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Principles of Radiographic Imaging

An Art and a Science
6th Edition
SE/Author/Author, Title Xe ISBN-13: 9781337711067 ©2020 Designer:

Printer: Binding: Casebound Trim: 8.5” x 10.875” CMYK
6th Edition
Principles of
Radiographic
Imaging An Art and
a Science
Richard R. Carlton, M.S., R.T.(R)(CV), FAEIRS

Former Chair and Associate Professor of Radiologic and Imaging Sciences
Grand Valley State University
Grand Rapids, Michigan
Arlene M. Adler, M.Ed., R.T.(R), FAEIRS

Professor Emerita, Radiologic Sciences Programs
Indiana University Northwest
Gary, Indiana
Vesna Balac, M.S., R.T. (R)(MR)

Clinical Assistant Professor and Director, Radiologic Sciences Programs
Gary, Indiana
Contributors
Randy Griswold, Lisa King, Sharon Barrows Lakia, Matthew Marquess,
Kori Stewart, Christina Truluck
Australia • Brazil • Mexico • Singapore • United Kingdom • United States
11067_fm_hr_i-xxii.indd 1 11/29/18 8:35 PM

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Imaging: An Art and a Science,
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Dedication
In memory of Raymond P. Rossi.
Our mentor, friend, teacher,
and coauthor. We miss you, Ray.
To Sidney Finkleman and Quentin Garlets for
teaching us to be radiographers, to LaVerne
Ramaeker, Kay Shriver, and our students
for teaching us to be teachers,
and, most importantly,
to our families and friends
for sustaining us throughout.
Contributors
Randy Griswold, MPA, RT(R)
Consultant and Lecturer, Former Program Director
School of Radiologic Sciences
Bellin College
Green Bay, Wisconsin
Lisa J. King, R.T.(R)(M)(BD), CBDT
Bone and Mineral Lab/JSC NASA
Wyle, Integrated Science and Engineering Group
Houston, Texas
Sharon Barrows Lakia, M.S., R.T.(R), RDMS, RVT
Former Director, Diagnostic Medical Sonography
Gary, Indiana
Matthew Marquess, MBA, RT(T)

Lecturer, Department of Medical Imaging &
Radiation Sciences
Thomas Jefferson University
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Kori Stewart, MHS R.T.(R)(CT), CIIP
Clinical Director CT/MRI/SONO
University of Hartford
West Hartford, Connecticut
Christina A. Truluck, Ph.D., C.N.M.T., R.T.(N)
Associate Professor and Program Director (NM, PET/CT)
Department of Medical Imaging & Radiation Sciences
Thomas Jefferson University
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

The Founders
of Radiography
Wilhelm Conrad Eddy Clifford Jerman Arthur Wolfram Fuchs

Röntgen (1845–1923) (1865–1936) (1895–1962)
Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen became the Ed C. Jerman is known as the “Father of Arthur W. Fuchs is known as the inven-
first radiographer when he discovered Radiography” in the United States because tor of the fixed kilovoltage technique of
x-rays on November 8, 1895, in his labo- he was the first teacher of radiography. He radiography. His father, Wolfram Fuchs,
ratory at the University of Würzburg in began teaching x-ray techniques in 1897; established the first x-ray laboratory in
Germany. His original paper On a New he founded the American Association of Chicago in 1896 but became one of the
Kind of Rays is printed in Appendix A. Radiological Technicians (now known early martyrs of radiation, dying from
For his discovery he received the first as the American Society of Radiologic excessive exposure. Arthur performed
Nobel Prize in physics in 1901 and Technologists), and personally examined radiography for the U.S. Army in both
was decorated by Prussia, Bavaria, the first 1,000 members of the American World Wars I and II. During World War II
Great Britain, Austria, Mexico, Germany, Registry of X-Ray Technicians. He brought he wrote the U.S. Army training manual
France, the Netherlands, Sweden, Italy, order to the principles of radiographic Principles of Radiographic Exposure,
Turkey, and the United States. exposure technique by naming the quali- in which he outlined his success with
ties of the radiographic image: density, the optimal fixed kVp technique system.
(Portrait courtesy of the American College of Radiology)
contrast, detail, and distortion. In 1928 In 1955 he first published his book Prin-
he published Modern X-Ray Technic, the ciples of Radiographic Exposure and
first book on radiographic principles. Processing.
(Portrait courtesy of the American Society of Radiologic Technologists) (Portrait courtesy of the family of Arthur Fuchs)
iv

Contents
List of Tables
Foreword
xii
xv C H A P T E R 3
Preface xvi
Electricity 35
About the Authors xviii
Acknowledgments xix Understanding Electricity / 36
Electrostatics / 36
Electrodynamics / 40
Unit I Series and Parallel Circuits / 47
Creating the Beam
C H A P T E R 1 C H A P T E R 4
Basic Mathematics 2 Electromagnetism 52
The Language of Science / 3 Magnetism / 53
Arithmetic / 3 Electromagnetism / 57
Algebra / 7 Solenoids and Electromagnets / 59
Units of Measurement / 14 Controlling Electrical Current / 67
Rectification / 71
C H A P T E R 2
Radiation Concepts 18
C H A P T E R 5
Matter And Energy / 19 The X-Ray Tube 78
Atomic Theory / 20
Types of Energy / 28 The X-Ray Tube / 79
Electromagnetic Spectrum / 30 The Cathode Assembly / 79
The Discovery of X-Rays / 32 The Anode Assembly / 82
X-Ray Properties / 33 The Envelope / 89

vi Contents
Protective Housing / 89 Detection and Measurement of Ionizing

Rating Charts and Cooling Curves / 91 Radiation / 131
Recommendations for Extending Tube Life / 93
C H A P T E R 6 C H A P T E R 10
Radiation Protection Procedures
X-Ray Equipment 96
for Patients and Personnel 139
Types of X-Ray Equipment / 97
Advisory Groups and Regulatory
Power for X-Ray Generation / 99 Agencies / 140
A Basic X-Ray Circuit / 101 Limiting Exposure to Ionizing
Generators / 103 Radiation / 140
Automatic Exposure Controls / 106 Protection of Personnel / 142
Protection of the Patient / 145
C H A P T E R 7 Radiation Exposure and Pregnancy / 147
Automatic Exposure Controls 110

Historical Notes / 111
C H A P T E R 11
Ionization Chambers / 111 Filtration 151
Positioning Skills / 113
Filtration / 152
8
Measurement / 152
C H A P T E R Types of Filtration / 152
Effect on Output / 155
X-Ray Production 117
Conditions / 118
Target Interactions / 118 C H A P T E R 12
Emission Spectrum / 121 The Prime Factors 158
The Prime Factors / 159
Unit II
Protecting Patients Milliamperage-Second / 159
and Personnel Kilovoltage / 162
Distance / 164
Image Quality Factors / 167
C H A P T E R 9
Radiation Protection Concepts
and Equipment 126
C H A P T E R 13
X-Ray Interactions 169
The Basics of Radiation Protection Principles
and Practice / 127 X-Ray Interaction with Matter / 170
Quantities and Units Relevant to Photoelectric Absorption / 171
Radiation Protection / 129 Coherent Scattering / 173

Contents vii
Compton Scattering / 173

Pair Production / 175 C H A P T E R 17
Photodisintegration / 176 The Patient as a Beam Emitter 213
Effect on Technical Factor Selection / 176
Attenuation / 214
The Human Body as an Attenuator / 215
C H A P T E R 14 The Patient’s Relationship to

Image Quality / 216
Pathology and Radiation Absorption / 217
Minimizing Patient Exposure 181
Increased Attenuation (Additive)
Choosing Exposure Factors / 182 Conditions / 219
Estimating Approximate Entrance Decreased Attenuation (Destructive)
Skin Exposure / 182 Conditions / 221
Typical Entrance Skin Exposure / 184
Reducing Patient Dose with
Communication / 184
Reducing Patient Dose with
C H A P T E R 18
Positioning / 184 The Grid 226
Reducing Patient Dose with Technical
Factors / 185 Purpose of the Grid / 227
Discussing Radiation Risk Versus Benefit Grid Construction / 228
with Patients / 189 Grid Patterns / 230
Grid Types / 230
Grid Uses / 231
C H A P T E R 15 Grid Selection/Conversions / 232

Grid Performance Evaluation / 232
Beam Restriction 194 Grid Errors / 233
An Alternate Scatter Reduction Method—
Controlling Scatter / 195 The Air-Gap Technique / 236
Beam Restrictors / 196 Use of Grids with Digital Image
Ancillary Devices / 198 Receptors / 237
Unit III
Creating the Image
C H A P T E R 19
Film and Screens Imaging
and Processing 242
C H A P T E R 16 adiographic Film / 243
R
Vision and Perception 202 Construction of Radiographic Film / 243
Latent Image Formation / 246
Image Perception / 203 Types of Film / 247
Controlling the Image in Space / 207 Film Storage and Handling / 247
Radiography as an Art Form / 208 Film Identification / 247

viii Contents
Film Processing / 247 Image Processing / 294

Developing / 248 Image Display / 300
Fixing / 248 CR Technical Factors Selection / 300
Archiving / 249
Darkroom / 249
22
Silver Recovery Systems / 250
Sensitometry / 250 C h apter
Sensitometric Equipment / 250
The D Log E Curve / 253 Digital Radiography/Flat-Panel
Film Characteristics / 254 Detector Systems 305
Intensifying Screens / 259
Flat-Panel Detector Types / 306
Construction of Intensifying Screens / 260
Image Acquisition, Processing, and
Phosphors / 261
Display / 308
Characteristics of Intensifying Screens / 261
Flat-Panel Technology Features / 309
Cassettes and Holders / 264
DR Panel Precautions / 310
Care / 265
Emission Spectra / 265
Chracteristics of Film-Screen
Combinations / 266
C h apter 23
Unit IV Technical Considerations
Digital Radiography in Digital Imaging 314
Introduction
Effective use of Digital Imaging / 315
Digital Exposure Considerations / 315
C h apter 20 Digital Processing Considerations / 319

Digital Post-Processing Considerations / 320
Digital Image Processing 274 Digital Imaging Artifacts / 322
Historical Development / 275

Digital Image Formation / 275
Image Processing Operations / 277 C h apter 24
Digital Image Quality / 282
Informatics in Medical Imaging 328
Receptor Exposure / 284
Introduction / 329
Informatics / 329
C h apter 21 Informatics Standards / 330

Computers and Networks / 331
Computed Radiography 288 Display and Archives / 332
Storage / 335
Overview / 289 Workflow / 335
Image Acquisition / 289 Security / 337

Contents ix
Unit V
Analyzing the Image C h apter 29
Distortion 400
C h apter 25 Defining Distortion / 401

Assessing Distortion / 401
The Imaging Process 343 Factors Affecting Size Distortion / 401
Factors Affecting Shape Distortion / 405
The Imaging Process / 344 Effect on Image Appearance / 409
Professional Imaging Standards / 345
The Analytical Process / 346
Acceptance Limits / 348 C h apter 30
The Art of Image Critique 413
C h apter 26 I mplementing Imaging Standards / 414

Identifying an Imaging Problem / 414
Image Receptor Exposure 353 An Effective Image Critique Method / 415
Defining IR Exposure / 354 Applying the Image Critique Method / 418
Assessing IR Exposure / 354
Effects on Image Appearance / 355
Factors Affecting IR Exposure / 355 C h apter 31
Quality Management 421
C h apter 27 Quality Assurance and Quality Control / 422

Purchasing Equipment / 423
Contrast 368 Monitoring Equipment Performance / 424
Ancillary Equipment / 428
Defining Contrast / 369 PACS Systems / 429
Assessing Contrast / 369 Rejected Image Analysis / 430
Image Contrast / 372 Troubleshooting / 431
Evaluating Contrast / 374
Unit VI
Special Imaging Systems
C h apter 28 and Modalities
Spatial Resolution 385

C H A P T E R 32
Defining Spatial Resolution / 386 Mobile Radiography 439
Assessing Resolution / 386
Effects on Image Appearance / 391 Mobile Radiography / 440
Factors Affecting Spatial Resolution / 391 Special Patient Considerations / 440

x Contents
Special Radiation Protection Accessories / 490

Considerations / 442 Resolution / 492
Types of Equipment / 443 Digital Mammography / 492
Special Technical Factor Selection Quality Control / 494
Considerations / 443
C H A P T E R 36
C H A P T E R 33 Bone Densitometry 496
Fluoroscopy 448 Bone Densitometry / 497
History and Overview / 497
Historical Development / 449
Bone Science / 497
Fluoroscopy Uses / 449
Osteoporosis / 498
Types of Equipment / 449
WHO Diagnostic Criteria / 501
Fluoroscopic X-Ray Tubes / 449
DXA Principles and Instrumentation / 502
Image Intensification Tubes / 450
Scan Acquisition and Analysis / 502
Image Quality / 454
Femur / 503
Video Viewing Systems / 455
Spine / 504
Digital Fluoroscopy / 455
Forearm / 505
Flat-Panel Fluoroscopy Designs / 456
Quality Control / 506
Recording the Fluoroscopic Image / 457
Radiation Safety and Protection / 507
Mobile Fluoroscopic Equipment / 457
37
Radiation Protection During
Fluoroscopy / 458 C H A P T E R
Vascular Imaging Equipment 510
C H A P T E R 34 Vascular Imaging History / 511
Tomography and Digital Digital Image Acquisition / 511
Tomosynthesis 462 Modes of Digital Image Acquisition / 512
Image Post-Processing / 513
The Tomographic Principle / 463 C-Arm Assembly / 514
Tomographic Quality / 464 Vascular Imaging Tables / 515
Types of Motion / 467 Contrast Medium Injection Devices / 516
Digital Tomosynthesis / 468 Quality Control / 517
Tomographic Procedures / 469
C H A P T E R 38
C H A P T E R 35 Computed Tomography 519
Mammography 473 Computed Tomography Scanning / 520

The Invention of Computed
Historical Development / 474 Tomography / 520
Generator Characteristics / 478 Scanner Generations / 521
X-Ray Tube / 481 The Components of a Ct Unit / 524

Contents xi
Ct Numbers (Hounsfield Units) / 529

Image Reconstruction / 530 C H A P T E R 42
Image Quality / 533
Diagnostic Medical Sonography 611
Scanning Procedures / 535
Advanced CT Applications / 536 Introduction / 612
Artifacts / 536 Sound Waves / 613
Radiation Protection / 538 Attenuation / 620
Range / 621
C H A P T E R 39 Field / 622
Doppler / 622
Magnetic Resonance Imaging 543 Harmonics / 622
Contrast Agents / 623
History / 544 Transducer and Components / 624
Instrumentation / 544 Instrumentation / 626
Mri Physics / 548
A
Mri / 550
Mr Safety / 559 A P P E ND I X
C H A P T E R 40 On a New Kind of Rays

by W. C. Röntgen 630
Nuclear Medicine
and Molecular Imaging 563
Nuclear Physics / 564
Radioactive Decay / 564
A P P E ND I X B
Radiochemistry and Radiopharmaceuticals / 565 Answers to Case Studies 634
Imaging Instrumentation / 573
Positron Emission Tomography (Pet) / 578
Hybrid Imaging / 580
Nonimaging Instrumentation / 582 A P P E ND I X C
Radiation Protection / 584 Fixed and Variable kVp Technique
Clinical Applications / 586
System Charts 636
Hybrid Imaging / 590
C H A P T E R 41 A P P E ND I X D
Radiation Therapy 593
Epigraph Sources and Credits 640
Historical Overview / 594
Consultation / 594 Glossary 642
Treatment Planning / 596
Treatment / 600
Index 659
Specialized Treatments and Units / 608

List of Tables
1-1. Multiplication Notation 3

1-2. SI Units of Measurement 15
1-3. SI Unit Values 15
1-4. Commonly Used SI Prefixes 15
2-1. Atomic Particles 24
3-1. Properties of Conducting Materials 41
3-2. ffect of Circuit Type on Current, Potential Difference, and Resistance
E
(with an Example Circuit of Three Resistances) 47
4-1. Fleming’s Hand Rules for Electromagnetic Relationships 58
5-1. Heat Unit Rectification Constants 92
5-2. Recommendations for Extending Tube Life 94
6-1. Common Diagnostic X-Ray Console Controls 103
8-1. Characteristic Photon Emissions from X-Ray Target Materials 121
9-1.
Comparison of Collective Effective Dose(S) and Effective Dose per Individual in the U.S. Population
(EUS as Reported in NCRP (1987a)) and in This Report (Annual Values for Percent Are Rounded to the
Nearest 1%) 130
9-2.
Conversions between Conventional and SI Units 130
9-3. Comparison between SI and Conventional Units 132
10-1. Effective Dose Limit Recommendations 141
10-2. Occupational Dose Limits for Adults—NRC Regulation IOCFR20 142
11-1. Minimum Half-Value Layer (HVL) Requirements for X-Ray Systems in United States
(Title 21 of 21 CFR 1020.30) 153
11-2.
Percent Attenuation of Monochromatic Radiation by Various Thicknesses of Aluminum Filtration 155
11-3.
Recommended Minimum Total Filtration Levels 155
11-4.
Comparison of Patient Exposure with Filtration 156
12-1. Factors Affecting X-Ray Emission 159
13-1. K-Shell Binding Energies of Radiologically Significant Elements 172
13-2.
Percentage of Photon Interactions, Attenuation, and Transmission Characteristics in
Soft Tissue Based on Effective Photon Energies 173
14-1. A Typical mR/mAs Chart 183
xii

