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Carlton
Adler
Balac
Principles of Radiographic Imaging

An Art and a Science
6th Edition
SE/Author/Author, Title Xe ISBN-13: 9781337711067 ©2020 Designer:

Printer: Binding: Casebound Trim: 8.5” x 10.875” CMYK
6th Edition
Principles of
Radiographic
Imaging An Art and
a Science
Richard R. Carlton, M.S., R.T.(R)(CV), FAEIRS

Former Chair and Associate Professor of Radiologic and Imaging Sciences
Grand Valley State University
Grand Rapids, Michigan
Arlene M. Adler, M.Ed., R.T.(R), FAEIRS

Professor Emerita, Radiologic Sciences Programs
Indiana University Northwest
Gary, Indiana
Vesna Balac, M.S., R.T. (R)(MR)

Clinical Assistant Professor and Director, Radiologic Sciences Programs
Gary, Indiana
Contributors
Randy Griswold, Lisa King, Sharon Barrows Lakia, Matthew Marquess,
Kori Stewart, Christina Truluck
Australia • Brazil • Mexico • Singapore • United Kingdom • United States
11067_fm_hr_i-xxii.indd 1 11/29/18 8:35 PM

Principles of Radiographic © 2020, 2013 Cengage Learning, Inc.
Imaging: An Art and a Science,
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Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2018

Dedication
In memory of Raymond P. Rossi.
Our mentor, friend, teacher,
and coauthor. We miss you, Ray.
To Sidney Finkleman and Quentin Garlets for
teaching us to be radiographers, to LaVerne
Ramaeker, Kay Shriver, and our students
for teaching us to be teachers,
and, most importantly,
to our families and friends
for sustaining us throughout.
Contributors
Randy Griswold, MPA, RT(R)
Consultant and Lecturer, Former Program Director
School of Radiologic Sciences
Bellin College
Green Bay, Wisconsin
Lisa J. King, R.T.(R)(M)(BD), CBDT
Bone and Mineral Lab/JSC NASA
Wyle, Integrated Science and Engineering Group
Houston, Texas
Sharon Barrows Lakia, M.S., R.T.(R), RDMS, RVT
Former Director, Diagnostic Medical Sonography
Gary, Indiana
Matthew Marquess, MBA, RT(T)

Lecturer, Department of Medical Imaging &
Radiation Sciences
Thomas Jefferson University
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Kori Stewart, MHS R.T.(R)(CT), CIIP
Clinical Director CT/MRI/SONO
University of Hartford
West Hartford, Connecticut
Christina A. Truluck, Ph.D., C.N.M.T., R.T.(N)
Associate Professor and Program Director (NM, PET/CT)
Department of Medical Imaging & Radiation Sciences
Thomas Jefferson University
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

The Founders
of Radiography
Wilhelm Conrad Eddy Clifford Jerman Arthur Wolfram Fuchs

Röntgen (1845–1923) (1865–1936) (1895–1962)
Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen became the Ed C. Jerman is known as the “Father of Arthur W. Fuchs is known as the inven-
first radiographer when he discovered Radiography” in the United States because tor of the fixed kilovoltage technique of
x-rays on November 8, 1895, in his labo- he was the first teacher of radiography. He radiography. His father, Wolfram Fuchs,
ratory at the University of Würzburg in began teaching x-ray techniques in 1897; established the first x-ray laboratory in
Germany. His original paper On a New he founded the American Association of Chicago in 1896 but became one of the
Kind of Rays is printed in Appendix A. Radiological Technicians (now known early martyrs of radiation, dying from
For his discovery he received the first as the American Society of Radiologic excessive exposure. Arthur performed
Nobel Prize in physics in 1901 and Technologists), and personally examined radiography for the U.S. Army in both
was decorated by Prussia, Bavaria, the first 1,000 members of the American World Wars I and II. During World War II
Great Britain, Austria, Mexico, Germany, Registry of X-Ray Technicians. He brought he wrote the U.S. Army training manual
France, the Netherlands, Sweden, Italy, order to the principles of radiographic Principles of Radiographic Exposure,
Turkey, and the United States. exposure technique by naming the quali- in which he outlined his success with
ties of the radiographic image: density, the optimal fixed kVp technique system.
(Portrait courtesy of the American College of Radiology)
contrast, detail, and distortion. In 1928 In 1955 he first published his book Prin-
he published Modern X-Ray Technic, the ciples of Radiographic Exposure and
first book on radiographic principles. Processing.
(Portrait courtesy of the American Society of Radiologic Technologists) (Portrait courtesy of the family of Arthur Fuchs)
iv

Contents
List of Tables
Foreword
xii
xv C H A P T E R 3
Preface xvi
Electricity 35
About the Authors xviii
Acknowledgments xix Understanding Electricity / 36
Electrostatics / 36
Electrodynamics / 40
Unit I Series and Parallel Circuits / 47
Creating the Beam
C H A P T E R 1 C H A P T E R 4
Basic Mathematics 2 Electromagnetism 52
The Language of Science / 3 Magnetism / 53
Arithmetic / 3 Electromagnetism / 57
Algebra / 7 Solenoids and Electromagnets / 59
Units of Measurement / 14 Controlling Electrical Current / 67
Rectification / 71
C H A P T E R 2
Radiation Concepts 18
C H A P T E R 5
Matter And Energy / 19 The X-Ray Tube 78
Atomic Theory / 20
Types of Energy / 28 The X-Ray Tube / 79
Electromagnetic Spectrum / 30 The Cathode Assembly / 79
The Discovery of X-Rays / 32 The Anode Assembly / 82
X-Ray Properties / 33 The Envelope / 89

vi Contents
Protective Housing / 89 Detection and Measurement of Ionizing

Rating Charts and Cooling Curves / 91 Radiation / 131
Recommendations for Extending Tube Life / 93
C H A P T E R 6 C H A P T E R 10
Radiation Protection Procedures
X-Ray Equipment 96
for Patients and Personnel 139
Types of X-Ray Equipment / 97
Advisory Groups and Regulatory
Power for X-Ray Generation / 99 Agencies / 140
A Basic X-Ray Circuit / 101 Limiting Exposure to Ionizing
Generators / 103 Radiation / 140
Automatic Exposure Controls / 106 Protection of Personnel / 142
Protection of the Patient / 145
C H A P T E R 7 Radiation Exposure and Pregnancy / 147
Automatic Exposure Controls 110

Historical Notes / 111
C H A P T E R 11
Ionization Chambers / 111 Filtration 151
Positioning Skills / 113
Filtration / 152
8
Measurement / 152
C H A P T E R Types of Filtration / 152
Effect on Output / 155
X-Ray Production 117
Conditions / 118
Target Interactions / 118 C H A P T E R 12
Emission Spectrum / 121 The Prime Factors 158
The Prime Factors / 159
Unit II
Protecting Patients Milliamperage-Second / 159
and Personnel Kilovoltage / 162
Distance / 164
Image Quality Factors / 167
C H A P T E R 9
Radiation Protection Concepts
and Equipment 126
C H A P T E R 13
X-Ray Interactions 169
The Basics of Radiation Protection Principles
and Practice / 127 X-Ray Interaction with Matter / 170
Quantities and Units Relevant to Photoelectric Absorption / 171
Radiation Protection / 129 Coherent Scattering / 173

Contents vii
Compton Scattering / 173

Pair Production / 175 C H A P T E R 17
Photodisintegration / 176 The Patient as a Beam Emitter 213
Effect on Technical Factor Selection / 176
Attenuation / 214
The Human Body as an Attenuator / 215
C H A P T E R 14 The Patient’s Relationship to

Image Quality / 216
Pathology and Radiation Absorption / 217
Minimizing Patient Exposure 181
Increased Attenuation (Additive)
Choosing Exposure Factors / 182 Conditions / 219
Estimating Approximate Entrance Decreased Attenuation (Destructive)
Skin Exposure / 182 Conditions / 221
Typical Entrance Skin Exposure / 184
Reducing Patient Dose with
Communication / 184
Reducing Patient Dose with
C H A P T E R 18
Positioning / 184 The Grid 226
Reducing Patient Dose with Technical
Factors / 185 Purpose of the Grid / 227
Discussing Radiation Risk Versus Benefit Grid Construction / 228
with Patients / 189 Grid Patterns / 230
Grid Types / 230
Grid Uses / 231
C H A P T E R 15 Grid Selection/Conversions / 232

Grid Performance Evaluation / 232
Beam Restriction 194 Grid Errors / 233
An Alternate Scatter Reduction Method—
Controlling Scatter / 195 The Air-Gap Technique / 236
Beam Restrictors / 196 Use of Grids with Digital Image
Ancillary Devices / 198 Receptors / 237
Unit III
Creating the Image
C H A P T E R 19
Film and Screens Imaging
and Processing 242
C H A P T E R 16 adiographic Film / 243
R
Vision and Perception 202 Construction of Radiographic Film / 243
Latent Image Formation / 246
Image Perception / 203 Types of Film / 247
Controlling the Image in Space / 207 Film Storage and Handling / 247
Radiography as an Art Form / 208 Film Identification / 247

viii Contents
Film Processing / 247 Image Processing / 294

Developing / 248 Image Display / 300
Fixing / 248 CR Technical Factors Selection / 300
Archiving / 249
Darkroom / 249
22
Silver Recovery Systems / 250
Sensitometry / 250 C h apter
Sensitometric Equipment / 250
The D Log E Curve / 253 Digital Radiography/Flat-Panel
Film Characteristics / 254 Detector Systems 305
Intensifying Screens / 259
Flat-Panel Detector Types / 306
Construction of Intensifying Screens / 260
Image Acquisition, Processing, and
Phosphors / 261
Display / 308
Characteristics of Intensifying Screens / 261
Flat-Panel Technology Features / 309
Cassettes and Holders / 264
DR Panel Precautions / 310
Care / 265
Emission Spectra / 265
Chracteristics of Film-Screen
Combinations / 266
C h apter 23
Unit IV Technical Considerations
Digital Radiography in Digital Imaging 314
Introduction
Effective use of Digital Imaging / 315
Digital Exposure Considerations / 315
C h apter 20 Digital Processing Considerations / 319

Digital Post-Processing Considerations / 320
Digital Image Processing 274 Digital Imaging Artifacts / 322
Historical Development / 275

Digital Image Formation / 275
Image Processing Operations / 277 C h apter 24
Digital Image Quality / 282
Informatics in Medical Imaging 328
Receptor Exposure / 284
Introduction / 329
Informatics / 329
C h apter 21 Informatics Standards / 330

Computers and Networks / 331
Computed Radiography 288 Display and Archives / 332
Storage / 335
Overview / 289 Workflow / 335
Image Acquisition / 289 Security / 337

Contents ix
Unit V
Analyzing the Image C h apter 29
Distortion 400
C h apter 25 Defining Distortion / 401

Assessing Distortion / 401
The Imaging Process 343 Factors Affecting Size Distortion / 401
Factors Affecting Shape Distortion / 405
The Imaging Process / 344 Effect on Image Appearance / 409
Professional Imaging Standards / 345
The Analytical Process / 346
Acceptance Limits / 348 C h apter 30
The Art of Image Critique 413
C h apter 26 I mplementing Imaging Standards / 414

Identifying an Imaging Problem / 414
Image Receptor Exposure 353 An Effective Image Critique Method / 415
Defining IR Exposure / 354 Applying the Image Critique Method / 418
Assessing IR Exposure / 354
Effects on Image Appearance / 355
Factors Affecting IR Exposure / 355 C h apter 31
Quality Management 421
C h apter 27 Quality Assurance and Quality Control / 422

Purchasing Equipment / 423
Contrast 368 Monitoring Equipment Performance / 424
Ancillary Equipment / 428
Defining Contrast / 369 PACS Systems / 429
Assessing Contrast / 369 Rejected Image Analysis / 430
Image Contrast / 372 Troubleshooting / 431
Evaluating Contrast / 374
Unit VI
Special Imaging Systems
C h apter 28 and Modalities
Spatial Resolution 385

C H A P T E R 32
Defining Spatial Resolution / 386 Mobile Radiography 439
Assessing Resolution / 386
Effects on Image Appearance / 391 Mobile Radiography / 440
Factors Affecting Spatial Resolution / 391 Special Patient Considerations / 440

x Contents
Special Radiation Protection Accessories / 490

Considerations / 442 Resolution / 492
Types of Equipment / 443 Digital Mammography / 492
Special Technical Factor Selection Quality Control / 494
Considerations / 443
C H A P T E R 36
C H A P T E R 33 Bone Densitometry 496
Fluoroscopy 448 Bone Densitometry / 497
History and Overview / 497
Historical Development / 449
Bone Science / 497
Fluoroscopy Uses / 449
Osteoporosis / 498
Types of Equipment / 449
WHO Diagnostic Criteria / 501
Fluoroscopic X-Ray Tubes / 449
DXA Principles and Instrumentation / 502
Image Intensification Tubes / 450
Scan Acquisition and Analysis / 502
Image Quality / 454
Femur / 503
Video Viewing Systems / 455
Spine / 504
Digital Fluoroscopy / 455
Forearm / 505
Flat-Panel Fluoroscopy Designs / 456
Quality Control / 506
Recording the Fluoroscopic Image / 457
Radiation Safety and Protection / 507
Mobile Fluoroscopic Equipment / 457
37
Radiation Protection During
Fluoroscopy / 458 C H A P T E R
Vascular Imaging Equipment 510
C H A P T E R 34 Vascular Imaging History / 511
Tomography and Digital Digital Image Acquisition / 511
Tomosynthesis 462 Modes of Digital Image Acquisition / 512
Image Post-Processing / 513
The Tomographic Principle / 463 C-Arm Assembly / 514
Tomographic Quality / 464 Vascular Imaging Tables / 515
Types of Motion / 467 Contrast Medium Injection Devices / 516
Digital Tomosynthesis / 468 Quality Control / 517
Tomographic Procedures / 469
C H A P T E R 38
C H A P T E R 35 Computed Tomography 519
Mammography 473 Computed Tomography Scanning / 520

The Invention of Computed
Historical Development / 474 Tomography / 520
Generator Characteristics / 478 Scanner Generations / 521
X-Ray Tube / 481 The Components of a Ct Unit / 524

Contents xi
Ct Numbers (Hounsfield Units) / 529

Image Reconstruction / 530 C H A P T E R 42
Image Quality / 533
Diagnostic Medical Sonography 611
Scanning Procedures / 535
Advanced CT Applications / 536 Introduction / 612
Artifacts / 536 Sound Waves / 613
Radiation Protection / 538 Attenuation / 620
Range / 621
C H A P T E R 39 Field / 622
Doppler / 622
Magnetic Resonance Imaging 543 Harmonics / 622
Contrast Agents / 623
History / 544 Transducer and Components / 624
Instrumentation / 544 Instrumentation / 626
Mri Physics / 548
A
Mri / 550
Mr Safety / 559 A P P E ND I X
C H A P T E R 40 On a New Kind of Rays

by W. C. Röntgen 630
Nuclear Medicine
and Molecular Imaging 563
Nuclear Physics / 564
Radioactive Decay / 564
A P P E ND I X B
Radiochemistry and Radiopharmaceuticals / 565 Answers to Case Studies 634
Imaging Instrumentation / 573
Positron Emission Tomography (Pet) / 578
Hybrid Imaging / 580
Nonimaging Instrumentation / 582 A P P E ND I X C
Radiation Protection / 584 Fixed and Variable kVp Technique
Clinical Applications / 586
System Charts 636
Hybrid Imaging / 590
C H A P T E R 41 A P P E ND I X D
Radiation Therapy 593
Epigraph Sources and Credits 640
Historical Overview / 594
Consultation / 594 Glossary 642
Treatment Planning / 596
Treatment / 600
Index 659
Specialized Treatments and Units / 608

List of Tables
1-1. Multiplication Notation 3

1-2. SI Units of Measurement 15
1-3. SI Unit Values 15
1-4. Commonly Used SI Prefixes 15
2-1. Atomic Particles 24
3-1. Properties of Conducting Materials 41
3-2. ffect of Circuit Type on Current, Potential Difference, and Resistance
E
(with an Example Circuit of Three Resistances) 47
4-1. Fleming’s Hand Rules for Electromagnetic Relationships 58
5-1. Heat Unit Rectification Constants 92
5-2. Recommendations for Extending Tube Life 94
6-1. Common Diagnostic X-Ray Console Controls 103
8-1. Characteristic Photon Emissions from X-Ray Target Materials 121
9-1.
Comparison of Collective Effective Dose(S) and Effective Dose per Individual in the U.S. Population
(EUS as Reported in NCRP (1987a)) and in This Report (Annual Values for Percent Are Rounded to the
Nearest 1%) 130
9-2.
Conversions between Conventional and SI Units 130
9-3. Comparison between SI and Conventional Units 132
10-1. Effective Dose Limit Recommendations 141
10-2. Occupational Dose Limits for Adults—NRC Regulation IOCFR20 142
11-1. Minimum Half-Value Layer (HVL) Requirements for X-Ray Systems in United States
(Title 21 of 21 CFR 1020.30) 153
11-2.
Percent Attenuation of Monochromatic Radiation by Various Thicknesses of Aluminum Filtration 155
11-3.
Recommended Minimum Total Filtration Levels 155
11-4.
Comparison of Patient Exposure with Filtration 156
12-1. Factors Affecting X-Ray Emission 159
13-1. K-Shell Binding Energies of Radiologically Significant Elements 172
13-2.
Percentage of Photon Interactions, Attenuation, and Transmission Characteristics in
Soft Tissue Based on Effective Photon Energies 173
14-1. A Typical mR/mAs Chart 183
xii

