GROUP 1 | ARZADON | BELIR | GATUS | HERNANDEZ | RECTO

PRINCIPLES OF
ELECTRICITY
 1.ELECTRICITY
ENERGY
ELECTRICITY: UNUSABLE FORMS:
lightning
> expensive form of energy, since the
other static discharges
efficiency of heat-to-electricity conversion,
on a commercial scale, rarely exceeds
40%. PRIMARY PROBLEM:
can not be stored
> constitutes a form of energy itsetf which
must be generated & utilized
occurs naturally only in unusable forms,
at the same instant
which cause corrosion.
ALTERNATING
CURRENT
The bulk of electric
energy utilized today is in
the form of alternating
current (a-c)
produced by a-c
generators, commonly
called alternators
DIRECT
CURRENT
These generators are utilized
for special applications requi-
ring large quantities of d-c
Smaller quantities of d-c,
furnished either by batteries
or by rectifiers are utilized for
telephone and signal
equipment, controls, and
other specialized uses.
 2.UNIT OF
ELECTRIC CURRENT
THE “AMPERE”
> when electricity flows in a conductor, a
certain number of electrons pass a given Amp, Amps or a
point in the conductor in 1 second
current or amperage

1 ampere = 6.25 x 10^18e/sec

CURRENT or AMPERAGE
measure of flow and such, would correspond to water flow in a
hydraulic system.

HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS ELECTRIC SYSTEMS

the velocity of propagation is
the velocity of water
constant and may be considered
flow varies
instantaneous

hence, the need to utilize the electric energy the instant it is

produced.
 3.UNIT OF
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
THE “VOLT” OR “V”
ELECTRON MOVEMENT
> constitutes electricity
> caused by creating a higher positive
electric charge at one point on a
conductor than exists at another point
on that same conductor
ELECTROCHEMICAL ACTION
> the oldest and simplest method to create a
difference in charge in a battery
> In the ordinary dry cell, or in a storage battery,
chemical action causes positive charges {+} to
collect on the positive terminal and electrons or
negative charges (-) to collect on the
negative terminals.
 POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE or VOLTAGE
electromotive force (EMF)
This force is analogous to pressure in a hydraulic or pneumatic
system

The higher the voltage (pressure},

the higher the current (flow) for a
given resistance (friction).
 4.UNIT OF
ELECTRIC RESISTANCE
THE “OHM”
in direct current circuit (d-c)
> The flow of fluid in a hydraulic system R = resistance
is impeded by friction; the flow of in alternating current circuit
current in an electric circuit is impeded (a-c)
{resisted} by resistance z = impedence
The unit of measurement
Ohm
CONDUCTORS INSULATORS
> metals generally have the least > materials that resist the flow of
resistance current

BEST CONDUCTORS:

GLASS RUBBER MICA

SILVER GOLD PLATINUM

DISTILLED
OIL WATER
PORCELAIN
 5. OHM’s LAW
The current I that will flow in a d-c circuit is directly proportional to the
voltage V and inversely proportional to the resistance R of the circuit.
Expressed as an equation, we have the basic form of Ohm's law

V
I=
R
a current I is produced that is proportional to the electric pressure V and
inversely proportional to the electric friction R.
EXAMPLE

1.) An incandescent lamp having a hot resistance of 66 ohms is

put into a socket that is connected to a 115 V supply. What
current flows through the lamp?

Given:
V 115
Voltage (V) = 115 V
I= I=
Resistance (R) = 66 ohms R 66

= 1.74 amperes
EXAMPLE

2.) A bathroom heater draws 11 amperes at 120 V what

is its hot resistance?

Given:
V R=
120
Voltage (V) = 120 V
R= 11
Current (I) = 11 amperes
I

= 10.91 ohms
 CIRCUIT
ARRANGEMENTS
 Simple Open Circuit
The switch is off, no current flows and no energy is converted.

Press the "/" key and

look for the draw tool
to create your wires.
 Simple Closed Circuit
The switch is on, allowing the current to flow and use energy to power a device.

Press the "/" key and

look for the draw tool
to create your wires.
 Series Circuit
It has a single loop where current flows. All devices are connected in the loop.

