Prakashetal - 2020 Offsetting Climate Throguh Genetic Enhancement

Climate Change and Indian Agriculture:
Challenges and Adaptation Strategies

Editors
Ch. Srinivasarao
Tavva Srinivas
R.V.S. Rao
N.S. Rao
Senthil S. Vinayagam
P. Krishnan
ICAR-National Academy of Agricultural Research Management

Hyderabad, Telangana, India
Editors arao
ivas
Ch. SrinSrinivas
Tavva S. Rao
R.V.
Rao
N.S. ayagam
S. Vin n
Senthil Krishna
P.
ent
Managem
earch
al Res
icultur a
y of Agr ngana, Indi
Academ ad, Tela
ational Hyderab
ICAR-N
Preferred Citation of Book

Srinivasarao, Ch., Srinivas, T., Rao, R.V.S., Rao, N.S. and Vinayagam, S.S., Krishnan, P. (2020).
Climate Change and Indian Agriculture: Challenges and Adaptation Strategies,
ICAR-National Academy of Agricultural Research Management, Hyderabad,
Telangana, India. p-584.
Preferred Citation of Chapters

Kumar, K., Bhattacharjee, S., Vaikuntapu, PR., Sharma, CL., Jayaswal, D., Sharma, R.,
Sundaram, R.M. 2020. Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation Through Biotechnological
Interventions. In: Ch. Srinivasarao et al., (Eds). Climate Change and Indian Agriculture:
Challenges and Adaptation Strategies, ICAR-National Academy of Agricultural Research
Management, Hyderabad, Telangana, India. pp-1-22.
ISBN No. : 978-81-943090-7-9
Published by
Director
ICAR-NAARM
Hyderabad - 500 030
July 2020
For Copies contact:

Director
ICAR-NAARM
Rajendranagar, Hyderabad-500 030
Telangana, India
Tel: 040-24581322/24581285
Fax: 040-24015912
Email: director@naarm.org.in
Climate Change and Indian Agriculture: Challenges and Adaptation Strategies

CONTENTS
S.No. Title Page No
Foreword
Preface
1 Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation through 1
Biotechnological Interventions
2 Exploration of CRISPR/Cas Toolbox for Developing 23
Climate-Smart Plants
3 Accelerated Crop Breeding towards Development of 49
Climate Resilient Varieties
4 Offsetting Climate Change Impact through Genetic Enhancement 71
5 Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation through Soil Management 105
6 Resource Conservation Technologies for Climate Change Adaptation 131
and Mitigation
7 Climate Smart Soil and Water Management Strategies for 157
Sustainable Agriculture
8 Can Planting Trees Avert Climate Emergency? 183
9 Physiological Responses and Strategies for Temperature and Water Stress 199
Tolerance in Plants
10 Impact of Climate Change on the Production of Secondary 215
Metabolites in Plants
11 Relevance of Plant Associated Microorganisms in Climate 245
Smart Agriculture
12 Impact of Climate Change on Host-Pathogen Interactions and 271
its Implications on Crop Disease Management
13 Impact of Climate Change on Pests and Their Management Options 295
with Emphasis on Identi cation of Adaptation Strategies
14 Quality Seed and Climate Resilience: Challenges and Opportunity Analysis 311
15 Climate Smart Technology Based Farm Mechanization for 325
Enhanced Input Use Ef ciency
16 Climate Smart Post-Harvest Agriculture and Food Systems 359
17 Approaches for Managing Post-Harvest Handling in Climate 385
Disaster Prone Areas
18 Climate-Smart Livestock Farming: Issues and Challenges 397
19 Climate Change and Livestock Health: Impact, Adaptation and Mitigation 431
20 Hazards in the Wake of Climate Change Induced Extreme Weather 449
Events and Their Impact on Indian Fisheries
21 Role of Arti cial Intelligence (AI) and Internet of Things (IoT) in 465
Mitigating Climate Change
22 Recent Advancement in AI and IOT for Ef cient Water Management 473
in Agriculture for Combating Climate Change
23 Climate Change and Agriculture: An Economic Perspective 485
24 Climate Change and Horticulture Sector: Impact, Adaptation 501
and Mitigation Strategies
25 Climate Change and Livestock Sector in India: Issues and Options 517
26 Role of Genomics in Agriculture in Age of Climate Change 539
27 Application of Bio-Informatics in Climate Smart Agriculture 561
28 Institutional Linkages and Community Partnerships for 569
Climate Resilient Agriculture
Authors Index
Climate Change and Indian Agriculture: Challenges and Adaptation Strategies
1
Nitish Ranjan Prakash ,
Seema Sheoran ,
1
Offsetting Climate
Manisha Saini1, Monika Punia1,
Nenavath Krishna Kumar Change Impact Through
Rathod1,
Mahendar Singh Bhinda ,
1
1
Genetic Enhancement
Banoth Vinesh ,
1
Mahendra Kumar Choudhary
and Basudeb Sarkar2
1
ICAR - National Academy of
Agricultural Research
4
Management, Hyderabad,
Telangana
2
ICAR-Central Research
Institute for Dryland
Abstract
Agriculture,
Hyderabad,Telangana
Climate change and its effects have become a burning issue of today's era.
The anthropogenic activities have created many impacts on environment and on
our crop plants. Crop plants are facing the problems they had never seen before.
These problems are prominently water scarcity, drought, water logging, salinity,
increasing temperature, terminal seasonal heat etc. Plant breeder's role is
becoming very important in developing crop varieties suitable for climate resilient
agriculture, understanding the genetics of novel traits, utilizing the crop
germplasm which are still on breeders' shelf, and understanding the physiology of
crops. Plant breeders can use crop germplasm, crop wild relatives, underutilized
crops, potential plants to be developed as crops to tackle the impacts of climate
change and help the farmers to feed the ever-growing population. Utilization of
novel plant breeding tools such as marker assisted selection, genomic selection,
transgenic, genome editing, allele mining etc. will augment the conventional
plant breeding of future. Accelerated crop domestication has emerged as a new
way to widen the scope of crop plants for growing demand and divergent needs
of future generations. Future of plant breeding will be supplemented with the
advancement of extensive, accurate, ef cient and non-invasive phenotyping. The
plant breeding will be assisted in future with phenomics, arti cial intelligence,
Internet of Things, Machine learning and Big data analysis.
Key words: Climate Change, Crop Breeding, Genomics.
Climate Change and Indian Agriculture: Challenges and Adaptation Strategies 71

Offse ng Climate Change Impact Through Gene c Enhancement
four major crops, i.e., soybean, wheat,