List of Tables xiii
14-2.
Medical ESE Values for Selected Radiographic Exams 185
14-3. Effects of Radiographic Exposure Variables on Patient Dose 186
14-4.
Comparison of Approximate Entrance Skin Exposures with Fixed and Variable kVp Technique Systems 187
14-5.
Gross Comparison of Relative Radiation Levels 190
14-6.
Estimated Loss of Life Expectancy due to Various Causes 190
17-1.
Basic Substances Comprising the Human Body 214
17-2. Summary of Pathology Problems 219
18-1. Grids for Use in Digital Imaging 228
18-2. Grid Conversion Factors 232
19-1. Standard Radiographic Film Sizes 245
19-2. Example Opacities, Optical Density Numbers, and Light Transmission Percentages 253
19-3. Relationship between Contrast, Latitude, and Patient Dose 259
19-4. Relationship between Speed and Patient Dose 259
19-5. Relationship Between Relative Speed Number and Exposure Sensitivity 266
20-1. Binary Code Numbers 276
20-2.
Typical Memory Requirements for Various Imaging Modalities Typical Image Grayscale
Bit Images per Approximate Storage Imaging 283
20-3.
Exposure Indicator Numbers Relative to Imaging Plate Exposure 284
23-1. Suggested Optimal kVp Ranges for DR Systems 316
23-2. A Step-by-Step Approach to Establishing an Exposure Technique Chart 316
24-1 DICOM Information Classes 331
26-1. Conversion Factors Effect of Generator ϕ on IR Exposure 359
26-2. Projections That May Use the Anode Heel Effect to Advantage 360
26-3. mAs Change Factors for Approximate Exposure Maintenance When Distance Changes 362
26-4. Effect on IR Exposure When Factors Are Changed 365
27-1. Relationship between Terms Used to Describe Contrast 369
27-2. Changes Necessary to Produce Visible Contrast Differences on a Film-Screen Image 376
27-3.
Effects of Changing Factors on Film Contrast 381
28-1 Spatial Resolution Quality Measures 387
28-2. Grayscale Bit Depth 388
28-3. Effects of Intensifying-Screen Factors on Resolution 396
28-4. Effects of Various Methods for Reducing Exposure Time to Avoid Motion 397
28-5.
Effect of Changing Factors on Spatial Resolution 397
29-1. SID Compensations for Common Tube Angulations 409
29-2. Effect of Changing Factors on Distortion 409
31-1. FOCUS-PDCA Method 422
31-2. Reject Percentage by Room 430
31-3. Reject Percentage by Technologist 430

xiv List of Tables
32-1. Radiation Protection Rules for Mobile Radiography 443

35-1. Technical Differences between Mammography and Conventional Radiography 479
35-2. Characteristic X-Rays from Mammography X-Ray Targets 486
36-1. Risk Factors Associated with Osteoporosis 499
36-2. DXA Collimator/Detector Types 503
36-3. Radiation Safety and Patient Dose 507
37-1. Modes of Digital Image Acquisition 512
37-2. Factors Affecting Flow Rate 516
37-3. Safety Mechanisms for Contrast Medium Injectors 517
38-1. Advantages and Disadvantages of Helical (Spiral) Computed Tomography 522
38-2. CT Pitch Formulas 523
38-3. Hounsfield Units (HUs) (CT Numbers) of Various Tissues 531
38-4.
Appropriate Computed Tomography Window Widths 534
40-1. Half-Lives, Gamma Energies, Production Methods, and Usages of Radionuclides in Nuclear Medicine 566
40-2. Technetium-99m–Labeled Radiopharmaceuticals and Their Uses 568
40-3. Non-Tc-99m Radiopharmaceuticals and Their Uses 569
40-4. Radiopharmaceuticals used for PET 569
40-5. Radiopharmaceuticals Used for Radionuclide Therapy 570
40-6. Radiopharmaceutical Quality Control Tests 571
40-7. Quality Control Testing of Imaging Instrumentation 583
40-8. Highlights of NRC Regulations Pertaining to Operation of a Nuclear Medicine Facility; Title 10 of the
Code of Federal Regulations, Part 20 Addresses Radiation Protection Requirements; Part 35 Addresses
Medical Uses of Byproduct Material 585
42-1. Average Propagation Speeds 617

Foreword
O hhhh, was my mother right!

Life is about making choices, and a good life is
about making more right than wrong choices. Yes, a bit of
radiographers, to update their working knowledge. With
newer digital technologies, the old rules of exposure
and image quality do not apply. Seasoned-technologists
good fortune and happenstance is in all of our lives, but in the profession find this concept hard to accept. The
6th edition helps with this understanding. Topics deal-
ultimately, making good decisions is what it’s all about.
ing with the role of radiographic grids, detector inter-
Unfortunately, at the times we make these choices, we facing, exposure indices and assessing digital image
lack the foresight to see the consequences, good or bad. quality, have been added to better understand that as
But such is life. this digital revolution continues, we need to get our
Fortunately for our profession, Rick Carlton and arms around it, to improve image quality and ALARA
Arlene Adler have continued to make the right decisions, compliance. The role of the radiographer is undergo-
by authoring Principles of Radiographic Imaging, 6th ing profound change with digital, and a renaissance is
edition. It is a monumental task writing a textbook and to underway through the applications of digital detectors.
do so again, after so many years in the profession, makes This 6th edition makes the learning more interactive
it even more daunting. But that is the decision they have and exciting, through the use of web-based technology.
made and it is a great choice. Even better, is their deci- Existing chapters on the advanced imaging modalities still
sion to seek out experts and resources in the professions, remain with updated information from experts in their
such as Vesna Balac. Doing so complements the accuracy respective fields. A wonderful choice.
and relevancy of the information written in many of these As my mother said, it’s about choices. We are grate-
chapters. That choice reflects their admission that one, ful Rick and Arlene, and now Vesna, have chosen to
single person cannot be expert on all aspects of this great write again. In doing so, they introduce potentially new
profession. It is a tribute to their many years of develop- resources to educators, technologists and all members of
ing a network of contacts who can contribute to this end. the medical imaging community: the best profession in
Again, their great decision-making over the years, has cre- medicine!
ated a wide network of friends and resources, willing to To those who know me, they would say I am a pas-
contribute to this edition. Such is the nature of this 6th ed. sionate educator, as my passion for this professions runs
It reflects their genuine and sincere effort to represent the deep. I am no different than many other professionals, in
principles of radiology in a real-world, practical fashion. this regard. Incorporating the Principles of Radiographic
This 6th edition is faithfully consistent with pre- Imaging, 6th edition into my professional lifestyle, is my
vious editions through its excellent illustrations and choice, and for that I cannot thank these three authors
exhibits. Updated materials for instructors with labora- enough for their continued contributions.
tory exercises and instructor resources are included as
well. For the educator, you can expect to continue to
enjoy its simple and concise explanations of complex Randy Griswold, M.P.A., RT(R)
concepts. New chapters on digital radiographic imag- Consultant and Lecturer,
ing have been added and existing chapters have been
Former Program Director
updated with practical information that is relevant to
the real-world of digital radiography. In fact, much School of Radiologic Sciences, Bellin College
of this information could be studied by practicing Green Bay, Wisconsin
xv

Preface
expected for successful professional practice including

INTRODUCTION the American Registry of Radiographic Technologists’
Content Specifications for the Examination in Radiogra-
As radiography educators, we designed this textbook phy, the Radiography Curriculum by the American Society
with students and educators in mind. Since we now have of Radiologic Technologists, and various materials pre-
a completely revised approach from a digital standpoint, pared by the Canadian Association of Medical Radiation
we also believe practicing radiographers would greatly Technologists.
benefit from a review since there are new principles
toward establishing radiographic exposure techniques.
Each chapter contains an outline, key terms, objectives, NEW TO THIS EDITION
a summary, review questions, and a detailed bibliography.
There is also a considerable number of ancillaries that fac- The rapid changes in technology present a challenge to
ulty can access through their Cengage Learning represen- textbook authors who are committed to providing current
tative (they can be reached through the website at www information for learners. The authors and contributors to
.cengage.com, or for product information and technology the sixth edition carefully reviewed all content to identify
assistance, contact them at Cengage Learning Customer areas requiring updating or new topics. As a result, numer-
and Sales Support, 800-354-9706.). Although the order of ous changes were made.
the chapters is based on our experiences in reaching our A special attempt was made to provide an introduc-
students, most chapters stand alone and can be used in tion to physics and the imaging modalities, as well as to
the order that is most appropriate within a given program. explore the new details of the principles of radiographic
We have made a special effort to represent our belief exposure techniques that have been brought on by the use
that professional development should be a prime objec- of digital technology. Well-established image quality fac-
tive of any radiography curriculum. This is best achieved tors (density/image receptor exposure, contrast, recorded
through the demonstration of technical competence. This detail, and distortion) have been revised to reflect the
book is designed to assist students in developing this realities of establishing radiographic exposure factors.
cornerstone of professionalism. Through technical com- The new factors are:
petence and a professional demeanor, students will be ◾◾ Image Receptor Exposure
ready to assume their role as experts in the radiographic
◾◾ Contrast
imaging process. In addition, we believe that true profes-
sionals take immense pride in their work to the extent that ◾◾ Spatial Resolution
it becomes an art as well as a science. ◾◾ Distortion
There is a special focus on making sure digital ◾◾ Histogram Fulfillment
imaging terminology and parameters are the primary ori-
◾◾ Look Up Table (LUT)
entation with very limited references to conventional film-
based imaging. Special effort is made to emphasize both Because histogram fulfillment and use of the proper
the technical information and the ethical importance of look up table (LUT) are critical to successful digital image
understanding the specifics of image receptor sensitivity production, they have both been included in the primary
in order to be able to reduce exposure to the patient and image quality factors.
adhere to ALARA concepts. Five phases of digitized image production are intro-
References are used extensively to assure both duced: acquisition, processing, archiving, displaying, and
educators and students that we address all content analyzing. Each includes well-known radiographic imaging
xvi

Preface xvii
parameters but each is also enhanced by the addition of ◾◾ Radiation protection concepts and procedures are
digital factors that now impact on all imaging decisions. emphasized for both patients and radiographic
Most importantly, this entire edition has been revised personnel.
with current clinical practices in mind, with many changes ◾◾ Chapter-end summaries provide a quick reference to
that now reflect our digital radiography world, from end critical concepts and developments in the science of
to end. radiography.
◾◾ Numerous troubleshooting tips are included to
ensure quality radiographs.
ORGANIZATION
◾◾ Extensive references and recommended readings
provide a historical perspective and provide
The overall design of the book separates the 42 chapters learners a means to expand their understanding of
into six units: Creating the Beam, Protecting Patients concepts and systems.
and Personnel, Creating the Image, Digital Radiogra-
phy, Analyzing the Image, and Special Imaging Systems ◾◾ Video clips are now available for the chapters on
and Modalities. Unit IV, Digital Radiography, has been digital image production.
completely rewritten into 5 redesigned chapters; Digital ◾◾ Epigraphs and historical photos help trace the
Image Processing, Computed Radiography, Digital Radi- evolution of radiography to the present.
ography/Flat-Panel Detector Systems, Technical Consid- ◾◾ Unique emphasis on the art versus the science of
erations in Digital Imaging, and Informatics in Medical radiography illustrates the broad applications of the
Imaging. In addition, Unit V Analyzing The Image now technology.
reflects the new paradigm for technical exposure fac-
tors; Image Receptor Exposure, Contrast, Spatial Reso-
lution, and Distortion. We continue to offer framework STATEMENT OF CONTENT
information on all radiologic and imaging sciences ACCURACY
modalities and treatments. This design helps organize
the content for students by following a logical progres- Although we assume full responsibility for any errors,
sion from introductory physics through the production including those that may be construed as arising from quot-
and control of the beam to advanced modality systems. ing other works out of context, we have made every effort to
We remain extremely pleased that our book remains ensure the accuracy of the information. However, appropri-
one of the resources listed in the Radiography Curriculum ate information sources should be consulted, especially for
of the American Society of Radiologic Technologists, and new or unfamiliar procedures. It is the responsibility of every
we have long been pleased that this book continues to be practitioner to evaluate the appropriateness of a particular
recommended by the Canadian Association of Medical procedure in the context of actual clinical situations. There-
Radiation Technologists for preparation for its certifica- fore, neither the authors nor the publisher take responsibil-
tion in Radiological Technology. ity or accept any liability for the actions of persons applying
the information contained herein in an unprofessional
manner. This information is designed to supplement and
Features enhance the instructional methodologies of educators in
JRCERT (Joint Review Committee on Education in Radio-
In addition to the updated and new content, this new edi- logic Technologies [USA]) and CAMRT (Canada) approved
tion continues to feature the following learning aids and radiography programs and should not be applied, especially
critical content, with the addition of supporting video to human subjects, without this background. In committing
clips for the new digital radiography chapters: this book to print, we fully realize that it is never finished,
◾◾ Physical concepts are clearly explained and merely suspended for the time being.
illustrated with many high-quality full color figures. Finally, as a reader your perceptions are important
to us. We encourage you to communicate with us regard-
◾◾ Effects of changing parameters on image quality are
ing facets of the book you appreciate or would like to
carefully described and illustrated with numerous
see changed. We especially appreciate constructive com-
images.
ments and notice of errors. Our intention is to present the
◾◾ Criteria for image analysis are presented to help principles of radiography in an interesting format that pro-
learners develop analytical skills. vides a base from which true professionalism can develop.
◾◾ High-quality radiographs are included throughout Any commentary readers care to make toward this end
the text. will be valued and welcomed.

About the Authors
Richard R. Carlton is a Former Chair and Associate Radiologic Sciences from the University of Health Sci-
Professor of Radiologic and Imaging Sciences at Grand ences/Chicago Medical School and a Master’s Degree
Valley State University in Grand Rapids, Michigan. He is in Education from the University of Illinois at Urbana–
a past President and Chairman of the Board of the Asso- Champaign. Arlene has been an active member of the
ciation of Educators in Imaging and Radiologic Sciences. American Society of Radiologic Technologist and the
Rick co-founded the Michigan Radiologic and Imaging Association of Educators in Radiologic Sciences (AEIRS).
Sciences Consortium (a consortium of community col- For her service to AEIRS, she was awarded Fellow status.
leges and a university that offers advanced clinical edu- She has lectured across the country on numerous top-
cation), and established the Center for Medical Imaging ics in radiologic sciences and, in particular, was a past
in Bioanthropology (for field work x-raying mummies Honors Lecturer for an AEIRS Annual Meeting and a past
in Peru), Lambda Nu (the national honor society for the Keynote Speaker for the Associated S cience Program at
radiologic and imaging sciences), and The Sectional Anat- the Radiologic Society of North A merica (RSNA) annual
omy Consortium. He has published more than 20 books, meeting. For her service on the Indiana Radiation Con-
was the founding editor of two journals, and is a charter trol Advisory Commission, she received the Governor’s
Fellow of the Association of Educators in Radiologic Sci- Award, Sagamore of the Wabash.
ences (AEIRS). Rick has been a JRCERT accreditation In addition to her professional service, Arlene has
site visitor for more than 30 years, and was a Fulbright authored numerous articles and, along with Rick Carlton,
Scholarship alternate, as well as author of numerous is coauthor of the text Principles of Radiographic Imag-
journal articles. He has given more than 250 lectures in ing: An Art and a Science and coeditor of the text Intro-
36 states and 9 countries. duction to Radiography and Patient Care.
He holds an M.S. from National Louis University, B.S. Vesna Balac is a Clinical Assistant Professor and
in Radiologic Sciences from The Chicago Medical School, Director of the Radiologic Sciences Programs at Indiana
and an A.A.S. from Illinois Central College. He is ARRT University Northwest in Gary, Indiana. She received
certified in radiography and cardiovascular-interventional her radiography education as well as her B.S. degree in
technology and has taught radiologic sciences for over Radiologic Sciences at Indiana University Northwest.
30 years in Chicago, Ohio, San Francisco, Arkansas, She has a Master’s Degree in Adult Education from
and M ichigan. With Arlene Adler, he is the author of the Indiana University in Bloomington and is currently a
best-selling radiographic physics textbook Principles of doctoral candidate in Instructional Systems Technology
Radiographic Imaging as well as Introduction to Radio at the School of Education at Indiana University Bloom-
graphy and Patient Care, both now in fifth editions. ington. She is ARRT certified in radiography and mag-
Rick has also been the radiology section consultant to netic resonance imaging and an active member of the
Taber’s Cyclopedia Medical Dictionary for the past three American Society of Radiologic Technologist (ARRT),
editions. the Association of Educators in Radiologic Sciences
Arlene Adler is Professor Emerita, Radiologic Sci- (AEIRS), and the Indiana Society of Radiologic Tech-
ences Programs at Indiana University Northwest in Gary. nologists (ISRT). In addition to her professional service,
She received her radiography education at Michael Reese Vesna is a contributing author to the text Introduction to
Medical Center in Chicago. She has a B.S. degree in Radiography and Patient Care.
xviii