List of Tables xiii
14-2.
Medical ESE Values for Selected Radiographic Exams 185
14-3. Effects of Radiographic Exposure Variables on Patient Dose 186
14-4.
Comparison of Approximate Entrance Skin Exposures with Fixed and Variable kVp Technique Systems 187
14-5.
Gross Comparison of Relative Radiation Levels 190
14-6.
Estimated Loss of Life Expectancy due to Various Causes 190
17-1.
Basic Substances Comprising the Human Body 214
17-2. Summary of Pathology Problems 219
18-1. Grids for Use in Digital Imaging 228
18-2. Grid Conversion Factors 232
19-1. Standard Radiographic Film Sizes 245
19-2. Example Opacities, Optical Density Numbers, and Light Transmission Percentages 253
19-3. Relationship between Contrast, Latitude, and Patient Dose 259
19-4. Relationship between Speed and Patient Dose 259
19-5. Relationship Between Relative Speed Number and Exposure Sensitivity 266
20-1. Binary Code Numbers 276
20-2.
Typical Memory Requirements for Various Imaging Modalities Typical Image Grayscale
Bit Images per Approximate Storage Imaging 283
20-3.
Exposure Indicator Numbers Relative to Imaging Plate Exposure 284
23-1. Suggested Optimal kVp Ranges for DR Systems 316
23-2. A Step-by-Step Approach to Establishing an Exposure Technique Chart 316
24-1 DICOM Information Classes 331
26-1. Conversion Factors Effect of Generator ϕ on IR Exposure 359
26-2. Projections That May Use the Anode Heel Effect to Advantage 360
26-3. mAs Change Factors for Approximate Exposure Maintenance When Distance Changes 362
26-4. Effect on IR Exposure When Factors Are Changed 365
27-1. Relationship between Terms Used to Describe Contrast 369
27-2. Changes Necessary to Produce Visible Contrast Differences on a Film-Screen Image 376
27-3.
Effects of Changing Factors on Film Contrast 381
28-1 Spatial Resolution Quality Measures 387
28-2. Grayscale Bit Depth 388
28-3. Effects of Intensifying-Screen Factors on Resolution 396
28-4. Effects of Various Methods for Reducing Exposure Time to Avoid Motion 397
28-5.
Effect of Changing Factors on Spatial Resolution 397
29-1. SID Compensations for Common Tube Angulations 409
29-2. Effect of Changing Factors on Distortion 409
31-1. FOCUS-PDCA Method 422
31-2. Reject Percentage by Room 430
31-3. Reject Percentage by Technologist 430

xiv List of Tables
32-1. Radiation Protection Rules for Mobile Radiography 443

35-1. Technical Differences between Mammography and Conventional Radiography 479
35-2. Characteristic X-Rays from Mammography X-Ray Targets 486
36-1. Risk Factors Associated with Osteoporosis 499
36-2. DXA Collimator/Detector Types 503
36-3. Radiation Safety and Patient Dose 507
37-1. Modes of Digital Image Acquisition 512
37-2. Factors Affecting Flow Rate 516
37-3. Safety Mechanisms for Contrast Medium Injectors 517
38-1. Advantages and Disadvantages of Helical (Spiral) Computed Tomography 522
38-2. CT Pitch Formulas 523
38-3. Hounsfield Units (HUs) (CT Numbers) of Various Tissues 531
38-4.
Appropriate Computed Tomography Window Widths 534
40-1. Half-Lives, Gamma Energies, Production Methods, and Usages of Radionuclides in Nuclear Medicine 566
40-2. Technetium-99m–Labeled Radiopharmaceuticals and Their Uses 568
40-3. Non-Tc-99m Radiopharmaceuticals and Their Uses 569
40-4. Radiopharmaceuticals used for PET 569
40-5. Radiopharmaceuticals Used for Radionuclide Therapy 570
40-6. Radiopharmaceutical Quality Control Tests 571
40-7. Quality Control Testing of Imaging Instrumentation 583
40-8. Highlights of NRC Regulations Pertaining to Operation of a Nuclear Medicine Facility; Title 10 of the
Code of Federal Regulations, Part 20 Addresses Radiation Protection Requirements; Part 35 Addresses
Medical Uses of Byproduct Material 585
42-1. Average Propagation Speeds 617

Foreword
O hhhh, was my mother right!

Life is about making choices, and a good life is
about making more right than wrong choices. Yes, a bit of
radiographers, to update their working knowledge. With
newer digital technologies, the old rules of exposure
and image quality do not apply. Seasoned-technologists
good fortune and happenstance is in all of our lives, but in the profession find this concept hard to accept. The
6th edition helps with this understanding. Topics deal-
ultimately, making good decisions is what it’s all about.
ing with the role of radiographic grids, detector inter-
Unfortunately, at the times we make these choices, we facing, exposure indices and assessing digital image
lack the foresight to see the consequences, good or bad. quality, have been added to better understand that as
But such is life. this digital revolution continues, we need to get our
Fortunately for our profession, Rick Carlton and arms around it, to improve image quality and ALARA
Arlene Adler have continued to make the right decisions, compliance. The role of the radiographer is undergo-
by authoring Principles of Radiographic Imaging, 6th ing profound change with digital, and a renaissance is
edition. It is a monumental task writing a textbook and to underway through the applications of digital detectors.
do so again, after so many years in the profession, makes This 6th edition makes the learning more interactive
it even more daunting. But that is the decision they have and exciting, through the use of web-based technology.
made and it is a great choice. Even better, is their deci- Existing chapters on the advanced imaging modalities still
sion to seek out experts and resources in the professions, remain with updated information from experts in their
such as Vesna Balac. Doing so complements the accuracy respective fields. A wonderful choice.
and relevancy of the information written in many of these As my mother said, it’s about choices. We are grate-
chapters. That choice reflects their admission that one, ful Rick and Arlene, and now Vesna, have chosen to
single person cannot be expert on all aspects of this great write again. In doing so, they introduce potentially new
profession. It is a tribute to their many years of develop- resources to educators, technologists and all members of
ing a network of contacts who can contribute to this end. the medical imaging community: the best profession in
Again, their great decision-making over the years, has cre- medicine!
ated a wide network of friends and resources, willing to To those who know me, they would say I am a pas-
contribute to this edition. Such is the nature of this 6th ed. sionate educator, as my passion for this professions runs
It reflects their genuine and sincere effort to represent the deep. I am no different than many other professionals, in
principles of radiology in a real-world, practical fashion. this regard. Incorporating the Principles of Radiographic
This 6th edition is faithfully consistent with pre- Imaging, 6th edition into my professional lifestyle, is my
vious editions through its excellent illustrations and choice, and for that I cannot thank these three authors
exhibits. Updated materials for instructors with labora- enough for their continued contributions.
tory exercises and instructor resources are included as
well. For the educator, you can expect to continue to
enjoy its simple and concise explanations of complex Randy Griswold, M.P.A., RT(R)
concepts. New chapters on digital radiographic imag- Consultant and Lecturer,
ing have been added and existing chapters have been
Former Program Director
updated with practical information that is relevant to
the real-world of digital radiography. In fact, much School of Radiologic Sciences, Bellin College
of this information could be studied by practicing Green Bay, Wisconsin
xv

Preface
expected for successful professional practice including

INTRODUCTION the American Registry of Radiographic Technologists’
Content Specifications for the Examination in Radiogra-
As radiography educators, we designed this textbook phy, the Radiography Curriculum by the American Society
with students and educators in mind. Since we now have of Radiologic Technologists, and various materials pre-
a completely revised approach from a digital standpoint, pared by the Canadian Association of Medical Radiation
we also believe practicing radiographers would greatly Technologists.
benefit from a review since there are new principles
toward establishing radiographic exposure techniques.
Each chapter contains an outline, key terms, objectives, NEW TO THIS EDITION
a summary, review questions, and a detailed bibliography.
There is also a considerable number of ancillaries that fac- The rapid changes in technology present a challenge to
ulty can access through their Cengage Learning represen- textbook authors who are committed to providing current
tative (they can be reached through the website at www information for learners. The authors and contributors to
.cengage.com, or for product information and technology the sixth edition carefully reviewed all content to identify
assistance, contact them at Cengage Learning Customer areas requiring updating or new topics. As a result, numer-
and Sales Support, 800-354-9706.). Although the order of ous changes were made.
the chapters is based on our experiences in reaching our A special attempt was made to provide an introduc-
students, most chapters stand alone and can be used in tion to physics and the imaging modalities, as well as to
the order that is most appropriate within a given program. explore the new details of the principles of radiographic
We have made a special effort to represent our belief exposure techniques that have been brought on by the use
that professional development should be a prime objec- of digital technology. Well-established image quality fac-
tive of any radiography curriculum. This is best achieved tors (density/image receptor exposure, contrast, recorded
through the demonstration of technical competence. This detail, and distortion) have been revised to reflect the
book is designed to assist students in developing this realities of establishing radiographic exposure factors.
cornerstone of professionalism. Through technical com- The new factors are:
petence and a professional demeanor, students will be ◾◾ Image Receptor Exposure
ready to assume their role as experts in the radiographic
◾◾ Contrast
imaging process. In addition, we believe that true profes-
sionals take immense pride in their work to the extent that ◾◾ Spatial Resolution
it becomes an art as well as a science. ◾◾ Distortion
There is a special focus on making sure digital ◾◾ Histogram Fulfillment
imaging terminology and parameters are the primary ori-
◾◾ Look Up Table (LUT)
entation with very limited references to conventional film-
based imaging. Special effort is made to emphasize both Because histogram fulfillment and use of the proper
the technical information and the ethical importance of look up table (LUT) are critical to successful digital image
understanding the specifics of image receptor sensitivity production, they have both been included in the primary
in order to be able to reduce exposure to the patient and image quality factors.
adhere to ALARA concepts. Five phases of digitized image production are intro-
References are used extensively to assure both duced: acquisition, processing, archiving, displaying, and
educators and students that we address all content analyzing. Each includes well-known radiographic imaging
xvi

Preface xvii
parameters but each is also enhanced by the addition of ◾◾ Radiation protection concepts and procedures are
digital factors that now impact on all imaging decisions. emphasized for both patients and radiographic
Most importantly, this entire edition has been revised personnel.
with current clinical practices in mind, with many changes ◾◾ Chapter-end summaries provide a quick reference to
that now reflect our digital radiography world, from end critical concepts and developments in the science of
to end. radiography.
◾◾ Numerous troubleshooting tips are included to
ensure quality radiographs.
ORGANIZATION
◾◾ Extensive references and recommended readings
provide a historical perspective and provide
The overall design of the book separates the 42 chapters learners a means to expand their understanding of
into six units: Creating the Beam, Protecting Patients concepts and systems.
and Personnel, Creating the Image, Digital Radiogra-
phy, Analyzing the Image, and Special Imaging Systems ◾◾ Video clips are now available for the chapters on
and Modalities. Unit IV, Digital Radiography, has been digital image production.
completely rewritten into 5 redesigned chapters; Digital ◾◾ Epigraphs and historical photos help trace the
Image Processing, Computed Radiography, Digital Radi- evolution of radiography to the present.
ography/Flat-Panel Detector Systems, Technical Consid- ◾◾ Unique emphasis on the art versus the science of
erations in Digital Imaging, and Informatics in Medical radiography illustrates the broad applications of the
Imaging. In addition, Unit V Analyzing The Image now technology.
reflects the new paradigm for technical exposure fac-
tors; Image Receptor Exposure, Contrast, Spatial Reso-
lution, and Distortion. We continue to offer framework STATEMENT OF CONTENT
information on all radiologic and imaging sciences ACCURACY
modalities and treatments. This design helps organize
the content for students by following a logical progres- Although we assume full responsibility for any errors,
sion from introductory physics through the production including those that may be construed as arising from quot-
and control of the beam to advanced modality systems. ing other works out of context, we have made every effort to
We remain extremely pleased that our book remains ensure the accuracy of the information. However, appropri-
one of the resources listed in the Radiography Curriculum ate information sources should be consulted, especially for
of the American Society of Radiologic Technologists, and new or unfamiliar procedures. It is the responsibility of every
we have long been pleased that this book continues to be practitioner to evaluate the appropriateness of a particular
recommended by the Canadian Association of Medical procedure in the context of actual clinical situations. There-
Radiation Technologists for preparation for its certifica- fore, neither the authors nor the publisher take responsibil-
tion in Radiological Technology. ity or accept any liability for the actions of persons applying
the information contained herein in an unprofessional
manner. This information is designed to supplement and
Features enhance the instructional methodologies of educators in
JRCERT (Joint Review Committee on Education in Radio-
In addition to the updated and new content, this new edi- logic Technologies [USA]) and CAMRT (Canada) approved
tion continues to feature the following learning aids and radiography programs and should not be applied, especially
critical content, with the addition of supporting video to human subjects, without this background. In committing
clips for the new digital radiography chapters: this book to print, we fully realize that it is never finished,
◾◾ Physical concepts are clearly explained and merely suspended for the time being.
illustrated with many high-quality full color figures. Finally, as a reader your perceptions are important
to us. We encourage you to communicate with us regard-
◾◾ Effects of changing parameters on image quality are
ing facets of the book you appreciate or would like to
carefully described and illustrated with numerous
see changed. We especially appreciate constructive com-
images.
ments and notice of errors. Our intention is to present the
◾◾ Criteria for image analysis are presented to help principles of radiography in an interesting format that pro-
learners develop analytical skills. vides a base from which true professionalism can develop.
◾◾ High-quality radiographs are included throughout Any commentary readers care to make toward this end
the text. will be valued and welcomed.

About the Authors
Richard R. Carlton is a Former Chair and Associate Radiologic Sciences from the University of Health Sci-
Professor of Radiologic and Imaging Sciences at Grand ences/Chicago Medical School and a Master’s Degree
Valley State University in Grand Rapids, Michigan. He is in Education from the University of Illinois at Urbana–
a past President and Chairman of the Board of the Asso- Champaign. Arlene has been an active member of the
ciation of Educators in Imaging and Radiologic Sciences. American Society of Radiologic Technologist and the
Rick co-founded the Michigan Radiologic and Imaging Association of Educators in Radiologic Sciences (AEIRS).
Sciences Consortium (a consortium of community col- For her service to AEIRS, she was awarded Fellow status.
leges and a university that offers advanced clinical edu- She has lectured across the country on numerous top-
cation), and established the Center for Medical Imaging ics in radiologic sciences and, in particular, was a past
in Bioanthropology (for field work x-raying mummies Honors Lecturer for an AEIRS Annual Meeting and a past
in Peru), Lambda Nu (the national honor society for the Keynote Speaker for the Associated S cience Program at
radiologic and imaging sciences), and The Sectional Anat- the Radiologic Society of North A merica (RSNA) annual
omy Consortium. He has published more than 20 books, meeting. For her service on the Indiana Radiation Con-
was the founding editor of two journals, and is a charter trol Advisory Commission, she received the Governor’s
Fellow of the Association of Educators in Radiologic Sci- Award, Sagamore of the Wabash.
ences (AEIRS). Rick has been a JRCERT accreditation In addition to her professional service, Arlene has
site visitor for more than 30 years, and was a Fulbright authored numerous articles and, along with Rick Carlton,
Scholarship alternate, as well as author of numerous is coauthor of the text Principles of Radiographic Imag-
journal articles. He has given more than 250 lectures in ing: An Art and a Science and coeditor of the text Intro-
36 states and 9 countries. duction to Radiography and Patient Care.
He holds an M.S. from National Louis University, B.S. Vesna Balac is a Clinical Assistant Professor and
in Radiologic Sciences from The Chicago Medical School, Director of the Radiologic Sciences Programs at Indiana
and an A.A.S. from Illinois Central College. He is ARRT University Northwest in Gary, Indiana. She received
certified in radiography and cardiovascular-interventional her radiography education as well as her B.S. degree in
technology and has taught radiologic sciences for over Radiologic Sciences at Indiana University Northwest.
30 years in Chicago, Ohio, San Francisco, Arkansas, She has a Master’s Degree in Adult Education from
and M ichigan. With Arlene Adler, he is the author of the Indiana University in Bloomington and is currently a
best-selling radiographic physics textbook Principles of doctoral candidate in Instructional Systems Technology
Radiographic Imaging as well as Introduction to Radio at the School of Education at Indiana University Bloom-
graphy and Patient Care, both now in fifth editions. ington. She is ARRT certified in radiography and mag-
Rick has also been the radiology section consultant to netic resonance imaging and an active member of the
Taber’s Cyclopedia Medical Dictionary for the past three American Society of Radiologic Technologist (ARRT),
editions. the Association of Educators in Radiologic Sciences
Arlene Adler is Professor Emerita, Radiologic Sci- (AEIRS), and the Indiana Society of Radiologic Tech-
ences Programs at Indiana University Northwest in Gary. nologists (ISRT). In addition to her professional service,
She received her radiography education at Michael Reese Vesna is a contributing author to the text Introduction to
Medical Center in Chicago. She has a B.S. degree in Radiography and Patient Care.
xviii

