of 1 mA is to be shunted so as to
allow a total current of 3 mA. Find the value of the shunt
resistor of the shunted ammeter.
QUESTION NO. 5
An ammeter with a meter resistance of 50 ohms and a full–
scale deflection current of 1 mA is shunted as required to
obtain a total current of 1 A. Find the value of the input
resistance of the shunt ammeter.
DC AMMETERS
AYRTON SHUNT
A special kind of ammeter shunt arrangement which
avoids having the ammeter in the circuit with a shunt. It uses an
ordinary switch, but the total current is interrupted between
positions, thus preventing any possible meter damage due to
switching.
DC AMMETERS
AYRTON SHUNT
QUESTION NO. 6
For the circuit shown, find the range of currents can be
measured by an Ayrton shunt if it uses a basic ammeter with
internal resistance of 1 kΩ and full-scale current of 2 mA.
VOLTMETER
DEFINITION
A simple d-c voltmeter can be constructed by placing a
resistor in series with an ammeter and marking the meter face
to read the voltage across the resistor and ammeter.
VOLTMETER
CONSTRUCTION
RS Voltmeter sensitivity:
Ifs
1
𝑆=
𝐼𝑓𝑠
Rm
Voltage Range: 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑓𝑠 (𝑅𝑠 + 𝑅𝑚 )

VOLTMETER
CONSTRUCTION
Voltmeter Input Resistance: 𝑅𝑖𝑛 = 𝑅𝑠 + 𝑅𝑚

VOLTMETER
CONSTRUCTION
𝑉𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 − 𝑉𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑
%𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100%
𝑉𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙
VOLTMETER
CONSTRUCTION
%𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑦 = 100% − %𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟

QUESTION NO. 7
An ammeter with Ifs = 1mA and Rm = 50 ohms is to be
converted to a voltmeter. (a) Compute the size of the series
resistor required to measure a full-scale voltage of 50 volts.
(b) What is the sensitivity of the meter?
OHMMETER
CONSTRUCTION
A simple ohmmeter can be made by using a battery, an
ammeter and a resistor as shown.
𝑉𝑜𝑐
𝐼𝑓𝑠 =
𝑅𝑜
OHMMETER
CONSTRUCTION
RO is an adjustable resistor because a rheostat is always
included in an ohmmeter to correct for the aging of the
battery. Normally, an ohmmeter is first zeroed before trying
to measure the unknown resistor. Zeroing means that we must
short the terminal AB and adjust Ro to produce full scale
current through the ammeter.
OHMMETER
CONSTRUCTION
When the unknown resistance Rx is connected across the
ohmmeter terminals, the current is measured by:
𝑉𝑜𝑐
𝐼=
𝑅𝑜 + 𝑅𝑢
OHMMETER
CONSTRUCTION
An easy way to determine ohm meter deflection is by
use of a deflection factor (D) which is the ratio of circuit
current to meter current.
𝑅𝑜
𝐷=
𝑅𝑜 + 𝑅𝑢
QUESTION NO. 8
An ohm meter with Ro = 30Ω and full scale current Ifs = 300
µA. Find the circuit current when a 5 ohm resistance is
measured.
THANK YOU!

Lesson 1 - Electrical Circuits 1

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Lesson 1 - Electrical Circuits 1

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PART 1:

Electric circuit is an interconnection of electrical elements

A mesh is a closed path

While in mesh 1, there’s no

A mesh is a loop but not all

❑ IDEAL DEPENDENT (CONTROLLED) SOURCE

❑ OPEN CIRCUIT is a circuit element with resistance

The above shortcuts are only applicable 5

Voltage divider equation is only

Current divider equation is only

1. Open the resistor terminal (where the current or voltage is

1. Open the load resistor terminal.

1. Open the resistor terminal (where

1. Open the load resistor terminal.

Iwm – current with meter

%𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = 100 − %𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑦

Voltage Range: 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑓𝑠 (𝑅𝑠 + 𝑅𝑚 )

Voltmeter Input Resistance: 𝑅𝑖𝑛 = 𝑅𝑠 + 𝑅𝑚

%𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑦 = 100% − %𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟

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