Acknowledgments
We wish to acknowledge the support provided by Dean his persistent and knowledgeable critique of our efforts.
Patrick Bankston, Associate Dean Linda DeLunas, and We are grateful for Gene’s unique contributions, espe-
the wonderful radiologic sciences faculty at Indiana cially his ability to never let nearly two decades of friend-
University Northwest, including Melynie Durham, Robin ship come between us and a more accurate reworking of
Jones, Tamekia Smith, Amanda Sorg, Sue Woods, Shannon verbiage or the details of an illustration.
Baimakovich, Angela Brite, Heather Govert, Heather We acknowledge detailed contributions from John
Hardesty, Susan Janosky, Samantha LoBue, Giovanna Skinner at Mid Michigan Community College; Jeff Lloyd
Lucido, Deborah Moss, Zack Pajkos, Camilla Pulliam, Lisa at Spectrum Butterworth in Grand Rapids, Michigan;
Shepley, Sheri VonderWoude, and Becky Wantland. John Godisak at Grand Rapids Community College,
The sixth edition has been produced by our most Michigan; and Jennifer Lockhart from Saint Anthony
dedicated team at Cengage Learning. Medical Center in Crown Point, Indiana.
We are especially grateful to Joe Chovan, the most The students, faculty, and staff at Arkansas State
spectacular artist we have ever worked with. Joe’s artistic University played a major role in the third edition. Special
skills are on exhibit throughout the many editions of this thanks were due Dean Susan Hanrahan for unremitting
book, as he allows us to bring new insight into complex support and constant enthusiasm for what we are trying
content through his sparkling and insightful illustrations. to accomplish in the radiologic sciences.
We are indebted to the unstinting contributions We thank the faculty and students who have found
from Randy Griswold from Bellin College in Green our work valuable in the process of radiography educa-
Bay, Wisconsin. A significant portion of the accuracy tion and practice since the first edition was published.
of the book derives from the constant inspection and The success of this book and the invitation to produce a
contributions he has made. Randy Griswold has been an new edition are a direct result of the acceptance of our
enthusiastic and regular contributor to this text for many work by the radiography profession, which we gratefully
years and his additions and updates have been greatly acknowledge.
appreciated. Dennis Bowman from the Community Hos- Our families once again deserve our thanks for their
pital of the Monterey Peninsula in Monterey, California understanding. Don Adler, Lynn Carlton, Louis Stevovich,
worked with us in his facility to refine digital techniques and Mirko, Zorka, and Milorad Balac have given countless
as well as prepare our video clips and illustrations. hours that were rightfully theirs, for which we extend a
We have also been very appreciative of the constant peace offering of love. Much appreciation is also extended
input of Denise Moore, Professor Emeritus at Sinclair to Arlene’s daughters Meri and Katie, and Vesna’s daughter
Community College in Dayton, Ohio, who has been our Emili for their love and support. Rick’s family now
constant conscience from the first edition. We also can- includes not only his children but his growing group of
not forget the contributions made to the first through grandchildren: Nate, Michael, Zach, Mercie-Marie, Max,
fourth editions by Barry Burns of the University of North the twins Paige and Addison, Silas, Henry, and Penelope,
Carolina, who routinely went far beyond our wildest all of whom get their time, book or not.
hopes in critiquing our text, producing films to illustrate Once again, we have been assisted in our work by a
his points, disproving old wives tales in his laboratory, wide spectrum of colleagues in the radiologic sciences and
and generously sharing his results (and venison) with us. related fields. In addition to those who assisted us during
Barry became a backbone of the technical aspects of this the earlier edition, we wish to add our colleague Dennis
book. Eugene Frank, formerly of the Mayo Clinic and Bowman from the Community Hospital of the Monterey
Riverland Community College in Minnesota, continued Penisula; Euclid Seeram of British Columbia Institute
xix

xx Acknowledgments
of Technology, Irven Rule of the Siemens Training and Reviewers

Development Center in Cary, North Carolina; Alfred
Hufnagl of the Northern Alberta Institute of Technology, Linda Lippacher, M.A. ARRT (R)(M)
Canada; Penelope Roberts of the Department of Medical Program Director of Radiologic Sciences
Physics and Medical Engineering at Southampton Uni- Southern Vermont College
versity Hospitals, UK; Kathheryn Root of Holyoke Com- Bennington, VT
munity College, Massachusetts; Dr. Appel and Kevin Sisak
at DuPont; Garry Harris at Agfa; and Gregory Wheeler of Debra Herring, MAT, R.T. (R)(M) ARRT
Wheeler and Associates, San Francisco, California. Program Coordinator/Instructor Radiologic
Our faculties have also made significant contribu- Technology Program
tions through their consistent willingness to comment Meridian Community College
on the countless details we have explored with them Meridian, MS
over the years. Alonso Contreras Astorga from the
Department of Chemistry at Indiana University North- Erica L. Cole, M.S., R.T. (R)(CT)
west, also needs our thanks for his review of our basic Assistant Professor
explanations of chemistry concepts. Hudson Valley Community College
We also appreciate the help of Jennifer Sanders Troy, NY
from Methodist Hospitals, Gary, In, for reviewing the
mammography content, as well as Stephanie Burnett Tara C. Guice, B.S., R.T. (R)(ARRT)
from Franciscan Health Hammond, In, for reviewing the Clinical Coordinator/Instructor
vascular imaging equipment chapter. Mississippi Gulf Coast Community College
And, finally, we thank those fellow educators who Gautier, MS
have taken the time to sit down with us at meetings,
write letters, make phone calls, compose and email Daniel Edwards, MS, RTR/MR, ATC/L
their comments and suggestions to us. Although we are Assistant Professor
certain we have not remembered all of you (for which Cox College
we apologize), these include Mike Madden of Hays State Springfield, MO
University; John Clouse of Owensboro Community Col-
lege, Kentucky; Marianne Tortorici and Mike Mixdorf at Melissa A. Moorman, M.Ed., RT (R)(CT)
the University of Nevada, Las Vegas; Bob Misiak, Orange Faculty / Clinical Coordinator
County Community College, New York; Jack Thomas Baptist School of Health Professions
at Lakeland Community College, Ohio; Lisa Iacovelli San Antonio, TX
at Crozer-Chester Medical Center, Pennsylvania; Max
Grady at Kettering College of Medical Arts, Ohio; Donna Matthew Dunn, M.Ed., RT (R)(CT)(ARRT)
Mitchell at John Peter Smith Hospital, Texas; Anita Clinical Coordinator, Radiologic Technology
Slechta of California State University at Northridge; Ogeechee Technical College
Elwin Tilson of Armstrong State College, Georgia; Shay Statesboro, GA
Mercer at New Mexico State University; Judy Williams of
Grady Memorial Hospital, Georgia; Marilyn Sinderbrand James F. Guillemette, Ph.D.
of Northern Virginia Community College; Bill Sykes of Science Department Chair, Science Instructor
Shawnee State University, Ohio; Bart Schraa of Daniel Kennebec Valley Community College
Denhoed University, Rotterdam, Netherlands; Frank Fairfield, Maine
Porter at St. Vincent Infirmary Medical Center Arkansas;
Mitchell Bieber, University of Virginia Medical Center;
Donna Foster at Northern New Mexico Community
First-Edition Acknowledgments
College; Bill May of Iatwamba Community College, The production of this book would not have been pos-
Mississippi; Lorraine Henry of Orange Coast Community sible without the support of our spouses, Don and Lynn.
College, California; and Steve Dowd of the University of In addition, we gratefully acknowledge the role played by
Alabama at Birmingham. Delmar Cengage Learning; Indiana University Northwest;
Appreciation is also expressed to the colleagues Lima Technical College;and St. Rita’s Medical Center of
who reviewed the manuscripts for this edition. Their Lima, Ohio. Special thanks are due Dr. LaVerne Ramaeker,
critical reviews helped to guide us in the preparation of Sam Bassitt, Marlene Ledbetter, and Dennis Spragg for
the final manuscript. their support. A major contribution to the accuracy of the

Acknowledgments xxi
information and illustrations was made by the consistent for their commentary and technical assistance above
presence of Eugene Frank, formerly of the Mayo Clinic and beyond the normal bonds of friendship; Philip W.
Foundation, throughout. Ballinger of the Ohio State University; Terry West of
We are in the professional debt of many who inspired Toronto, Secretary-General of the International Society
us, taught us, and collaborated with us throughout the of Radiographers and Radiological Technicians; Stewart
years. Much of what is contained in this work is a direct Bushong of Baylor College of Medicine; Terry Eastman
result of these efforts. Those to whom we are especially of Dallas; Joe Fodor of the University of Cincinnati
indebted are Tracy Ahdel, Janice Akin, Judy Baron, Karen Medical Center; Nina Kowalczyk of Riverside Methodist
Brinkman, John Cortez, Marion Frank, Mick Jagger, Karen Hospital, Columbus, Ohio; Denise Moore of Sinclair
Jefferies, Robin Jones, Dr. George Koptik, Judy Koptik, Community College, Dayton, Ohio; Bruce Long of
Jon Lilly, Dr. Marzuto, Kathy Miller, Joe Mosqueda, Indiana University Medical Center; Marilyn Holland of
Traci O’Donnell, LaVerne Ramaeker, Karen Schmidl, the University of Iowa Hospitals and Clinics; Charles R.
Kay Shriver, Tracy Thegze, Jean Widger, Rob Wilcoxen, Griffith of FGHB Certified Radiation Physicists; Loren
and Sue Wilson. And of course our students at Indiana Garlets of Hays State University, Kansas; Pat Sharp of
University Northwest, Lima Technical College, Wilbur Gannon University, Erie, Pennsylvania; Tim Penning
Wright College, Malcolm X College, and Michael Reese of Athens Regional Medical Center, Georgia; Seymour
Hospital and Medical Center. Sterling, FASRT, of Yardley, Pennsylvania; Jerome
Like our colleagues and students, we owe much to the Taubel of the Mayo Clinic Foundation, Rochester,
institutions that contributed to our professional expertise. Minnesota; Bob Kobistek in Cleveland and Martin
We wish to thank Indiana University Northwest, Lima Ratner and Steve Szeglin in Carle Place, New York, both
Technical College, Michael Reese Hospital and Medical of Victoreen, Inc./Nuclear Associates; Terry Hanby of
Center, Lutheran General Hospital, Mercy Hospital and DuPont; Robert Trinkle, formerly of DuPont; Mike Wilsey
Medical Center (Chicago), Northwestern Memorial Hospital of Agfa Matrix; Robert Lockery and Walter Weigl of
(Chicago), Wilbur Wright College, Illinois Central College, Siemens Corporation; Robert Busic of General Electric
Carl Sandburg College, Evanston Hospital, Methodist Medical Systems; William Conklin of Orangeburg, SC;
Medical Center (Peoria), and Community Memorial Hospital Rene Abgrall of Thoard, France; Toshinori Komba of
(Monmouth). Komazawa University, Tokyo, Japan; Angela Pickwick
We owe special thanks to many people for sharing of Montgomery County Community College, Maryland;
their personal expertise and material collections. One Jerry Conlogue of Gulf Coast Community College,
of the highest forms of professionalism, the willingness Florida; Barb Imber of St. Rita’s Medical Center, Lima,
of radiologic technologists to freely give of their time Ohio; Rick Halker of Lima Memorial Hospital, Ohio; The
and knowledge, was demonstrated again and again by Radiology Department of Van Wert County Hospital,
everyone from whom we requested assistance in our Van Wert, Ohio, John Stone of Emory University
compilation of the multitude of photographs, drawings, Medical School, Atlanta; Tom Beery and Will Wells of
radiographs, and other illustrative materials in the Lima Technical College; Judy Shaw of Lima Technical
text and those who assisted in the numerous reviews College; Doug Raver and Chris Innskeep of Lima
of our writing. Among these deserving special thanks Technical College for video and software graphics;
are Gene Frank and Norlin Winkler of the Mayo Clinic and Jan Krietemeyer of Lima, Ohio, for bibliographic
Foundation and Ray Rossi of the University of Colorado research.

Unit I Creating the Beam
1 Basic Mathematics / 2 An inherent quality of a professional is the possession

of expertise regarding the technical aspects of a field far
2 Radiation Concepts / 18 above that of a nonprofessional. Knowledge of the prin-
ciples of radiographic image production is part of the
3 Electricity / 35
technical expertise of the professional radiographer.
4 Electromagnetism / 52 Radiography programs provide students with class-
room instruction, laboratory experience, and clinical
5 The X-Ray Tube / 78
practice in this subject. No other medical professional
6 X-Ray Equipment / 96 experiences as intensive or comprehensive a study of
radiographic imaging. This unit is designed to provide
7 Automatic Exposure Controls / 110 the basics necessary for this knowledge by building a
framework of information regarding the creation of the
8 X-Ray Production / 117
diagnostic x-ray beam.
The framework begins with an elementary review
of basic mathematics and radiation concepts, includ-
ing atomic theory, x-ray properties, and necessary units
of measurement. Although this may be a review of
previous science coursework for many readers, it is
important to make sure everyone is on the same wave-
length before using the information in the remainder of
the book. Electricity and electromagnetism are large
chapters that lay the foundation for understanding how
to control the beam. The x-ray tube, x-ray equip-
ment, automatic exposure controls, and x-ray
production provide an understanding of exactly how
basic physics is used to create the x-ray beam.
11067_ch01_hr_001-017.indd 1 11/19/18 10:16 AM

Basic Mathematics
C H A P T E R
1
KEY TERMS
absolute value
Do not worry about your difficulties in mathematics. I can assure you mine
algebraic expression
are still greater.
coulomb per kilogram (C/kg)
direct variation Attributed to Albert Einstein
equation
equivalent equation
gray (Gy)
identity OBJECTIVES
inverse variation
kilogram Upon completion of this chapter, the student should be able to:
like term ◾ Perform functions with fractions and decimals.
meter ◾ Determine significant digits in a number.
open equation ◾ Perform calculations in scientific notation with signed numbers and
second exponents.
sievert (Sv) ◾ Simplify algebraic expressions.
◾ Convert units within the SI system.
11067_ch01_hr_001-017.indd 2 11/19/18 10:16 AM

CHAPTER 1 Basic Mathematics 3
The Language of Science EXAMPLES:

1 5 3 10 13
Mathematics is the language of science. Radio graphers
4 6 12 12 12
need to be able to speak this language. In order to quantify
7 1 21 5 16
science, standard units of measurement were established.
The fundamental units of measurement are mass, length, 5 3 15 15 15
and time. Units of measurement were officially defined on a c ad bc ad bc

an international level through the adoption of the SI unit b d bd bd bd
system. The seven base SI units are mass, length, time, a c ad bc ad bc
electric current, temperature, amount of substance, and
d d bd bd bd
luminous intensity. Radiologically important derived units
are the coulomb per kilogram (C/kg), formerly the roent-
gen (R); the gray (Gy), formerly the rad (radiation absorbed
dose); and the sievert (Sv), formerly the rem (radiation Multiplication. Multiplication can be written in several
equivalent man). This review is intended to refresh essential ways (Table 1-1). To multiply two fractions, multiply the
skills in the use of math as well as appropriate units for the numerators and multiply the denominators.
radiologic and imaging sciences.
EXAMPLE:
ARITHMETIC 2 3 2 3 6

5 7 5 7 35
The radiologic technologist must have a basic under-
standing of computations such as addition, subtraction, a c ac

multiplication, and division of whole numbers, fractions, b d bd
and decimals.
Fractions Division. To divide two fractions, rewrite the division

A fraction is a portion of a whole number and represents problem as a multiplication problem by multiplying the
parts of a whole. The top number in a fraction is the first fraction by the second fraction inverted.
numerator and the bottom number is the denominator.
Addition and Subtraction. To add or subtract two frac-
tions with like denominators, add or subtract the numera- EXAMPLE:
tors and keep the like denominator. 2 3 2 7 2 7 14

5 7 5 3 5 3 15
a c a d ad

EXAMPLES: b d b c bc
3 2 5

8 8 8
7 4 3
TABLE 1-1. Multiplication Notation
8 8 8
a c ac Throughout this review the algebraic notation for

b b b multiplication will be used.
a c ac Example: 3 3 4 will be written as 3 ? 4.

b b b A ? (dot) is used as a symbol for multiplication.
Example: a 3 b will be written as a ? b or as ab.
When two letters are used, the dot is usually omitted.
To add or subtract two fractions with unlike denom- Example: 3 3 a will be written as 3a or as 3 ? a.
inators, rewrite each fraction with a like or common
Parentheses can also be used to represent multiplication.
denominator. Then add or subtract the numerators and
keep the like or common denominator. Example: 3 3 4 can be written as (3)(4).
11067_ch01_hr_001-017.indd 3 11/19/18 10:16 AM

4 UNIT I Creating the Beam
Decimals Move the decimal point in the dividend the same number
of places to the right (as was done for the divisor). Add
Decimal number place value (columns) is determined as zeros if necessary to maintain the position of the decimal.
shown in Figure 1-1. Divide the numbers as if they were whole numbers. Place
Addition and Subtraction. To add or subtract two the decimal point in the quotient directly above the deci-
decimal numbers, line up the decimal points in each mal point in the dividend. Add zeros if necessary to main-
number, adding or subtracting as with whole numbers. tain the position of the decimal.
Remember to add in zeros to fill out the decimal posi-
tions, if necessary. The decimal point must remain in the
EXAMPLES:
same position.
)
0.25 1250
5000.
EXAMPLES:
Add: Subtract: Rewrite as:
)
25. 125000.
1.3) 733.2
76.81 76.1 76.10
384.1 2.96 2.96 564.
460.91 73.14 )
13. 7332.
65
83
78
Multiplication. To multiply two decimal numbers, mul- 52
tiply the numbers as if they were whole numbers. Place 52
the decimal point in the product so the number of places 0
in the product equals the sum of the number of decimal
places in each number.
Convert a Fraction into a Decimal Number. To convert
a fraction into a decimal, divide the d
enominator into the
EXAMPLE:
numerator.
Multiply:
2.31 2 decimal positions
EXAMPLE: Convert 7/8 into a decimal:
6.8 1 decimal position
1848 0.875
1386 )
8 7.000
15.708 3 decimal positions 64
60
56
Division. To divide two decimal numbers, set up as if 40
doing whole number division. Move the decimal point in 40
the divisor to the right to make the divisor a whole number.
Decimal number place value (columns)