Press the "/" key and

look for the draw tool
to create your wires.
 Series Circuit
The elements are connected one after the other in series. Thus, the resistance and
voltages add.

Press the "/" key and

look for the draw tool
to create your wires.
 Series Circuit
An electric circuit may be defined as a complete conducting path that carries current
from a source of electricity to and through some electrical device (or load) and back to
the source. A current can never flow unless there is a complete (closed) circuit

Closed Circuit - The

switch is on, allowing the
current to flow and use
energy to power a
device.
 Series Circuit
In any series circuit, the total Resistance “R” is the sum of the resistance around the
circuit.

Total Resistance, R = rab + rbc + rcd + rda

R = 0.01 + 0.02 + 1.15 + 0.02

R = 1.20 ohms
 Series Circuit

Voltage
across the
load
resistance

Battery
Voltage Resistance of the
two wires

The battery voltage may be called Vab = 120v

The voltage across the load resistance, Vcd = 1.15v
The resistance of the two wires rbc = rda = 0.04 ohm.
 Series Circuit
EXAMPLE
The battery in the figure is rated at 120v. the line resistance (both wires) is 0.04
ohm, and the load resistance is 1.15 ohms. Determine the (a) current flowing in the
circuit, (b) the voltage across the load (Vcd).
 Series Circuit
The battery in the figure is rated at 120v. the line resistance (both wires) is 0.04
ohm, and the load resistance is 1.15 ohms. Determine the (a) current flowing in the
circuit, (b) the voltage across the load (Vcd).

V V ab 120
I = = r ab + r bc + rcd + rda 2 = = 100 amp
R 1.2

(a) I = 100 amp

 Series Circuit
EXAMPLE
The battery in the figure is rated at 120v. the line resistance (both wires) is 0.04
ohm, and the load resistance is 1.15 ohms. Determine the (a) current flowing in the
circuit, (b) the voltage across the load (Vcd).

V cd = IxR cd = 100 x 1.15 = 115 v

(b) V cd = 115 v
 Series Circuit
PRACTICAL APPLICATION

A practical application of series circuits is found in an incandescent lamp street lighting

circuits.
 Series Circuit
The figure below explains that loss of one lamp can disable the entire circuit.
Futhermore, the point of fault is difficult to pinpoint, necessitating individual testing of
lamps.
Parallel
Circuit
A circuit is said to be connected
in multiple or parallel when two
or more branches or loads are
connected between the same
two points.
Properties of Parallel Circuits:
Closed circuit
A similar potential difference gets across all the resistances in
parallel.
The total current gets distributed into the number of paths
equivalent to the number of resistances in parallel. The
aggregate current is always the summation of all the individual
currents.
Failure does not affect all devices/bulbs
PARALLEL SERIES
CIRCUIT CIRCUIT

In contrast to series, where the terminals are connected to one another and
experience reduced voltage, Parallel maintains a constant voltage because each
path is directly connected to the battery's positive and negative terminals,
receiving full pressure.
 PARALLEL SERIES
CIRCUIT CIRCUIT

Bulb is dimmer but powered for More voltage = more pressure

longer compare to the 3V More pressure = more force
configuration Lamp is brighter
 Parallel loads are the same as independent circuits positioned onto one
connection. Every load functions as a separate circuit that is unaffected by and
unrelated to the other circuits. It is important to note that while the total current
flowing through the circuit is the sum of its branches, the current flowing through
each branch is determined by a different Ohm's Law calculation. Therefore, a 12-
amp current flows in the 10-ohm load, and so on.
In all building wiring, the parallel connection is the standard configuration. Below is an example
of a standard lighting and outlet configuration for a large room.

PICTORIAL

SCHEMATIC ARCHITECTURAL PLAN

 Resistance has an inverse
relationship with current. Under
normal circumstances, the circuit
will be able to handle 10 amps as
current increases as resistance
decreases. and will function as
usual.
However, in the event that points a and
b accidentally make a connection, the
circuit is shorted to eliminate any
resistance. Instantaneously, the
current increases to an extremely high
level, indicating a short circuit. If the
circuit is adequately protected, the
circuit breaker or fuse will open,
disabling the circuit. If not, an
excessive current draw will most likely
result in a fire.
 DIRECT CURRENT AND
ALTERNATING CURRENT
 DIRECT CURRENT
The flow of electric current takes place at a constant time
rate, practically unvarying and in the same direction around the
circuit.