I. Introduction maize and rice (Wang et al., 2018). By
The anthropogenic modi cation increase of 1°C in minimum
of the atmosphere causes major temperature above 32°C in the
environmental problem which leads growing season, the average yield of
to the global climate change. The rice was reduced by 10 per cent. The
concentration of CO2 in the response of current varieties in the
atmosphere increased almost 25% projected climate change scenarios of
due to the fossil fuel consumption rainfed maize show the average
and deforestation. Over the past 100 reduction of 3.3 to 6.4% by 2030 and
years, increasing greenhouse gases 5.2-12.2 % in 2050, whereas in
(GHGs) concentrations resulted in irrigated conditions the projected
global warming by 0.74°C. The Inter average yield reduction is by 3 to 8
governmental Panel on Climate per cent by 2030 and 5 to 14 per cent
Change (IPCC) made projections for by 2050 (Tesfaye et al., 2017).
the Indian subcontinent, which shows Therefore, to cope with the above
that a rise in temperature from 2 to climatic anomalies it is important to
4.7°C, with the most probable level identify traits that maintain and
being around 3.3°C by the year 2100 promote the growth and
(Solomon et al., 2007). The gradual development of plants during the
decrease in intensity of rainfall over stress period and pyramiding of genes
the time from 1901 to 2012 (which governing these traits for imparting
was further con rmed by trend tolerance to major climatic stress,
analysis) shows the decrease in which may assist the crop plant to
precipitation in India. The frequent endure and realize the genetic
drought was also observed during the potential in its yielding abilities. To
same period, with a rise in torrential achieve climate smart solutions, the
and an unequal distribution of rains. development of climate-resilient high
A signi cant rise in temperature is yielding varieties along with climate
leading to short-duration torrential smart adaptation and mitigation
rains as well as drier seasons. It is due technologies and their rapid
to prolonged dry period specially in availability to farmers' elds is
the north-eastern states of India necessary. Due to the various stress-
which are known for moist weather. adaptive mechanisms, stress
Extreme weather, including droughts, uncertainty and large genotype ×
oods and other disasters are result environment interaction, breeding for
of abrupt and sudden climate change. genetic enhancement for adaptation
In agricultural production systems the to the changing climate is however
extreme events such as heat and cold challenging.
waves, ooding, hail storms, cyclones Acquiring of modern and innovative
due to climatic changes are well breeding techniques, which includes
known to adversely affect the precision phenotyping, rapid-cycle
agricultural production. Globally, the breeding and mining of novel genetic
effect of climate change has been variation is essential for genetic
recently analysed and demonstrated enhancement program. Developing
in respect of production and yield of genomic approaches and methods
72 Climate Change and Indian Agriculture: Challenges and Adaptation Strategies

will need to take into account various temperate zones wherein crop yields
cereals responses to climate change, are normally embarrassed to sowing
some of which might be crop-speci c time, crop varieties, nutrient
while others can be shared between availability, soil degradation and
various crops (Prasanna et al., 2013). availability of water resources. In
Since, crop abiotic stress resistance is a addition, evapo-transpiration also will
polygenic complex trait, merely multi- be altered due to global warming;
gene synergistic effects may be consequently, water productiveness
ef ciently accomplished (Wang et al., of crops may shrink in the future.
2018). Advantageous alleles, genes, Potential climate abnormalities are
and haplotypes should be identi ed coupled with global warming and
from diverse germplasm (including crops usually come across an
wild races) and introgressed in to elite augmented number of abiotic and
germplasm. For faster development biotic stresses individually as well as in
and delivery of enhanced germplasm, combinations, which signi cantly
new strategies would be necessary to in uence their growth and
combine molecular markers for productivity (Prasad et al., 2011;
accelerated breeding and Narsai et al., 2013). As climatic
development of elite germplasm changes are in all likelihood to make
using technologies such as doubled off-putting impacts on crop growth, it
haploidy, high-throughput could endanger the efforts to
phenotyping, and planting in year- accomplish domestic and global food
round nurseries for rapid generation safety (Webber et al., 2014).
breeding approaches. In this chapter,
some of these key modern techniques II.1 Abiotic Stress
and strategies for genetic Abiotic stresses are the major
enhancement in crop to offset the stresses that plants experience
impact of climate change in specially in the area of climate
agriculture are highlighted. change. Among the environmental
stresses temperature fluctuations and
II. Impact of Climate variations in rainfall spells are very
critical indicators, which have
Change on Crop distressing effects on plant growth
Production and yield. Drought, heat and their
combinatorial effects on plant growth
Climate change is a critical global are very fatal. Apart from these the
threat that's likely to effect on the ash oods, frequent high winds and
agricultural production system and in water logging are also causing severe
the end food security. It is likely to damage to the crops standing in
steer global average temperature, elds. Elevated carbon-dioxide (CO2)
rainfall pattern and elevated carbon and greenhouse gases (GHGs) are
dioxide level, which will directly affecting the crop growth by
in uence the crop growth and jeopardizing their physiological
ultimately crop productivity. Climate machinery.
change adversely affected agriculture
system across the majority of tropical
and subtropical regions in contrast to

a. Drought b. Heat
Drought is non-availability of Global average temperature has
adequate quantity of water at any accelerated by 0.8°C since the 1850s
growth stage of a crop plant so that and is projected to rise at the rate of
the maximum crop growth and yield 2 to 7°C by the end of this century
is hindered (Prasad et al., 2011). (Allison et al., 2011). Rising
Drought affects the crop growth by temperature may be a major
limiting the physiological and challenge for food safety if adaptive
metabolic process such as mineral control measures cannot be capable
absorption, rate of photosynthesis, to lessen the expected yield losses. It
transpiration, photosynthates has been predicted that temperatures
translocation, bud development, variation of ±2°C in mean growing-
owering, initiation. Drought at any season in Australia can cause up to
critical stage of plant growth may be 50% drop off in wheat yield even
detrimental to yield. The severity of without differences in rainfall (Asseng
drought is largely unpredictable and et al., 2011). It was concluded that the
it can be because of uneven rainfall loss in yield was especially accredited
pattern, poor rainfall, poor moisture to in leaf senescence as a result of
holding capacity of soil, extended temperature beyond 34°C.
evapotranspiration etc. (Fahad et al., In India, reduction in wheat yield up
2017). Various plant species at to 20 % due to an abrupt increase in
different growth stages show temperature through grain lling
different physiological and metabolic period reported by Gupta et al.
response to drought stress and deploy (2010). Maize production is more
different mechanism to tackle it. It susceptible towards uctuations in
includes reduced absorption of temperature and rainfall amongst
photosynthetic radiation, decreased staple cereals (Knox et al., 2012). In a
harvest index and impaired radiation study by Lobell et al. (2008), it was
use ef ciency (Earl and Davis, 2003). reported that, 30 % reduction in
As per the detailed analysis of data maize yield by 2030 was projected in
from 1980 to 2015, Daryanto, Wang southern Africa. The rising
and Bramely (2016) had reported a temperature may cause the change in
global reduction in yield of wheat cropping pattern around the globe.
and maize by 21 to 40 % due to Growth acceleration due to above
drought. Similarly, drought stress also average temperature causes harm to
has signi cantly decreased the yield various physiological process, less
of major grain legume crops. Drought radiation interception, less biomass
stress caused the yield decline of 26% production, etc. (Aryal et al., 2019).
during the reproductive phase
(Baroowa and Gogoi, 2014) in black c. Combined Drought and Heat
gram. Maleki et al. (2013) reported Simultaneous exposure to
that 42% reduction in grain yield drought and heat stress were found
when Soybean crop was exposed to to be more detrimental than these
drought stress at grain lling stage. stresses occurring independently at
different growth stages to crop
production (Prasad et al., 2011).