Hundred thousands
Ten-thousandths
Ten thousands
Decimal point
Thousandths
Hundredths
Thousands
Hundreds
Millions
Tenths
Units
Tens
1 1 1 1
1,000,000 100,000 10,000 1,000 100 10 1 • 10 100 1,000 10,000
FIGURE 1-1. Decimal number place values.
11067_ch01_hr_001-017.indd 4 11/19/18 10:16 AM

Convert a Percent to a Decimal. To convert a percent to Rounding Off. To round a number, the last digit to be
a decimal, move the decimal point two places to the left. retained is:
1. Left unchanged if the digit to the right of the last digit
EXAMPLE: Convert 78.5% to a decimal: to be retained is less than 5.
78.5% 5 0.785 2. Increased by one if the digit to the right of the last
digit to be retained is 5 or greater.
Convert a Decimal to a Percent. To convert a decimal to

a percent, move the decimal point two places to the right. EXAMPLES:
75.2581 rounded to 4 significant digits is 75.26.
EXAMPLE: Change 0.452 to a percent: 6,836.66 rounded to 2 significant digits is 6,800.
.452 5 45.2% 0.0381 rounded to 2 significant digits is 0.038.
0.0299 rounded to 2 significant digits is 0.030.
Computation with Values (Numbers)

Exact. Some numbers are exact values, like the counting Multiplication and Division of Approximate Values.
numbers (1, 2, 3, . . .). For example, there are exactly four When multiplying or dividing two or more approximate
legs on a chair. Exact numbers in computations are as values, the number of significant digits in the final answer is
accurate or as precise as needed. no greater than the number of significant digits in the value
with the least number of significant digits.
Significant Digits. Some values are obtained by mea-
surement and are only as accurate as the measuring
device. The last digit in the reading is usually estimated. EXAMPLE: Using the calculator, (103.81)?
When dealing with these values in computations, the (1.34) = 139.1054. However, because 1.34 has only
results will only be as accurate as the least accurate three significant digits, the answer should have only
value. This is the concept of significant digits. three significant digits. Therefore, 139.1054 needs to
To determine the number of significant digits in a be rounded to three significant digits, making it 139.
value (number):
1. Count all nonzero digits.
2. Count all zeros between nonzero digits. Addition and Subtraction of Approximate Values.
When adding or subtracting two or more approximate
3. Count all zeros at the end of a decimal value.
values, the final answer should be no more precise than
The number of significant digits in a value is the sum the least precise of the values.
of the numbers obtained in steps 1, 2, and 3.
EXAMPLE: Add the following:

EXAMPLES: The following are measured values
from a radiation dose meter (dosimeter): 123.1
7.14 mR has three significant digits. 89.123
+ 103.3456
90.104 mR has five significant digits.
315.5686
0.048 mR has two significant digits.
7300 mR has two significant digits.
6.900 mR has four significant digits. Because the least precise number is 123.1, the answer
should be rounded to 315.6.
Precision. The precision of a value refers to the decimal Powers of 10

position of the last significant digit.
The decimal system is based on powers of 10, as is the
metric system. These are very important systems to the
EXAMPLE: radiographer. When an is written, a is called the base and n
0.0218 is precise to the ten-thousandths. is the exponent. Integers are defined as the numbers . . . 23,
22, 21, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . .
11067_ch01_hr_001-017.indd 5 11/19/18 10:16 AM

Positive Integer Exponents. Definition:

an 5 a ? a ? a ? ? ? a (multiply n times) EXAMPLES:
n times 70.57 5 7.057 3 101 (p 5 1)
0.00815 5 8.15 3 1023 (p 5 23)
7.58 5 7.58 3 100 (p 5 0)
EXAMPLES:
101 5 10
102 5 10 ? 10 5 100 In the first example, the decimal point is moved
10 5 10 ? 10 ? 10 5 1000
3 one digit to the left, making the power of 10 (p), 1. In the
second example, the decimal point is moved three digits
10n 5 10 ? 10 ? 10 ? ? ? 10 5 100 . . . 0 (n zeros)
to the right, making the power of 10, 23. In the third
example, the decimal point is not moved and the power
of 10 is 0.
Negative Integer Exponents. Definition: In general, when moving the decimal point to the
1 left, the power of 10 will be the number of positions
an n ( for a ≠ 0 ) moved. When moving the decimal point to the right, the
a
power of 10 will be negative the number of positions
1 moved. When the decimal point is not moved, the power
101 .1
10 of 10 will be zero.
1 Converting Numbers from Scientific to Ordinary
102 .01
10 2 Notation. To convert a number in scientific notation
1 to ordinary notation, the decimal position is moved
103 .001 according to the following:
10 3
1 1. If the power of 10 is positive, move the decimal point
10n n .00 . . . 001 ( n 1) zeros to the right the number of positions in the exponent.
10
2. If the power of 10 is negative, move the decimal point
Zero Exponents. Definition: a0 51 (for a  0) to the left the number of positions in the exponent.
3. If the power of 10 is zero, the decimal remains in the
same position.
EXAMPLE: In all of the above, once the decimal point has been
100 5 1 moved, the 10 and its power are dropped. Zeros are added,
if necessary.
Scientific Notation EXAMPLES:

A number written in scientific notation is written as the 3.7 3 104 5 37,000
product of a number between 1 (including 1) and 10 times 5.56 3 1025 5 0.0000556
a power of 10. In other words, N  10p, where 1  N , 10
1.34 3 100 5 1.34
and p is an integer.
EXAMPLES: Dimensional Analysis

7.15 3 104 is a number in scientific notation. The concept of dimensional analysis is useful when con-
1.598 3 1025 is a number in scientific notation. verting from one set of units to another. The principle is
7.58 3 100 is a number in scientific notation. based on fractions whose quotients are 1.
EXAMPLE:
Converting Numbers from Ordinary to Scientific Nota-
tion. To write a number in scientific notation, the decimal 12 in 1 ft
1 or 1
point must be moved to the position following the first 1 ft 12 in
nonzero digit.
11067_ch01_hr_001-017.indd 6 11/19/18 10:16 AM

Recall that multiplying a quantity by 1 does not change Signed Numbers

the value of the quantity. In order to convert from one set
of units to another, algebraic operations are performed Numbers are not always positive. For example, the
with units in the same way they are with algebraic symbols. thermometer indicates that it is very cold at 220°F.
Negative numbers can be illustrated by using a number
line (Figure 1-2). Positive numbers are assigned to the
EXAMPLE: Convert 7.0 ft to inches. right of the zero point and negative numbers to the
12 in left of the zero point. A statement that 7 is less than 10
7.0 ft 7.0 ft 7 12 in 84 in (written as 7 , 10) indicates that 7 is to the left of 10 on
1 ft
the number line. A statement that 25 is greater than 29
Note that it is possible to “cancel” the feet unit, leav- (written as 25 . 29) indicates that 25 is to the right of
ing the inches unit. 29 on the number line.
Convert 70.0 km/hr to m/s.
Absolute Value. The absolute value of a number is the
km distance from 0 to that number on the number line.
70.0
hr Because distance is the same number of units whether
km 1000 m 1 hr 1 min moving up or down the number line, that means that
70.0 the absolute value of a number is always positive or
hr 1 km 60 min 60 s
zero. The notation used for absolute value is two verti-
1 1m m cal bars (| |).
70.0 1000 19.4
60 60 s s
EXAMPLES:
Recall that 1 km 5 1,000 m, 1 hr 5 60 min, and
|22| 5 2 |4| 5 4 |0| 5 0
1 min 5 60 s. Note that it is possible to “cancel” the km
unit, the hr unit, and the min unit.
When converting cubic units or square units, extra
Because 22 is two units from zero on the number
attention needs to be given to the conversion factors.
line, the absolute value is 2. Because 4 is four units
Study the following example carefully.
from zero on the number line, the absolute value
is 4. Because 0 is zero units from zero on the number line,
EXAMPLE: Convert 3.8000 ft3 (cubic feet) to cubic the absolute value is 0.
inches (in3). Addition. To add two positive numbers, add their absolute
12 in 12 in 12 in values and attach a positive sign to the result. The positive
3.8000 ft 3 3.8000 ft 3 sign is usually omitted.
1 ft 1 ft 1 ft
5 6566.4 in3
or
 12 in3 EXAMPLE:
3.8000 ft 3 3.8000 ft 3 ⋅   6566.4 in
3
 1 ft  (17) 1 (18) 5 115 7 1 8 5 15
To add two negative numbers, add their absolute values

EXAMPLE: Convert 10 roentgens per hour to and attach a negative sign to the result.
roentgens per minute.
roentgens roentgens 1 hour EXAMPLE:
10.0 5 10.0 ?
hour hour 60 minutes (27) 1 (28) 5 215 27 1 (28) 5 215
roentgens
0.167
minute
ALGEBRA −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
Algebra uses symbols and specific rules of number manip- FIGURE 1-2. Number line.
ulation to solve equations.
11067_ch01_hr_001-017.indd 7 11/19/18 10:16 AM

To add two numbers with unlike signs, subtract the smaller

in absolute value from the larger in absolute value and EXAMPLES:
attach the sign of the larger in absolute value to the result. 84254
28 4 22 5 4
EXAMPLES: 8 4 (22) 5 24
(210) 1 (3) 5 274 1 (29) 5 25 28 4 2 5 24
(8) 1 (25) 5 3
23 1 (7) 5 4
Order of Operation
Negative of a Number. The negative of a number is the
opposite of the number in sign. Order-of-operation problems may occur when parenthe-
ses are not indicated. For example, evaluate 2 1 3 ? 4.
Depending on whether addition or multiplication is per-
EXAMPLE: formed first, the answer might be 20 or 14. The answer
The negative of 7 is 27; the negative of 27 is 7. actually depends on the order of operation. Rules have
been established that make the correct result 14.
If b 5 7, then 2b 5 27.
The difference between the unary minus sign (2)
If b 5 27, then 2b 5 2(27) 5 7.
and the subtraction sign (2) and the difference between
the unary plus sign (1) and the addition sign (1) must be
understood before order-of-operation rules can be learned.
Subtraction. Subtraction is rewritten as addition, as in A subtraction sign (2) is used between two numbers.
a 2 b 5 a 1 (2b).
EXAMPLES: EXAMPLE:
8 2 10 5 8 1 (210) 5 22 7 2 8 (subtraction sign)
8 2 (210) 5 8 1 10 5 18
28 210 5 28 1 (210) 5 218
28 2(210) 5 28 1 10 5 2 A unary minus sign (2) is used before one number.
All of the above subtraction problems are rewritten as

addition and then the rules for addition of signed numbers EXAMPLE:
are used. 27 (unary minus sign)
Multiplication. To multiply two numbers, multiply their
absolute values. If both numbers are positive or both
numbers are negative, attach a positive sign to the result. An expression can have both a subtraction sign and a
If the numbers are opposite in sign, attach a negative sign unary minus sign.
to the result.
EXAMPLE:
EXAMPLES:
27 2 8 (The first is a unary minus, the second is a
(2)(3) 5 6
subtraction sign.)
(22)(23) 5 6
(2)(23) 5 26
(22)(3) 5 26 An addition sign (1) is used between two numbers.
Division. To divide two numbers, divide their absolute val-

ues. If both numbers are positive or both numbers are neg- EXAMPLE:
ative, attach a positive sign to the result. If the numbers 8 1 10 (addition sign)
are opposite in sign, attach a negative sign to the result.
11067_ch01_hr_001-017.indd 8 11/19/18 10:16 AM

A unary plus sign (1) is used before one number.

EXAMPLE:
EXAMPLE: 3x3 1 5x2 2 7x 5 8
18 x 5
y 7
Rules for Order of Operation

There are several rules for combining algebraic
1. Perform all operations inside grouping symbols (paren-
expressions.
theses, radical symbols, fraction bar, brackets, etc.).
2. Exponentiation (raising to a power or roots) Distributive Law. The statement of the distributive law is:
a(b 1 c) 5 a  b 1 a  c
3. Unary minus (2) or unary plus (1)
4. Multiplication and division
EXAMPLE:
5. Addition and subtraction
7(x 1 y) 5 7x 1 7y
Operations are performed from the lowest level (#1) to the
largest level (#5). Operations on the same level are evalu- 7(3 1 5) 5 7  3 1 7  5 5 21 1 35 5 56
ated left to right. p(x 1 4) 5 px 1 4p (The numeral is normally
written in front of the letter.)
EXAMPLES:
2 1 3 ? 4 (multiplication first) If the addition sign were a subtraction sign, then:
a(b 2 c) 5 a  b 2 a  c
5 2 1 12 (addition)
5 14 EXAMPLE:
8 ? 6 2 12 4 2 (multiplication and division first) 7(x 2 y) 5 7x 2 7y
5 48 2 6 (subtraction) 7(3 2 5) 5 7  3 2 7  5
5 42 5 21 2 35 5 21 1 (235) 5 214
87 p(x 2 4) 5 px 2 4p
(bar acts as grouping symbol)
2 3
15 Care needs to be taken when one or two negative signs
(add numerator and add denominator first) are involved.
5
5 3 (divide)
(22) 3
(exponentiation first) EXAMPLE:
5 28 27(x 1 y) 5 27x 1 (27y) (distributive law)
2(2)4 (exponentiation first) 5 27x 2 7y (the reverse defini-
5 2(16) (unary minus sign) tion of subtraction)
5 216 27(x 2 y) 5 27x 2 (27y) (distributive law)
3( 7 1 4 ) (add inside parentheses first) 5 27x 1 7y (definition of
5 3  11 (multiply) subtraction)
5 33 27(23 28) 5 (27)(23) 2 (27)(8)(distributive
2( 6 1 1 )2 (add inside parentheses first) law)
5 2 (7)2 (exponentiation next) 5 21 2 (256)(multiply)
5 2  49 (multiply) 5 21 1 56 (definition of
5 98 subtraction)
5 77
Algebraic Expressions Addition and Subtraction of Like Terms. A like term is

An algebraic expression consists of letters and/or numbers a term with identical literal factors. A literal factor is a
that are multiplied, divided, added, subtracted, or raised factor denoted by a letter. Like terms may be added or
to a power. subtracted.
11067_ch01_hr_001-017.indd 9 11/19/18 10:16 AM

EXAMPLE: EXAMPLE:
7x 1 3x 5 10x (like terms) 7(x 2 y) 2 4(x 2 y)
5 7(x 2 y) 1 (24)(x 2 y) (definition of
subtraction)
5 7x 2 7y 1 (24x) 2 (24y) (distributive
EXAMPLE: law)
7x 1 3y 5 7x 1 3y (Unlike terms may 5 7x 1 (27y) 1 (24x) 1 (4y) (definition of

not be added.) subtraction)
5 3x 1 (23y) (combine like terms)
5 3x 2 3y (reverse of definition of
subtraction)
EXAMPLE:
7x 2 3x 5 4x
EXAMPLE:
x 2 (y 2 x) 5 x 1 (21)(y 2 x)
5 x 1 (2y) 2 (2x)
EXAMPLE: 5 x 1 (2y) 1 x
27x 2 3x 5 27x 1 (23x) (definition of 5 2x 2 y
subtraction)
5 210x (combine like terms)
If an expression involves parentheses within parentheses,
then it is simplified from the innermost parentheses out.
EXAMPLE:
EXAMPLE:
27x 2 (23x) 5 27x 1 3x (definition of
7 2 [6x 2 (x 2 4)]
subtraction)
5 24x (combine like terms) 5 7 2 [6x 2 x 1 4] (remove innermost
parentheses)
5 7 2 [5x 1 4] (simplify within parentheses)
Parentheses. When an algebraic expression involves pa- 5 7 2 5x 2 4 (remove parentheses
rentheses, the parentheses need to be removed in order [square bracket])
to simplify the expression. 5 3 2 5x (combine like terms)
EXAMPLE: Exponents. Definition:

7(x 1 y) 1 4(x 1 y) a n a⋅
a⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
a a
5 7x 1 7y 1 4x 1 4y (distributive law) n times
5 11x 1 11y (combine like terms) where a is the base and n is the exponent.
EXAMPLE:
EXAMPLE:
34 5 3  3  3  3 5 81
7(x 1 y) 2 4(x 1 y)
5 7(x 1 y) 1 (24)(x 1 y) (definition of subtraction)
5 7x 1 7y 1 (24x) 1 (24y) (distributive law)
5 3x 1 3y (combine like terms)
Laws of Exponents
Law 1: am  an 5 am 1 n
11067_ch01_hr_001-017.indd 10 11/19/18 10:16 AM

EXAMPLES: EXAMPLES:
a a 5a
4 3 413
5a 7
1
x7
a  a5 5 a1 1 5 5 a6 x7
1 1
23
23 8
 a mn if m n
am   It can also be shown that:
Law 2: n  1 a ≠ 0 1
a  nm if n m  foraa≠0.0.
an for
 a  an
EXAMPLES:
x5 EXAMPLES:
x5 2 x 3
x2
1
x7 1 1 2
52 25
10 7 3 5
x10 x x
1
x5
x5
Law 3: (ab)m 5 ambm
EXAMPLE: Multiplying Numbers in Scientific Notation. When mul-

tiplying two numbers in scientific notation, the Ns are
(ab)4 5 a4b4
multiplied and the powers of 10 are added. This is simply
using the rule of exponents when the bases are the same.
m
a am
Law 4:   m , bb 
≠ 00
b a
EXAMPLE:
(2.4 3 103)(3.8 3 1011)
5 (2.4 ? 3.8) 3 103 1 11
EXAMPLE:
5 5
5 9.1 3 1014
a a
  5
b b
Dividing Numbers in Scientific Notation. When dividing

