Dokumen - Pub Laboratory Manual For Anatomy and Physiology 6th Edition 6 978 1119304142 (251 300)

E X E R C I S E
Surface Anatomy
15
O B J E C T I V E S M A T E R I A L S
1 Define and describe the importance of surface • hand mirror
anatomy • articulated skeleton
2 Locate by palpation and identify important • skeletal muscle models or charts
anatomical landmarks on the external surface
of the body
3 Identify the borders of the anterior and posterior
triangles of the neck and the femoral triangle
using anatomical landmarks on the external
surface of the body
4 Identify organ location using anatomical
landmarks on the external surface of the body
S urface anatomy is the study of anatomical

landmarks observed on the external surface of
the body. These landmarks can be used to locate
underlying structures by palpation. Palpation (palpare =
to touch gently) is a technique that uses hands or fingers
LAB ACTIVITY 1 Surface Anatomy
of the Head and Neck
1 Read the location and description of each structure.
2 Locate and label each structure in Figure 15.1(a),
to locate internal body structures and to determine the size (b), (c), and (d).
and texture of the structures.
This exercise is a review and can be completed at home 3 Palpate the designated structures on your body.
or in the lab. ■
241
242 E X E R C I S E 1 5 S U R FA C E A N AT O M Y
A. Anterior Surface • condylar process (mandibular condyle) [not shown

on Figure 15.1(a)]—Rounded process at the poste-
of the Head rior portion of the ramus. It articulates with the
mandibular fossa of the temporal bone to form the
Structures located in Figure 15.1(a). TMJ.
• ramus of mandible—Vertical process of mandible.
Bones and Bone Surface Markings Palpate ramus inferior to the TMJ.
• supraorbital margins—Superior borders of the • mastoid process—Rounded projection on the inferior
frontal bone that border the eye orbits. Palpate the portion of the temporal bone posterior to the ear.
supraorbital margins. Palpate area of the skull inferior and posterior to
• nasal bone—Forms the bridge of the nose. Place external auditory meatus of ear.
fingers along the bridge of the nose to feel nasal • external occipital protuberance—Rounded pro-
bones. Find the anterior border of the nasal bones jection superior to foramen magnum of the occipital
and palpate the nasal cartilage inferior to nasal bones. bone. Palpate the base of the skull near the midline.
• body of mandible—Horizontal portion of the lower Lateral to the external occipital protuberance are
jawbone. Palpate this main part of the mandible that two curved ridges called the superior nuchal lines,
includes the chin. which mark the boundary between the head and
• mental protuberance—Palpate this anterior tip of neck.
the chin.
Skeletal Muscles
Skeletal Muscles • temporalis muscle—Located superior to the ear.
• frontalis muscle—Lies over the forehead. Palpate the Palpate the temporalis muscle while closing the
frontalis muscle with fingers while raising eyebrows. mouth and clenching your teeth.
• zygomaticus major muscle—Originates on the • masseter muscle—Located anterior to ramus of the
zygomatic bone and inserts on the corner of the mandible. Palpate the masseter muscle while closing
mouth. Palpate this muscle near the zygomatic the mouth and clenching your teeth.
bone while smiling. • occipitalis muscle—Lies over the inferior portion
of the occipital bone. Firmly palpate the posterior
lateral surface of the skull immediately above the
B. Lateral Surface neck as you raise and lower eyebrows.
of the Head
Other Structures
Structures located in Figure 15.1(b). • parotid gland—Located anterior and inferior to
the ears. The superior border is at the level of the
Bones and Bone Surface Markings zygomatic arch and the inferior border is at the
• temporomandibular joint (TMJ)—Located anterior angle formed by ramus and body of the mandible.
to the external auditory meatus of the ear. Palpate the The parotid gland covers the masseter muscle and is
joint while opening and closing the mouth. approximately 2 fingers wide.
(a) Anterior view of head 1 _______________________ (b) Right lateral view of head 7 _______________________
• body of mandible • external occipital
• frontalis muscle 2 _______________________ protuberance 8 _______________________
• mental protuberance • masseter muscle covered
• nasal bone 3 _______________________ by parotid gland 9 _______________________
• supraorbital margin • mastoid process
4 _______________________ 10 _______________________
• zygomaticus major muscle • occipitalis muscle
5 _______________________ • ramus of mandible 11 _______________________
• temporalis muscle
6 _______________________ • temporomandibular joint 12 _______________________
13 _______________________
E X E R C I S E 1 5 S U R FA C E A N AT O M Y 243
4
Orbicularis oculi
muscle
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muscle
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Depressor labii 6
inferioris muscle
(a) Anterior view of the head
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Hyoid
bone
(b) Right lateral view of the head
FIGURE 15.1 Surface anatomy of the head and neck.