Acknowledgments
We wish to acknowledge the support provided by Dean his persistent and knowledgeable critique of our efforts.
Patrick Bankston, Associate Dean Linda DeLunas, and We are grateful for Gene’s unique contributions, espe-
the wonderful radiologic sciences faculty at Indiana cially his ability to never let nearly two decades of friend-
University Northwest, including Melynie Durham, Robin ship come between us and a more accurate reworking of
Jones, Tamekia Smith, Amanda Sorg, Sue Woods, Shannon verbiage or the details of an illustration.
Baimakovich, Angela Brite, Heather Govert, Heather We acknowledge detailed contributions from John
Hardesty, Susan Janosky, Samantha LoBue, Giovanna Skinner at Mid Michigan Community College; Jeff Lloyd
Lucido, Deborah Moss, Zack Pajkos, Camilla Pulliam, Lisa at Spectrum Butterworth in Grand Rapids, Michigan;
Shepley, Sheri VonderWoude, and Becky Wantland. John Godisak at Grand Rapids Community College,
The sixth edition has been produced by our most Michigan; and Jennifer Lockhart from Saint Anthony
dedicated team at Cengage Learning. Medical Center in Crown Point, Indiana.
We are especially grateful to Joe Chovan, the most The students, faculty, and staff at Arkansas State
spectacular artist we have ever worked with. Joe’s artistic University played a major role in the third edition. Special
skills are on exhibit throughout the many editions of this thanks were due Dean Susan Hanrahan for unremitting
book, as he allows us to bring new insight into complex support and constant enthusiasm for what we are trying
content through his sparkling and insightful illustrations. to accomplish in the radiologic sciences.
We are indebted to the unstinting contributions We thank the faculty and students who have found
from Randy Griswold from Bellin College in Green our work valuable in the process of radiography educa-
Bay, Wisconsin. A significant portion of the accuracy tion and practice since the first edition was published.
of the book derives from the constant inspection and The success of this book and the invitation to produce a
contributions he has made. Randy Griswold has been an new edition are a direct result of the acceptance of our
enthusiastic and regular contributor to this text for many work by the radiography profession, which we gratefully
years and his additions and updates have been greatly acknowledge.
appreciated. Dennis Bowman from the Community Hos- Our families once again deserve our thanks for their
pital of the Monterey Peninsula in Monterey, California understanding. Don Adler, Lynn Carlton, Louis Stevovich,
worked with us in his facility to refine digital techniques and Mirko, Zorka, and Milorad Balac have given countless
as well as prepare our video clips and illustrations. hours that were rightfully theirs, for which we extend a
We have also been very appreciative of the constant peace offering of love. Much appreciation is also extended
input of Denise Moore, Professor Emeritus at Sinclair to Arlene’s daughters Meri and Katie, and Vesna’s daughter
Community College in Dayton, Ohio, who has been our Emili for their love and support. Rick’s family now
constant conscience from the first edition. We also can- includes not only his children but his growing group of
not forget the contributions made to the first through grandchildren: Nate, Michael, Zach, Mercie-Marie, Max,
fourth editions by Barry Burns of the University of North the twins Paige and Addison, Silas, Henry, and Penelope,
Carolina, who routinely went far beyond our wildest all of whom get their time, book or not.
hopes in critiquing our text, producing films to illustrate Once again, we have been assisted in our work by a
his points, disproving old wives tales in his laboratory, wide spectrum of colleagues in the radiologic sciences and
and generously sharing his results (and venison) with us. related fields. In addition to those who assisted us during
Barry became a backbone of the technical aspects of this the earlier edition, we wish to add our colleague Dennis
book. Eugene Frank, formerly of the Mayo Clinic and Bowman from the Community Hospital of the Monterey
Riverland Community College in Minnesota, continued Penisula; Euclid Seeram of British Columbia Institute
xix

xx Acknowledgments
of Technology, Irven Rule of the Siemens Training and Reviewers

Development Center in Cary, North Carolina; Alfred
Hufnagl of the Northern Alberta Institute of Technology, Linda Lippacher, M.A. ARRT (R)(M)
Canada; Penelope Roberts of the Department of Medical Program Director of Radiologic Sciences
Physics and Medical Engineering at Southampton Uni- Southern Vermont College
versity Hospitals, UK; Kathheryn Root of Holyoke Com- Bennington, VT
munity College, Massachusetts; Dr. Appel and Kevin Sisak
at DuPont; Garry Harris at Agfa; and Gregory Wheeler of Debra Herring, MAT, R.T. (R)(M) ARRT
Wheeler and Associates, San Francisco, California. Program Coordinator/Instructor Radiologic
Our faculties have also made significant contribu- Technology Program
tions through their consistent willingness to comment Meridian Community College
on the countless details we have explored with them Meridian, MS
over the years. Alonso Contreras Astorga from the
Department of Chemistry at Indiana University North- Erica L. Cole, M.S., R.T. (R)(CT)
west, also needs our thanks for his review of our basic Assistant Professor
explanations of chemistry concepts. Hudson Valley Community College
We also appreciate the help of Jennifer Sanders Troy, NY
from Methodist Hospitals, Gary, In, for reviewing the
mammography content, as well as Stephanie Burnett Tara C. Guice, B.S., R.T. (R)(ARRT)
from Franciscan Health Hammond, In, for reviewing the Clinical Coordinator/Instructor
vascular imaging equipment chapter. Mississippi Gulf Coast Community College
And, finally, we thank those fellow educators who Gautier, MS
have taken the time to sit down with us at meetings,
write letters, make phone calls, compose and email Daniel Edwards, MS, RTR/MR, ATC/L
their comments and suggestions to us. Although we are Assistant Professor
certain we have not remembered all of you (for which Cox College
we apologize), these include Mike Madden of Hays State Springfield, MO
University; John Clouse of Owensboro Community Col-
lege, Kentucky; Marianne Tortorici and Mike Mixdorf at Melissa A. Moorman, M.Ed., RT (R)(CT)
the University of Nevada, Las Vegas; Bob Misiak, Orange Faculty / Clinical Coordinator
County Community College, New York; Jack Thomas Baptist School of Health Professions
at Lakeland Community College, Ohio; Lisa Iacovelli San Antonio, TX
at Crozer-Chester Medical Center, Pennsylvania; Max
Grady at Kettering College of Medical Arts, Ohio; Donna Matthew Dunn, M.Ed., RT (R)(CT)(ARRT)
Mitchell at John Peter Smith Hospital, Texas; Anita Clinical Coordinator, Radiologic Technology
Slechta of California State University at Northridge; Ogeechee Technical College
Elwin Tilson of Armstrong State College, Georgia; Shay Statesboro, GA
Mercer at New Mexico State University; Judy Williams of
Grady Memorial Hospital, Georgia; Marilyn Sinderbrand James F. Guillemette, Ph.D.
of Northern Virginia Community College; Bill Sykes of Science Department Chair, Science Instructor
Shawnee State University, Ohio; Bart Schraa of Daniel Kennebec Valley Community College
Denhoed University, Rotterdam, Netherlands; Frank Fairfield, Maine
Porter at St. Vincent Infirmary Medical Center Arkansas;
Mitchell Bieber, University of Virginia Medical Center;
Donna Foster at Northern New Mexico Community
First-Edition Acknowledgments
College; Bill May of Iatwamba Community College, The production of this book would not have been pos-
Mississippi; Lorraine Henry of Orange Coast Community sible without the support of our spouses, Don and Lynn.
College, California; and Steve Dowd of the University of In addition, we gratefully acknowledge the role played by
Alabama at Birmingham. Delmar Cengage Learning; Indiana University Northwest;
Appreciation is also expressed to the colleagues Lima Technical College;and St. Rita’s Medical Center of
who reviewed the manuscripts for this edition. Their Lima, Ohio. Special thanks are due Dr. LaVerne Ramaeker,
critical reviews helped to guide us in the preparation of Sam Bassitt, Marlene Ledbetter, and Dennis Spragg for
the final manuscript. their support. A major contribution to the accuracy of the

Acknowledgments xxi
information and illustrations was made by the consistent for their commentary and technical assistance above
presence of Eugene Frank, formerly of the Mayo Clinic and beyond the normal bonds of friendship; Philip W.
Foundation, throughout. Ballinger of the Ohio State University; Terry West of
We are in the professional debt of many who inspired Toronto, Secretary-General of the International Society
us, taught us, and collaborated with us throughout the of Radiographers and Radiological Technicians; Stewart
years. Much of what is contained in this work is a direct Bushong of Baylor College of Medicine; Terry Eastman
result of these efforts. Those to whom we are especially of Dallas; Joe Fodor of the University of Cincinnati
indebted are Tracy Ahdel, Janice Akin, Judy Baron, Karen Medical Center; Nina Kowalczyk of Riverside Methodist
Brinkman, John Cortez, Marion Frank, Mick Jagger, Karen Hospital, Columbus, Ohio; Denise Moore of Sinclair
Jefferies, Robin Jones, Dr. George Koptik, Judy Koptik, Community College, Dayton, Ohio; Bruce Long of
Jon Lilly, Dr. Marzuto, Kathy Miller, Joe Mosqueda, Indiana University Medical Center; Marilyn Holland of
Traci O’Donnell, LaVerne Ramaeker, Karen Schmidl, the University of Iowa Hospitals and Clinics; Charles R.
Kay Shriver, Tracy Thegze, Jean Widger, Rob Wilcoxen, Griffith of FGHB Certified Radiation Physicists; Loren
and Sue Wilson. And of course our students at Indiana Garlets of Hays State University, Kansas; Pat Sharp of
University Northwest, Lima Technical College, Wilbur Gannon University, Erie, Pennsylvania; Tim Penning
Wright College, Malcolm X College, and Michael Reese of Athens Regional Medical Center, Georgia; Seymour
Hospital and Medical Center. Sterling, FASRT, of Yardley, Pennsylvania; Jerome
Like our colleagues and students, we owe much to the Taubel of the Mayo Clinic Foundation, Rochester,
institutions that contributed to our professional expertise. Minnesota; Bob Kobistek in Cleveland and Martin
We wish to thank Indiana University Northwest, Lima Ratner and Steve Szeglin in Carle Place, New York, both
Technical College, Michael Reese Hospital and Medical of Victoreen, Inc./Nuclear Associates; Terry Hanby of
Center, Lutheran General Hospital, Mercy Hospital and DuPont; Robert Trinkle, formerly of DuPont; Mike Wilsey
Medical Center (Chicago), Northwestern Memorial Hospital of Agfa Matrix; Robert Lockery and Walter Weigl of
(Chicago), Wilbur Wright College, Illinois Central College, Siemens Corporation; Robert Busic of General Electric
Carl Sandburg College, Evanston Hospital, Methodist Medical Systems; William Conklin of Orangeburg, SC;
Medical Center (Peoria), and Community Memorial Hospital Rene Abgrall of Thoard, France; Toshinori Komba of
(Monmouth). Komazawa University, Tokyo, Japan; Angela Pickwick
We owe special thanks to many people for sharing of Montgomery County Community College, Maryland;
their personal expertise and material collections. One Jerry Conlogue of Gulf Coast Community College,
of the highest forms of professionalism, the willingness Florida; Barb Imber of St. Rita’s Medical Center, Lima,
of radiologic technologists to freely give of their time Ohio; Rick Halker of Lima Memorial Hospital, Ohio; The
and knowledge, was demonstrated again and again by Radiology Department of Van Wert County Hospital,
everyone from whom we requested assistance in our Van Wert, Ohio, John Stone of Emory University
compilation of the multitude of photographs, drawings, Medical School, Atlanta; Tom Beery and Will Wells of
radiographs, and other illustrative materials in the Lima Technical College; Judy Shaw of Lima Technical
text and those who assisted in the numerous reviews College; Doug Raver and Chris Innskeep of Lima
of our writing. Among these deserving special thanks Technical College for video and software graphics;
are Gene Frank and Norlin Winkler of the Mayo Clinic and Jan Krietemeyer of Lima, Ohio, for bibliographic
Foundation and Ray Rossi of the University of Colorado research.

Unit I Creating the Beam
1 Basic Mathematics / 2 An inherent quality of a professional is the possession

of expertise regarding the technical aspects of a field far
2 Radiation Concepts / 18 above that of a nonprofessional. Knowledge of the prin-
ciples of radiographic image production is part of the
3 Electricity / 35
technical expertise of the professional radiographer.
4 Electromagnetism / 52 Radiography programs provide students with class-
room instruction, laboratory experience, and clinical
5 The X-Ray Tube / 78
practice in this subject. No other medical professional
6 X-Ray Equipment / 96 experiences as intensive or comprehensive a study of
radiographic imaging. This unit is designed to provide
7 Automatic Exposure Controls / 110 the basics necessary for this knowledge by building a
framework of information regarding the creation of the
8 X-Ray Production / 117
diagnostic x-ray beam.
The framework begins with an elementary review
of basic mathematics and radiation concepts, includ-
ing atomic theory, x-ray properties, and necessary units
of measurement. Although this may be a review of
previous science coursework for many readers, it is
important to make sure everyone is on the same wave-
length before using the information in the remainder of
the book. Electricity and electromagnetism are large
chapters that lay the foundation for understanding how
to control the beam. The x-ray tube, x-ray equip-
ment, automatic exposure controls, and x-ray
production provide an understanding of exactly how
basic physics is used to create the x-ray beam.
11067_ch01_hr_001-017.indd 1 11/19/18 10:16 AM

Basic Mathematics
C H A P T E R
1
KEY TERMS
absolute value
Do not worry about your difficulties in mathematics. I can assure you mine
algebraic expression
are still greater.
coulomb per kilogram (C/kg)
direct variation Attributed to Albert Einstein
equation
equivalent equation
gray (Gy)
identity OBJECTIVES
inverse variation
kilogram Upon completion of this chapter, the student should be able to:
like term ◾ Perform functions with fractions and decimals.
meter ◾ Determine significant digits in a number.
open equation ◾ Perform calculations in scientific notation with signed numbers and
second exponents.
sievert (Sv) ◾ Simplify algebraic expressions.
◾ Convert units within the SI system.
11067_ch01_hr_001-017.indd 2 11/19/18 10:16 AM

CHAPTER 1 Basic Mathematics 3
The Language of Science EXAMPLES:

1 5 3 10 13
Mathematics is the language of science. Radio graphers
4 6 12 12 12
need to be able to speak this language. In order to quantify
7 1 21 5 16
science, standard units of measurement were established.
The fundamental units of measurement are mass, length, 5 3 15 15 15
and time. Units of measurement were officially defined on a c ad bc ad bc

an international level through the adoption of the SI unit b d bd bd bd
system. The seven base SI units are mass, length, time, a c ad bc ad bc
electric current, temperature, amount of substance, and
d d bd bd bd
luminous intensity. Radiologically important derived units
are the coulomb per kilogram (C/kg), formerly the roent-
gen (R); the gray (Gy), formerly the rad (radiation absorbed
dose); and the sievert (Sv), formerly the rem (radiation Multiplication. Multiplication can be written in several
equivalent man). This review is intended to refresh essential ways (Table 1-1). To multiply two fractions, multiply the
skills in the use of math as well as appropriate units for the numerators and multiply the denominators.
radiologic and imaging sciences.
EXAMPLE:
ARITHMETIC 2 3 2 3 6

5 7 5 7 35
The radiologic technologist must have a basic under-
standing of computations such as addition, subtraction, a c ac

multiplication, and division of whole numbers, fractions, b d bd
and decimals.
Fractions Division. To divide two fractions, rewrite the division

A fraction is a portion of a whole number and represents problem as a multiplication problem by multiplying the
parts of a whole. The top number in a fraction is the first fraction by the second fraction inverted.
numerator and the bottom number is the denominator.
Addition and Subtraction. To add or subtract two frac-
tions with like denominators, add or subtract the numera- EXAMPLE:
tors and keep the like denominator. 2 3 2 7 2 7 14

5 7 5 3 5 3 15
a c a d ad

EXAMPLES: b d b c bc
3 2 5

8 8 8
7 4 3
TABLE 1-1. Multiplication Notation
8 8 8
a c ac Throughout this review the algebraic notation for

b b b multiplication will be used.
a c ac Example: 3 3 4 will be written as 3 ? 4.

b b b A ? (dot) is used as a symbol for multiplication.
Example: a 3 b will be written as a ? b or as ab.
When two letters are used, the dot is usually omitted.
To add or subtract two fractions with unlike denom- Example: 3 3 a will be written as 3a or as 3 ? a.
inators, rewrite each fraction with a like or common
Parentheses can also be used to represent multiplication.
denominator. Then add or subtract the numerators and
keep the like or common denominator. Example: 3 3 4 can be written as (3)(4).
11067_ch01_hr_001-017.indd 3 11/19/18 10:16 AM

4 UNIT I Creating the Beam
Decimals Move the decimal point in the dividend the same number
of places to the right (as was done for the divisor). Add
Decimal number place value (columns) is determined as zeros if necessary to maintain the position of the decimal.
shown in Figure 1-1. Divide the numbers as if they were whole numbers. Place
Addition and Subtraction. To add or subtract two the decimal point in the quotient directly above the deci-
decimal numbers, line up the decimal points in each mal point in the dividend. Add zeros if necessary to main-
number, adding or subtracting as with whole numbers. tain the position of the decimal.
Remember to add in zeros to fill out the decimal posi-
tions, if necessary. The decimal point must remain in the
EXAMPLES:
same position.
)
0.25 1250
5000.
EXAMPLES:
Add: Subtract: Rewrite as:
)
25. 125000.
1.3) 733.2
76.81 76.1 76.10
384.1 2.96 2.96 564.
460.91 73.14 )
13. 7332.
65
83
78
Multiplication. To multiply two decimal numbers, mul- 52
tiply the numbers as if they were whole numbers. Place 52
the decimal point in the product so the number of places 0
in the product equals the sum of the number of decimal
places in each number.
Convert a Fraction into a Decimal Number. To convert
a fraction into a decimal, divide the d
enominator into the
EXAMPLE:
numerator.
Multiply:
2.31 2 decimal positions
EXAMPLE: Convert 7/8 into a decimal:
6.8 1 decimal position
1848 0.875
1386 )
8 7.000
15.708 3 decimal positions 64
60
56
Division. To divide two decimal numbers, set up as if 40
doing whole number division. Move the decimal point in 40
the divisor to the right to make the divisor a whole number.
Decimal number place value (columns)