Law 5: (a ) 5 a
m n mn two numbers in scientific notation, the Ns are divided and
the exponents are subtracted. This is another example of
using the rules of exponents.
EXAMPLE:
(a4)5 5 a4  55 a20
EXAMPLE:
Definition: a0 5 1 for a  0
(8.3 3 104) 4 (2.7 3 1011)
5 8.3 4 2.7 3 104211
EXAMPLE: 5 3.1 3 1027
50 5 1
x0 5 1
(5x)0 5 1 Evaluating Algebraic Expressions
5x0 5 5  1 5 5
1 To evaluate an algebraic expression, replace each unknown
Definition: an foraa≠00
for with the given value and then perform the indicated
an
operations.
11067_ch01_hr_001-017.indd 11 11/19/18 10:16 AM

An open statement becomes either true or false when

EXAMPLE: Evaluate 2a2 1 5b for a 5 3 and b 5 4. the unknown (variable) is replaced (substituted) with a
2a2 1 5b 5 2(3)2 1 5(4) numeric value.
5 2 ? 9 1 20
5 18 1 20
EXAMPLES:
5 38
In x 1 5 5 7, replace x with 3.
3 1 5 5 7 is a false statement.
Formulae are examples of equations where algebraic
In x 1 5 5 7, replace x with 2.
expressions are evaluated.
2 1 5 5 7 is a true statement.
EXAMPLES:
Convert 60.0°F to C. The solution of an equation is that numeric value
The formula involved is C 5 5/9(F 2 32°). which, when substituted in the equation, gives a
Determine C when F 5 60.0°. true statement. In the earlier example, 2 is the solution
to the equation.
C 5 5/9(F 2 32°) There may be many solutions to an equation. For
C 5 5/9(60.0° 2 32°) (substitute 60.0° for F) example, in the equation x 1 5 5 x 1 5, all numeric values
C 5 5/9(28°) for x will give a true statement. This type of equation is
C 5 15.6° called an identity.
There may be no solutions to an equation. For exam-
Convert 20.0°C to F. ple, in the equation x 1 5 5 x 1 6, there are no numbers
The formula to use is F 5 9/5C 1 32°. that, when substituted in the equation, give a true state-
Determine F when C 5 20.0°. ment. Therefore, there are no solutions to the equation.
F 5 9/5(20°) 1 32° Equivalence Principles. The principles of equivalence are

F 5 36° 1 32° needed to solve equations. An equivalent equation is an
F 5 68° equation that has the same solution.
Addition and Subtraction Principle. If the same number is
added to each side or subtracted from each side of an equa-
Equations tion, the equation remains equivalent.
An equation is a statement that contains an equal sign. For
example, A 5 B is an equation. An equation can be either
a true or a false statement. EXAMPLE:
x2557
EXAMPLES: x25155715 (add 5 to both sides)

x 5 12 (equivalent equation to
5 1 3 5 7 (false statement)
x 2 5 5 7)
5 1 3 5 8 (true statement)
Both of these statements are equations but only one is EXAMPLE:

true.
An equation that contains at least one unknown x 1 3 5 12 (subtract 3 from both sides)
(variable) is an open equation. x 1 3 2 3 5 12 2 3 (equivalent equation to
x 5 9 x 1 3 5 12)
EXAMPLES:
x1557 Multiplication and Division Principle. If the same non-
3x 1 5 5 7 2 2x zero number is multiplied or divided by each side of the
equation, the equation remains equivalent.
11067_ch01_hr_001-017.indd 12 11/19/18 10:16 AM

EXAMPLE: EXAMPLE:
x Solve: 5a 5 30 for a
6
5 5a 5 30
x 5a 30
5 56 (multiply each side by 5)
5 5 5 (divide both sides by 5)
a56
x 5 30 (equivalent equation)
Check:
5a 5 30
5(6) 5 30 (substitute 6 for a)
EXAMPLE:
30 5 30 (Statement is true.)
3x 5 12
3x 12 (divide each side by 3)

3 3 EXAMPLE:
x54 (equivalent equation) Solve: 7x 2 5 5 3x 1 7 for x
7x 2 5 5 3x 1 7
To find a solution to an equation, the unknown (variable) 7x 2 5 1 5 5 3x 1 7 1 5 (add 5 to
must be isolated on one side of the equation. both sides)
7x 5 3x 1 12
7x 2 3x 5 3x 1 12 2 3x (subtract 3x from both
EXAMPLE: sides)
Solve: x 1 7 5 12 for x 4x 5 12
x 1 7 5 12 4 x 12

x 1 7 2 7 5 12 2 7 (subtract 7 from 4 4 (divide both sides by 4)
each side) x53
x55 Check:
Check: 7x 2 5 5 3x 1 7
x 1 7 5 12 7(3) 2 5 5 3(3) 1 7 (substitute 3 for x)
5 1 7 5 12 (substitute value for x) 21 2 5 5 9 1 7
12 5 12 (Statement is true; therefore, 16 5 16 (Statement is true.)
5 is solution to equation.)
To solve an equation with parentheses, the parentheses
need to be eliminated using some correct procedure, usu-
ally the distributive law.
EXAMPLE:
x EXAMPLE:
Solve: 18 for x
6
x Solve: 7(x 1 6) 5 21 for x
18
6 7(x 1 6) 5 21 (distributive law)
x
6 6 18 (multiply both sides by 6) 7x 1 42 5 21 (subtract 42 from each side)
6
x 5 108 7x 5 221 (divide each side by 7)
Check: x 5 23
x Check:
18
6 7(x 1 6) 5 21 (substitute 23 for x)
108 7(23 1 6) 5 21
18 (substitute 108 for x)
6 7(3) 5 21
11067_ch01_hr_001-017.indd 13 11/19/18 10:16 AM

Sometimes a formula needs to be rearranged. This is just

like solving an equation for an unknown (variable).
UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
In order to quantify scientific phenomena, standard units

of measurement have been established. These units allow
EXAMPLE: scientists to describe quantities. In physics, the primary or
Solve for t when a 5 bt 1 c fundamental units of measurement are mass, length, and
a 5 bt 1 c time. These units, although they have the same meaning and
a 2 c 5 bt 1 c 2 c (subtract c from each side)
have been standardized by international organizations, are
measured by the use of two widely different systems. These
a 2 c 5 bt (divide by b) are the British (foot-pound-second) system, also called
a c bt the U.S. customary system, and the metric (MKS [meter-

b b kilogram-second] or CGS [centimeter-gram-second]) system.
Although most countries utilize the metric system of mea-
ac
t surement, attempts to switch to this system in the United
b States have not been very successful. In the United States,
Check: length is measured in inches and feet rather than meters and
a 5 bt 1 c kilometers. By combining one or more of the fundamental
units, scientists arrive at secondary or derived units. For
ac
ab⋅ c (substitute a c for t) example, the area of an object is derived from the fundamen-
b b tal unit of length. The area of a rectangle is determined by
a5a2c1c multiplying the lengths of the two sides of the object.
a 5 a (Statement is true.)
SI Units
In 1960, at the Eleventh General Conference of Weights
Variation and Measures, the Système Internationale d̀ Unites (SI)
Two types of variation will be discussed here—direct and was defined and officially adopted. This system of units,
inverse. used to measure various quantities, is now accepted as the
metric system. In the SI system, there are seven base units
Direct Variation. When one quantity is a multiple of (Table 1-2). All other units are derived from these units,
a second quantity, this represents direct variation. An although some derived units are given special names. It is
example of direct variation is y 5 kx, where k is the important to become familiar with SI units because they
constant of proportionality. Here y is a multiple of x, have been internationally adopted.
making y directly proportional to x. In addition, although the United States does not
Another example is y 5 kx2, where k is the constant use SI/metric units for the public, all scientific inqui-
of proportionality, making y directly proportional to the ries utilize the SI system. As noted earlier, the seven
square of x. Another way to think of direct variation is that base SI units are mass, length, time, electric current,
the quotient of the two quantities is always a constant. It temperature, amount of substance, and luminous inten-
is possible, knowing the values for the quantities, to find sity. Radiologically important derived units are the
the constant. coulomb per kilogram (C/kg), formerly the roentgen (R);
Inverse Variation. When two quantities are multiplied and the gray (Gy), formerly the rad (radiation absorbed dose);
their product is a constant, this represents inverse variation. and the sievert (Sv), formerly the rem (radiation equiva-
An example of inverse variation is y 5 k/x, where k lent man). These radiologic units are described in greater
is the constant of proportionality. Here the product of x detail in Chapter 8.
and y is a constant, namely k. This is usually read as y is
inversely proportional to x. Fundamental Units
Another example is y 5 k/x2, where k is the constant
Mass. Mass is the amount or quantity of matter. The standard
of proportionality. Here the product of x2 and y is a con-
unit of mass is the kilogram (kg). It is represented by a cylin-
stant. This is usually read as y is inversely proportional to
der of platinum-iridium, which is kept in a vault at the Inter-
the square of x (or x2).
national Bureau of Weights and Measures in Paris, France.
It is also possible to combine the two variations.
As an example, consider y 5 kx/z2. Here y is directly Length. The unit of length is the meter (m). The meter
proportional to x and inversely proportional to the was defined in 1983 as the distance that light travels in a
square of z. vacuum in 1/299,792,485 s.
11067_ch01_hr_001-017.indd 14 11/19/18 10:16 AM

TABLE 1-2. SI Units of Measurement TABLE 1-3. SI Unit Values

Base Units Factors Prefixes Symbols
Quantity Unit Name Symbol 10 12
tera T
Mass kilogram kg 109 giga G
Length meter m 106 mega M
Time second s 103 kilo k
Electric current ampere A 102 hecto h
Temperature kelvin K 101 deca da
Amount of mole mol 1021 deci d
substance 1022 centi c
Luminous intensity candela cd 1023 milli m
Derived Units 1026 micro μ
Unit British 1029 nano n
Quantity Name Symbol Units 10212 pico p
Absorbed dose gray Gy rad 10215 femto f
Charge coulomb C esu 10218 atto a
Electric potential volt v
Dose equivalent sievert Sv rem
Energy joule J ft/lb EXAMPLES:
Exposure coulomb/ C/kg roentgen 23.4 g 5 0.0234 kg (move the decimal
kilogram point 3 positions left)
Frequency hertz Hz cycles per 23.4 g 5 23,400 mg (move the decimal
second point 3 positions right)
Force newton N 23.4 mg 5 0.0000234 kg (move the decimal point 6
Magnetic flux weber Wb positions left)
Magnetic flux tesla T gauss 23.4 kg 5 2,340,000 cg (move the decimal point 5
density positions right)
Power watt W Using dimensional analysis:
Radioactivity bequerel Bq curie
kg
23.4 g 23.4 g 0.0234 kg
1000 g
Time. The unit of time is the second (s). The second was
originally defined in terms of the rotation of the earth Some commonly used prefixes are shown in Table 1-4.
on its axis (the mean solar day) but, like the meter, Conversion from one system to another is needed
the need for greater accuracy resulted in redefining from time to time. For example, 1 in. 5 2.54 cm is the
the unit. Time is now measured by the vibrations of conversion fact for changing inches to centimeters. See
cesium-133 atoms. This method is sometimes called the the section on Dimensional Analysis under the math
atomic clock. review for the procedure to convert from one set of units
to another.
Prefixes
The metric system uses prefixes to units to denote different TABLE 1-4. Commonly Used SI Prefixes
orders of magnitude, as shown in Table 1-3.
To convert from grams to kilograms or micrograms, or Unit Symbol Meaning
to grams with any other prefix, the decimal point is moved. kilovolt kV 103 volts
If the prefix moves up the table, the decimal point is moved centimeter cm 1022 meter
to the left the number of exponent positions moved. If the milliampere mA 1023 amp
prefix moves down the table, the decimal point is moved
milligray mGy 1023 Gy
to the right the number of exponent positions moved.
Dimensional analysis can also be used. nanosecond ns 1029 second
11067_ch01_hr_001-017.indd 15 11/19/18 10:16 AM

SUMMARY
A basic review of arithmetic, algebra, and units of mea-

surement has been presented. The arithmetic review in-
cludes fractions, decimals, computation with values, powers of
of measurement are mass, length, and time. Units of
measurement were officially defined on an international
level through the adoption of the SI units. The seven
10, scientific notation, and dimensional analysis. The algebra base SI units are mass, length, time, electric current,
review includes signed numbers, order of operation, algebraic temperature, amount of substance, and luminous
expressions, exponents, evaluating algebraic expressions, intensity. Radiologically important derived units are the
equations, and variation. Both SI and British (U.S. customary) coulomb per kilogram (C/kg), formerly the roentgen (R);
units of measurement are introduced. the gray (Gy), formerly the rad (radiation absorbed dose);
In order to quantify science, standard units of and the sievert (Sv), formerly the rem (radiation equiva-
measurement were established. The fundamental units lent man).
The Case of the

Mysterious Mammals
These mammals were

radiographed in the Deep South.
What are they?
Answers to the case studies can

be found in Appendix B.
REVIEW QUESTIONS 5. Change 0.325 to a percent.

6. What are the significant digits of each of the
4 1 following:
1.
7 2 a. 20.10
2 3 b. 192
2. ⋅
9 8 c. 38.04
3. 571.1 2 182.572 5
d. 2,700
4. 725 4 0.25 5
e. 1,800.004
11067_ch01_hr_001-017.indd 16 11/19/18 10:17 AM

7. Add the following numbers, leaving the results with 15. Evaluate the expression for a 5 2, b 5 24, and c 5 6.
the correct number of significant digits if each num- 3(a 1 b) 2 c
ber is assumed to be approximate. 16. Solve for x: 2x 2 8 5 4
a. 2.1 1 2.824 17. Solve for x: 2(3x 2 8) 5 3(4 2 x) 1 6x
b. 3.2 1 4.19 2 a
18. Solve for a:
8. Change the following numbers to scientific notation: 3 15
a. 0.0081
b. 7,811.2 R
EFERENCES
c. 0.00024 AND RECOMMENDED
d. 78,432 READING
9. Change the following numbers to ordinary notation:
Aufmann, R. N. (2017). Basic college mathematics: An applied
a. 3.614 × 102 approach (9th ed.). Boston: Brooks Cole.
b. 1.876 × 1024 Burns, J. E. (1979). The new SI units: Problems with conversion.
c. 1.823 × 103 The Canadian Journal of Radiography, Radiotherapy, and
Nuclear Medicine, 10(2), 60–70.
d. 5.67 × 106
Dunworth, J. V. (1976). SI units for ionizing radiations. The use
10. Convert 1,500 seconds to hours. of the “gray.” Radiography, 42(496), 84.
11. Convert 10 meters2 to centimeters2. Martin-Gay, K. E. (2014). Prealgebra (7th ed.). London, United
12. Simplify the following algebraic expressions: Kingdom: Pearson.
The SI for the health profession. (1979). The Canadian Journal
a. 23(x 1 y) 1 7(2x 1 1)
of Medical Radiation Technology, 10(4), 138.
b. 24(x 1 2y) 2 8(2x 2 y) Washington, A. J. (2013). Basic technical mathematics
13. Simplify the following expressions, leaving the with calculus (10th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ:
answer with only positive exponents: Pearson Addison Wesley.
a. a2 ? b3 ? a4 ? b2 Wyckoff, H. O. (1978). The international system of units (SI).
Radiology, 128, 833–835.
b. (a4)3 ? (a2)23
14. Evaluate the expression for a 5 5 and b 5 3.
3 2
( a b2 )
8
11067_ch01_hr_001-017.indd 17 11/19/18 10:17 AM

Radiation Concepts
C H A P T E R
2
KEY TERMS
amplitude
atom I have discovered something interesting, but I do not know whether or not
my observations are correct.
atomic mass number (A)
atomic mass unit (amu) W. C. Röntgen to his friend Theodor Boveri
atomic number in early December 1895.
chemical energy
compound
electrical energy
electricity OBJECTIVES
electromagnetic energy
Upon completion of this chapter, the student should be able to:
electromagnetic radiation (EM)
electromagnetic spectrum
◾ Describe the branches of science.
electrons (e2) ◾ Differentiate between matter and energy.
electron binding energy (Eb) ◾ Describe the basic structure of matter.
electron volt (eV) ◾ Identify the various types of energy.
element ◾ Explain the basic concepts of atomic theory.
excitation ◾ Differentiate between the radiations along the electromagnetic
frequency spectrum.
heat ◾ Describe the wave and particle theories for electromagnetic radiation.
ion
◾ Identify the properties of x-rays.
ionization
isotope
kinetic energy
K-shell
lambda
M theory
mass
mechanical energy
mixture
molecule
neutrons (no)
18
11067_ch02_hr_018-034.indd 18 7/13/18 9:12 PM