Water deficit and temperature impacts on crop physiology via effects

extremes are mainly influencing the on stomatal performance of plants,
owering and grain lling period due consequently less water loss through
to climate change. It was delineated transpiration, resultant in improving
that the reproductive phase is water use ef ciency as well as
severely affected by the water stress photosynthesis process (Lobell and
specially in case of cereal crops. Field, 2007). Balasooriya et al. (2018)
Drought along with high had reported that there was yield
temperatures are critical stressors enhancement of strawberry under
with excessive impact on cereal yields. elevated CO2 concentration but with
Griffin et al. (2004) reported that reduced fruit quality. They have also
rubisco, the vital enzyme of reported that the reduced yield and
photosynthesis is disturbed if the poor fruit quality if higher CO2 is
temperature will rise above 35oC and combined with high temperature.
halt the photosynthetic process. Similarly, Jayawardena et al. (2019)
Wheat production is influenced by had reported that there was reduced
drought stress throughout all the yield of soybean under combinatorial
developmental stages, however, the effect of higher CO2 concentration
reproductive and grain formation and high temperature.
stage are the most crucial ones. e. Water Availability
Wheat yield declined by 30% under
moderate post-anthesis drought Climate change has formed
while, decline was up to 92% in case extreme pressure on the hydrological
of prolonged moderate drought cycle. It is anticipated that altered
stress at reproductive phases (de hydrological cycle could ultimately
Oliveira et al., 2013). impact on water availability at global
level (Haddeland et al., 2014).
d. Elevated Carbon Dioxide Alteration in the water cycle which
The atmospheric carbon dioxide might be potentially menacing the
(CO2) has raised about 400 ppm from traditional farming system. Water
1832 to 2014 (Wheeler and Braun, scarcity and irregular rainfall pattern
2013). Increasing CO2 levels in the in different parts of the globe have
atmosphere is a crucial factor caused sizable reduction of yield in
responsible for global warming and preceding decade. Climate change
ultimately climate change. The in uences on agriculture depending
physiological processes of agricultural on the degree of warming and
crop plants depend on the combined changes in precipitation pattern
outcomes of climate change factors between locations. The impact of
including increased CO2 levels (Mishra climate change on precipitation
and Agrawal, 2014) which will pattern is not just limited to its
determine potential global food in uence on water accessibility, the
security. The impact of warming i.e., increase in evapotranspiration (ET)
increased temperature and altered and temperatures could add to crop
precipitation may be likely irrigation needs between 5 to 20 %,
compensated to some degree by 2080 (Gornall et al., 2010).
through CO2 fertilization effects, Increasing water necessity and
elevated CO2 may have positive exhausting water assets has restricted

the food production beyond the Sub1 were developed by transferring

present level. Consequently, the sub1 gene from FR13A through
consideration ought to be centred marker assisted backcrossing (Oladosu
around the progression of agronomic et al., 2020).
practices and new irrigation
g. Frost
techniques to conserve soil moisture
and improve the water productivity Climate change brings increase in
of vegetation. temperature and reduction in
duration of cold spell. Some crop
f. Flood
plants and trees are having
Flood may be of two types, viz. a physiological and metabolic
frequent rain causing submergence of requirement of undergoing summer
plants for a short period by running and winter spell of particular
rainwater ( ash ood) and duration. This reduced duration in
submergence of crop eld under cold spell because of increased
stagnant water (by rain or river temperature may bring 'false spring'
over ow) for relatively longer period. within the cold spell which will
Both the conditions create anaerobic damage the growing buds and
condition to the submerged plant subsequently affect plant
part. It creates physiological drought physiological functions (Ma et al.,
condition wherein a plant is not able 2019).
to absorb water by root even though
water is abundant (Gautam et al., II.2 Biotic Stress
2016). The impact of waterlogging on Biotic stresses include plant
crop growth is depending on the diseases, insects and pest of crop
growth stage of plant, inherent plants. Climate change invariably
mechanism to cope-up and duration impact the growth and behaviour of
of waterlogging. Generally, plant all the biotic stresses. Some climatic
show quiescent strategy (minimizing vagaries have favourable effect on
the metabolism to a bare minimum disease development while some have
and sustaining the life by saving restrictive effect. The overall impact is
energy while being submerged), unpredictable response in disease
escape strategy (plant exhaust all its development and pest infestation.
energy to elongate its stem so that
some plant parts can respire a. Plant Diseases
aerobically for survival) and alteration Climate change may modify the
in physiology and metabolism (Guru growth and development rate,
and Dwivedi, 2018). Rice is a very pathogenicity of infectious agents as
important plant wherein mechanism well as the host plant interaction
of submergence tolerance has been (Charkraborty and Datta, 2003).
studied signi cantly and several Temperature is critical factor affecting
cultivars have been developed the occurrence of bacterial diseases
through transfer of sub1 genes including the ones caused by
(identi ed in a submergence tolerant Acidovorax avenae (seedling blight
rice landrace FR13A from Odisha). In and bacterial fruit blotch of
rice, several varieties such as Swarna- cucurbits), Burkholderia glumae
sub1, Samba Mahsuri-Sub1 and IR64- (bacterial panicle blight in rice) and