Hundred thousands
Ten-thousandths
Ten thousands
Decimal point
Thousandths
Hundredths
Thousands
Hundreds
Millions
Tenths
Units
Tens
1 1 1 1
1,000,000 100,000 10,000 1,000 100 10 1 • 10 100 1,000 10,000
FIGURE 1-1. Decimal number place values.
11067_ch01_hr_001-017.indd 4 11/19/18 10:16 AM

Convert a Percent to a Decimal. To convert a percent to Rounding Off. To round a number, the last digit to be
a decimal, move the decimal point two places to the left. retained is:
1. Left unchanged if the digit to the right of the last digit
EXAMPLE: Convert 78.5% to a decimal: to be retained is less than 5.
78.5% 5 0.785 2. Increased by one if the digit to the right of the last
digit to be retained is 5 or greater.
Convert a Decimal to a Percent. To convert a decimal to

a percent, move the decimal point two places to the right. EXAMPLES:
75.2581 rounded to 4 significant digits is 75.26.
EXAMPLE: Change 0.452 to a percent: 6,836.66 rounded to 2 significant digits is 6,800.
.452 5 45.2% 0.0381 rounded to 2 significant digits is 0.038.
0.0299 rounded to 2 significant digits is 0.030.
Computation with Values (Numbers)

Exact. Some numbers are exact values, like the counting Multiplication and Division of Approximate Values.
numbers (1, 2, 3, . . .). For example, there are exactly four When multiplying or dividing two or more approximate
legs on a chair. Exact numbers in computations are as values, the number of significant digits in the final answer is
accurate or as precise as needed. no greater than the number of significant digits in the value
with the least number of significant digits.
Significant Digits. Some values are obtained by mea-
surement and are only as accurate as the measuring
device. The last digit in the reading is usually estimated. EXAMPLE: Using the calculator, (103.81)?
When dealing with these values in computations, the (1.34) = 139.1054. However, because 1.34 has only
results will only be as accurate as the least accurate three significant digits, the answer should have only
value. This is the concept of significant digits. three significant digits. Therefore, 139.1054 needs to
To determine the number of significant digits in a be rounded to three significant digits, making it 139.
value (number):
1. Count all nonzero digits.
2. Count all zeros between nonzero digits. Addition and Subtraction of Approximate Values.
When adding or subtracting two or more approximate
3. Count all zeros at the end of a decimal value.
values, the final answer should be no more precise than
The number of significant digits in a value is the sum the least precise of the values.
of the numbers obtained in steps 1, 2, and 3.
EXAMPLE: Add the following:

EXAMPLES: The following are measured values
from a radiation dose meter (dosimeter): 123.1
7.14 mR has three significant digits. 89.123
+ 103.3456
90.104 mR has five significant digits.
315.5686
0.048 mR has two significant digits.
7300 mR has two significant digits.
6.900 mR has four significant digits. Because the least precise number is 123.1, the answer
should be rounded to 315.6.
Precision. The precision of a value refers to the decimal Powers of 10

position of the last significant digit.
The decimal system is based on powers of 10, as is the
metric system. These are very important systems to the
EXAMPLE: radiographer. When an is written, a is called the base and n
0.0218 is precise to the ten-thousandths. is the exponent. Integers are defined as the numbers . . . 23,
22, 21, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . .
11067_ch01_hr_001-017.indd 5 11/19/18 10:16 AM

Positive Integer Exponents. Definition:

an 5 a ? a ? a ? ? ? a (multiply n times) EXAMPLES:
n times 70.57 5 7.057 3 101 (p 5 1)
0.00815 5 8.15 3 1023 (p 5 23)
7.58 5 7.58 3 100 (p 5 0)
EXAMPLES:
101 5 10
102 5 10 ? 10 5 100 In the first example, the decimal point is moved
10 5 10 ? 10 ? 10 5 1000
3 one digit to the left, making the power of 10 (p), 1. In the
second example, the decimal point is moved three digits
10n 5 10 ? 10 ? 10 ? ? ? 10 5 100 . . . 0 (n zeros)
to the right, making the power of 10, 23. In the third
example, the decimal point is not moved and the power
of 10 is 0.
Negative Integer Exponents. Definition: In general, when moving the decimal point to the
1 left, the power of 10 will be the number of positions
an n ( for a ≠ 0 ) moved. When moving the decimal point to the right, the
a
power of 10 will be negative the number of positions
1 moved. When the decimal point is not moved, the power
101 .1
10 of 10 will be zero.
1 Converting Numbers from Scientific to Ordinary
102 .01
10 2 Notation. To convert a number in scientific notation
1 to ordinary notation, the decimal position is moved
103 .001 according to the following:
10 3
1 1. If the power of 10 is positive, move the decimal point
10n n .00 . . . 001 ( n 1) zeros to the right the number of positions in the exponent.
10
2. If the power of 10 is negative, move the decimal point
Zero Exponents. Definition: a0 51 (for a  0) to the left the number of positions in the exponent.
3. If the power of 10 is zero, the decimal remains in the
same position.
EXAMPLE: In all of the above, once the decimal point has been
100 5 1 moved, the 10 and its power are dropped. Zeros are added,
if necessary.
Scientific Notation EXAMPLES:

A number written in scientific notation is written as the 3.7 3 104 5 37,000
product of a number between 1 (including 1) and 10 times 5.56 3 1025 5 0.0000556
a power of 10. In other words, N  10p, where 1  N , 10
1.34 3 100 5 1.34
and p is an integer.
EXAMPLES: Dimensional Analysis

7.15 3 104 is a number in scientific notation. The concept of dimensional analysis is useful when con-
1.598 3 1025 is a number in scientific notation. verting from one set of units to another. The principle is
7.58 3 100 is a number in scientific notation. based on fractions whose quotients are 1.
EXAMPLE:
Converting Numbers from Ordinary to Scientific Nota-
tion. To write a number in scientific notation, the decimal 12 in 1 ft
1 or 1
point must be moved to the position following the first 1 ft 12 in
nonzero digit.
11067_ch01_hr_001-017.indd 6 11/19/18 10:16 AM

Recall that multiplying a quantity by 1 does not change Signed Numbers

the value of the quantity. In order to convert from one set
of units to another, algebraic operations are performed Numbers are not always positive. For example, the
with units in the same way they are with algebraic symbols. thermometer indicates that it is very cold at 220°F.
Negative numbers can be illustrated by using a number
line (Figure 1-2). Positive numbers are assigned to the
EXAMPLE: Convert 7.0 ft to inches. right of the zero point and negative numbers to the
12 in left of the zero point. A statement that 7 is less than 10
7.0 ft 7.0 ft 7 12 in 84 in (written as 7 , 10) indicates that 7 is to the left of 10 on
1 ft
the number line. A statement that 25 is greater than 29
Note that it is possible to “cancel” the feet unit, leav- (written as 25 . 29) indicates that 25 is to the right of
ing the inches unit. 29 on the number line.
Convert 70.0 km/hr to m/s.
Absolute Value. The absolute value of a number is the
km distance from 0 to that number on the number line.
70.0
hr Because distance is the same number of units whether
km 1000 m 1 hr 1 min moving up or down the number line, that means that
70.0 the absolute value of a number is always positive or
hr 1 km 60 min 60 s
zero. The notation used for absolute value is two verti-
1 1m m cal bars (| |).
70.0 1000 19.4
60 60 s s
EXAMPLES:
Recall that 1 km 5 1,000 m, 1 hr 5 60 min, and
|22| 5 2 |4| 5 4 |0| 5 0
1 min 5 60 s. Note that it is possible to “cancel” the km
unit, the hr unit, and the min unit.
When converting cubic units or square units, extra
Because 22 is two units from zero on the number
attention needs to be given to the conversion factors.
line, the absolute value is 2. Because 4 is four units
Study the following example carefully.
from zero on the number line, the absolute value
is 4. Because 0 is zero units from zero on the number line,
EXAMPLE: Convert 3.8000 ft3 (cubic feet) to cubic the absolute value is 0.
inches (in3). Addition. To add two positive numbers, add their absolute
12 in 12 in 12 in values and attach a positive sign to the result. The positive
3.8000 ft 3 3.8000 ft 3 sign is usually omitted.
1 ft 1 ft 1 ft
5 6566.4 in3
or
 12 in3 EXAMPLE:
3.8000 ft 3 3.8000 ft 3 ⋅   6566.4 in
3
 1 ft  (17) 1 (18) 5 115 7 1 8 5 15
To add two negative numbers, add their absolute values

EXAMPLE: Convert 10 roentgens per hour to and attach a negative sign to the result.
roentgens per minute.
roentgens roentgens 1 hour EXAMPLE:
10.0 5 10.0 ?
hour hour 60 minutes (27) 1 (28) 5 215 27 1 (28) 5 215
roentgens
0.167
minute
ALGEBRA −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
Algebra uses symbols and specific rules of number manip- FIGURE 1-2. Number line.
ulation to solve equations.
11067_ch01_hr_001-017.indd 7 11/19/18 10:16 AM

To add two numbers with unlike signs, subtract the smaller

in absolute value from the larger in absolute value and EXAMPLES:
attach the sign of the larger in absolute value to the result. 84254
28 4 22 5 4
EXAMPLES: 8 4 (22) 5 24
(210) 1 (3) 5 274 1 (29) 5 25 28 4 2 5 24
(8) 1 (25) 5 3
23 1 (7) 5 4
Order of Operation
Negative of a Number. The negative of a number is the
opposite of the number in sign. Order-of-operation problems may occur when parenthe-
ses are not indicated. For example, evaluate 2 1 3 ? 4.
Depending on whether addition or multiplication is per-
EXAMPLE: formed first, the answer might be 20 or 14. The answer
The negative of 7 is 27; the negative of 27 is 7. actually depends on the order of operation. Rules have
been established that make the correct result 14.
If b 5 7, then 2b 5 27.
The difference between the unary minus sign (2)
If b 5 27, then 2b 5 2(27) 5 7.
and the subtraction sign (2) and the difference between
the unary plus sign (1) and the addition sign (1) must be
understood before order-of-operation rules can be learned.
Subtraction. Subtraction is rewritten as addition, as in A subtraction sign (2) is used between two numbers.
a 2 b 5 a 1 (2b).
EXAMPLES: EXAMPLE:
8 2 10 5 8 1 (210) 5 22 7 2 8 (subtraction sign)
8 2 (210) 5 8 1 10 5 18
28 210 5 28 1 (210) 5 218
28 2(210) 5 28 1 10 5 2 A unary minus sign (2) is used before one number.
All of the above subtraction problems are rewritten as

addition and then the rules for addition of signed numbers EXAMPLE:
are used. 27 (unary minus sign)
Multiplication. To multiply two numbers, multiply their
absolute values. If both numbers are positive or both
numbers are negative, attach a positive sign to the result. An expression can have both a subtraction sign and a
If the numbers are opposite in sign, attach a negative sign unary minus sign.
to the result.
EXAMPLE:
EXAMPLES:
27 2 8 (The first is a unary minus, the second is a
(2)(3) 5 6
subtraction sign.)
(22)(23) 5 6
(2)(23) 5 26
(22)(3) 5 26 An addition sign (1) is used between two numbers.
Division. To divide two numbers, divide their absolute val-

ues. If both numbers are positive or both numbers are neg- EXAMPLE:
ative, attach a positive sign to the result. If the numbers 8 1 10 (addition sign)
are opposite in sign, attach a negative sign to the result.
11067_ch01_hr_001-017.indd 8 11/19/18 10:16 AM

A unary plus sign (1) is used before one number.

EXAMPLE:
EXAMPLE: 3x3 1 5x2 2 7x 5 8
18 x 5
y 7
Rules for Order of Operation

There are several rules for combining algebraic
1. Perform all operations inside grouping symbols (paren-
expressions.
theses, radical symbols, fraction bar, brackets, etc.).
2. Exponentiation (raising to a power or roots) Distributive Law. The statement of the distributive law is:
a(b 1 c) 5 a  b 1 a  c
3. Unary minus (2) or unary plus (1)
4. Multiplication and division
EXAMPLE:
5. Addition and subtraction
7(x 1 y) 5 7x 1 7y
Operations are performed from the lowest level (#1) to the
largest level (#5). Operations on the same level are evalu- 7(3 1 5) 5 7  3 1 7  5 5 21 1 35 5 56
ated left to right. p(x 1 4) 5 px 1 4p (The numeral is normally
written in front of the letter.)
EXAMPLES:
2 1 3 ? 4 (multiplication first) If the addition sign were a subtraction sign, then:
a(b 2 c) 5 a  b 2 a  c
5 2 1 12 (addition)
5 14 EXAMPLE:
8 ? 6 2 12 4 2 (multiplication and division first) 7(x 2 y) 5 7x 2 7y
5 48 2 6 (subtraction) 7(3 2 5) 5 7  3 2 7  5
5 42 5 21 2 35 5 21 1 (235) 5 214
87 p(x 2 4) 5 px 2 4p
(bar acts as grouping symbol)
2 3
15 Care needs to be taken when one or two negative signs
(add numerator and add denominator first) are involved.
5
5 3 (divide)
(22) 3
(exponentiation first) EXAMPLE:
5 28 27(x 1 y) 5 27x 1 (27y) (distributive law)
2(2)4 (exponentiation first) 5 27x 2 7y (the reverse defini-
5 2(16) (unary minus sign) tion of subtraction)
5 216 27(x 2 y) 5 27x 2 (27y) (distributive law)
3( 7 1 4 ) (add inside parentheses first) 5 27x 1 7y (definition of
5 3  11 (multiply) subtraction)
5 33 27(23 28) 5 (27)(23) 2 (27)(8)(distributive
2( 6 1 1 )2 (add inside parentheses first) law)
5 2 (7)2 (exponentiation next) 5 21 2 (256)(multiply)
5 2  49 (multiply) 5 21 1 56 (definition of
5 98 subtraction)
5 77
Algebraic Expressions Addition and Subtraction of Like Terms. A like term is

An algebraic expression consists of letters and/or numbers a term with identical literal factors. A literal factor is a
that are multiplied, divided, added, subtracted, or raised factor denoted by a letter. Like terms may be added or
to a power. subtracted.
11067_ch01_hr_001-017.indd 9 11/19/18 10:16 AM

EXAMPLE: EXAMPLE:
7x 1 3x 5 10x (like terms) 7(x 2 y) 2 4(x 2 y)
5 7(x 2 y) 1 (24)(x 2 y) (definition of
subtraction)
5 7x 2 7y 1 (24x) 2 (24y) (distributive
EXAMPLE: law)
7x 1 3y 5 7x 1 3y (Unlike terms may 5 7x 1 (27y) 1 (24x) 1 (4y) (definition of

not be added.) subtraction)
5 3x 1 (23y) (combine like terms)
5 3x 2 3y (reverse of definition of
subtraction)
EXAMPLE:
7x 2 3x 5 4x
EXAMPLE:
x 2 (y 2 x) 5 x 1 (21)(y 2 x)
5 x 1 (2y) 2 (2x)
EXAMPLE: 5 x 1 (2y) 1 x
27x 2 3x 5 27x 1 (23x) (definition of 5 2x 2 y
subtraction)
5 210x (combine like terms)
If an expression involves parentheses within parentheses,
then it is simplified from the innermost parentheses out.
EXAMPLE:
EXAMPLE:
27x 2 (23x) 5 27x 1 3x (definition of
7 2 [6x 2 (x 2 4)]
subtraction)
5 24x (combine like terms) 5 7 2 [6x 2 x 1 4] (remove innermost
parentheses)
5 7 2 [5x 1 4] (simplify within parentheses)
Parentheses. When an algebraic expression involves pa- 5 7 2 5x 2 4 (remove parentheses
rentheses, the parentheses need to be removed in order [square bracket])
to simplify the expression. 5 3 2 5x (combine like terms)
EXAMPLE: Exponents. Definition:

7(x 1 y) 1 4(x 1 y) a n a⋅
a⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
a a
5 7x 1 7y 1 4x 1 4y (distributive law) n times
5 11x 1 11y (combine like terms) where a is the base and n is the exponent.
EXAMPLE:
EXAMPLE:
34 5 3  3  3  3 5 81
7(x 1 y) 2 4(x 1 y)
5 7(x 1 y) 1 (24)(x 1 y) (definition of subtraction)
5 7x 1 7y 1 (24x) 1 (24y) (distributive law)
5 3x 1 3y (combine like terms)
Laws of Exponents
Law 1: am  an 5 am 1 n
11067_ch01_hr_001-017.indd 10 11/19/18 10:16 AM

EXAMPLES: EXAMPLES:
a a 5a
4 3 413
5a 7
1
x7
a  a5 5 a1 1 5 5 a6 x7
1 1
23
23 8
 a mn if m n
am   It can also be shown that:
Law 2: n  1 a ≠ 0 1
a  nm if n m  foraa≠0.0.
an for
 a  an
EXAMPLES:
x5 EXAMPLES:
x5 2 x 3
x2
1
x7 1 1 2
52 25
10 7 3 5
x10 x x
1
x5
x5
Law 3: (ab)m 5 ambm
EXAMPLE: Multiplying Numbers in Scientific Notation. When mul-

tiplying two numbers in scientific notation, the Ns are
(ab)4 5 a4b4
multiplied and the powers of 10 are added. This is simply
using the rule of exponents when the bases are the same.
m
a am
Law 4:   m , bb 
≠ 00
b a
EXAMPLE:
(2.4 3 103)(3.8 3 1011)
5 (2.4 ? 3.8) 3 103 1 11
EXAMPLE:
5 5
5 9.1 3 1014
a a
  5
b b
Dividing Numbers in Scientific Notation. When dividing