CHAPTER 2 Radiation Concepts 19
Physics is a branch of physical science that studies

matter and energy and their interrelationships. Matter is
KEY TERMS (continued) defined as anything that has mass and occupies space.
Energy is the ability to do work.
nu
nuclear energy Matter
nucleons
Matter is a very general term used to describe the sub-
nucleus stance that comprises all physical objects. It has shape,
octet rule form, and it occupies space. A principal characteristic of
period matter is mass. Mass is the quantity of matter contained in
an object. It is best described by its energy equivalence,
photon
although the term weight is generally used to mean the
potential energy same thing. The force that an object exerts under the
protons (p1) influence of gravity is weight. An object may be weightless
quantum in a zero-gravity environment, such as in space, but the
mass of that object would remain unchanged.
quarks
The unit of mass is the kilogram, which equals to
radiation 1,000 grams. The kilogram represents the weight of a stan-
shell dard piece of platinum-iridium kept at the International
string theory Bureau of Weights and Measures in Paris, France. It is
equal to the mass of 1,000 cm3 of water at 0° Celsius (C)
substance
or Centigrade.
temperature The structure of matter has been studied throughout
thermal energy history. In nature, matter is most commonly found as a
valence mixture of substances (Figure 2-1). A substance is defined
as a material that has a definite and constant composition.
wavelength
When two or more substances are combined, they form a
weight mixture. For example, air is a mixture of oxygen, hydro-
Z number gen, nitrogen, and a variety of other substances.
MATTER AND ENERGY

Mixture
Radiography is the recording of images created by the use
of x-ray energy. It is both an art and a science. In order
to perform the duties of a radiographer, it is necessary
to understand the art of the profession as well as the Substance
science.
Science is the use of knowledge in an organized and
classified manner. The scientific method has been used Element Compound
by men and women to understand the world in which we
live. This method systematically involves collecting facts,
studying their relationships, and arriving at conclusions
based on analysis. Natural science is the study of the Atom Molecule
universe and its contents. It can be divided into two cat-
egories: (1) the study of nonliving matter, known as physi-
cal science; and (2) the study of living matter, known as
biological science. Radiographers learn about biological
science through a study of human anatomy and physiol-
ogy and about physical science through a study of x-ray Figure 2-1. Structure of matter.
production and imaging processes.
11067_ch02_hr_018-034.indd 19 7/13/18 9:12 PM

Substances may be either simple or complex. A simple There is a unique relationship between matter and
substance is known as an element and a complex substance energy. They are interchangeable. This relationship was
is known as a compound. An element is a substance that can- described in 1905 by the German-American physicist
not be broken down into any simpler substances by ordinary Albert Einstein (1879–1955) in his well-known theory of
means. There are 92 naturally occurring elements identified relativity. Einstein mathematically described the relation-
on the periodic table of elements (Figure 2-2). Elements ship between matter and energy in the equation:
include such substances as hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, cal- E 5 mc2
cium, copper, silver, gold, lead, and barium. When two or
more elements are chemically united in definite proportion, where: E 5 energy
compounds are formed. Water and salt are both examples m 5 mass
of compounds. Water is formed by the chemical union of c 5 constant (the speed of light in a
two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom and is referred vacuum)
to as H2O (Figure 2-3). Each element has an abbreviated At the basis of Einstein’s work is the Law of Con-
letter or letters to identify it. These abbreviations for the servation. This law states that the sum total of all mat-
elements are outlined on the periodic table. For example, in ter and energy in the universe is a constant: matter and
the compound salt, the element sodium (Na) is chemically energy cannot be created or destroyed but they can be
combined with the element chlorine (Cl), in equal propor- converted from one form to another. Although recent
tions, to form sodium chloride (NaCl). research has demonstrated certain circumstances when
When broken down and examined in its purest form, Einstein’s theory has been disproved, for practical pur-
matter actually comprises very small invisible particles poses it is essentially true.
known as atoms. An atom is the smallest particle of an
element that still possesses the chemical properties of
that element. When two or more atoms are chemically
united, they form a molecule, which is the smallest parti- ATOMIC THEORY
cle of a compound that still possesses the characteristics
of the compound. For example, in the compound water, Matter comprises very small particles known as atoms. To
two hydrogen (H) atoms combine with one oxygen (O) understand how small atoms really are, it has been esti-
atom to form one water (H2O) molecule. With salt, one mated that one teaspoon of water (about 1 cm3) contains
sodium (Na) atom combines with one chlorine (Cl) atom about three times as many atoms as the Atlantic Ocean
to form one sodium chloride (NaCl) molecule. contains teaspoons of water.
Atoms are tightly bonded to one another when a mol- Atoms can be subdivided into three basic subatomic
ecule is formed. These bonds cannot be broken by ordinary particles: protons (p1), neutrons (n0), and electrons (e2).
physical means, such as crushing. Atoms and molecules are,
however, bound to one another by varying degrees of attrac- Historical Overview
tion. The degree of attraction between atoms or molecules
The composition of the atom has been a topic of scientific
will determine if the substance is a solid, a liquid, or a gas. The
investigation for thousands of years. The Greeks theorized
attraction is weakest with a gas and strongest with a solid. For
that matter has four basic components: air, water, earth,
example, depending on the degree of molecular attraction,
and fire. They named the smallest division of these com-
water can exist in its usual state as a liquid, or it can exist as
ponents the atom. This theory was accepted until the early
a gas (steam) or a solid (ice). The state is determined by the
1800s when an English schoolteacher named John Dalton
heat or thermal energy that the substance possesses.
(1766–1844) published his work on atomic theory. Dalton
concluded that all elements could be differentiated from
Energy one another based on the characteristic of mass. He further
Energy is defined as the ability to do work. The unit of concluded that each of the elements comprises atoms that
energy is the joule (J), named after the English physicist behaved in an identical fashion during a chemical reaction.
who developed the standard. When energy is emitted and During the mid-1800s, Russian scientist Dmitri Mendeleev
transferred through matter, it is called radiation. Radia- (1834–1907) developed the first periodic table of the ele-
tion is a term applied to many forms of energy, such as ments. This table arranges the elements in order of ascend-
heat and light. When the burner on a stove is lit, it can ing atomic mass and on the basis of the repetition of similar
be described as radiating heat. A light bulb is capable of chemical properties (Figure 2-2). More detailed information
radiating light. When any form of matter is struck by a on a specific element on the periodic table, including specific
form of radiant energy, it is described as being exposed characteristics, electron configurations, and electron binding
or irradiated. energies, can be found at http://www.webelements.com.
11067_ch02_hr_018-034.indd 20 7/13/18 9:12 PM

11067_ch02_hr_018-034.indd 21
1 18
1 Periodic Table of the Elements 2
K or 1 H He
hydrogen 2 13 14 15 16 17 helium
1.007 94(7) Key: 4.002 602(2)
3 4 atomic number 5 6 7 8 9 10
L or 2 Li Be symbol B C N O F Ne
lithium beryllium name boron carbon nitrogen oxygen fluorine neon
6.941(2) 9.012 182(3) standard atomic weight 10.811(7) 12.0107(8) 14.0067(2) 15.9994(3) 18.998 4032(5) 20.1797(6)
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
M or 3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
sodium magnesium 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 aluminium silicon phosphorus sulfur chlorine argon
22.989 770(2) 24.3050(6) 26.981 538(2) 28.0855(3) 30.973 761(2) 32.065(5) 35.453(2) 39.948(1)
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
N or 4
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
potassium calcium scandium titanium vanadium chromium manganese iron cobalt nickel copper zinc gallium germanium arsenic selenium bromine krypton
39.0983(1) 40.078(4) 44.955 910(8) 47.867(1) 50.9415(1) 51.9961(6) 54.938 049(9) 55.845(2) 58.933 200(9) 58.6934(2) 63.546(3) 65.409(4) 69.723(1) 72.64(1) 74.921 60(2) 78.96(3) 79.904(1) 83.798(2)
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
O or 5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
rubidium strontium yttrium zirconium niobium molybdenum technetium ruthenium rhodium palladium silver cadmium indium tin antimony tellurium iodine xenon
85.4678(3) 87.62(1) 88.905 85(2) 91.224(2) 92.906 38(2) 95.94(2) [97.9072] 101.07(2) 102.905 50(2) 106.42(1) 107.8682(2) 112.411(8) 114.818(3) 118.710(7) 121.760(1) 127.60(3) 126.904 47(3) 131.293(6)
55 56 57-71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba lanthanoids Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
P or 6
caesium barium hafnium tantalum tungsten rhenium osmium iridium platinum gold mercury thallium lead bismuth polonium astatine radon
132.905 45(2) 137.327(7) 178.49(2) 180.9479(1) 183.84(1) 186.207(1) 190.23(3) 192.217(3) 195.078(2) 196.966 55(2) 200.59(2) 204.3833(2) 207.2(1) 208.980 38(2) [208.9824] [209.9871] [222.0176]
87 88 89-103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111
Fr Ra actinoids Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Uuu
Q or 7
francium radium rutherfordium dubnium seaborgium bohrium hassium meitnerium darmstadtium unununium
[223.0197] [226.0254] [261.1088] [262.1141] [266.1219] [264.12] [277] [268,1366] [271] [272]
57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
lanthanum cerium praseodymium neodymium promethium samarium euopium gadolinium terbium dysprosium holmium erbium thulium ytterbium lutetium
138.9055(2) 140.116(1) 140.907 65(2) 144.24(3) (144.9127) 150.36(3) 151.964(1) 157.25(3) 158.925 34(2) 162.500(1) 164.930 32(2) 167.259(3) 168.934 21(2) 173.04(3) 174.967(1)
89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103

Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
CHAPTER 2
actinium thorium protactinium uranium neptunium plutonium americium curium berkelium californium einsteinium fermium mendelevium nobelium lawrencium
(227.0277) 232.0381(1) 231.035 88(2) 238.028 91(3) (237.0482) (244.0642) (243.0614) (247.0704) (247.0703) (251.0796) (252.0830) (257.0951) (258.0984) (259.1010) (262.1097)
Figure 2-2. Periodic table of elements.

Radiation Concepts 21
7/13/18 9:12 PM
2 hydrogen atoms Schrödinger were successful, but physicists primarily use

Schrödinger’s concept because it has been found to be
more convenient. This approach is the foundation of mod-
ern physics and is known as quantum or wave mechanics.
According to the principles of quantum mechanics,
orbital electrons are assigned probabilities for occupying
any location within the atom. The greatest probabilities
1 p+ are associated with Bohr’s original model.
_
1 p+ Basic Atomic Particles
e
_ The atom is best described as having a small, dense
e
center known as the nucleus, which is surrounded by
_
e _ electrons that orbit it at various levels (Figure 2-4). The
e
_ nucleus contains two of the three basic particles of the
_ 8 p+ e
atom, protons and neutrons, which are responsible for
e 8 n0
almost all of the mass of an atom. Protons and neutrons
_ _ _ together are referred to as nucleons. The third basic
e e e particle, the electron, is located outside the nucleus
and has a relatively insignificant mass, 1/1,826 that of
_
e a proton.
Electrons cannot be divided into smaller parts, but
1 oxygen atom protons and neutrons both comprise even smaller sub-
nuclear structures called quarks. There are new theories
that may explain them as well as find a way for quantum
Figure 2-3. A water molecule is formed when two atoms of
hydrogen combine with one atom of oxygen. physics and relativity theory to work together. The over-
all concept is being referred to as M theory. It postulates
that electrons and quarks may not be particles, but
Investigation of the structure of matter contin-

ued and, in 1911, English physicist Ernest Rutherford
(1871–1937) developed a model for the atom that con-
tained a central, small, dense nucleus, which possessed e– e–
a positive charge and was surrounded by a negative
cloud of randomly placed electrons, which had a nega-
tive charge. In 1913, Niels Bohr (1885–1962), a Danish
e–
physicist, expanded on Rutherford’s work and proposed
e–
a model for the atom that is considered the most rep- +
+
resentative of the structure of matter. Bohr’s atom is e–
+
+
+
likened to a miniature solar system where electrons + +
+
orbit around a central nucleus just as the planets revolve e–
around the sun.
e–
Although the atom is far more complex than Bohr’s e–
simple model suggests, this model is still the most widely
used in explaining the composition of matter. One key dis-
tinction between Bohr’s model and an actual atom is that
electrons orbit the nucleus in many planes, whereas the
planets orbit the sun in essentially the same plane.
Bohr’s simple model was difficult to apply to ele- Figure 2-4. A three-dimensional diagram of an atom of oxygen,
ments with a high atomic number. Both Niels Bohr which contains eight protons, eight neutrons located within the cen-
and the Austrian physicist Erwin Schrödinger, working ter nucleus, and eight electrons within orbital shells moving around
with their associates, developed a theoretical approach the nucleus.
to understanding atomic behavior. Both Bohr and
11067_ch02_hr_018-034.indd 22 7/13/18 9:12 PM