Ralstonia solanacearum (wilt in events, increased precipitation and

tomato) (Kudela, 2009). An increase combination of other factors of
in temperature could alter the life climate change may bring a major
cycle of pathogens. Temperature may change in insect pest dynamics.
also in uence the occurrence of
vector-borne diseases through III. Trait Mapping for
changing the population and spread
of vectors. Salt stress may alter the Genetic Enhancement
pathogen virulence, host physiology Offsetting climate change
and microbial activity in soils (Triky- through plant breeding is solely
Dotan et al., 2005). Drought stress based on the plethora of genetic
along with high soil temperature has resources of crops and the rationale
resulted in increased charcoal stalk behind genes and genetics of traits
rot development in Sorghum bicolor affected by climate change. Crop
(Macrophomina phaseolina) (Mihail, improvement is depending on
1989). New races might also evolve generation of variability and creation
swiftly under accelerated of adaptive capacity in crops to
temperature and CO2, as evolutionary sustain the effect of climate change.
forces act on massive pathogen Mapping of genes, studying the
populations underneath favourable genetics of traits and unravelling the
microclimate within enlarged canopy molecular basis of traits are important
(Chakraborty, 2013). requirements to utilize them in crop
b. Insect-Pest breeding. In this section, various kinds
of genetic resources which can be
Climate change has a profound
used as base material for future crop
effect on insect pest. It affects the
improvement are elaborated.
physiology, abundance, biogeography
and population dynamics of insect III.1 Wild Relatives for Tackling
pest of crops (Andrew and Hill, 2017). Climate Change
Temperature can affect directly or
indirectly insect physiology, insect Crop wild relative (CWR) is a wild
ecology, geographical distribution, plant taxon that has an indirect use
overwintering mortality, fecundity, derived from its closely related species
generations per year, active period, (Maxted et al., 2008). Crop wild
etc. Temperature can exert various relatives are big source to combat
effects which, depends on the life near big challenges. CWRs possess
cycle of an insect species. Yamamura important genes for breeding for
and Kiritani (1998) reported that with climate tolerant varieties. The high
a 2oC temperature rise, insects might yielding varieties has been evolving
undergo one to ve additional life for thousands of years in adverse
cycles per season. Increased CO2 environmental conditions and possess
concentration can affect the feeding a much higher degree of adaptability
rate of insects as well as altered from CWR. Some institutional online
chemical defence of host (Arora and portals serve for the use of CWR
Dhawan, 2013). Flooding may affect database are:
the population of soil dwelling 1. Crop Wild Relative Global Portal
insects. Similarly, extreme weather (http://www.cropwildrelatives.org)

Table 1: Summary of Crop Wild Relatives of Some Important Food Crops
2. Crop Wild Relatives(CWR) and Plant genetic resources are the most
Climate Change valuable material for climate
(http://www.cwrdiversity.org/), challenge. Plant genetic resources are
maintained through more than 1750
3. Gateway to Genetic Resources
individual gene banks worldwide as
(http://www.genesys-pgr.org/),
shown in Table 2 (Bansal et al., 2016).
4. Global Crop Diversity Trust This table also noti es the extent of
(https://www.croptrust.org/). variability conserved in the form of
A summary of crop wild relatives of landraces, wild and advanced
some important food crops is shown research material that exists in our
in Table1 (Kaur et al., 2018). gene banks.
III.2 Plant Genetic Resources III.3 Overview of Stress Tolerance

Genes
Brockhaus and Oetmann (1996)
de ned “PGR as the reproductive or Agriculture is more prone to the
vegetative propagating material of climate change impacts, hence good
cultivated varieties in current use and mitigation strategies are essential for
newly developed varieties, obsolete sustainable agricultural production.
cultivars, primitive cultivars Climate change brought many
(landraces), wild and weed species, challenges for the plant breeders.
near relatives of cultivated varieties Now the breeder has to focus on how
and special genetic stocks”. the variety that will perform in an
environment with larger variability in
temperature and water availability,

Table 2: Summary of Germplasm Available in Major Gene Banks of the World
UV light, salinity and other effects of 3. Genes encoding proteins or

climate change (Brettell, 2008). Ozone enzymes involved in scavenging
stress is more likely to co-occur with the reduced oxygen species such
other global climate change factors. as superoxide radical (O2-),
Plant researchers have identi ed hydroxyl radical (OH-) and H2O2.
hundreds of genes controlling abiotic
4. Genes encoding proteins involved
stress responses (La Pena and Hughes,
in ion homeostasis, ion transport
2007). These genes are classi ed into
and Ca2++ ATPase.
four major groups:
a. Stress Induced Regulatory
1. Genes encoding stress induced
Factors
proteins such as late
embryogenesis abundant proteins Kinases or transcription factors
(LEA), response to ABA (RAB are the regulatory elements, that are
protein), dehydrin proteins and responsible to stress signals and lead
heat shock proteins (HSP). to speci c gene expression of stress
tolerance. Four different types of
2. Genes encoding enzymes for the
regulators have been reported that
synthesis of osmolytes which
are active in response to abiotic
maintains the osmotic pressure
stresses. Differential screening results
through osmotic adjustment.

suggested the existence of two brassinosteroid for 12 hours, 150 mM

separate signal transduction NaCl for 7 days and drought). This
pathways ABA-independent pathway analysis provided new evidence for
and ABA responsive pathway (Nordin role of auxin in stress response,
et al., 1991). In ABA independent implied there are cross talk between
gene expression two regulators are auxin and abiotic stress signalling
playing a crucial role. These are pathways (Wang et al., 2010).
Dehydration Responsive Element
Binding protein-1 (DREB1)/ C-repeat b. Genes and Regulatory Factors
Binding Factor (CBF) and DREB2. for Drought Tolerant
Whereas in ABA-responsive gene Drought is the common abiotic
expression, the ABA responsive stress causing not only yield loss, but
element (ABRE) binding protein also causing yield instability. The
(AREB)/ABRE binding factor (ABF) is expression of drought tolerance
playing a crucial role (Saibo et al., genes is highly complex and these
2009), other regulators such as NAC genes are regulated at the
and Myeloblastosis-Myelocytomatosis transcriptional, post-transcriptional
(MYB/MYC) are also involved in and translational levels. DREB genes
abiotic stress responsive gene regulate transcription of several
expression (Nakashima et al., 2007). genes in response to water stress.
In wheat, TaSnRK2.7 is a Expression of DREB genes encode
multifunctional regulatory factor and transcription factors that bind to the
involved in different activities such as cis-acting promoter element (DRE) of
carbohydrate metabolism, adjustment stress related genes and regulates
of osmotic potential, increasing their expression (Smirnoff and Bryant,
photosystem II activity, and 1999). This induces synthesis of gene
promoting root growth. Therefore, products for acclimatization response
TaSnRK2.7 can be potentially utilized to low temperature and water stress
in transgenic plant breeding to conditions (Ingran and Batels, 1996).
enhance abiotic stress tolerance in Over expression of Deep Rooting 1
crop plants (Zhang et al., 2011). TaPR- (DRO1) enhances the root growth
1-1 is the overlapping gene within the angle and promotes roots to grow
pathogenesis-related (PR) protein more in downward direction.
family genes. Its expression is also Introducing DRO1 and PSTOL1 into
induced by freezing, salinity, and background of shallow rooting rice
osmotic stresses. Up regulation cultivar results in drought tolerance
ofTaPR-1-1 in yeast and arabidopsis by increasing deep rooting (Uga et
conferred tolerance to several stresses al., 2013).
(Wang et al., 2019).
c. Genes and Regulatory Factors
Sorghum a C4 model plant was for Flooding and
studied for understanding molecular Submergence Tolerance
mechanism of resistance to stress.
Flooding and submergence
Three genes were highly induced
causes anoxic conditions in the root
(SbIAA1, SbGH3-13 and SbLBD32)
system. The transcription factors, such
under four treatments (10 μMIndole
as heat shock proteins, ethylene
Acetic Acid for 3 hours, 1 μM