Law 5: (a ) 5 a
m n mn two numbers in scientific notation, the Ns are divided and
the exponents are subtracted. This is another example of
using the rules of exponents.
EXAMPLE:
(a4)5 5 a4  55 a20
EXAMPLE:
Definition: a0 5 1 for a  0
(8.3 3 104) 4 (2.7 3 1011)
5 8.3 4 2.7 3 104211
EXAMPLE: 5 3.1 3 1027
50 5 1
x0 5 1
(5x)0 5 1 Evaluating Algebraic Expressions
5x0 5 5  1 5 5
1 To evaluate an algebraic expression, replace each unknown
Definition: an foraa≠00
for with the given value and then perform the indicated
an
operations.
11067_ch01_hr_001-017.indd 11 11/19/18 10:16 AM

An open statement becomes either true or false when

EXAMPLE: Evaluate 2a2 1 5b for a 5 3 and b 5 4. the unknown (variable) is replaced (substituted) with a
2a2 1 5b 5 2(3)2 1 5(4) numeric value.
5 2 ? 9 1 20
5 18 1 20
EXAMPLES:
5 38
In x 1 5 5 7, replace x with 3.
3 1 5 5 7 is a false statement.
Formulae are examples of equations where algebraic
In x 1 5 5 7, replace x with 2.
expressions are evaluated.
2 1 5 5 7 is a true statement.
EXAMPLES:
Convert 60.0°F to C. The solution of an equation is that numeric value
The formula involved is C 5 5/9(F 2 32°). which, when substituted in the equation, gives a
Determine C when F 5 60.0°. true statement. In the earlier example, 2 is the solution
to the equation.
C 5 5/9(F 2 32°) There may be many solutions to an equation. For
C 5 5/9(60.0° 2 32°) (substitute 60.0° for F) example, in the equation x 1 5 5 x 1 5, all numeric values
C 5 5/9(28°) for x will give a true statement. This type of equation is
C 5 15.6° called an identity.
There may be no solutions to an equation. For exam-
Convert 20.0°C to F. ple, in the equation x 1 5 5 x 1 6, there are no numbers
The formula to use is F 5 9/5C 1 32°. that, when substituted in the equation, give a true state-
Determine F when C 5 20.0°. ment. Therefore, there are no solutions to the equation.
F 5 9/5(20°) 1 32° Equivalence Principles. The principles of equivalence are

F 5 36° 1 32° needed to solve equations. An equivalent equation is an
F 5 68° equation that has the same solution.
Addition and Subtraction Principle. If the same number is
added to each side or subtracted from each side of an equa-
Equations tion, the equation remains equivalent.
An equation is a statement that contains an equal sign. For
example, A 5 B is an equation. An equation can be either
a true or a false statement. EXAMPLE:
x2557
EXAMPLES: x25155715 (add 5 to both sides)

x 5 12 (equivalent equation to
5 1 3 5 7 (false statement)
x 2 5 5 7)
5 1 3 5 8 (true statement)
Both of these statements are equations but only one is EXAMPLE:

true.
An equation that contains at least one unknown x 1 3 5 12 (subtract 3 from both sides)
(variable) is an open equation. x 1 3 2 3 5 12 2 3 (equivalent equation to
x 5 9 x 1 3 5 12)
EXAMPLES:
x1557 Multiplication and Division Principle. If the same non-
3x 1 5 5 7 2 2x zero number is multiplied or divided by each side of the
equation, the equation remains equivalent.
11067_ch01_hr_001-017.indd 12 11/19/18 10:16 AM

EXAMPLE: EXAMPLE:
x Solve: 5a 5 30 for a
6
5 5a 5 30
x 5a 30
5 56 (multiply each side by 5)
5 5 5 (divide both sides by 5)
a56
x 5 30 (equivalent equation)
Check:
5a 5 30
5(6) 5 30 (substitute 6 for a)
EXAMPLE:
30 5 30 (Statement is true.)
3x 5 12
3x 12 (divide each side by 3)

3 3 EXAMPLE:
x54 (equivalent equation) Solve: 7x 2 5 5 3x 1 7 for x
7x 2 5 5 3x 1 7
To find a solution to an equation, the unknown (variable) 7x 2 5 1 5 5 3x 1 7 1 5 (add 5 to
must be isolated on one side of the equation. both sides)
7x 5 3x 1 12
7x 2 3x 5 3x 1 12 2 3x (subtract 3x from both
EXAMPLE: sides)
Solve: x 1 7 5 12 for x 4x 5 12
x 1 7 5 12 4 x 12

x 1 7 2 7 5 12 2 7 (subtract 7 from 4 4 (divide both sides by 4)
each side) x53
x55 Check:
Check: 7x 2 5 5 3x 1 7
x 1 7 5 12 7(3) 2 5 5 3(3) 1 7 (substitute 3 for x)
5 1 7 5 12 (substitute value for x) 21 2 5 5 9 1 7
12 5 12 (Statement is true; therefore, 16 5 16 (Statement is true.)
5 is solution to equation.)
To solve an equation with parentheses, the parentheses
need to be eliminated using some correct procedure, usu-
ally the distributive law.
EXAMPLE:
x EXAMPLE:
Solve: 18 for x
6
x Solve: 7(x 1 6) 5 21 for x
18
6 7(x 1 6) 5 21 (distributive law)
x
6 6 18 (multiply both sides by 6) 7x 1 42 5 21 (subtract 42 from each side)
6
x 5 108 7x 5 221 (divide each side by 7)
Check: x 5 23
x Check:
18
6 7(x 1 6) 5 21 (substitute 23 for x)
108 7(23 1 6) 5 21
18 (substitute 108 for x)
6 7(3) 5 21
11067_ch01_hr_001-017.indd 13 11/19/18 10:16 AM

Sometimes a formula needs to be rearranged. This is just

like solving an equation for an unknown (variable).
UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
In order to quantify scientific phenomena, standard units

of measurement have been established. These units allow
EXAMPLE: scientists to describe quantities. In physics, the primary or
Solve for t when a 5 bt 1 c fundamental units of measurement are mass, length, and
a 5 bt 1 c time. These units, although they have the same meaning and
a 2 c 5 bt 1 c 2 c (subtract c from each side)
have been standardized by international organizations, are
measured by the use of two widely different systems. These
a 2 c 5 bt (divide by b) are the British (foot-pound-second) system, also called
a c bt the U.S. customary system, and the metric (MKS [meter-

b b kilogram-second] or CGS [centimeter-gram-second]) system.
Although most countries utilize the metric system of mea-
ac
t surement, attempts to switch to this system in the United
b States have not been very successful. In the United States,
Check: length is measured in inches and feet rather than meters and
a 5 bt 1 c kilometers. By combining one or more of the fundamental
units, scientists arrive at secondary or derived units. For
ac
ab⋅ c (substitute a c for t) example, the area of an object is derived from the fundamen-
b b tal unit of length. The area of a rectangle is determined by
a5a2c1c multiplying the lengths of the two sides of the object.
a 5 a (Statement is true.)
SI Units
In 1960, at the Eleventh General Conference of Weights
Variation and Measures, the Système Internationale d̀ Unites (SI)
Two types of variation will be discussed here—direct and was defined and officially adopted. This system of units,
inverse. used to measure various quantities, is now accepted as the
metric system. In the SI system, there are seven base units
Direct Variation. When one quantity is a multiple of (Table 1-2). All other units are derived from these units,
a second quantity, this represents direct variation. An although some derived units are given special names. It is
example of direct variation is y 5 kx, where k is the important to become familiar with SI units because they
constant of proportionality. Here y is a multiple of x, have been internationally adopted.
making y directly proportional to x. In addition, although the United States does not
Another example is y 5 kx2, where k is the constant use SI/metric units for the public, all scientific inqui-
of proportionality, making y directly proportional to the ries utilize the SI system. As noted earlier, the seven
square of x. Another way to think of direct variation is that base SI units are mass, length, time, electric current,
the quotient of the two quantities is always a constant. It temperature, amount of substance, and luminous inten-
is possible, knowing the values for the quantities, to find sity. Radiologically important derived units are the
the constant. coulomb per kilogram (C/kg), formerly the roentgen (R);
Inverse Variation. When two quantities are multiplied and the gray (Gy), formerly the rad (radiation absorbed dose);
their product is a constant, this represents inverse variation. and the sievert (Sv), formerly the rem (radiation equiva-
An example of inverse variation is y 5 k/x, where k lent man). These radiologic units are described in greater
is the constant of proportionality. Here the product of x detail in Chapter 8.
and y is a constant, namely k. This is usually read as y is
inversely proportional to x. Fundamental Units
Another example is y 5 k/x2, where k is the constant
Mass. Mass is the amount or quantity of matter. The standard
of proportionality. Here the product of x2 and y is a con-
unit of mass is the kilogram (kg). It is represented by a cylin-
stant. This is usually read as y is inversely proportional to
der of platinum-iridium, which is kept in a vault at the Inter-
the square of x (or x2).
national Bureau of Weights and Measures in Paris, France.
It is also possible to combine the two variations.
As an example, consider y 5 kx/z2. Here y is directly Length. The unit of length is the meter (m). The meter
proportional to x and inversely proportional to the was defined in 1983 as the distance that light travels in a
square of z. vacuum in 1/299,792,485 s.
11067_ch01_hr_001-017.indd 14 11/19/18 10:16 AM

TABLE 1-2. SI Units of Measurement TABLE 1-3. SI Unit Values

Base Units Factors Prefixes Symbols
Quantity Unit Name Symbol 10 12
tera T
Mass kilogram kg 109 giga G
Length meter m 106 mega M
Time second s 103 kilo k
Electric current ampere A 102 hecto h
Temperature kelvin K 101 deca da
Amount of mole mol 1021 deci d
substance 1022 centi c
Luminous intensity candela cd 1023 milli m
Derived Units 1026 micro μ
Unit British 1029 nano n
Quantity Name Symbol Units 10212 pico p
Absorbed dose gray Gy rad 10215 femto f
Charge coulomb C esu 10218 atto a
Electric potential volt v
Dose equivalent sievert Sv rem
Energy joule J ft/lb EXAMPLES:
Exposure coulomb/ C/kg roentgen 23.4 g 5 0.0234 kg (move the decimal
kilogram point 3 positions left)
Frequency hertz Hz cycles per 23.4 g 5 23,400 mg (move the decimal
second point 3 positions right)
Force newton N 23.4 mg 5 0.0000234 kg (move the decimal point 6
Magnetic flux weber Wb positions left)
Magnetic flux tesla T gauss 23.4 kg 5 2,340,000 cg (move the decimal point 5
density positions right)
Power watt W Using dimensional analysis:
Radioactivity bequerel Bq curie
kg
23.4 g 23.4 g 0.0234 kg
1000 g
Time. The unit of time is the second (s). The second was
originally defined in terms of the rotation of the earth Some commonly used prefixes are shown in Table 1-4.
on its axis (the mean solar day) but, like the meter, Conversion from one system to another is needed
the need for greater accuracy resulted in redefining from time to time. For example, 1 in. 5 2.54 cm is the
the unit. Time is now measured by the vibrations of conversion fact for changing inches to centimeters. See
cesium-133 atoms. This method is sometimes called the the section on Dimensional Analysis under the math
atomic clock. review for the procedure to convert from one set of units
to another.
Prefixes
The metric system uses prefixes to units to denote different TABLE 1-4. Commonly Used SI Prefixes
orders of magnitude, as shown in Table 1-3.
To convert from grams to kilograms or micrograms, or Unit Symbol Meaning
to grams with any other prefix, the decimal point is moved. kilovolt kV 103 volts
If the prefix moves up the table, the decimal point is moved centimeter cm 1022 meter
to the left the number of exponent positions moved. If the milliampere mA 1023 amp
prefix moves down the table, the decimal point is moved
milligray mGy 1023 Gy
to the right the number of exponent positions moved.
Dimensional analysis can also be used. nanosecond ns 1029 second
11067_ch01_hr_001-017.indd 15 11/19/18 10:16 AM

SUMMARY
A basic review of arithmetic, algebra, and units of mea-

surement has been presented. The arithmetic review in-
cludes fractions, decimals, computation with values, powers of
of measurement are mass, length, and time. Units of
measurement were officially defined on an international
level through the adoption of the SI units. The seven
10, scientific notation, and dimensional analysis. The algebra base SI units are mass, length, time, electric current,
review includes signed numbers, order of operation, algebraic temperature, amount of substance, and luminous
expressions, exponents, evaluating algebraic expressions, intensity. Radiologically important derived units are the
equations, and variation. Both SI and British (U.S. customary) coulomb per kilogram (C/kg), formerly the roentgen (R);
units of measurement are introduced. the gray (Gy), formerly the rad (radiation absorbed dose);
In order to quantify science, standard units of and the sievert (Sv), formerly the rem (radiation equiva-
measurement were established. The fundamental units lent man).
The Case of the

Mysterious Mammals
These mammals were

radiographed in the Deep South.
What are they?
Answers to the case studies can

be found in Appendix B.
REVIEW QUESTIONS 5. Change 0.325 to a percent.

6. What are the significant digits of each of the
4 1 following:
1.
7 2 a. 20.10
2 3 b. 192
2. ⋅
9 8 c. 38.04
3. 571.1 2 182.572 5
d. 2,700
4. 725 4 0.25 5
e. 1,800.004
11067_ch01_hr_001-017.indd 16 11/19/18 10:17 AM

7. Add the following numbers, leaving the results with 15. Evaluate the expression for a 5 2, b 5 24, and c 5 6.
the correct number of significant digits if each num- 3(a 1 b) 2 c
ber is assumed to be approximate. 16. Solve for x: 2x 2 8 5 4
a. 2.1 1 2.824 17. Solve for x: 2(3x 2 8) 5 3(4 2 x) 1 6x
b. 3.2 1 4.19 2 a
18. Solve for a:
8. Change the following numbers to scientific notation: 3 15
a. 0.0081
b. 7,811.2 R
EFERENCES
c. 0.00024 AND RECOMMENDED
d. 78,432 READING
9. Change the following numbers to ordinary notation:
Aufmann, R. N. (2017). Basic college mathematics: An applied
a. 3.614 × 102 approach (9th ed.). Boston: Brooks Cole.
b. 1.876 × 1024 Burns, J. E. (1979). The new SI units: Problems with conversion.
c. 1.823 × 103 The Canadian Journal of Radiography, Radiotherapy, and
Nuclear Medicine, 10(2), 60–70.
d. 5.67 × 106
Dunworth, J. V. (1976). SI units for ionizing radiations. The use
10. Convert 1,500 seconds to hours. of the “gray.” Radiography, 42(496), 84.
11. Convert 10 meters2 to centimeters2. Martin-Gay, K. E. (2014). Prealgebra (7th ed.). London, United
12. Simplify the following algebraic expressions: Kingdom: Pearson.
The SI for the health profession. (1979). The Canadian Journal
a. 23(x 1 y) 1 7(2x 1 1)
of Medical Radiation Technology, 10(4), 138.
b. 24(x 1 2y) 2 8(2x 2 y) Washington, A. J. (2013). Basic technical mathematics
13. Simplify the following expressions, leaving the with calculus (10th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ:
answer with only positive exponents: Pearson Addison Wesley.
a. a2 ? b3 ? a4 ? b2 Wyckoff, H. O. (1978). The international system of units (SI).
Radiology, 128, 833–835.
b. (a4)3 ? (a2)23
14. Evaluate the expression for a 5 5 and b 5 3.
3 2
( a b2 )
8
11067_ch01_hr_001-017.indd 17 11/19/18 10:17 AM

Radiation Concepts
C H A P T E R
2
KEY TERMS
amplitude
atom I have discovered something interesting, but I do not know whether or not
my observations are correct.
atomic mass number (A)
atomic mass unit (amu) W. C. Röntgen to his friend Theodor Boveri
atomic number in early December 1895.
chemical energy
compound
electrical energy
electricity OBJECTIVES
electromagnetic energy
Upon completion of this chapter, the student should be able to:
electromagnetic radiation (EM)
electromagnetic spectrum
◾ Describe the branches of science.
electrons (e2) ◾ Differentiate between matter and energy.
electron binding energy (Eb) ◾ Describe the basic structure of matter.
electron volt (eV) ◾ Identify the various types of energy.
element ◾ Explain the basic concepts of atomic theory.
excitation ◾ Differentiate between the radiations along the electromagnetic
frequency spectrum.
heat ◾ Describe the wave and particle theories for electromagnetic radiation.
ion
◾ Identify the properties of x-rays.
ionization
isotope
kinetic energy
K-shell
lambda
M theory
mass
mechanical energy
mixture
molecule
neutrons (no)
18
11067_ch02_hr_018-034.indd 18 7/13/18 9:12 PM

CHAPTER 2 Radiation Concepts 19
Physics is a branch of physical science that studies

matter and energy and their interrelationships. Matter is
KEY TERMS (continued) defined as anything that has mass and occupies space.
Energy is the ability to do work.
nu
nuclear energy Matter
nucleons
Matter is a very general term used to describe the sub-
nucleus stance that comprises all physical objects. It has shape,
octet rule form, and it occupies space. A principal characteristic of
period matter is mass. Mass is the quantity of matter contained in
an object. It is best described by its energy equivalence,
photon
although the term weight is generally used to mean the
potential energy same thing. The force that an object exerts under the
protons (p1) influence of gravity is weight. An object may be weightless
quantum in a zero-gravity environment, such as in space, but the
mass of that object would remain unchanged.
quarks
The unit of mass is the kilogram, which equals to
radiation 1,000 grams. The kilogram represents the weight of a stan-
shell dard piece of platinum-iridium kept at the International
string theory Bureau of Weights and Measures in Paris, France. It is
equal to the mass of 1,000 cm3 of water at 0° Celsius (C)
substance
or Centigrade.
temperature The structure of matter has been studied throughout
thermal energy history. In nature, matter is most commonly found as a
valence mixture of substances (Figure 2-1). A substance is defined
as a material that has a definite and constant composition.
wavelength
When two or more substances are combined, they form a
weight mixture. For example, air is a mixture of oxygen, hydro-
Z number gen, nitrogen, and a variety of other substances.
MATTER AND ENERGY