C. Anterior Surface fingers on either side of the neck just lateral to the
trachea.
of the Neck • external jugular vein—Located lateral to the ster-
nocleidomastoid muscle. To observe this vein, look
Structures located in Figure 15.1(c). in the mirror while clenching your teeth as in anger
or placing fingers on the skin above the clavicle and
Bones and Bone Surface Markings pressing firmly to prevent blood from draining the
• hyoid bone—Located in the anterior neck between external jugular vein.
the mandible and larynx. With the head in anatomical • internal jugular vein—Located between the common
position, palpate the hyoid bone by placing the carotid artery and external jugular vein [not shown
thumb and middle finger of one hand on either on Figure 15.1(a)].
side of the neck about 1 inch inferior to the man-
dible. This bone can be moved laterally from side
to side. D. Lateral Surface
• clavicle—Starting at the manubrium of the sternum, of the Neck
trace the clavicle’s S-shaped curvature laterally to its
acromial end. Palpate the acromioclavicular joint just Structures located in Figure15.1(d).
posterior to the acromial end of the clavicle as you
thrust your shoulder joint anteriorly. Skeletal Muscles
• suprasternal (jugular) notch—Located at the base • sternocleidomastoid muscle—Originates on the
of the neck between the sternal heads of the ster- sternum and clavicle and inserts on the mastoid
nocleidomastoid muscles and just superior to the process of the temporal bone. Look in a mirror and
sternum. Palpate the sternum and move the fingers turn your head to the side to observe and palpate the
superiorly to feel the suprasternal notch. origins and insertion of the muscle on the anterior
and lateral surface of the neck.
Other Structures • scalenes—Located posterior-lateral to the sternoclei-
• thyroid cartilage of larynx—Largest cartilage of domastoid muscle, just superior to the clavicle.
the larynx that has a prominence called the Adam’s • levator scapulae—Located superior to the scalenes.
apple. Located in anterior neck inferior to hyoid bone. • trapezius muscle— A portion of this muscle is
Move fingers 1 inch inferiorly from the hyoid bone located in the posterior and lateral neck. Inflammation
until a firm structure is reached. Swallow to feel this of trapezius muscle may result in “stiff neck.” Place
cartilage move superiorly. fingers on the posterior portion of the lateral neck
• cricoid cartilage of larynx—Located inferior to the and palpate while flexing and extending the neck.
thyroid cartilage and used as a landmark when
locating the trachea during a tracheostomy. Move Anterior and Posterior Triangles
your fingers down the thyroid cartilage. There is a • anterior triangle [not shown in Figure 15.1(d)]—
depression between the thyroid cartilage and the Boundaries are the inferior margin of mandible,
cricoid cartilage. Palpate the cricoid cartilage inferior midline of the neck, and the sternocleidomastoid
to this depression. muscle. The common carotid artery and internal
• thyroid gland—Located inferior to the larynx on jugular vein are located in this triangle. Palpate
either side of trachea. Palpate by placing fingers on to identify the triangle’s borders and palpate your
neck inferior and lateral to the thyroid cartilage and carotid pulse in the anterior triangle.
feeling for a soft mass. • posterior triangle [not shown in Figure 15.1(d)]—
• common carotid arteries—Located in the lateral Anteriorly bordered by the sternocleidomastoid,
neck between the trachea and the sternocleidomastoid posteriorly by the trapezius and inferiorly by the
muscle. They branch into the external and internal clavicle. Palpate to identify the triangle’s borders.
carotid arteries at the superior border of the larynx. The brachial plexus and external jugular vein are
Palpate either common carotid artery by placing your located in this triangle.
(c) Anterior view of the neck

• clavicle
• common carotid artery
• cricoid cartilage
• hyoid bone
• sternocleidomastoid muscle
• suprasternal (jugular) notch
• thyroid cartilage
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External jugular vein
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Thyroid gland 2 __________________________________
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Subclavian artery
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(c) Anterior view of the neck
(d) Lateral view of the neck

• levator scapulae
• scalenes
• sternocleidomastoid
• trapezius
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2 __________________________________
3 __________________________________
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(d) Lateral view of the neck
FIGURE 15.1 Surface anatomy of the head and neck, continued.