response binding proteins, MADS-box DNA sequence and the heat-shock

proteins, AP2 domain, leucine zipper, element (HSE) are required (Nover
and zinc nger were enhanced in and Baniwal, 2006). The trans-acting
response to anoxic conditions in the transcriptional factor, regulates
root system in Arabidopsis and Rice expression of HS gene by binding the
(Lasanthi-Kudahettige et al., 2007). heat stress transcription factors
The transcription factors in the (HSFs), to the HSE. Other
AP2/ERF-type family are the most transcriptional factors such as Hsp101,
commonly up-regulated transcription HSA32, HSFA1 and HSFA3 plays a less
factors followed by zinc- ngers in critical role, as knockout variants of
response to submergence tolerance. these have small impact on heat
Transcription factors belonging to the tolerance (Yoshida et al., 2011).
basic helix-loop-helix family are the
The over expression of Arabidopsis
most commonly down-regulated
HSP101 gene in rice plants, conferred
transcription factors, together with
high growth performance during
transcription factor from the bZIP and
recovery from heat stress. In
MYB families (Licausi et al., 2011).
Arabidopsis, 21 HSF genes are present
The common problem of biotic and and classi ed into three major classes
abiotic stresses is accumulation of based on structural differences. These
ROS, including oxygen deprivation. are HsfA, HsfB and HsfC. HsfAs is
Some of the reported redox-sensitive responsible for heat-induced
transcription factors are involved in activation of heat-shock genes. HsfBs
the adaptive response to low oxygen. lacks the heat-inducible
ZAT12 is a putative transcription transactivation function and act as co-
factor, which promotes upregulation activators of transcription with HsfAs
of cytosolic ascorbate peroxidase-1, a (Liu et al., 2011).
key enzyme in the removal of H2O2
e. Genes and Regulatory Factors
(Rizhsky et al., 2004).
for Chilling and Freezing
The variant of ERF family genes, Tolerance
Sub1A-1, leads submergence
Dehydrin proteins are produced
tolerance to lowland rice. The rice
in response to dehydration, low
gene aie (anaerobically inducible
temperature, etc. genes such as
early) is early activated by anoxia
WCROR4106, WCOR413, Dehydrin-2,
condition and encodes for a putative
Barley ABA inducible protein,
protein that is involved in signalling
thaumatin like protein, glucanase like
pathways. (Huq and Hodges, 2000).
protein and chitinase like protein are
d. Genes and Regulatory Factors directly involved in chilling and
for Heat Tolerance freezing tolerance. Overexpression of
DREB/CBF and NAC transcription
Plants under heat stress
factors, enhances salt, drought, and
accumulate several metabolites
cold tolerance in rice. PR proteins
(antioxidants, osmo-protectants, heat-
with antifreeze activity can have
shock proteins, etc.) and metabolites
direct effects on the stability of
from different pathways (Bokszczanin
cellular membranes and reduce
et al., 2013). For activation of heat
chilling injury (Yu and Grif th, 2001).
induced transcription, a cis-acting

f. Genes and Regulatory Factors encoding glutathione peroxidase

for Salinity Stress (Roxas et al., 1997), Na+/H+ antiporter
Large areas of cultivated lands AtNHX1 (Apse et al., 1999), glycine-
are affected by the high salinity betaine and LEA (Xu et al., 1996),
which is one of the most critical avoprotein AtHAL3 (Espinosa-Ruiz et
environmental factors. Plants under al., 1999), Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent
exposure to high levels of NaCl, protein phosphatase (Pardo et al.,
disturbs its water homeostasis and 1998) and transcription factor Al n1
creates ionic stress by increasing the (Bastola et al., 1998) are the
concentration of Cl- and Na+ ions in functional components in salt stress
cells. DRE-related binding factors, response of plants.
leucine zipper DNA binding proteins, g. Genes and Regulatory Factors
putative zinc nger proteins, myb for High Light Tolerance
proteins and bZIP/HD-ZIPs interact
with promoters of osmotic regulated Light signals are perceived by
genes and involved in stress responses four different families of
(Hasegawa et al., 2000). At photoreceptors. These are
transcriptional and post phytochromes (Phy), phototropins,
transcriptional level ABRE binding cryptochromes and ultraviolet B (UV-
factors (ABFs)/ABA-responsive B) photoreceptors. The
element binding (AREBs) proteins photomorphogenesis responses of
responds to dehydration and salt plants to light are highly complex
stress (Uno et al., 2000). Other (Kendrick et al., 1994). The ROS can
regulatory factors such as SOS3, SOS2, be produced by excess light, affecting
Ca2+ -dependent protein kinases, and the photosynthetic ability of a plant
mitogen-activated protein kinases are to utilize light energy (Shinozaki and
involved in modulating plant salt Yamaguchi-Shinozaki, 2000). Long
stress responses (Halfter et al., 2000). After Farred Light 1 (LAF1)
The factors such as SOS3, SOS2, and transcription factors positively
SOS1 are components of a signal regulate gene expression in response
pathway. SOS1, encoding a Na+/H+ to light. In the dark, Constitutive
antiporter in plasma membrane. Photomorphogenic 1 (COP1) a ring-
Na+/H+ antiporter plays a critical role nger-type ubiquitin E3 ligase
in sodium extrusion and in regulating degrades LAF1. COP1 in the darkness
Na+ transport from the root to shoot. by targeting a bZIP transcription
Sucrose non-fermenting-like (SNF) factor Long Hypocotyl5 (HY5) and
kinase encoded by SOS2. Ca2+ -binding LAF1 to degradation by the 26S
protein encode by SOS3 with proteasome (Ulm et al., 2004).
sequence similar to subunit of HY5 transcription factor is the key
calcineurin and neuronal Ca2+ sensors regulators of cryptochrome and
(Liu et al., 2000). phytochrome controlled
In Arabidopsis, rd29A, Cor6.6, Cor15a photomorphogenesis. In UV-B
and Kin1 are stress inducible genes induced signalling network HY5 plays
which contains DRE/C-repeat a crucial role. Mutants of HY5 results
sequences in their promoters and are in the down regulation of UV-B
target genes of DREBs/CBFs. The gene responsive genes. HY5 also involved