Mixture
Radiography is the recording of images created by the use
of x-ray energy. It is both an art and a science. In order
to perform the duties of a radiographer, it is necessary
to understand the art of the profession as well as the Substance
science.
Science is the use of knowledge in an organized and
classified manner. The scientific method has been used Element Compound
by men and women to understand the world in which we
live. This method systematically involves collecting facts,
studying their relationships, and arriving at conclusions
based on analysis. Natural science is the study of the Atom Molecule
universe and its contents. It can be divided into two cat-
egories: (1) the study of nonliving matter, known as physi-
cal science; and (2) the study of living matter, known as
biological science. Radiographers learn about biological
science through a study of human anatomy and physiol-
ogy and about physical science through a study of x-ray Figure 2-1. Structure of matter.
production and imaging processes.
11067_ch02_hr_018-034.indd 19 7/13/18 9:12 PM

Substances may be either simple or complex. A simple There is a unique relationship between matter and
substance is known as an element and a complex substance energy. They are interchangeable. This relationship was
is known as a compound. An element is a substance that can- described in 1905 by the German-American physicist
not be broken down into any simpler substances by ordinary Albert Einstein (1879–1955) in his well-known theory of
means. There are 92 naturally occurring elements identified relativity. Einstein mathematically described the relation-
on the periodic table of elements (Figure 2-2). Elements ship between matter and energy in the equation:
include such substances as hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, cal- E 5 mc2
cium, copper, silver, gold, lead, and barium. When two or
more elements are chemically united in definite proportion, where: E 5 energy
compounds are formed. Water and salt are both examples m 5 mass
of compounds. Water is formed by the chemical union of c 5 constant (the speed of light in a
two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom and is referred vacuum)
to as H2O (Figure 2-3). Each element has an abbreviated At the basis of Einstein’s work is the Law of Con-
letter or letters to identify it. These abbreviations for the servation. This law states that the sum total of all mat-
elements are outlined on the periodic table. For example, in ter and energy in the universe is a constant: matter and
the compound salt, the element sodium (Na) is chemically energy cannot be created or destroyed but they can be
combined with the element chlorine (Cl), in equal propor- converted from one form to another. Although recent
tions, to form sodium chloride (NaCl). research has demonstrated certain circumstances when
When broken down and examined in its purest form, Einstein’s theory has been disproved, for practical pur-
matter actually comprises very small invisible particles poses it is essentially true.
known as atoms. An atom is the smallest particle of an
element that still possesses the chemical properties of
that element. When two or more atoms are chemically
united, they form a molecule, which is the smallest parti- ATOMIC THEORY
cle of a compound that still possesses the characteristics
of the compound. For example, in the compound water, Matter comprises very small particles known as atoms. To
two hydrogen (H) atoms combine with one oxygen (O) understand how small atoms really are, it has been esti-
atom to form one water (H2O) molecule. With salt, one mated that one teaspoon of water (about 1 cm3) contains
sodium (Na) atom combines with one chlorine (Cl) atom about three times as many atoms as the Atlantic Ocean
to form one sodium chloride (NaCl) molecule. contains teaspoons of water.
Atoms are tightly bonded to one another when a mol- Atoms can be subdivided into three basic subatomic
ecule is formed. These bonds cannot be broken by ordinary particles: protons (p1), neutrons (n0), and electrons (e2).
physical means, such as crushing. Atoms and molecules are,
however, bound to one another by varying degrees of attrac- Historical Overview
tion. The degree of attraction between atoms or molecules
The composition of the atom has been a topic of scientific
will determine if the substance is a solid, a liquid, or a gas. The
investigation for thousands of years. The Greeks theorized
attraction is weakest with a gas and strongest with a solid. For
that matter has four basic components: air, water, earth,
example, depending on the degree of molecular attraction,
and fire. They named the smallest division of these com-
water can exist in its usual state as a liquid, or it can exist as
ponents the atom. This theory was accepted until the early
a gas (steam) or a solid (ice). The state is determined by the
1800s when an English schoolteacher named John Dalton
heat or thermal energy that the substance possesses.
(1766–1844) published his work on atomic theory. Dalton
concluded that all elements could be differentiated from
Energy one another based on the characteristic of mass. He further
Energy is defined as the ability to do work. The unit of concluded that each of the elements comprises atoms that
energy is the joule (J), named after the English physicist behaved in an identical fashion during a chemical reaction.
who developed the standard. When energy is emitted and During the mid-1800s, Russian scientist Dmitri Mendeleev
transferred through matter, it is called radiation. Radia- (1834–1907) developed the first periodic table of the ele-
tion is a term applied to many forms of energy, such as ments. This table arranges the elements in order of ascend-
heat and light. When the burner on a stove is lit, it can ing atomic mass and on the basis of the repetition of similar
be described as radiating heat. A light bulb is capable of chemical properties (Figure 2-2). More detailed information
radiating light. When any form of matter is struck by a on a specific element on the periodic table, including specific
form of radiant energy, it is described as being exposed characteristics, electron configurations, and electron binding
or irradiated. energies, can be found at http://www.webelements.com.
11067_ch02_hr_018-034.indd 20 7/13/18 9:12 PM

11067_ch02_hr_018-034.indd 21
1 18
1 Periodic Table of the Elements 2
K or 1 H He
hydrogen 2 13 14 15 16 17 helium
1.007 94(7) Key: 4.002 602(2)
3 4 atomic number 5 6 7 8 9 10
L or 2 Li Be symbol B C N O F Ne
lithium beryllium name boron carbon nitrogen oxygen fluorine neon
6.941(2) 9.012 182(3) standard atomic weight 10.811(7) 12.0107(8) 14.0067(2) 15.9994(3) 18.998 4032(5) 20.1797(6)
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
M or 3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
sodium magnesium 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 aluminium silicon phosphorus sulfur chlorine argon
22.989 770(2) 24.3050(6) 26.981 538(2) 28.0855(3) 30.973 761(2) 32.065(5) 35.453(2) 39.948(1)
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
N or 4
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
potassium calcium scandium titanium vanadium chromium manganese iron cobalt nickel copper zinc gallium germanium arsenic selenium bromine krypton
39.0983(1) 40.078(4) 44.955 910(8) 47.867(1) 50.9415(1) 51.9961(6) 54.938 049(9) 55.845(2) 58.933 200(9) 58.6934(2) 63.546(3) 65.409(4) 69.723(1) 72.64(1) 74.921 60(2) 78.96(3) 79.904(1) 83.798(2)
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
O or 5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
rubidium strontium yttrium zirconium niobium molybdenum technetium ruthenium rhodium palladium silver cadmium indium tin antimony tellurium iodine xenon
85.4678(3) 87.62(1) 88.905 85(2) 91.224(2) 92.906 38(2) 95.94(2) [97.9072] 101.07(2) 102.905 50(2) 106.42(1) 107.8682(2) 112.411(8) 114.818(3) 118.710(7) 121.760(1) 127.60(3) 126.904 47(3) 131.293(6)
55 56 57-71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba lanthanoids Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
P or 6
caesium barium hafnium tantalum tungsten rhenium osmium iridium platinum gold mercury thallium lead bismuth polonium astatine radon
132.905 45(2) 137.327(7) 178.49(2) 180.9479(1) 183.84(1) 186.207(1) 190.23(3) 192.217(3) 195.078(2) 196.966 55(2) 200.59(2) 204.3833(2) 207.2(1) 208.980 38(2) [208.9824] [209.9871] [222.0176]
87 88 89-103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111
Fr Ra actinoids Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Uuu
Q or 7
francium radium rutherfordium dubnium seaborgium bohrium hassium meitnerium darmstadtium unununium
[223.0197] [226.0254] [261.1088] [262.1141] [266.1219] [264.12] [277] [268,1366] [271] [272]
57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
lanthanum cerium praseodymium neodymium promethium samarium euopium gadolinium terbium dysprosium holmium erbium thulium ytterbium lutetium
138.9055(2) 140.116(1) 140.907 65(2) 144.24(3) (144.9127) 150.36(3) 151.964(1) 157.25(3) 158.925 34(2) 162.500(1) 164.930 32(2) 167.259(3) 168.934 21(2) 173.04(3) 174.967(1)
89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103

Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
CHAPTER 2
actinium thorium protactinium uranium neptunium plutonium americium curium berkelium californium einsteinium fermium mendelevium nobelium lawrencium
(227.0277) 232.0381(1) 231.035 88(2) 238.028 91(3) (237.0482) (244.0642) (243.0614) (247.0704) (247.0703) (251.0796) (252.0830) (257.0951) (258.0984) (259.1010) (262.1097)
Figure 2-2. Periodic table of elements.

Radiation Concepts 21
7/13/18 9:12 PM
2 hydrogen atoms Schrödinger were successful, but physicists primarily use

Schrödinger’s concept because it has been found to be
more convenient. This approach is the foundation of mod-
ern physics and is known as quantum or wave mechanics.
According to the principles of quantum mechanics,
orbital electrons are assigned probabilities for occupying
any location within the atom. The greatest probabilities
1 p+ are associated with Bohr’s original model.
_
1 p+ Basic Atomic Particles
e
_ The atom is best described as having a small, dense
e
center known as the nucleus, which is surrounded by
_
e _ electrons that orbit it at various levels (Figure 2-4). The
e
_ nucleus contains two of the three basic particles of the
_ 8 p+ e
atom, protons and neutrons, which are responsible for
e 8 n0
almost all of the mass of an atom. Protons and neutrons
_ _ _ together are referred to as nucleons. The third basic
e e e particle, the electron, is located outside the nucleus
and has a relatively insignificant mass, 1/1,826 that of
_
e a proton.
Electrons cannot be divided into smaller parts, but
1 oxygen atom protons and neutrons both comprise even smaller sub-
nuclear structures called quarks. There are new theories
that may explain them as well as find a way for quantum
Figure 2-3. A water molecule is formed when two atoms of
hydrogen combine with one atom of oxygen. physics and relativity theory to work together. The over-
all concept is being referred to as M theory. It postulates
that electrons and quarks may not be particles, but
Investigation of the structure of matter contin-

ued and, in 1911, English physicist Ernest Rutherford
(1871–1937) developed a model for the atom that con-
tained a central, small, dense nucleus, which possessed e– e–
a positive charge and was surrounded by a negative
cloud of randomly placed electrons, which had a nega-
tive charge. In 1913, Niels Bohr (1885–1962), a Danish
e–
physicist, expanded on Rutherford’s work and proposed
e–
a model for the atom that is considered the most rep- +
+
resentative of the structure of matter. Bohr’s atom is e–
+
+
+
likened to a miniature solar system where electrons + +
+
orbit around a central nucleus just as the planets revolve e–
around the sun.
e–
Although the atom is far more complex than Bohr’s e–
simple model suggests, this model is still the most widely
used in explaining the composition of matter. One key dis-
tinction between Bohr’s model and an actual atom is that
electrons orbit the nucleus in many planes, whereas the
planets orbit the sun in essentially the same plane.
Bohr’s simple model was difficult to apply to ele- Figure 2-4. A three-dimensional diagram of an atom of oxygen,
ments with a high atomic number. Both Niels Bohr which contains eight protons, eight neutrons located within the cen-
and the Austrian physicist Erwin Schrödinger, working ter nucleus, and eight electrons within orbital shells moving around
with their associates, developed a theoretical approach the nucleus.
to understanding atomic behavior. Both Bohr and
11067_ch02_hr_018-034.indd 22 7/13/18 9:12 PM