"d-c voltage" or "d-c current"

ALTERNATING CURRENT
The flow of current is periodically varying in time and in
direction.
 FULLY RECTIFIED
The alternating current (AC) has been completely converted
into direct current (DC).
This process of rectification ensures that the output is always
positive and consistent, which is useful for many electronic
devices and power systems that require stable DC power.
 HALF RECTIFIED A-C
Only half of the alternating current (AC) waveform is converted
into direct current (DC).
The output consists of pulses of DC voltage, occurring only
during one half of the AC cycle.
The distance along the time axis spanned by a positive and negative
a-c loop is called one cycle of time. Modern a-c systems in the United
States operates at 60 cycles per second, or 60 hertz. This means that
current at 60 hertz'(Hz} is delivered to the consumer. In a-c, instead of
resistance, the corresponding parameter in an a-c circuit is
impedance, which is also measured in ohms.

the equivalent to Ohm's Law is

I= _V
Z
where z is the symbol
normally used for impedance
ELECTRIC POWER GENERATION
ELECTRIC POWER GENERATION
DIRECT CURRENT (DC)

Is an electricity that flows in one direction steadily.

DC GENERATORS

They work by converting alternating current (AC), which

changes direction, into DC using a device called a
commutator. But batteries remain the main source of DC
power.
 WHERE DC GENERATORS ARE USED?

Ideal for precise speed control like elevators.

Used when consistent DC power is needed in

large quantities.

Requires external power sources

Rectification of AC power can produce DC power.

EXAMPLES OF
RECTIFIERS

SELENIUM COPPER OXIDE SILICON

ELECTRIC POWER GENERATION
ALTERNATING CURRENT (AC)

Is an electricity that changes direction back and forth regularly.

ALTERNATOR

Is a device used to
generate alternating
current (AC) and
commonly used in cars
and powerplants.
ELECTRIC POWER GENERATION
This principle of electromagnetic induction states that when an
electrical conductor is moved in a magnetic field, a voltage is
induced in it. The direction of the movement determines the polarity
of the induced voltage.
ELECTRIC POWER GENERATION
If the conductor is formed into a coil and rotated in the magnetic field,
a voltage of alternating polarity is produced, that is, alternating
current. It does not matter whether the conductor or the magnet
moves; the motion of the conductor and the field wit h respect to each
other produces the voltage.
POWER AND ENERGY
 POWER AND ENERGY
ENERGY

It is the technical term for the more common expression-work.

In terms of power, it is the product of power and time, that is

energy or work = power x time

OIL barrels or tons
TECHNICAL TERMS
GAS cubic feet or cubic meters Btu (British thermal units) or calories
COAL tons Foot-pounds or joules
ELECTRICITY kilowatt-hours Kilowatt-hours (a measure of
electrical energy)
COST dollars or pesos
 POWER AND ENERGY
POWER

It is the rate at which energy is used, or alternatively, the rate at

which work is done. Since energy and work are synonymous.

energy = power x time

Ex: 100 watts of power for 1 hour

100 x 1

= 100 watt-hours of energy

 POWER AND ENERGY
UNITS OF POWER

In the English system, we measure power in units like horsepower,

Btu per hour, and kilowatts.

In the metric system, we use units like joules per second, calories
per second, watts and kilowatts.

It can also be expressed as gallons (liters) of oil per hour, cubic

feet (cu. meters) of gas per minute, and tons of coal per day.
 POWER AND ENERGY
UNITS OF POWER

In the English system, we measure power in units like horsepower,

Btu per hour, and kilowatts.

In the metric system, we use units like joules per second, calories
per second, watts and kilowatts.

It can also be expressed as gallons (liters) of oil per hour, cubic

feet (cu. meters) of gas per minute, and tons of coal per day.
POWER IN ELECTRIC
CIRCUITS
 POWER IN ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
ELECTRIC POWER UNITS

The standard unit of electric power is called the watt (W).

A larger unit, equal to 1000 watts, is called the kilowatt (kW).