in the expression of several species for which domestication has

Arabidopsis genes such as CBF1, not been reported such as Microlaena
DREB2A, RD20 and MYB59 in stipoides – a plant from grass family
response to abiotic stress conditions which can be used as grain) (Shapter
(Lee et al., 2007). et al., 2013). These potential crop
plants can be used for improvement
III.4 Potential Plants as Crop of of domesticated crops or itself can be
Future used for developing into a new crop
One of the most important which can withstand climatic vagaries.
problems of our present day crop Quinoa was cultivated in the ancient
plant is that, they became more era and it is having potential to be
human dependent, less tolerant, developed as an important grain crop
more prone to vagaries of climate because of its several proven health
change and more importantly having bene t. It has been recommended for
very narrowed diversity. These cultivation in the areas affected by
scenarios have been aggravated by climate change (Jaikishun et al.,
the effects of climate change. 2019). A list of some plants having
Currently, three important crops rice, potential to be developed as a
wheat and maize; accounts for most commercially important cereal crop in
of our calorie and protein demands future to tackle the effects of climate
and unfortunately these crops are change is given in Table 3.
having most of the threats of climate
change too. Most of our crop IV. Methods of Genetic
production is revolving around 10-50 Enhancement
crops. During civilization humans did
the crop domestication for their In general, plant breeding
potential survival on this planet and includes the method to improve the
domesticated many crops plants. As desired traits through selecting the
per the report ~200 plants are desired genetic combinations. The
commercially produced around the genetic advancement of crop plants
globe (which are completely dates back from indeliberate selection
domesticated) and ~2,500 plants are of plants for cultivation by ancient
having potential to be developed as farmers to the modern genomic
crop (partially domesticated) (Fernie assisted plant breeding. Therefore,
and Yan, 2019). the methods of genetic enhancement
which can be used for tackling the
The potential to be crops includes
climate change and developing
either minor crops endemic to a
varieties or strains of plants suitable
particular geographical area i.e.
for cultivation are explained here.
neglected crops (e.g. Coix lacryma-
jobi - which is endemic to north- IV.1 Classical Plant Breeding
eastern states of India, guinea millet –
Techniques
which is endemic to Ethiopia, etc.),
semi-domesticated crop (such as crop Screening and selection of the
wild relatives, wild species such as desired superior traits among several
Amaranthus, Quinoa, etc.) and plants and combining these traits by
undomesticated plants (entirely new different breeding methods into

Table 3: List of Some Plants having Potential to be Developed as a Commercially

Important Cereal Crop in Future to Tackle the Effects of Climate Change
single plant is practised under different plant lines having desired

conventional plant breeding. It is the traits can be augmented into a single
procedure of combination of genetic background through
different desired characters or genes hybridization and for creating genetic
at genome level. Plant breeding variation hybridization has been
includes several breeding methods by extensively used as dominant method.
which desired plant character can be However, when desired genes/alleles
combined and manipulated. It are not available in the cultivated
includes pure line selection in which germplasm and present in the wild
selection is applied in genetically relatives distant hybridization as well
heterogeneous population which as somatic hybridization is practised
show desired traits and after for transferring the traits into
repeated selection a pure line will cultivated varieties. Enhancement of
develop which is genetically vigour, viability and other desired
homozygous and homogenous and characters by the hybridization of
variation occurs only due to dissimilar inbred lines is called as
environmental. When desired traits heterosis. Increased number of
are not found in populations then chromosome sets per cell (both auto-

and allopolyploidy) can be arti cially lines can be selected (Reynolds et al.,
induced or by applying the chemical 2005). This type of breeding
colchicine which contributes to crop methodology has been successfully
improvement. Generally, the main deployed at CIMMYT resulting several
effect of polyploidy is increase in size newly released improved wheat
and genetic variability. Sudden varieties across different countries.
heritable changes i.e. mutagenesis Advanced-backcross QTL analysis
and by generation of variation (ABQA) and introgression libraries
through tissue culture i.e. somaclonal (ILs) allow for proper and effective
variation also play a crucial role in dissection of the phenotypic
creating genetic variation and these variability contributed by non-
variations are utilized in selection of commercially viable parental lines
desired genotypes with superior (Salvi et al., 2011).
characteristics and selected genotypes
Precision phenotyping is critical for
are evaluated in replicated trials,
diminishing the genotype phenotype
preferably, over locations and years to
gap particularly for quantitative traits
ascertain their superiority over the
but establishment of association
existing varieties. A new superior
between a marker and a locus
genotype is nally multiplied and
affecting a target trait. The use of
distributed for commercial
markers linked to QTLs for the target
cultivation.
trait helps to overcome the low
IV.2 Precision Phenotyping for Trait heritability that is the main problems
encountered in the conventional
Discovery
selection of quantitative traits.
Precision phenotyping is Selection of individuals based on their
generation of precise information to genetic makeup scores rather than
reduce the experimental “noise” their phenotypic features (Langridge,
introduced by uncontrolled 2005). The effectiveness of marker
environmental and experimental assisted selection breeding
variability that are relevant and approaches depends on how precisely
meaningful and required for the target traits have been surveyed
improving the selection ef ciency of phenotypically in mapping
the breeding programs for populations. In fact, a low heritability
accelerating genetic gains under the impairs the ef ciency of detecting the
conditions prevailing in farmers' presence of QTLs (Bernardo, 2004),
elds. Various alternatives are thereby increasing Type II errors (i.e.,
accessible to use the data gathered false negatives). A precise and
through phenotypic assessment of signi cant phenotyping will help in
germplasm resources (Tuberosa et al., selection, an approach that disregards
2011). Identifying parental lines QTLs identi cation and relies on the
through intensive phenotypic molecular pro ling and accurate
characterization for traits imparting phenotyping of (Bernardo and Yu,
drought resistance allows developing 2007). Proper evaluation and control
new populations where segregants of the experimental factors that
that combine drought-adaptive and lower the heritability of traits,
other desirable features of parental coupled with a wise choice of the