Another random document with
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speak to Your Honour,’ replied he, ‘I own I am taken in an unhappy
affair, which neither malice nor inclination drew me into. But the
Head of the Country, notwithstanding I was the only child of my aged
parents, insisted, under great penalties, on my coming in to join him;
so that I beg you will pity me in my condition: but if it must be that I
die this night, pray! tell me what death you think it will be?’ Upon
which, not knowing what to think or what to say, I was somewhat at a
loss: his telling me of his aged parents, and his simplicity touched
me much: and how far I may be censured for my after-conduct, I
know not; but those who think I did amiss, I hope, will pardon me, as
being then but a young warrior. True, such a thing, I know, ought not
to have been publicly done; yet, when an opportunity presented itself
of doing an Act of Mercy without harm to the Cause, I am convinced
that this my behaviour will, with all generous minds, escape reproof.
The young boy continuing his lamentations, I told him to be of good
courage, for death was not so imminent as he expected; at which he
seemed to respire new vigor and life: And after some questions
asked, and promises made of his ever being grateful and upon his
telling me, that his home was not above fourteen miles from thence, I
asked him, if he could privately slip away thither. He replied, such a
favor would be too great for him to presume to request: So telling
him to do it if he could, I discharged him, ordering him to be a
support to his poor aged parents.
And now by this time we had almost conducted our prisoners to
Falkirk; and, after delivering them, we went thoroughly wet and cold,
to repose ourselves a little while on straw, and some in the open
fields or air, all places being by this time entirely filled, so that it was
then impossible to find any resource or ease for our excessive
hunger, wet and cold. So resting a few hours in that condition, they
soon after appeared; and when light, we went to see the field of the
slain; and number being made of them, we found near seven
hundred of the enemy slain, and about fifty of ours, which were
immediately interred. But this cheap-bought victory, you will say,
merited a better exit! The most distinguished among the slain were
Colonel Whitney and Sir Robert Monro, who was heard much to
blaspheme during the engagement, and as a punishment for which,
his tongue was miraculously cut asunder by a sword, that struck him
directly across the mouth. His brother, a physician, was likewise
killed at his side.[423] There were likewise found slain, some
Presbyterian Parsons,[424] who, fired with holy zeal, had quitted their
Bibles and took their swords. It was said, that one of these Parsons,
seeing the danger he was in of losing his life as a Soldier, had
recourse to his dignity, supposing that would be a cloak to save him.
‘Spare my life,’ said he to a Highlander, who was on the point of
taking it, ‘for I am a Minister of My Master Jesus Christ!’ To which the
other ingeniously replied: ‘If you are a good one, your Master has
need of you; if not, it’s fitting that you go and take your punishment
elsewhere!’—which dilemma was immediately solved by the
Highlander’s sword. Another Minister, seeing the case his Brother
was in, and being in a fair way to share the same fate, begged his
life of another Highlander for Prince Charles’s sake, by which means
he preserved what he would otherwise inevitably have lost.
We now took possession of the enemy’s baggage, camp, and
eight pieces of cannon; which they had not time to carry off—besides
a few prisoners, the chief of whom was Major Lockhart, who, after
having his life given him, and his liberty upon his parole of honour,
afterwards spurned against gratitude itself, by not only being
heinously perjured, but more than ordinarily thirsty of those
prisoners’ blood who just before had spared his life.[425]
We had now about one-hundred prisoners, one of whom seeing
his situation and ours, said with a grave countenance to his
companion: ‘By my soul, Dick, if Prince Charles goes on in this way,
Prince Frederick will never be King George!’ But of the five or six
thousand men that went with the Prince to the field of battle, scarce
three thousand returned back with him, for many of them, having
loaded themselves with booty, returned up to the hills. It was now a
great loss to us, that we had neither fort or other secure place to
keep our prisoners in, so that, if it were not merely out of mercy, it
was to no purpose to take prisoners, being without the means of
keeping them.
And now being come again to Stirling, the enemy being fled to
Edinburgh, and finding the siege of the Castle went on but slowly the
spirit of the army began much to change. Factions, grudges, and
private interest were now judged proper to be exercised, so that the
Prince was in a mortifying situation, seeing himself deserted by half
his army, and the others mightily turned. But as it is not for me to say
more than what relates to myself, I shall only mention the grudge I
have often dearly paid for—that exercised against my Colonel, who,
on the death of his brother had lately succeeded to the title of Lord
Balmerino. And here it may be proper to give some account of the
character of this brave man, which though sufficiently known, his
praises cannot enough be sung. He was a man of a noble
personage, of approved loyalty, and had the courage of a lion. He
possessed a mind and genius well ornamented with both natural and
acquired parts, being versed in most languages. He could recite
whole pages of Horace, Ovid, and Virgil at his age of fifty-eight, as
perfectly as a school-boy of sixteen, so that his memory for his years
was wonderful, the more so for its not being in the least impaired by
his hard drinking—his sole and predominant passion, which if he had
a little more restrained, he would have shone with the same lustre in
the army as he afterwards did on the scaffold. However, whilst with
the Prince, he was never failing with his duty; and proud he was of
having something, wherein he could shew his loyalty and obedience
to his Master.
But what was the cause of the quarrel betwixt him and Lord
George Murray, I know not; as Lord Balmerino did not ever directly
inform us why he was treated after that manner: only I remember,
His Lordship, when he saw himself so apparently ill-used, frequently
addressed his corps as follows. ‘Come let us do as we are ordered!
It is in vain to dispute; a time will come when I shall see all these
things righted, and that too at Lord George’s cost or mine. But at
present he is my superior, and we must obey as we tender the good
of the Prince.’ With such soothing expressions has he often accosted
us, when some were mutinying. And certainly he suffered a great
deal from Lord George, for, to my knowledge, we have been ordered
twenty or thirty miles, harassed and fatigued, and a courier sent after
us, ordering us immediately to return without halting—saying it was
my Lord George Murray’s orders.[426] And now a harder time than
ever came upon us, for I can safely say and prove, that from the time
of Falkirk Affair to the Battle of Culloden, notwithstanding the fatigue
of the day, I scarce slept three nights out of seven in bed.
And now having been some time before Stirling Castle, news
arrived from Edinburgh, that Cumberland was come thither with an
intention to rally General Hawley’s army and attack us again. As our
number had been so much diminished by the desertion of those who
after the battle of Falkirk had gone home loaded with plunder; it was
judged expedient for us to retire higher into the country, where we
were sure of being joined by some more forces. Accordingly we had
orders to proceed on our march; and on the morning on which we
began it, the Prince to St. Ringin,[427] distant about half a mile from
Stirling, to give the necessary directions for quitting the town and
raising the siege; which being done, we retired again, and when at a
short distance, we were surprized with a hideous noise just behind
us; and upon the Prince’s sending back to inquire what it was, it was
found to be a church blown up, just upon the place where a few
minutes before we had been standing. This church had been
converted into a magazine for our gun-powder, which by some
accident had been set on fire, and several of the town’s-people and
of our soldiers were killed by the explosion. However, continuing our
march, we arrived that night at Crieff a little town in the Highlands;
and the Prince lodged at Drummond Castle, the residence of the
illustrious Duke of Perth, which was only a short distance from the
said town. And now it was judged proper for the army to separate;
accordingly the Prince went the Highland way with the Highlanders
and prisoners for Inverness; and the Horse and Lowland Regiments
the Low-Country Road by the Sea-Coast, which was much longer, so
that it was three or four weeks before we again formed a junction.
And now we marched from Crieff to Perth, a large fine town; from
Perth to Cowpar-in-Angus; from Cowpar to Glams; from Glams to
Forfar; and so on to Montrose. The reason why I am so short in
mentioning these places, is, I have little to say; we passing them
quickly, and nothing extraordinary happening. But at Montrose we
halted a few days. It is a fine loyal seaport town and looked upon as I
was told there, to produce men of the greatest wisdom in Scotland.
Having staid three days there, we were a little surprised at the sight
of ships of war, that appeared a little distance off the Coast: and the
rumor being that Cumberland was pretty nigh us, we began to
apprehend lest they should land and intercept our passage; to
prevent which, we marched with all haste out of the town, the foot
going out the third day at night, and the rest following early the next
morning except the Hussars who remained some days longer to
watch the enemy’s motions.
Some of my readers may be curious to know what sort of men
these Hussars were. A set of braver fellows it would be very hard to
find; many of them having mounted themselves on horses which
they had taken from the enemy. Their Commander[428] also was a
wise, courageous virtuous man, and behaved himself in his station to
the admiration of all, regulating his corps with such order as to make
our enemies and the country, even fifty miles distant from us, have
more fear of them than almost the whole army. In fine, he was of
infinite service to the Prince, as also were his horse; for their conduct
was daring, and their courage was steeled, and few of them there
were, who would have scrupled to go, if possible to hell’s gates to
fetch away the keys.
Soon after our departure from Montrose, we arrived at Aberdeen,
where we staid two or three days; and notwithstanding our being in
the town the Presbyterian Ministers ceased not to preach and pray
publicly against us. And here it was that I happened to be bedfellow
to my Colonel, Lord Balmerino in the same bed where Cumberland
afterwards lay, it being in one of the Chief Provosts’ houses.
When we marched out of Aberdeen, it blew, snowed, hailed, and
froze to such a degree, that few Pictures ever represented Winter,
with all its icicles about it, better than many of us did that day; for
here men were covered with icicles hanging at their eyebrows and
beards; and an entire coldness seizing all their limbs, it may be
wondered at how so many could bear up against the storm, a severe
contrary wind driving snow and little cutting hail bitterly down upon
our faces, in such a manner that it was impossible to see ten yards
before us. And very easy it now was to lose our companions; the
road being bad and leading over large commons, and the paths
being immediately filled up with drifted snow. However, we continued
marching on till about three in the afternoon, when my horse
overcome by the inclemency of the weather, fairly gave it up and
would carry me no farther: and now by a little halt I quickly lost my
Company, and was obliged to alight and lead my horse leg-deep in
snow; being upon a wide common, as it appeared to me, not having
seen all that day’s march scarce a house, tree or barn. I now
expected every moment to perish, as I was quite benumbed and all
covered over with snow, and my horse refused to follow me. At last,
unable to proceed any farther, I sunk down, quite exhausted, upon
the snow. In this dreadful situation, I luckily recollected a little bottle
of spirits, which had been given me by the Provost’s Lady; and
accordingly tried to put my frozen hand into my riding-coat pocket to
take it out. On taking a draught of the liquor, I soon found that never
repose to the wearied traveller, never meat to a most ravenous
hunger, never drink to a most burning thirst, could be more
refreshing or agreeable than this was to me; and I should have
finished my bottle, if a reflection had not come into my head about
my poor horse, which seemed to be in as bad a situation as myself,
being one of a delicate and tender breed. Knowing that he could
drink beer, I resolved to make an experiment whether he would
partake of the contents of my bottle. So pouring the remainder of the
liquor into the crown of my hat, which I had pressed low down for the
purpose, and dissolving some snow in it, in order to mitigate the
spirits, I gave it my poor horse to drink: which to my great surprise
and pleasure, he did, his mouth, I believe, being so cold that he did
not know what he drank. However, now finding ourselves to respire
as it were new life and vigor, we endeavoured to proceed, and after
three quarters of an hour, being almost upon the relapse again, we
stumbled upon a house, and following the walls of it came to the
door, where entering together with my horse, I surprized the poor
people who were sitting at the fire. But they, seeing the condition I
was in, received me with a great deal of good-nature, and permitted
my horse to stand in the house till he was well rubbed, and then led
him to a little place for him to lie in, giving him hay and corn as he
wanted. After I had taken off my riding-coat and boots and well
warmed and refreshed myself, I heard of two more (who had been in
almost as bad a situation as myself except that their horses
continued to carry them), who were come to the next house
adjacent. So going out to see them, I found them to be two old
acquaintances, vizt., one Mr. Maxwell, and Mr. Ball, an English
Gentleman, who, after some chat, concluded, that two more
harassing marches, than that over the Esk and the present, could
scarcely be imagined. Accommodating ourselves as well as we
could for that night, being obliged to lie with our horses, we departed
early next morning for Old Meldrum, which place most of the army
had reached before us.
From Old Meldrum we marched the next day for Banff, a little
pretty agreeable town. About this time we heard, that the
Highlanders, who were with the Prince, had broke down the barracks
of Riven of Badenoch (which were a great eye-sore to them, having
been built to keep them in order), and having taken the Sergeant and
eleven more prisoners, were in full march for Inverness, distant
thence only twenty-four miles. And now, after a short stay at Banff,
we marched for Cullen; and by this time we heard that the Prince
had made himself master of the Lord President’s House, and after
some little resistance forced the soldiers in the town of Inverness to
retire into the Castle, which, after a regular siege, likewise soon
surrendered at discretion. About 200 men were taken prisoners here,
and several officers, the principal of whom were the Governor and
the Master of Ross. This rapid success of the Prince gave us great
courage. So, marching from Cullen, through Fochabers, over the
River Spey, Elgin, Forres and Nairn, towns only ten miles distant
from each other, we came to be greedy spectators of our dear Prince
again, and what he with his brave Highlanders had effected. And
now, to second our victorious arms, we were joined by several more
of the Clans and Chiefs, and the brave Amazon Lady McIntosh,[429]
Seaforth and others coming in, or causing their Clans to come in,
and many who had left us at Falkirk rejoining their colours, greatly
reinforced the army. When in this flourishing condition, it pleased the
Prince to make a visit to the Duke of Gordon’s, whither all the
Guards were ordered to attend him; and in going a curious fine
standard with this motto ‘Britons, strike home!’ that was taken at
Falkirk from Gardiner’s Dragoons, was honourably conferred upon
me by the Prince at the head of the whole Troop; and I had the
honor of carrying it ever after. Having passed Nairn, Forres, Elgin,
and the river Spey, just at the other side under Fochabers, we came
to the Duke’s seat.[430] What reception the Prince had, or what
passed there I know not: but after a short stay we attended our
Royal Master back again to Inverness. But as soon as we arrived
there, we had orders to conduct some of the chief officers, who had
lately been taken prisoners to Forres, and after leaving them there
(they being upon their parole of honor) to go to Cullen to inspect all
affairs there on that side of the country, and to observe the motions
of the enemy who lay at Aberdeen. While at Cullen, where we were
continually upon the watch by our patrolling parties, we heard that
Colonel Grant, a good French Officer, had with his Artillery taken
Fort Augustus, and made the garrison prisoners; that a part of Fitz-
James’ Horse had landed and joined the Prince;[431] and that Lord
George Murray had blocked up seven hundred men in the Castle of
Blair, when he behaved with a great deal of conduct and policy, for,
he appeared before the Castle with only a few men, having hid most
of the Highlanders with him in an adjacent wood. The garrison being
thus deceived made a sally upon him with about three hundred men;
but he immediately drew his party out of the wood and surrounded
them, upon seeing which, they immediately surrendered.[432] So,
sending them prisoners to Inverness he persevered in the siege of
the Castle: but the approach of the Hessians soon obliged him to
raise it and leave four hundred men remaining in the Castle.
At this time President Forbes together with Lord Loudon, were
endeavouring to confederate and knit together what forces they
could: but to prevent their doing much mischief, a party of the brave
McDonalds, with some few others, were detached under the
Command of the Duke of Perth, who soon dispersed this rising
power, and obliged its heads, viz., Lord Loudon and the President to
save themselves in boats.
Some of my readers may be curious to know who this President
was, and what interest he had. He may truly be styled the Oracle of
his Country, for many resorted to him for advice; and had he been as
great a friend as he was an implacable enemy, James would in all
probability have swayed the English sceptre; for by his interest,
cunning and persuasion he brought over his own party, together with
Sir Alexander McDonald and several others, who before were just
sworn in to the Prince’s interest.[433] So, I say, had he been as firm a
friend as he was an implacable enemy, we should have seen,
instead of the four thousand men who marched into England, an
army of Eighteen or twenty thousand men.
About this time we heard, that the officers who were prisoners
upon their parole of honour had broken it, and escaped to the
enemy’s army, all of them except the Master of Ross and one or two
more.[434] But what will the world say, to see these officers, whom no
tie of religion, gratitude or honour could bind, protected and
cherished by their own party—nay sent against us, to endeavour to
destroy those who before had saved them!
And now we heard, that the Advanced Guard of the enemy was
approaching us, and were got up to Strathbogie. We who were also
of the advanced Guard, upon receiving this intelligence, quitted
Cullen, and retreated to Fochabers, where a considerable body of
our men were endeavouring to make a resistance at the River Spey,
and had for that purpose built barracks, and made all necessary
preparations, in case the passage of the river had been attempted.
But finding their army lay quiet at Aberdeen, and that their advanced
party in Strathbogie only made now and then some little excursions
towards us as far as Keith, we, though at first we were very diligent
and alert, we relaxed in our vigilance, nay fell asleep and at last into
a lethargy, in which we unhappily continued till awakened by the foul
affair of Culloden, which merits an epithet bitterer than I can give.
About this time an advanced party under the command of Major
Glascow went out at night, and hearing that some of the enemy were
at Keith,[435] surrounded that place, and having taken most of them
prisoners, with their arms and equipage, returned the next day with
great honour to Spey-side, where Lord John Drummond and Lord
Ogilvy commanded.
As we lay hereabouts a considerable time, assessments were
made upon the country for our support, and among others upon the
Earl of Findlater’s Estate, who on our arrival had taken wing and
joined Cumberland Will. The Earl’s Steward, being threatened with
military executions, if he refused to comply with our demands (which
were always seconded by such threats, though seldom put in
practice) begged leave to write to his Master for instructions how to
act. Upon this the Earl, having consulted with Cumberland, sent a
Letter addressed To the Man they call Lord John Drummond, telling
his Lordship, that if he or any other person should pretend to
exercise any military authority over any thing belonging to him, there
were Rebels’ houses enough, on which his Master Cumberland
promised him he should have his revenge. This Letter excited a
great deal of indignation among us; and was the cause of what
afterwards happened to his house;—for several of our party, without
any order being given, and indeed without the Prince’s being in the
then situation of his affairs, able to restrain their fury, ransacked it,
and carried away several articles of value, but without setting fire to
it, or wantonly destroying anything merely for destroying’s sake.[436]
At last news arrived that the enemy had left Aberdeen, and were
marching against us.[437] This intelligence gave great satisfaction to
many of us, who were in a manner tired out of our lives. Yet
notwithstanding the approach of the enemy, all the Prince’s
endeavours to collect his whole army, were ineffectual; for many
under pretence of cultivating their lands, or promising to come up
soon enough, went, staid, and came as they thought proper.
And now finding the enemy advanced pretty fast both by water
and land, the fleet bringing up their provisions and wearied soldiers;
frequent patrols were sent out by us in order to observe their
motions. Here I had the honour of commanding the last patrolling
party that ever crossed the Spey for the Prince’s cause. Lord John
Drummond (Commander at the Spey) having ordered me with ten
others to patrol all night towards the enemy, we began our work
about seven o’Clock and continued it till about five the next morning,
being then eight miles from Fochabers and two from the enemy;
when we took a man with a Letter from one of Cumberland’s
Secretaries to the Duchess of Gordon,[438] desiring her to employ all
her interest among her vassals in getting down provisions and
getting together what forces she could, as the Duke of Cumberland
intended to pass the river that day. Having secured the Messenger
and Letter, we continued our route, till we came up in a manner to
where they were encamped; for as they lay upon the declivity of a
hill, and had no guards on the top, we were able to approach very
near to them unperceived. But finding them drawn out in order of
battle, after seeing all we could see, and some bravadoes and
huzzas, we retired with all speed, leaving them to wonder what we
meant. We soon reached Fochabers (on the Spey) where I found
Lord John Drummond. Having given him the Letter taken from the
Duke of Cumberland’s Messenger and informed him of the situation I
had found the enemy in, I retired to repose myself a little while.
When fast asleep, a servant came in to tell me that the enemy was in
the town, and that it was too late to think of escaping, almost all of
our party having already passed the river. However, starting up in
great confusion, I resolved to risk all rather than fall into their hands,
and mounting my horse escaped by a back road. I had no sooner
crossed the river than I was ordered to join a party of about eighty
horse who were to remain behind on the banks of the Spey to
observe the motions of the enemy; whilst the foot, amounting to
about two thousand men, marched for Inverness, where the Prince
then lay with the greatest part of his army. Finding that the enemy
after a short halt at the Spey side, began to cross the river, we
likewise retired and followed our foot, to inform them of the enemy’s
being in full pursuit of us. This intelligence made our men pass
through Elgin, without halting, and straight on that night to Forres,
which was ten miles farther; and, after some stay there, to Nairn, out
of which we were next morning driven; the whole English Army
entering the town at one end, whilst we marched out at the other,
and continuing to pursue us sharply for three or four hours. And here
it was His Grace the Duke of Perth and Colonel O’Sullivan[439]
gained immortal honour by their bravery and conduct in bringing us
off in good order from under the very nose of the enemy; for
notwithstanding all their firing upon our rear, and though we were
much inferior in numbers, we lost not one man.
Soon after their desisting from pursuing us, we received orders to
halt, and encamp upon that very place, where the fatal battle of
Culloden was afterwards fought. Having accordingly encamped as
well as we could on the heath that grew upon the common, which
served us both for bedding and fuel, the cold being very severe, we
were soon after joined by the Prince and several of his Clans.
Finding that the enemy did not pursue us we rested ourselves all that
night upon the Common, and early next morning drew out in battle-
array. But that day being Cumberland’s birthday,[440] and the enemy
shewing no intention to attack us on it, we reposed ourselves again,
though still keeping ourselves in readiness, upon the place where we
had rested the preceding night; a biscuit being given to us for our
refreshment. In that situation we remained, till the brave Prince came
amongst us in the dusk of the evening, with the full resolution of
going to attack them that night in their camp, distant only seven
miles. Orders were accordingly given to that effect, which were
obeyed with the greatest pleasure and alacrity by the whole army.
We began our March about seven o’Clock leaving great fires burning
in our camp: but by some strange infatuation or misfortune the road
was not rightly taken, either through the ignorance or treachery of
Lord George Murray’s guide. This still remains doubtful, but this I can
say, that with the little knowledge I had of the country I could have
conducted them much better and sooner. After we had marched till
about three o’Clock in the morning, over double the ground that was
necessary, we at last came pretty nigh the enemy’s camp: and when
we were supposing to surround them, and for that purpose in some
measure drawing out; my Lord George Murray began to be missing;
notwithstanding the Prince’s Aides-de-Camp in riding from rank to
rank, and asking, for God’s sake! what has become of His Lordship,
and telling that the Prince was in the utmost perplexity for want of
him. In that situation did we remain a considerable time, till, day
breaking fast in upon us, we heard that Lord George Murray was
gone off with most of the Clans. Where he had been all that
considerable time, or what was his intention in it, I leave Time to
prove. Now, after we had stood some time on the brink of entering
their camp, the Prince, on receiving the unwelcome news of Lord
George Murray’s going off with the greatest part of the army, was
under the necessity of ordering us likewise, much to our
dissatisfaction, to march back again to our Camp. In this manner did
that noble and well-concerted scheme fall to ruin—and not only to
ruin, but in such a manner as to ruin us, who before had hopes of
ruining the enemy. But O! for Madness! what can one think, or what
can one say here![441]
The enemy at our departure, being fully awakened and seeing
the jeopardy they had been in, judged rightly, it was their time now to
pursue us in the unhappy situation we were then in, being harassed,
hungry and starved and fatigued, almost to the greatest extremity.
We had no sooner reached our camp again, than news came of the
enemy’s being in full march towards us, and of their intention to
attack us. This disagreeable intelligence vexed us much in our
present situation, the more so, as of the twelve thousand men, who
were actually in arms and in the pay of the Prince, not above Four
thousand were now with him many going every moment,
notwithstanding his orders to the contrary, to Inverness, and to
woods and houses adjacent, in order to repose and rest themselves
after their late excessive fatigue. Many of these were so far from
rejoining us, that they were taken asleep by the enemy after the
battle. Those, however, who staid, put the best face on the affair they
could, and all of us presently appeared surprizingly courageous, who
only seemed to survive and animated by the spirit of loyalty and love
for our dear Prince. But now why we resolved to fight, or why we did
not retire to Inverness, and keep that town till we were fully joined,
which might have been easily done, or even at last, if judged proper,
avoided fighting and make another expedition into England in spite
of them,—I may say it was Fortune’s will;—for, contrary to the
Prince’s inclination, Lord George Murray insisted on standing and
fighting them that day: and as for what he said of our wanting
provisions, it is most certain, though we did that day, we might have
retired to Inverness and found there a sufficiency of meat for two or
three days. However, the Prince, notwithstanding his great inclination
to avoid fighting, was at last obliged to give way to the importunity of
Lord George Murray, who even used terms very cutting in case of
refusal; and was also for fighting His Grace the Duke of Perth—but
this may be said for him, he doubted not but the same Hand that had
supported and miraculously conducted the Prince hitherto would
infallibly continue to support him, and make him a glorious
Conqueror.[442]
I shall now proceed to give account in what manner we were
ranged in battle-array. The brave McDonalds, who till then had led
the van, and behaved at all times with great courage and bravery,
were now displaced, and made to give way, at the pleasure of Lord
George Murray, to the Athol men, whom he commanded. The rest of
the front line was composed of Highlanders: the second, of
Lowlanders and French, with four pieces of cannon at each wing:
and in the rear was the Prince attended by all the horse, and some
foot. In this manner were we drawn up—four thousand men to fight
eleven thousand. The enemy being by this time in full view, we
began to huzza and bravado them in their march upon us, who were
extended from right to left in battle-array, it being upon a common.
But, notwithstanding all our repeated shouts, we could not induce
them to return one: on the contrary, they continued proceeding, like a
deep sullen river; while the Prince’s army might be compared to a
streamlet running among stones, whose noise sufficiently shewed its
shallowness. The Prince, the Duke of Perth, the Earl of Kilmarnock,
Lord Ogilvy, and several other Highland and Lowland Chiefs, rode
from rank to rank, animating and encouraging the soldiers by well-
adapted harangues.
The battle being now begun, the whole fury of the enemy’s
Artillery seemed to be directed against us in the rear; as if they had
noticed where the Prince was. By the first cannon shot, his servant,
scarcely thirty yards behind him, was killed; which made some about
the Prince desire, that he would be pleased to retire a little off: but
this he refused to do, till seeing the imminent danger from the
number of balls that fell about him, he was by the earnest entreaties
of his friends forced to retire a little, attended only by Lord
Balmerino’s corps. Frequent looks and turns the Prince made, to see
how his men behaved: but alas! our hopes were very slender, from
the continual fire of musketry that was kept up upon them from right
to left. We had not proceeded far, when I was ordered back, lest the
sight of my standard going off, might induce others to follow. In
returning, various thoughts passed my soul, and filled by turns my
breast with grief for quitting my dear Prince, now hopes of victory,
then fear of losing—the miserable situation the poor loyalists would
again be reduced to—and what we had to expect if we left the field
alive: these thoughts, I say, strangely wrought upon me, till, coming
to the place I was on before, and seeing it covered with the dead
bodies of many of the Hussars who at the time of our leaving had
occupied it, I pressed on, resolving to kill or be killed. Some few
accompanied my standard, but soon left it. At this time, many of ours
from right to left were giving way and soon the battle appeared to be
irretrievably lost. The enemy, after we had almost passed the two
ranks, flanking and galling us with their continual fire, forced us at
last back, broke our first line, and attacked the second, where the
French troops were stationed. I happened then to be there, and after
receiving a slight grazing ball on my left arm, met with Lord John
Drummond, who, seeing me, desired I would come off with him,
telling me all was over and shewing me his regiment, just by him,
surrounded. Being quickly joined by about forty more horse, we left
the field of battle in a body, though pursued and fired upon for some
time. When we arrived at the foot of the hills, some of us took one
way, and some another: I, however, with about six more, continued
with Lord John Drummond; and it was with some difficulty we passed
the rapid torrents and frozen roads, till one o’Clock that night, when
we came to a little village at the foot of a great mountain, which we
had just crossed. Here we alighted, and some went to one house
and some to another. None of these cottages having the
conveniences to take in our horses, who wanted refreshment as well
as we, many of them perished at the doors. I happened to be in one
of the most miserable huts I had ever met with during my whole life;
the people were starving to death with hunger. However, having laid
myself down on the floor to rest myself after having been almost
thirty hours on horse-back; the people came crying about me and
speaking a language I did not understand, which made my case still
more unpleasant. But by good luck, a soldier soon after came in,
who could speak both to them and me, and brought with him some
meal, which was very acceptable, as I was almost starving with
hunger. Of this meal we made at that time a very agreeable dish, by
mixing it very thick with cold water, for we could get no warm: and so
betwixt eating and drinking we refreshed ourselves, till four o’Clock
in the morning; when Lord John Drummond and the rest of us began
our march, we knew not whither, through places it would be in vain to
describe; for we saw neither house, barn, tree, or beast nor any
beaten road, being commonly mid-leg deep in snow, till five o’Clock
that afternoon; when we found ourselves near a village called
Privana a Badanich,[443] the barracks of which, as I mentioned
before, the Prince had destroyed. Being now, to our surprize, almost
upon it, we consulted amongst ourselves how we might best get
intelligence from it; for, as it lay on the road from Inverness twenty-
four miles we apprehended the enemy might be there. But
fortunately a soldier coming out told us, that the village was occupied
by the Prince’s men. This intelligence gave us great pleasure; and
having accordingly entered the place, we found a great many of the
Prince’s adherents, the chief of whom was Lord George Murray and
the Duke of Perth; but we heard no news where the poor Prince was.
At first we had great hopes of rallying again: but they soon vanished,
orders coming for every one to make the best of his way he could.
So some went one way, some another: those who had French
Commissions surrendered; and their example was followed by my
Colonel, Lord Balmerino, tho’ he had none. Many went for the
mountains, all being uncertain what to do or whither to go.
In this perplexity I resolved to steer my course through the
mountainous country, notwithstanding the advice of many to the
contrary, who told me, it would be impossible for me to escape, and
begged I would go and surrender, assuring me, that if I attempted
the mountains, I should inevitably perish in them. But reflecting, how
nigh suffering my Father had been in the year 1715, taking Courage
and Patience for my guides, I resolved to enterprize a journey
through a Country that few of my Nation had ever passed before. So,
folding up my Standard, whose Motto was Britons! strike home! I put
it in my Riding-coat pocket, in hopes it might be of use another day,
and began my journey, in company with three others, for the
Highlands. Having discharged our horses, after a long day’s journey,
we came to a house situated on Garvie-more, twelve miles from any
other, where we met with many of our party, who had arrived there
before us. However, putting up in the best manner with what little we
could obtain, we set forward for Fort Augustus: but on the road, a
misfortune happened, that disconcerted all our plans; for a man who
carried our provisions of Oatmeal, fallen a little behind, by accident
met with some of the Brigade Picquets, who robbed him of our meal
and two riding-coats. This unexpected loss obliged us to separate
soon afterwards, being too many to subsist in this wild tract of
country, if we had kept together. However, having got betwixt Fort
Augustus and Fort William, we struck up into the country to the right,
and passed several large mountains in Lochiel’s Country, where we
staid three days, because we heard, that the brave Prince was nigh
us, and to take leave of one another, the necessaries of life being
exceedingly scarce, from the great number of people wandering over
the hills as well as we. I here went to wait upon the Duke of Perth,
who was at the house of Doctor Cameron, Lochiel’s Brother: but
being told by two sentinels at the door, that His Grace was
indisposed, I returned without seeing him. It was now reported, that
an English spy had been at Doctor Cameron’s house which obliged
me in all haste to quit that place; for certain it is, had I staid there any
longer, and the Highlanders supposed me to be the spy, they would
have made away with me. I therefore left my companions and set
forward to Lochaber, the wildest country I ever was in. And now it
was that I began to be truly miserable, and to endure hardships
which I had thought it impossible for human nature to support, for in
that most hideous place I was deprived of every thing that could give
me comfort: true it is, I found some few inhabitants; but in language
food and customs quite different from what I had ever seen before.
In this place I was forced to stay several days, on account of the
prodigious quantity of snow that fell upon the mountains, and
hindered me from discerning or making any road. During my stay, I
by good fortune got a pound of black bread to live upon. The snow
somewhat melting I set forward again from Lochaber towards the
sea-shore. On the road I was overtaken by about forty women, half-
starved to death who were wandering up and down for safety. Some
of them, who spoke English, told me, they had been driven out of
their houses by the soldiers who were sent out from Fort William to
ravage burn and plunder all before them and now it was that the
most heart-rending scenes of misery began to present themselves;
for many of these poor creatures with children in their arms, lay
extended in the clefts of the rocks half covered with snow, dead, and
a-dying in the most piteous manner. With these companions of
misery, and daily meeting with more I passed some days. I now
learned, that many of the unfortunate adherents of the Prince had
been famished to death on the hills and I expected it would soon be
my turn, for I began to be almost unable to proceed, my shoes being
worn out, and the sharp rocks wounding my feet. However, I
encouraged myself with the thought that my pursuers would have the
same difficulty to climb the rocks as I had; and on the twentieth
day[444] after our defeat at Culloden I came to the sea, in Clan-
Ronald’s Country; the view of which was most agreeable to me,
though even then I saw no prospect of escaping. Getting a little
refreshment from the people who dwelt on the sea-shore, I began as
it were to revive again, having been almost starved to death with
hunger and cold; for I had been obliged to lie down for whole nights
under the shelves of rocks, and was for two or three days together
without eating at all, as nothing could be obtained either for love or
money. Though I was fat and strong at the battle of Culloden, I was
now quite emaciated and reduced to so miserable a state, that, if I
had had another day to walk, I am sure I must have died; for I was
not only starved with hunger and cold, but frightfully covered with
vermin, which bit me all over my body so that there remained not
one whole place in my skin. This, joined with the pain in my torn feet,
made me often think that Job could not be in a more piteous
condition. Yet as he had God for his comforter, so had I; for the
justness of the cause I was suffering for, gave me great courage,
and supported me much: and though I saw daily enmities exercised
against me, it was a great satisfaction to me, to think, that, during the
time I had the honour of being a soldier under the banner of our dear
Prince, I could not accuse myself of one act that a Christian might
blush at.
Being somewhat recovered by the particular care of a worthy
Gentleman (whose kindness I had the satisfaction in a little time to
return by an agreeable meeting with him at Paris), I began to inquire,
if it were possible from island to island to make my escape out of the
country; for could I have sold myself at that time as a slave into
Turkey, I would have done it. My host told me, that it was impossible,
as all the boats had been destroyed by Cumberland’s order.
However, one morning, being in that perplexity of thought how to get
off, and fearing every moment the landing of soldiers to destroy the
country—news was brought us that two French ships had come into
the Lough just by—which mightily raised our hopes, that either a
restoration of the Prince’s affairs were at hand, or that we should
escape to France. So, running down to see and hear what we could
we found them to be ships destined for the Prince’s service, having
on board a great quantity of arms and ammunition, with five barrels
of gold, pretty large and nearly one-yard long—which before our late
fatal disasters might have been of great use.[445]
Notice being sent all about the Mountains, as far as time would
permit; several, who lay despairing, came down to the sea-shore,
and among the rest, my old patron the Duke of Perth, Lord John his
brother; Sir Thomas Sheridan, Secretary Murray, Mr. John Hay, and
Doctor Cameron. These being assembled together, judged it proper
though no one knew where the Prince was (many thinking he was
gone off for France) to have the money and arms brought on shore;
which was done on the evening after. Going securely to sleep that
night expecting to sail for France the next day, we were surprised by
the noise of cannon, which awakened us about three o’Clock in the
morning; and getting up to see what the matter was, we had for our
comfort the disagreeable news and sight of three English ships, that
were come from Fort William to attack the French, whose
appearance on the coast they had noticed, it seems. This sight
displeased us very much: however, fighting was the resolution of us
all. The two French Frigates (viz., the Mars and the Bellona), being
pretty strong, and having a sufficient quantity of men, cannon, and
ball, resolved to make head against the three English vessels, of
which one was the Baltimore,[446] that name being written upon her
rudder, which was carried off by a cannon-ball. The place they fought
in, was a creek of rocks, which held the French (the English coming
down upon them) as it were penn’d up, having the land on their back
and both sides. However it was easy for them to hold
communications with us on shore, who were four hundred armed
men or more; so that had they been obliged to abandon their Ships,
they might have saved themselves on shore. The Crews of the two
ships amounting to nearly eleven hundred men, might, with the
assistance of the Highlanders, have made an effectual resistance to
the English, if they had attempted to invade us. The battle furiously
beginning at three o’Clock in the morning, it remained doubtful till
four in the afternoon, who would be victors. Nor was it a small
pleasure to us to see those combatants engaged, and the skill of the
French, whose fire seldom missed the English; for many of us being
upon the rock as it were hung over these ships, in such a manner
that they could not hurt us with either cannon or musketry; we could
discern how matters went, and few balls were fired but we might see
whether they hit or missed, which latter the English frequently did.
During the engagement, the Highlanders were busied in carrying the
arms, money, and powder off from the sea-shore; which service they
performed with amazing resolution, many a cannon ball being fired,
in order to hinder them, by the largest of the English ships. Few
Highlanders there were but what had a cask of brandy hid privately
in the hills, with which some of them got merry before night. At last
we had the satisfaction to see the English hoist their sails, leave the
French, and sail to the main ocean. The French repaired their ships
as fast as possible, and endeavoured to make what haste out they
could, lest the English should return with a greater force.
All being over and hopes reviving again; one who had been in the
Guards with me, came and told me, he had found a barrel of money,
and that he would get me as much of it as I pleased. To this proposal
I replied, That I had no manner of use for it, for, if I should be so
fortunate as to escape into France, I had friends enough there, who
would take care of me; and that if I died or were taken, it would be of
no service to me. Moreover if the Prince should rally again, how
shocking it would be to have to reproach ourselves with being a
hindrance to our dear Prince’s designs. On hearing this reply, he,