Another random document with
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Immediately on his arrival he began to speak and write Greek, to
openly frequent the studios of sculptors and painters, to buy statues
and pictures, and to compose works on the fine arts. The Athenians
were as much delighted as surprised to see one of their conquerors
partake in their most cherished tastes, and thus protest against the
unjust disdain of the rest. Their gratitude, which was always very
noisy, as we know, overwhelmed Atticus with all sorts of flattery.
Decrees in his honour were multiplied, he was offered all the
dignities of the city; they even wished to raise statues to him. Atticus
hastened to refuse everything; but the effect was produced, and the
report of such great popularity did not fail to reach Rome, carried by
those young men of high family who had just finished their education
in Greece. In this manner the reputation of Atticus lost nothing by
his absence; people of taste talked of this enlightened connoisseur of
the arts who had made himself remarked even at Athens; and during
this same time the politicians, no longer seeing him, lost the habit of
classing him with a political party.
This was an important step. There remained a more important one
to take. Atticus had seen betimes that to be rich is the first condition
of independence. This general truth was even more evident at that
time than at any other. How many people were there whose conduct
during the civil wars can only be explained by the state of their
fortunes! Curio had but one motive for serving Caesar, whom he did
not like, namely, the pressure of his creditors; and Cicero himself
puts among the chief reasons that prevented him going to Pompey’s
camp, whither all his sympathies called him, the money that Caesar
had lent him, and which he could not repay. To escape
embarrassments of this kind and gain entire liberty, Atticus resolved
to become rich, and became so. It is of importance, I think, to give
here a few details to show how people got rich at Rome. His father
had left him a rather moderate fortune, two million sesterces
(£16,000). When he left Rome he sold almost all the family property,
that he might leave nothing behind to tempt the proscribers, and
bought an estate in Epirus, in that country of large herds, where the
land brought in so much. It is probable he did not pay much for it.
Mithridates had just ravaged Greece, and, as there was no money,
everything went at a low price. This domain quickly prospered under
skilful management; new lands were bought every year out of the
surplus revenue, and Atticus became one of the great landed
proprietors of the country. But is it likely that his wealth came to him
solely through the good management of his land? He would have
willingly had this believed, in order to resemble somewhat in this
manner Cato and the Romans of the old school. Unluckily for him,
his friend Cicero betrays him. In reading this unreserved
correspondence we are not long in perceiving that Atticus had many
other ways of enriching himself besides the sale of his corn and
herds. This skilful agriculturalist was at the same time a clever
trader, who carried on all businesses successfully. He excelled in
drawing a profit, not only from the follies of others, which is
common, but even from his own pleasures, and his talent consisted
in enriching himself where others ruin themselves. We know for
instance that he was fond of fine books; then, as now, this was a very
costly fancy, but he knew how to make it a source of handsome
profits. He collected in his house a large number of skilful copyists
whom he trained himself; after having made them work for him,
when his passion was satisfied he set them to work for others, and
sold the books they copied to the public very dear. He was thus a
veritable publisher for Cicero, and as his friend’s works sold well it
happened that this friendship, which was full of charm for his heart,
was not without use to his fortune.[144] This commerce might be
avowed, and a friend to letters was not forbidden to become a
bookseller; but Atticus engaged as well in many transactions that
ought to have been more repugnant to him. As he saw the success
that everywhere attended gladiatorial fights, and that no festival took
place without one of these grand butcheries, he thought of raising
gladiators on his estates. He had them carefully instructed in the art
of dying gracefully, and hired them out at a high rate to cities that
wished to amuse themselves.[145] It must be acknowledged that this is
not a suitable trade for a scholar and a philosopher; but the profits
were large, and the philosophy of Atticus was accommodating as
soon as there was a good profit to make. Besides, he was a banker
when the opportunity offered, and lent at a high rate of interest, as
the greatest nobles of Rome did without scruple. Only, he was more
circumspect than others, and took care to appear as little as possible
in the affairs that he conducted, and he had, no doubt, in Italy and
Greece, clever agents who made the most of his capital. His business
relations extended throughout the world; we know of his debtors in
Macedonia, Epirus, Ephesus and Delos, almost everywhere. He lent
to private persons; he lent also to cities, but quite secretly, for this
business was then as little esteemed as it was lucrative, and persons
who took to it were not considered either honest or scrupulous. So
Atticus, who thought as much of his reputation as of his fortune,
would not let any one know that he conducted this sort of business.
He carefully concealed it even from his friend Cicero, and we should
be ignorant of it now if he had not experienced some untoward
accidents in this risky business. Although usually great profits were
gained, some dangers also were run. After having suffered the
Roman domination for two centuries, all the cities, allied and
municipal, and especially those of Asia, were completely ruined.
They all had less revenue than debts, and the proconsuls, combined
with the farmers of the taxes, carried off their resources so
completely that there was nothing left for the creditors to take,
unless they exerted themselves. This is what happened once to
Atticus, notwithstanding his activity. We see that Cicero rallies him
in one of his letters about the siege he is going to lay to Sicyon;[146]
this siege was evidently that of some recalcitrant debtors; Atticus
never made any other campaigns; and, in truth, this one succeeded
badly. While he thus went to war against this unfortunate indebted
town, the senate took pity on it, and protected it by a decree against
its too exacting creditors, so that Atticus, who set out from Epirus as
a conqueror, with flying banners, was reduced, says Cicero, when he
had arrived under the walls, to extract from the Sicyonians a few
poor crowns (nummulorum aliquid) by means of prayers and
flatteries.[147] We must, however, suppose that Atticus was usually
more lucky in the investment of his funds, and by his well-known
prudence we are assured that he knew how to choose more solvent
debtors. All this business that he carried on would certainly soon
have made him very rich; but he had no need to take so much
trouble, for while he was working so skilfully to make his fortune it
came to him ready made from another quarter. He had an uncle, Q.
Caecilius, who passed for the most terrible usurer of Rome, where
there were so many, and who only consented to lend to his nearest
relations, and as a special favour, at the rate of one per cent. per
month. He was a hard, inflexible man, who had rendered himself so
hateful to everybody that the people could not be prevented from
outraging his corpse on the day of his funeral. Atticus was the only
person who had been able to get on with him. Caecilius adopted him
by will, and left him the greater part of his property, ten million
sesterces, a little more than £80,000. Henceforth his fortune was
made, he was independent of everybody, and free to follow his own
inclinations.
But was it not to be feared, that when he was back in Rome, the
resolution that he took to shun all ties would have a bad look? He
could not decently pretend indifference or fear as a reason for
keeping aloof from parties; he had to find a more honourable motive
and one that he might proclaim; a school of philosophy furnished
him with it. The Epicureans, sacrificing everything to the
conveniences of life, said that it was good to abstain from public
employments to avoid the worry they brought. “Do not engage in
politics,” was their favourite maxim. Atticus professed to be an
Epicurean; henceforth his abstention had a plausible pretext, fidelity
to the opinions of his sect, and if he was blamed, the blame fell upon
the whole school, which always makes the share of each individual
very light. Was Atticus in reality a veritable and complete Epicurean?
This is a question that the learned discuss, and that the character of
this personage easily permits us to solve. To suppose that in anything
whatever he attached himself scrupulously to a school, and pledged
himself to be a faithful disciple of it, would be to know him ill. He
had studied them all for the pleasure that this study gave to his
inquisitive mind, but he was determined not to be a slave to their
systems. He had found a principle in the Epicurean morals that
suited him, and seized it in order to justify his political conduct. As to
Epicurus himself and his doctrine, he cared very little about them,
and was ready to abandon them on the first pretext. Cicero shows
this very pleasantly in a passage of the De Legibus. He represents
himself in this work chatting with Atticus on the banks of the
Fibrenus, under the delightful shades of Arpinum. As he wishes to
trace back the origin of laws to the gods, it is necessary for him first
to lay down that the gods concern themselves with men, which the
Epicureans denied. He turns then to his friend, and says: “Do you
admit, Pomponius, that the power of the immortal gods, their
reason, their wisdom, or, if you like it better, their providence, rule
the universe? If you do not admit it I must begin by demonstrating it.
—Well then, replies Atticus, I admit it, if you like, for thanks to these
birds that are singing, and to the murmuring of these brooks, I have
no fear that any of my fellow-disciples may hear me.”[148] Here is a
very accommodating philosopher, and the school will not get very
much good from an adept who abandons it as soon as he is sure that
it will not be known. The character of Atticus is here well seen. To
embrace an opinion resolutely is to pledge oneself to defend it, and
to expose oneself to the necessity of fighting for it. Now,
philosophical quarrels, although they be not bloody, are no less
desperate than others; this is war all the same, and Atticus wishes for
peace in all things, at least for himself. It is amusing to examine the
part that Cicero gives him in the philosophical dialogues into which
he introduces him. In general he does not discuss, he incites to
discussion. Inquisitive and insatiable, he asks, he interrogates
continually; he compels a reply, he raises objections, he animates the
combatants, and during this time he quietly enjoys the fight without
ever taking part in it. We shall see, by and by, that this was exactly
the part he took in politics.
Atticus remained twenty-three years away from Rome, only
visiting it at long intervals and usually remaining but a very short
time. When he thought that, by his long absence, he was quite free
from the ties that attached him to the political parties, when he had
gained independence with wealth, when he had secured himself
against all the reproaches that might be made him on his conduct by
giving his prudence the appearance of a philosophical conviction, he
thought of returning definitively to Rome and there resuming his
interrupted course of life. He chose a moment for returning when all
was calm, and, as if to break entirely with his past, he came back with
a new surname, by which people soon learnt to call him. This name
of Atticus, which he brought back from Athens, seemed to indicate
clearly that he would only live henceforth for the study of letters and
the enjoyment of the arts.
From this moment he divided his time between residence in Rome
and in his country houses. He quietly wound up his banking affairs,
some of which were still standing over, and took measures to hide
from the public the sources of his wealth. He kept only his estates in
Epirus and his houses in Rome, which brought him in a good deal,
and the profits of which he could acknowledge. His property
continued to increase, thanks to the way in which he managed it.
Besides, he had none of those weaknesses which might have
endangered it; he did not care about buying or building, he did not
possess any of those splendid villas at the gates of Rome or at the
sea-side, the keeping up of which ruined Cicero. He still sometimes
lent money, but, as it appears, rather to oblige than to enrich himself.
He was careful, besides, to choose safe persons, and showed himself
without pity when debts fell due. This he did, he said, in the interest
of his debtors, for, in tolerating their negligence he would encourage
them to ruin themselves. But he did not stand upon ceremony in
dismissing those with whom his money would have run some risk,
even if they were his nearest relations. Cicero, relating to him one
day that their common nephew, the young Quintus, had come to him
and tried to move him by the picture of his poverty, added: “I took
then something of your eloquence; I answered nothing.” It was a
good contrivance, and Atticus must have employed it more than once
with regard to his brother-in-law and his nephew, who were always
without money. He had learnt how to make for himself a high social
position at small cost. He lived in his house on the Quirinal—which
was more spacious and commodious within than handsome without,
and which he repaired as little as possible—among the works of art
that he had selected in Greece, and the lettered slaves whom he had
carefully trained himself, and whom everybody envied him. He often
assembled the cultivated people of Rome at feasts where there was a
great display of learning. His hospitality did not cost much, if it is
true, as Cornelius Nepos, who had seen his accounts, asserts, that he
only spent 3000 asses (£6) a month on his table.[149] Cicero, always
indiscreet, relates that Atticus often served to his guests very
common vegetables on very costly dishes;[150] but what did it matter?
every one considered himself fortunate in taking part in these select
parties, where they heard Atticus talk and Cicero’s finest works read
before they were published, and it may be said that all the most
distinguished persons of that great period held it an honour to
frequent that house on the Quirinal.
II.
Of all the advantages of Atticus, one is most tempted to envy him
his good fortune in attaching to himself so many friends. He took
much trouble to do so. From his arrival at Rome we see him busied
in putting himself on good terms with everybody, and using every
means to please men of all parties. His birth, his wealth, and the
manner in which he had acquired it, drew him towards the knights;
these rich farmers of the taxes were his natural friends, and he soon
enjoyed a great reputation among them; but he was not less
connected with the patricians, usually so disdainful of all who were
not of their caste. He had taken the surest means to conciliate them,
which was to flatter their vanity. He took advantage of his historical
knowledge to manufacture for them agreeable genealogies, in which
he made himself partaker in a good many lies, and supported their
most fanciful pretensions by his learning. This example shows at
once his knowledge of the world, and the advantage he drew from it
when he wished to gain the friendship of anybody. We can see what a
close observer he must have been, and the talent that he had for
seizing and profiting by the weak side of people, merely by
considering the nature of the services that he rendered to each
person. He had proposed to Cato to undertake the management of
his affairs at Rome during his absence, and Cato hastened to accept
this: a steward of such capacity was not to be despised by a man who
cared so much for his wealth. He had gratified the vain Pompey, by
busying himself in selecting in Greece some fine statues to ornament
the theatre he was building.[151] As he well knew that Caesar was not
accessible to the same kind of flattery, and that, to attract him, more
real services were necessary, he lent him money.[152] Naturally, he
attached himself by preference to the heads of parties; but he did not
neglect others when he could serve them. He carefully cultivated
Balbus and Theophanes, the confidants of Caesar and Pompey; he
even went sometimes to visit Clodius and his sister Clodia, as well as
other people of doubtful reputation. Having neither rigid scruples
like Cato, nor violent aversions like Cicero, he accommodated
himself to everybody; his good-nature lent itself to everything; he
suited all ages as well as all characters. Cornelius Nepos remarks
with admiration, that while yet very young he charmed the old Sulla,
and that when very old he could please the young Brutus. Atticus
formed a common link between all these men who were so different
in temper, rank, opinions, and age. He went continually from one to
the other, as a sort of pacific ambassador, trying to bring them
together and unite them, for it was his habit, says Cicero, to form
friendships between others.[153] He removed the suspicions and
prejudices which prevented them knowing one another; he inspired
them with the desire to see each other and become intimate, and if,
later, any differences arose between them, he became their
intermediary, and brought about explanations which made them
friends again. His masterpiece in this line is to have succeeded in
reconciling Hortensius and Cicero, and making them live amicably
together notwithstanding the violent jealousy that separated them.
What trouble must he not have had to calm their irritable vanity,
which was always ready to fly out, and which fate seemed to take
pleasure in exciting still more, by putting them in constant rivalry!
All these acquaintanceships of Atticus were certainly not real
friendships. He visited many of these personages only for the
advantage that his safety or his wealth might draw from them; but
there are a great number of others who were really his friends. To
confine ourselves to the most important, Cicero loved no one so
much as he did him; Brutus showed him an unreserved confidence to
the last, and on the eve of Philippi wrote him his last confidences.
There remain too many striking proofs of these two illustrious
friendships for them to be called in question, and we must admit that
he was able to inspire a lively affection in two of the noblest minds of
that time. At first we are very much surprised at this. His prudent
reserve, that openly avowed determination to keep clear of all
entanglements in order to escape all danger, ought, as it seems, to
have kept aloof from him men of conviction who sacrificed fortune
and life for their opinions. By what merit was he nevertheless able to
attach them to himself? How was a man so taken up with himself
and so careful of his interests able to enjoy so fully the pleasures of
friendship, which seem at first sight, to exact devotedness and self-
forgetfulness? How did he succeed in making the moralists, who
assert that egotism is the death of true affection, belie themselves?
[154]
This is still one of those problems of which the life of Atticus is full,
and it is the most difficult to solve. Seen from a distance, even
through the praises of Cicero, Atticus does not seem attractive, and
one would not be tempted to choose him for a friend. And yet it is
certain that those who lived with him did not judge him as we do.
They loved him, and felt themselves from the first inclined to love
him. That general good-will that he inspired, that determination of
every one to pardon or not to see his defects, those lively friendships
that he called forth, are evidences that it is impossible to resist,
whatever surprise they may cause us. There was, then, about this
personage something else than we see; he must have possessed a
kind of attraction that is inexplicable to us, which was personal to
him, and which has disappeared with him. For this reason it is no
longer possible for us to understand thoroughly that strange
attraction that he exercised at first sight on all his contemporaries.
We can, however, form some idea of it, and the writers who knew
him, especially Cicero, give a glimpse of some of those brilliant or
solid qualities by which he gained over those who approached him. I
shall enumerate them according to their testimony, and if they still
do not seem sufficient to justify altogether the number of his
friendships and their ardour, we must join to them in thought that
personal charm that it is impossible now to define or recover because
it vanished with himself.
Firstly, he had a good deal of cultivation, everybody agrees about
that, and a sort of cultivation especially agreeable to the society that
he frequented. He was not solely one of those pleasant triflers who
charm for a moment on a passing acquaintance, but who have not
the qualifications for a longer connection. He was a person of many
attainments and solid knowledge; not that he was a man of deep
learning, this title is not a great recommendation in the intercourse
of society; Cicero thought that people like Varro, who are perfect
mines of knowledge, are not always amusing, and relates that when
the latter came to see him at Tusculum he did not tear his mantle in
trying to retain him.[155] But, without being really a scholar, Atticus
had touched on everything in his studies, the fine arts, poetry,
grammar, philosophy, and history. Upon all these subjects he
possessed just and sometimes original ideas; he could discuss
matters with learned men without too great disadvantage, and he
always had some curious detail to tell those who were not so. Pascal
would have called him a cultivated gentleman (honnête homme); in
everything he was an intelligent and enlightened amateur. Now, for
several reasons, the knowledge that an amateur acquires is of the
kind most current in society. Firstly, as he does not study according
to rule, he interests himself above all in curiosities; he learns by
preference racy and novel details, and it is precisely these that people
of society want to know. Besides, the very multiplicity of the studies
which tempt him, prevents him exhausting any; his caprice always
carries him off elsewhere before he has thoroughly examined
anything. The result is that he knows a great many things, and
always within the limits in which it pleases men of the world to know
them. In fact, the characteristic of the amateur is to do everything,
even what he only does for a moment, with enthusiasm. As it is a
personal taste that draws him to his studies, and as he only continues
them as long as they interest him, his language is more lively when
he speaks of them, his tone freer and more original, and
consequently more agreeable, than that of scholars by profession.
Such is the notion we must form of the learning of Atticus. It was too
extensive for his conversation ever to become monotonous; it was
not deep enough to run the risk of being tedious; it was, in fine,
living, for when things are done with enthusiasm it is natural to
speak of them with interest. This is what made his conversation so
attractive, and this is how he charmed the most fastidious and least
favourably disposed minds. He was still quite young when the aged
Sulla, who had no reason to like him, met him at Athens. He took so
much pleasure in hearing him read Greek and Latin verses and talk
about literature, that he would not leave him, and wished by all
means to take him back with him to Rome. Long after, Augustus felt
the same charm; he was never tired of hearing Atticus talk, and when
he could not go to see him, he wrote to him every day simply to
receive his answers, and thus to continue, in some sort, those long
conversations with which he was so delighted.
We can imagine, then, that the first time people met this
accomplished man they felt themselves drawn towards him by the
charm of his conversation. In proportion as he was better known,
other and more solid qualities were discovered, which retained those
whom his culture had attracted. In the first place there was a great
security in his intercourse. Although he was connected with people
holding very diverse opinions, and though, through them, he had the
secrets of all parties, he was never reproached with having betrayed
these to anybody. We cannot see that he ever furnished a serious
cause to any of his friends to keep aloof from him, or that any of his
connections were broken otherwise than by death. This intercourse,
so secure, was at the same time very easy. No one was ever more
indulgent and accommodating. He took care not to weary by his
demands or to repulse by bluntness. Those storms which so often
troubled the friendship of Cicero and Brutus were not to be feared in
his. It was rather one of those calm and uniform intimacies which
grow stronger from day to day by their regular continuance. It was
this especially that must have charmed those politicians who were
oppressed and fatigued by that bustling activity which used up their
lives. On coming out of this whirlwind of business, they were happy
to find, at a few paces from the Forum, that peaceful house on the
Quirinal into which outside quarrels did not enter, and to go and
chat for a moment with that even-tempered and accomplished man
who always received them with the same smile, and in whose good-
will they had such a tranquil confidence.
But nothing, assuredly, could have won him so many friends as his
readiness to oblige them. This was inexhaustible, and it could not be
asserted that it was interested, since, contrary to custom, he gave
much and demanded nothing. Here again is one of the reasons why
his friendships were so lasting, for it is always this sort of
interchange that we think we have a right to demand, and the
comparisons that we make, in spite of ourselves, between good
offices which we render and those which we receive, which in the end
disturb the most firm friendships. Atticus, who knew this well, had
so contrived as to have need of nobody. He was rich, he never had
law-suits, he did not seek public employments, so that a friend who
was determined to recompense the services he had received could
never find the opportunity,[156] and remained always under
obligations to him, and his debt continued to increase, for Atticus
never wearied of being useful. We have an easy means of
appreciating the extent of this serviceableness, to see it close, and, so
to say at work, namely, to rapidly recall the services of all sorts that
he had rendered Cicero during their long intimacy. Cicero had much
need of a friend like Atticus. He was one of those clever men who
cannot reckon; when his account-books were presented to him he
would gladly have said, like his pupil, Pliny the Younger, that he was
used to another sort of literature: aliis sum chartis, aliis litteris
initiatus. Atticus became his man of business; we know his talent for
this profession. He leased Cicero’s property very dear, saved as much
as he could out of the income and paid the most pressing debts.
When he discovered new ones, he dared to scold his friend, who
hastened to reply very humbly that he would be more careful for the
future. Atticus, who did not much believe this, set to work to make
up the deficit. He went to see the wealthy Balbus or the other great
bankers of Rome with whom he had business relations. If the
calamities of the times made it difficult to get credit, he did not
hesitate to dip into his own purse. Those who know him will not
think this generosity without merit. When Cicero wished to buy some
estate, Atticus at first would get angry; but if his friend did not give
way, he quickly went to visit it and discuss the price. If it was a
question of building some elegant villa, Atticus lent his architect,
corrected the plans, and overlooked the work. When the house was
built, it had to be adorned, and Atticus would send to Greece for
statues. He excelled in selecting them, and Cicero was inexhaustible
in his praises of the Hermathenae in Pentelican marble that he had
procured for him. In a villa of Cicero, we can well understand that
the library was not forgotten, and it was from Atticus again that the
books came. He traded in them, and kept the handsomest for his
friend. The books being bought, it was necessary to arrange them, so
Atticus sent his librarian Tyrannion with his workmen, who painted
the shelves, pasted together the detached leaves of papyrus, put the
labels on the rolls, and arranged the whole in such good order that
Cicero, enchanted, wrote: “Since Tyrannion has arranged my books
one would say that the house has a soul.”[157]
But Atticus did not stop at these services, which we might call
external; he penetrated into the home, he knew all its secrets. Cicero
kept nothing from him, and confided to him unreservedly all his
domestic griefs. He tells him about the violent temper of his brother
and the follies of his nephew; he consults him on the vexations that
his wife and son cause him. When Tullia was of an age to marry, it
was Atticus who sought her a husband. The one he proposed was the
son of a rich and well-conducted knight. “Return,” he said sagely to
Cicero, “return to your old flock.” Unfortunately he was not listened
to. They preferred to the rich financier a broken-down nobleman,
who squandered Tullia’s dowry and forced her to leave him. When
Tullia was dead, of grief perhaps, Atticus went to the nurse’s to visit
the little child she had left, and took care that it wanted for nothing.
At the same time Cicero gave him plenty of occupation with his two
divorces. After he had divorced his first wife, Terentia, it was Atticus
whom he charged to get her to make a will in his favour. It was to
him also that he gave the disagreeable commission to remove the
second, Publilia, when she was determined to forcibly re-enter the
home of her husband, who would have nothing more to do with her.
These are doubtless great services; he rendered others still more
delicate, still more appreciated. It was to him that Cicero entrusted
what was most dear to him in the world, his literary glory. He
communicated his works to him as soon as he had written them, he
took his advice in making corrections, and waited for his decision to
publish them. Thus he treated him as a friend with whom one feels at
home, and to whom one unbosoms oneself completely. Although he
was eager that his eloquence should be taken seriously, when he was
sure of being heard by Atticus only, he made no scruple of joking
about himself and his works. He introduced him without reserve to
all the secrets of the craft, and showed him the receipts for his most
popular effects. “This time, said he gaily, I employed the whole scent-
box of Isocrates, and all the caskets of the disciples.”[158] Nothing can
be more curious than the way in which he related to him one day,
one of his greatest oratorical successes. It was a question of
celebrating the fame of the great consulship, a subject upon which, as
we know, he was inexhaustible. That day he had a reason for
speaking with more brilliancy than usual. Pompey was present; now
Pompey had the weakness to be jealous of Cicero’s glory. It was a
good opportunity to enrage him, and Cicero took care not to neglect
it. “When my turn came to speak, he writes to Atticus, immortal
gods! what rein I gave myself! What pleasure I took in loading myself
with praises in the presence of Pompey, who had never heard me
extol my consulship! If I ever called to my aid periods, enthymemes,
metaphors, and all the other figures of rhetoric, it was then. I did not
speak, I shouted, for it was a question of my stock subjects, the
wisdom of the senate, the good-will of the knights, the union of all
Italy, the smothered remains of the conspiracy, peace and plenty re-
established, etc. You know my thunders when I speak of these
subjects. They were so fine that day that I have no need to tell you
more about them; you may often have heard the like at Athens!”[159]
It is impossible to quiz oneself with greater lightheartedness. Atticus
repaid these confidences by the trouble he took for the success of his
friend’s works. As he had seen their birth, and had busied himself
with them before they were known to the public, he almost regarded
himself as their parent. It was he who took upon himself to start
them in the world and make them succeed. Cicero says that he was
admirably well skilled in this, and it does not surprise us. The means
he most frequently employed to create a good opinion of them, was
to have the finest passages read by his best readers to the clever men
whom he assembled round his table. Cicero, who knew the usual
frugality of his repasts, begged him to deviate from it a little on these
occasions. “Have a care, he writes to him, to treat your guests well,
for if they are in a bad humour with you, they will vent it on me.”[160]
It was natural that Cicero should be extremely grateful for all these
services; but it would be judging him ill to suppose that he was only
attached to him for the benefits he received from him. He really
loved him, and all his letters are full of evidences of the most sincere
affection. He was always happy with him; he was never tired of
associating with him; he had scarcely left him than he ardently
wished to see him again. “May I die, he wrote to him, if either my
house at Tusculum, where I feel so comfortable, or the Isles of the
Blest could please me without you!”[161] Whatever pleasure he
experienced at being fêted, applauded, flattered, at having around
him an obsequious and admiring multitude, in the midst of this
crowd and noise he always turned with regret towards his absent
friend. “With all these people, he tells him, I feel myself more alone
than if I had only you.”[162] All these people, in fact, are composed of
political friends who change with circumstances, whom a common
interest brings to you, and a rival ambition takes away again; with
them Cicero is obliged to be reserved and careful, which is a torture
for such an open-hearted nature. On the other hand, he can tell
Atticus everything, and confide in him without restraint. So he
hastens to demand his presence when the least annoyance happens
to him. “I want you, he writes to him, I have need of you, I am
waiting for you. I have a thousand things that disturb and vex me,
and a single walk with you will relieve me.”[163] We should never end
if we were to collect all those charming expressions of which the
correspondence is full, and in which his heart plainly speaks. They
leave no doubt about Cicero’s feelings; they prove that he regarded
Atticus not only as one of those steadfast and serious friends on
whose support he could count, but also, which is more surprising, as
a sensitive and tender soul: “You take your share,” he tells him, “in
all the troubles of others.”[164]
Here is something far removed from the notion we usually have of
him, and yet we cannot resist such clear testimony. How can we
contend that he had only a doubtful affection for his friends when we
see all his friends contented with it? Are we to be more exacting than
they, and would it not be wronging men like Brutus and Cicero to
suppose that they had been dupes so long without perceiving it? On
the other hand, how can we explain the fact that posterity, which
only judges by the documents that the friends of Atticus have
furnished it, draws from these very documents an opinion quite the
reverse of that held by them? Evidently it is because posterity and
contemporaries do not judge men from the same stand-point. We
have seen that Atticus, who had made a rule not to engage in public
affairs, did not think himself obliged to partake the dangers that his
friends might run, through having taken part in them. He left them
both the honours and the perils. Sensitive, obliging, devoted to them
in the ordinary business of life, when a great political crisis occurred
that compromised them, he stood aside, and left them to expose
themselves alone. Now, when we look at the facts from a distance,
and are separated from them, as we are, by several centuries, we only
perceive the most important events, and especially the political
revolutions, that is to say, precisely those circumstances with which
the friendship of Atticus had nothing to do. Hence the severe
judgment we pronounce upon it. But his contemporaries judged
otherwise. Those great crises are, after all, but rare and passing
exceptions; without doubt contemporaries are much struck by them,
but they are still more impressed by those numberless small
incidents which make up every-day life, and which posterity does not
perceive. They judge of a man’s friendship by those services which
are rendered every moment, and which are important by their mere
number, much more than by any exceptional service which may be
given on one of these great and rare occasions. This accounts for the
fact that they had an opinion of Atticus so different from ours.
It is, beyond doubt, one of the characteristic traits of this person,
that it was a necessity to him to have many friends, and that he took
trouble to attract and retain them. We may refuse to admit, if we will,
that this need was, with him, the effect of a generous and
sympathetic nature, that it came from what Cicero admirably calls
“the impulse of the soul that desires to love;” but, even supposing
that he only thought of occupying and filling up his life, we must
acknowledge that to fill it up in this manner is not a mark of a vulgar
nature. This refined Epicurean, this master in the art of living at
ease, knew “that life is no longer life if we cannot repose on the
affection of a friend.”[165] He had given up the excitement of political
strife, the triumphs of eloquence, the joys of satisfied ambition, but,
as a compensation, he was determined to enjoy all the pleasures of
private life. The more he confined and limited himself to it, the more
particular and refined he became with regard to the pleasures it
could give; as he had only left himself these, he wished to enjoy them
fully, to relish them, to live on them. He needed friends, and among
them the greatest minds, the noblest souls of his time. He expended
all that energy which he did not employ in anything else, in
procuring for himself those pleasures of society that Bossuet calls the
greatest good of human life. Atticus enjoyed this good even beyond
his desires, and friendship generously repaid him for all the trouble
he had taken for it. It was his single passion; he was able to satisfy it
completely, and friendship, after having adorned his life, has shed a
lustre on his name.
III.
Atticus appears in a favourable light in private life. He is less
fortunate when we study the course he followed in public affairs. On
this point he has not been spared blame, and it is not easy to defend
him.
We should not however be very unfavourable to him if we judged
his conduct entirely according to the ideas of our days. Opinion has
become less severe now on those who openly make profession of
living apart from politics. So many men aspire to govern their
country, and it has become so difficult to make choice among this
multitude, that we are tempted to look kindly upon those who have
not this ambition. Far from being blamed, they are called moderate
and wise; they form an exception which is encouraged in order to
lessen the number of aspirants. At Rome they thought otherwise, and
it is not difficult to find reasons for this difference. There, what we
may call the political body was in reality very circumscribed. Besides
the slaves, who did not count, and the common people, who
contented themselves with giving or rather selling their votes in the
elections, and whose greatest privilege it was to be entertained at the
expense of the candidates, and fed at the expense of the public
treasury, there remained only a few families of ancient lineage or
more recent celebrity who divided all public employments among
themselves. The aristocracy of birth and of fortune was not very
numerous, and scarcely sufficed to furnish the required number of
officials of all sorts to govern the world. It was necessary therefore
that no one should refuse to take his part, and to live in retirement
was considered a desertion. It is not the same in our democracy. As
all offices are open to everybody, and as, thanks to the diffusion of
education, men worthy to occupy them may arise in all ranks, we
need no longer fear lest the absence of a few quiet people, friends of
peace and repose, will make a sensible and regrettable gap in the
serried ranks of those who struggle from all quarters for power.
Moreover, we think now that there are many other ways of serving
one’s country besides public life. Romans of high birth knew no
other; they looked upon commerce as a not very honourable
means[166] that a private man might employ to make his fortune, and
did not see what the state might gain by it; literature seemed an
agreeable but trivial pastime, and they did not understand its social
importance. It follows that among them, a man of a certain rank
could only find one honourable mode of employing his activity and
being useful to his country, namely, to fill political offices.[167] To do
anything else was, according to their ideas, to do nothing; they gave
the name of idlers to the most laborious scholars, and it did not come
into their heads that there was anything worth the trouble of
occupying a citizen’s time beyond the service of the state. All the
ancient Romans thought thus, and they would have experienced a
strange surprise if they had seen any one claim the right, as Atticus
did, not to serve his country within the limits of his powers and
talents. Assuredly Cato, who never rested, and who, at ninety years of
age, bravely quitted his villa at Tusculum to go and accuse Servius
Galba, the butcher of the Lusitanians, would have thought that to
remain in his house on the Quirinal, or on his estate in Epirus in the
midst of his books and statues, while the fate of Rome was being
decided in the Forum or at Pharsalia, was to commit the same crime
as to remain in his tent on the day of battle.
This systematic abstention of Atticus was not, then, a Roman
custom; he had it from the Greeks. In those small ungovernable
republics of Greece, where they knew no repose, and which passed
constantly and without warning from the sternest tyranny to the
most unbridled licence, we can understand that quiet and studious
men should have grown weary of all this sterile agitation, and ceased
to desire public employments which were only obtained by flattering
the capricious multitude, and only kept on condition of obeying it.
Moreover, what value could this power, so hardly acquired, so
seldom preserved, have, when it was necessary to share it with the
most obscure demagogues? was it really worth while to take so much
trouble in order to become the successor or the colleague of Cleon?
At the same time that weariness and disgust kept honourable men
aloof from these paltry struggles, philosophy, more studied every
day, communicated to its disciples a sort of pride which led them to
the same result. Men who passed their time in meditating upon God
and the world, and who endeavoured to understand the laws that
govern the universe, did not deign to descend from these heights to
govern states a few leagues square. Thus they constantly discussed in
the schools, whether a man should occupy himself with public
affairs, whether the sage ought to seek public office, and whether the
active or the contemplative life was the better. A few philosophers
hesitatingly gave the preference to active life, the greater number
sustained the opposite opinion, and under cover of these discussions
many men thought themselves authorized to create a sort of elegant
indolence in voluptuous retreats embellished by letters and the arts,
where they lived happily while Greece was perishing.
Atticus followed their example. Importing this custom from Greece
into Rome, he openly announced his resolution not to take part in
political discussions. He began by adroitly keeping aloof during all
those quarrels that continually agitated Rome from the time of
Cicero’s consulship to the civil wars. At the very moment when these
struggles were most active he frequented all parties, he had friends
on all sides, and found in these widespread friendships a new pretext
for remaining neutral. Atticus was more than sixty years old when
Caesar passed the Rubicon, an age when the obligation of military
service ceased among the Romans. This was another reason for
remaining quiet, and he did not fail to use it. “I have taken my
discharge,”[168] he replied to those who wished to enrol him. He held
the same course, and with the same success, after the death of
Caesar; but he then disappointed public opinion still more. He was
so well known to be the friend of Brutus that it was thought he would
not hesitate to take his side this time. Cicero himself, who ought to
have known him, reckoned upon it; but Atticus was not inconsistent
with himself, and took advantage of an important occasion to let the
public know that he would not be drawn in against his will. While
Brutus was raising an army in Greece, some knights, his friends,
started the idea of raising a subscription among the richest men of
Rome to give him the means of maintaining his soldiers. They
applied at first to Atticus, whose name they wished to put at the head
of the list. Atticus bluntly refused to subscribe. He answered that his
fortune was at the service of Brutus, if he had need of it, and asked
him as a friend, but he declared at the same time that he would take
no part in a political manifestation, and his refusal caused the failure
of the subscription. At the same time, true to his habit of flattering all
parties, he welcomed Fulvia, Antony’s wife, as well as Volumnius the
superintendent of his workmen, and, sure of having friends
everywhere, he waited for the result of the struggle without much
fear.
The strangest thing is that this man, while so persistent in
remaining neutral, was not indifferent. His biographer gives him this
praise, that he always belonged to the best party,[169] and that is true;
only he made it a rule not to serve his party; he was contented with
giving it his good wishes. But these good wishes were the warmest
imaginable. He had, though we should scarcely believe it, political
passions which he dared to express in private with incredible vigour.
He hated Caesar so much that he went as far as to blame Brutus for
having permitted his interment.[170] He would have wished, no doubt,
as the most furious demanded, that his corpse should be thrown into
the Tiber. Thus he did not abstain from having preferences, and
showing them to his most intimate friends. His reserve only began
when it was necessary to act. He never consented to take part in the
struggle; but if he did not share its danger he felt at least all its
excitement. We smile at seeing him become animated and excited as
if he were a real combatant; he takes his share in all successes and all
reverses, he congratulates the energetic, he entreats the lukewarm,
and even scolds the faltering, and permits himself to advise and
reprimand those who seem to him, who did not act at all, to act too
languidly. It is amusing to hear the reproaches he addresses to Cicero
when he sees him hesitating to go and join Pompey; he adopts the
most pathetic tone, he reminds him of his actions and his words, he
entreats him in the name of his glory, he quotes his own words to
him to persuade him.[171] This excess of audacity into which he allows
himself to be drawn for others, sometimes produces rather comic
incidents. At the moment when Pompey had just shut himself up in
Brundusium, Atticus, moved by the most lively grief, wished for
some attempts to be made to save him, and went so far as to ask
Cicero to do some striking action before leaving. “It only requires a
banner,” said he, “every one will flock to it.”[172] The worthy Cicero
felt himself quite excited by these lively exhortations of his friend,
and there were times when he was tempted to be bold, and when he
only demanded the opportunity to strike a heavy blow. The
opportunity came, and he relates in the following words how he took
advantage of it. “As I arrived at my house at Pompeii, your friend
Ninnius came to tell me that the centurions of three cohorts who
were there, asked to see me the next day, as they wished to deliver up