genetic material, can provide
effective ways to increase heritability, IV.3 Molecular Dissection of
and hence the response to phenotypic Tolerance Traits
selection.
Recently, new molecular tools like
a. High-Throughput Phenomics genetic molecular maps and markers
have made it possible to resolve
High-throughput phenotyping
complex traits into individual genetic
institutionalizes and improve the
components. Molecular dissection of
collection of phenotypic information
complex traits is often referred as QTL
and encourages the creation of
mapping (quantitative trait locus) or
archive databases useful for QTL
QTL analysis. QTL analysis provides
meta-analyses (Welcker et al., 2011).
information about QTLs, such as the
The best model is the SNP discovery
numbers of loci involved, their
and pro ling in a number of crops
locations and gene effects. For QTL
(Trebbi et al., 2011). High throughput
analysis a mapping population like
phenotyping take into consideration
RILs (Recombinant inbred lines), NILs
the mechanization of methods that
(Near isogenic lines), CSSL
have just been received by various
(Chromosome segment substitution
privately owned businesses and large
lines) and immortalized F2 are
public institutions to streamline and
developed and followed to
standardize the collection of highly
genotyping and phenotyping to map
accurate phenotypic data in
QTLs by using single QTL mapping
glasshouse-grown plants (Rajendran
and multiple QTL mapping methods
et al., 2009). However, the installation
(Table 4). The identi ed QTLs are
and operating cost of these platforms
effectively used in marker-assisted
is still very high.
selection (MAS) for further breeding
b. Digital Imaging programs. Molecular dissections of
Digital image analysis gives an several complex traits have been
inexpensive and quick method for performed using genomics and high-
accurately estimating plant features throughput phenotyping tools.
whose estimation would some way or IV.4 Marker Assisted Breeding
other require a lot of time. An
eminent model is given by the
Approaches
estimation of canopy features (Fiorani Molecular markers are very
et al., 2012). Digital images offer ef cient and powerful tool in crop
advantages over other methods of improvement programmes to
light interception estimation, incorporate agronomically desired
including the possibility of directly traits via marker-assisted selection
processing images by computer. (MAS). In maker-assisted breeding,
Digital image analysis (Armengaud, selection is based on the marker
2009) takes into consideration precise tightly linked to the trait of interest
analysis at higher goals scales, a so it improves the breeding ef ciency
signi cant essential to research the many-folds and accelerates
energy of the procedures managing development of new varieties. By
root development. detecting any association between
phenotype and genotype/markers for

Table 4: Molecular Dissection of Various Traits in Different Crops
any trait, QTLs are identi ed (Collard selection to minimize the linkage
et al., 2005). Molecular breeding drag of donor parent (Young and
includes approaches like marker Tanksley, 1989).
assisted backcross breeding (MABB),
MARS is a breeding tool that is used
marker-assisted recurrent selection
to accumulate favourable alleles for a
(MARS) and genomic selection (GS). In
particular trait into a single genetic
MABB, a trait of interest is
background from several genomic
incorporated into a recurrent parent
regions within a single population. In
(RP) which is a superior variety except
MARS, markers identi ed for
de cient in that particular trait, from
quantitative traits are used either
a donor parent (DP) with maximum
alone or as combined selection index
recovery of the recurrent parent
that includes phenotype data for the
genome. Molecular markers have
trait (Lande and Thompson, 1990). A
been used for foreground selection to
selection index is generally de ned as
introgress the gene of interest
a numerical score obtained by
(Tanksley, 1983), for background
integrating information from all the
selection to recover the recurrent
traits associated with the dependent
parent genome and for recombinant
trait/variable (for example, yield) and

for each trait a value is assigned popularly known as Next Generation

based on weighted mean as per their Sequencing (NGS) methods, which
importance. MAS is suitable for traits uses PCR (Polymerase chain reaction)
that are controlled by a few major for in-vitro cloning and are much
genes but most of the crop traits are cheaper and faster (Schendure and Ji,
complex and governed by large 2008; Edwards, 2013). Now with the
number of genes (minor genes) thus advancement of technology, the
the application of MAS in breeding Third-Generation DNA sequencing
practice is limited. Considering this (TGS) methods are gaining popularity
limitation of MAS, Genomic selection at commercial level. Under TGS
(GS) is the new methodology with methods there is no need of cloning
some modi cation in MAS and sequences a single DNA molecule
(Meuwissen et al., 2001). In GS, at a time at broader scale (Schadt et
genome-wide markers are used to al., 2010; Giani et al., 2019). Among
estimate the effects of all loci and all these methods, Next Generation
compute a genomic estimated Sequencing (NGS) technologies are
breeding value (GEBV), to achieve extensively used for sequencing of
more reliable selection for genomes and transcriptomes, thus
quantitative traits. producing vast genomic data.
IV.5 Genomics Tools for Genetic Analysing of NGS data by using

different bioinformatics tools permits
Enhancement
identi cation of various new genes
Genome-wide studies help and regulatory sequences. With the
breeders to understand the help of identi ed sequences and their
mechanism of complex traits. Earlier, positions, one can develop large
genomic approaches like TILLING collections of molecular markers that
(targeted induced local lesions in can be further utilized to improve a
genomes) and EcoTILLING (Ecotype speci c trait to offset any climate
TILLING), allows identi cation of condition. For genome-wide discovery
mutant and germplasm collections for of markers like SSRs (Simple sequence
allelic variants in speci c genes repeats) and SNPs (Single nucleotide
(McCallum et al., 2000; Comai et al., polymorphisms) or the construction of
2004). Nowadays, with the availability high density genetic maps, re-
of advanced genomic tools, it is very sequencing of genomes is very useful
ef cient and effective to study the and amenable utilizing the genomics
genotype of various traits and their tools. The techniques like bulked
interaction with phenotype. Initially, segregant analysis (BSA) or
under rst-generation DNA association mapping, allows the
sequencing procedures, two methods identi cation of markers linked to
were developed i.e. chemical and genes and QTLs. The identi ed new
enzymatic methods and uses in vivo markers can be used for marker
cloning. Being highly demanding in assisted selection (MAS), marker
infrastructure, time and processing assisted backcross selection (MABB),
efforts (Edwards, 2013) these were 'breeding by design' and genomic
soon replaced by the second- selection. Apart from these the
generation DNA sequencing methods physiology of stress such as drought,

high temperature, salinity, resilient, 2) to improve a present day

waterlogging, etc. can be dissected at crop for the effects of climate change,
molecular level using genomics tools. 3) to gain back the QTLs or gene
Currently, with the advances in which were present before
genomics, new tools and domestication and which may be
methodologies are developing that useful in present scenario, 4) to
allows plant breeders for genetic diversify the food habits and to
dissection and breeding of complex generate a crop with potential source
traits. of industrial demands such as biofuel.
IV.6 Accelerated Crop Accelerated crop domestication