Wattage W = I²R or W = I (IR)

In practical situations, the resistance of a device may not always be known, but the
voltage across the circuit and the current flowing through it can be measured.

Wattage W = VI R in Ohms
By Ohm's Law
W in Watts
V = IR and since
I in amperes
W = I (IR)
V in volt
W = I (V)
POWER IN ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
EXAMPLE

Incandescent Lamp = 66 ohms Resistance

115V Supply

V 115
I= = = 1.74
R 66
W = VI = 115(1.74)

= 200 Watts power drawn

 ENERGY IN ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
a) Find the daily energy consumption of the appliances listed below if they are
used daily for the amount of time shown.

b) If the average cost of energy is per kilowatt-hour, find the daily operating cost

₱ 12.05 ₱ 33.92
 ENERGY IN ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
c) If considering an average power demand of a household is 1.2 kw, calculate the
monthly electric bill of such a household, assuming the rate of per kilowatt hour =
₱ 12.05

₱ 12.05 ₱ 10,411.2
ELECTRIC LOAD
CONTROL
ELECTRIC LOAD CONTROL
A load management technique that maximizes the amount of energy
that is accessible while maintaining a high load factor, It is through
the effective process of utilization of available energy by reducing
peak loads and lowering demand charge.
As benefit, It also subsequently lowers energy costs.

LOAD SHEDDING CONTROL PEAK DEMAND REGULATION

PEAK LOAD CONTROL

POWER USE CONTROL PERMISSIVE LOAD CONTROL

 LEVEL 1
LOAD SCHEDULING AND
DUTY-CYCLE CONTROL

The installation’s electric loads are analyzed and scheduled to restrict demand
by shifting large loads to off-peak hours and controlled to avoid coincident
operation.

TYPICAL USES:

HVAC (HEATING, VENTILATION, AND AIR CONDITIONING) CONTROL LOADS

LIGHTING LOADS
PROCESS LOADS
DUTY-CYCLE CONTROLLER
 LEVEL 2
DEMAND
METERING
ALARM
In conjunction with a duty
cycle controller,demand is
continuously metered and an
alarm is set on when a
predetermined demand level
is exceeded.
LEVEL 3
AUTOMATIC
INSTANTANEOUS
DEMAND
CONTROL
This is also called “rate
control”, it is an automated
version of the demand
metering alarm system,where
it automatically disconnects
or reconnectsloads as
required.
 LEVEL 3 - AUTOMATIC
INSTANTANEOUS DEMAND
CONTROL

SHEDDABLE NONSHEDDABLE

Non-essential lighting Essential lighting

Ventilation fans Elevators
Space heating Refrigeration
Comfort Cooling Compressors
Transfer pumps Process equipment
Electric Boilers Material bandling equipment
Sewage Ejectors Office machinery
AUTOMATIC POWER CONTROL
BLOCK DIAGRAM
 AUTOMATIC POWER CONTROL

NOTE: The controller acts to reduce maximum loads (peaks) and in low points
(valleys) 15% of energy is saved.
 LEVEL 4
THE IDEAL
CURVE
CONTROL
This controller operates by
comparing the actual rate of
energy usage to the ideal
rate, and controls KW
demand by controlling the
total energy used within a
metering interval.
LEVEL 5
THE
FORECASTING
SYSTEMS
Are computerized systems which
continuously forecast the amount
of energy remaining in the demand
interval, then examine the status
and priority of each of the
connected loads and decide on
the proper course of action.
IDEAL CURVE
CONTROL
GRAPH

NOTE: The
desirable rate of
energy use is
the " Ideal
Curve" as shown
in this figure.
 ELECTRICAL
MEASUREMENTS
 ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS

To measure energy, the factor of time must be introduced, since..

Energy = Power x Time
a-c watt-hour meters are basically small motors, whose speed is proportional to the
power being used. The number of rotations is counted on the dials which are calibrated
directly in kilowatt-hours

SCHEMATIC ARRANGEMENT of Wattmeter connections.

Note that the current coil is in

series with the circuit load, whereas the voltage loads are in parallel.
 ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS
KW Demand dial

TYPICAL INDUCTION-TYPE Kwh Meter with Kw demand dial

Decade dials register total disc revolutions that are proportional to energy.
Disc speed is proportional to power.