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Principles of Radiographic Imaging: An

Art and A Science - eBook PDF

Principles of Radiographic Imaging

SE/Author/Author, Title Xe ISBN-13: 9781337711067 ©2020 Designer:

Richard R. Carlton, M.S., R.T.(R)(CV), FAEIRS

Arlene M. Adler, M.Ed., R.T.(R), FAEIRS

Vesna Balac, M.S., R.T. (R)(MR)

Australia • Brazil • Mexico • Singapore • United Kingdom • United States

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Executive Director, Content Design: Marah

Learning Designer: Deborah Bordeaux Library of Congress Control Number: 2018964618

Vice President, Marketing Services: Jennifer ISBN-13: 978-1-337-71106-7

Marketing Director: Sean Chamberland Cengage

Printed in the United States of America

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Matthew Marquess, MBA, RT(T)

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Wilhelm Conrad Eddy Clifford Jerman Arthur Wolfram Fuchs

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Protective Housing / 89 Detection and Measurement of Ionizing

Automatic Exposure Controls 110

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Compton Scattering / 173

C H A P T E R 14 The Patient’s Relationship to

C H A P T E R 15 Grid Selection/Conversions / 232

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Film Processing / 247 Image Processing / 294

C h apter 20 Digital Processing Considerations / 319

Historical Development / 275

C h apter 21 Informatics Standards / 330

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C h apter 25 Defining Distortion / 401

C h apter 26 I mplementing Imaging Standards / 414

C h apter 27 Quality Assurance and Quality Control / 422

Spatial Resolution 385

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Special Radiation Protection Accessories / 490

Mammography 473 Computed Tomography Scanning / 520

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Ct Numbers (Hounsfield Units) / 529

C H A P T E R 40 On a New Kind of Rays

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1-1. Multiplication Notation 3

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32-1. Radiation Protection Rules for Mobile Radiography 443

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O hhhh, was my mother right!

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expected for successful professional practice including

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of Technology, Irven Rule of the Siemens Training and Reviewers

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1 Basic Mathematics / 2 An inherent quality of a professional is the possession

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The Language of Science EXAMPLES:

Fractions Division. To divide two fractions, rewrite the division

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C h apter 26 I mplementing Imaging Standards / 414

7x 1 3y 5 7x 1 3y (Unlike terms may 5 7x 1 (27y) 1 (24x) 1 (4y) (definition of