methods may be partial
Domestication
domestication (by transfer or
Crop domestication in general is introgression of either of a wild
a slow, continuous, dif cult and gene/QTLs which have not been used
environmentally dependent process. before) or complete domestication of
It depends on the variability present a plant (inducing the domestication
in the wild ancestor and crop wild syndrome by targeted mutagenesis of
relatives. Current crop plants are important homologous domestication
lacking diversity and have become genes identi ed in the related crop
more resistant to change. Our species) (Osterberg et al., 2017).
demands in terms of crop usage has Partial domestication can be done by
diversi ed. We use now crops not the methods of polyploidy,
only for food, feed, clothing and mutagenesis, introgressive
fodder but also for several industrial hybridization, etc. The complete
usages such as bioethanol production, domestication of a plant into crop can
biopharming, starch production, be done by methods like site-speci c
antibiotics, drugs and medicines, mutagenesis, genome-editing tools,
phytoremediation, etc. These cis- and transgenic approaches and
diversi ed industrial revolutions have RNA interference (Henry, 2012). A
also brought some climate change recent example is targeting the
effects in front of us. To tackle these, homologues of granule bound starch
our crop usage has to be diversi ed synthase 1 (GBSS1), encoded by the
and new plants must be picked as Waxy gene, the Isa gene and two
crops for future (Palmgren et al., gene homologues controlling seed
2015). shattering in rice, sh4/SHA1 and qSH1
Accelerated crop domestication is a identi ed in Microlaena stipoides
recent method of either changing a (Shapter et al., 2013).
semi-domesticated crop into a
completely usable form or entirely V. Achievements
changing a potentially usable plants The effects of climate change
into a crop of future. It is a process of have been tackled by the breeder in
using the diversity of plants for crops several innovative ways. As
of future which had not been ever mentioned earlier, breeding of crop
used before. The aim of accelerated varieties resistant to drought, salinity,
crop domestication may also be 1) to high temperature, erratic rainfall
make a new crop which are climate

Table 5: List of Crop Varieties Improved for Traits Affected by Climate Change


Table 6: Examples of Crop Varieties Improved for Traits Affected by Climate Change.
pattern, ooding etc. has been done dissection and mapping of underlying
to tackle the effect of climate change. gene(s) (Cobb et al., 2013).
Advancement in precision Genotyping by the next-generation
phenotyping to accurately, effectively sequencing tools has helped the plant
and ef ciently measure the plant breeders to effectively transfer the
phenotype with less cost and labor by desired QTL(s) for developing the
reducing the errors, utilizing climate resilient varieties. Trait
advanced tools and neutralizing mapping using precision
environmental factors has phenotyping, genotyping and power
tremendously helped in the trait to handle big data using advanced
computational tools has been a boon

for plant scientist nowadays in rapid and in the process of creating crops
advancement of genetic gain (Araus which are bred-by-design (Raza et al.,
et al., 2018; Chawade et al., 2019). 2019). Plant breeding for climate
Some achievement of breeding crop change is committed to develop crop
plants for offsetting the effects plant which will be completely
climate change are given in the Table modelled by the breeders. The future
5 and 6. of plant breeding for offsetting the
effect of climate change can be
VI. Conclusion and Future consolidated in following points
(www.cgiar.org).
Prospects
1. Identi cation of challenge: To
Studies on climate change and understand the effects of climate
creating ways to tackle it are the change and dug out the factors
prime concern of today's world. Many affecting the crop plants.
studies have been carried out to
2. Identi cation of key important
critically measure the impact of
traits: Understanding the key traits
climate change on several aspect of
in crop plant which contribute for
crop production, livelihood of small
the climate resilience such as root
and marginal farmers, availability of
length, root hair density etc. for
resources and impact on the human
drought tolerance.
life. Crop production in a broader
aspect has been challenged by the 3. Identi cation of germplasm:
effects of climate change such as Screening of germplasm for the
drought, waterlogging, salinity, cold, identi ed traits. Searching for new
unpredictable rain etc. With these genes and genotypes.
problems in mind and challenges, the 4. Popularising the underutilized
role of plant breeders is becoming crops which are climate resilient
more important day by day.
5. Use of genomic assisted plant
Studying the genetics of traits breeding to make crop breeding
affected by climate changes and ef cient, effective and accurate.
searching for new genes and
mechanism to develop climate 6. Utilization of phenomics tools, big
resilient crops are the prime concern data approach, Machine learning,
of plant breeders nowadays. Studies Arti cial Intelligence and Internet
on the molecular mechanism of of Things (IoT) are the future of
drought tolerance, salinity tolerance, plant breeding and they will nd
waterlogging, high temperature appropriate uses in developing
tolerance and increased CO2 level climate-smart varieties.
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Climate Change and Indian Agriculture:

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Climate Change and Indian Agriculture: Challenges and Adaptation Strategies

Key words: Climate Change, Crop Breeding, Genomics.

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four major crops, i.e., soybean, wheat,

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Water deﬁcit and temperature impacts on crop physiology via effects

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the food production beyond the Sub1 were developed by transferring

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Ralstonia solanacearum (wilt in events, increased precipitation and

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Table 1: Summary of Crop Wild Relatives of Some Important Food Crops

III.2 Plant Genetic Resources III.3 Overview of Stress Tolerance

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Table 2: Summary of Germplasm Available in Major Gene Banks of the World

UV light, salinity and other effects of 3. Genes encoding proteins or

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suggested the existence of two brassinosteroid for 12 hours, 150 mM

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response binding proteins, MADS-box DNA sequence and the heat-shock

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f. Genes and Regulatory Factors encoding glutathione peroxidase

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in the expression of several species for which domestication has

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Table 3: List of Some Plants having Potential to be Developed as a Commercially

single plant is practised under different plant lines having desired

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Table 4: Molecular Dissection of Various Traits in Different Crops

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for each trait a value is assigned popularly known as Next Generation

IV.5 Genomics Tools for Genetic Analysing of NGS data by using

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high temperature, salinity, resilient, 2) to improve a present day

IV.6 Accelerated Crop Accelerated crop domestication

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Elsevier, Oxford, UK: 114:2. ISBN Balasooriya, H.N., Dassanayake, K.B.,

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http://www.cgiar.org accessed on 15th Kaur, V., Shubha., Kumar, P. and Manju.

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Sharma, R.K. 2015. “Identifying abiotic stress”. BMC genomics 14(1):93.

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to-nature crop breeding”? Trends in adaptation and strategies to tackle its

Henry, R.J. 2013. “High-throughput Sanguineti, M.C., Massi, A., Gerard,

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