Principles of Radiographic Imaging An Art and A Science 6Th Edition Richard R Carlton All Chapter

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Principles of Radiographic Imaging An Art and A Science 6Th Edition Richard R Carlton All Chapter

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Principles of Radiographic Imaging: An

Art and A Science 6th Edition Richard

Principles of Radiographic Imaging

SE/Author/Author, Title Xe ISBN-13: 9781337711067 ©2020 Designer:

Richard R. Carlton, M.S., R.T.(R)(CV), FAEIRS

Arlene M. Adler, M.Ed., R.T.(R), FAEIRS

Vesna Balac, M.S., R.T. (R)(MR)

Australia • Brazil • Mexico • Singapore • United Kingdom • United States

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Executive Director, Content Design: Marah

Learning Designer: Deborah Bordeaux Library of Congress Control Number: 2018964618

Vice President, Marketing Services: Jennifer ISBN-13: 978-1-337-71106-7

Marketing Director: Sean Chamberland Cengage

Printed in the United States of America

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Matthew Marquess, MBA, RT(T)

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Wilhelm Conrad Eddy Clifford Jerman Arthur Wolfram Fuchs

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Protective Housing / 89 Detection and Measurement of Ionizing

Automatic Exposure Controls 110

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Compton Scattering / 173

C H A P T E R 14 The Patient’s Relationship to

C H A P T E R 15 Grid Selection/Conversions / 232

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Film Processing / 247 Image Processing / 294

C h apter 20 Digital Processing Considerations / 319

Historical Development / 275

C h apter 21 Informatics Standards / 330

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C h apter 25 Defining Distortion / 401

C h apter 26 I mplementing Imaging Standards / 414

C h apter 27 Quality Assurance and Quality Control / 422

Spatial Resolution 385

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Special Radiation Protection Accessories / 490

Mammography 473 Computed Tomography Scanning / 520

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Ct Numbers (Hounsfield Units) / 529

C H A P T E R 40 On a New Kind of Rays

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1-1. Multiplication Notation 3

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32-1. Radiation Protection Rules for Mobile Radiography 443

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O hhhh, was my mother right!

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expected for successful professional practice including

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of Technology, Irven Rule of the Siemens Training and Reviewers

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1 Basic Mathematics / 2 An inherent quality of a professional is the possession

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The Language of Science EXAMPLES:

Fractions Division. To divide two fractions, rewrite the division

C h apter 26 I mplementing Imaging Standards / 414

7x 1 3y 5 7x 1 3y (Unlike terms may 5 7x 1 (27y) 1 (24x) 1 (4y) (definition of