• xiphisternal joint—Joint between body of the sternum

LAB ACTIVITY 2 Surface Anatomy and xiphoid process of the sternum. Palpate the costal
of the Trunk margin. Move fingers anteriorly along the costal
1 Read the location and description of each structure. margin until they reach the superior edge of the costal
2 Locate and label each structure in Figure 15.2(a), margin. Medial to this point is the xiphisternal joint.
(b), (c), (d), (e), (f) and (g). • xiphoid process of sternum—Inferior portion of the
3 Palpate the designated structures on your body. ■ sternum. Palpate the xiphoid process inferior to the
xiphisternal joint.
Skeletal Muscles
E. Surface Anatomy • pectoralis major muscle—Major muscle of the
chest. In males the inferior border can be observed
of the Chest as a curved line under the breasts. This line is at the
level of the fifth rib. Bend over your lab bench and
Structures located in Figure 15.2(a).
push yourself up with one limb. Use your opposite
hand to palpate the pectoralis major muscle.
Bones and Bone Surface Markings
• serratus anterior muscle—Located on the lateral
• suprasternal notch—Located at the base of the neck
chest wall, extending from the ribs under the arm
between the sternal heads of the sternocleidomastoid
to the scapula. Flex your forearm and abduct your
muscles and just superior to the sternum. Palpate the
elbow. Use your opposite hand to palpate the serratus
sternum and move the fingers superiorly to feel the
anterior muscle as it abducts the scapula. If you move
suprasternal notch.
too far posteriorly, you will be palpating the latissimus
• manubrium of the sternum—Superior part of the dorsi instead.
sternum between the suprasternal notch and body of
• diaphragm—Located between the fourth and fifth
the sternum. Palpate by placing fingers at suprasternal
intercostal space. Position changes during inhalation
notch and moving them inferiorly until a ridge (sternal
and exhalation.
angle) is reached.
• body of sternum—Palpate area of the sternum Other Structures [not shown in Figure 15.2(a)]
inferior to the sternal angle.
• trachea—Located between cricoid cartilage of larynx
• sternal angle— Slightly raised area that can be felt and sternal angle. The trachea is approximately
at border of manubrium and body of sternum. 2 fingers in diameter.
• ribs—The ribs can be palpated lateral to the sternum. • primary bronchi—The trachea divides into the right
The second rib is located at the level of the sternal and left bronchi at the level of the sternal angle.
angle. Palpate the sternal angle and move fingers
• lungs—Apex of lungs are slightly above the clavicle.
laterally until the second rib can be felt. Move the
The base of the lungs rests on the diaphragm.
fingers inferiorly, counting each rib and each inter-
costal space between the ribs. • heart—Located between the second and sixth ribs.
The heart rests on the diaphragm deep to the
• costal margin—Anterior edge of costal cartilage
xiphisternal joint. The heart is about the size of your
of ribs 7–10 that begins at the xiphisternal joint.
fist, and 2/3 of the heart lies to the left of the midline.
• aortic arch—Superior border of aortic arch is posterior
to the sternal angle and anterior to the trachea.
Clavicle
Suprasternal notch
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(muscle) 5
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(a) Anterior view of the chest
(a) Anterior view of chest 1 ____________________________________________________

• body of sternum
• costal margin 2 ____________________________________________________
• manubrium of sternum
• pectoralis major muscle 3 ____________________________________________________
• ribs (deep to muscle)
4 ____________________________________________________
• second rib (deep to muscle)
• serratus anterior muscle 5 ____________________________________________________
• sternal angle
• xiphisternal joint 6 ____________________________________________________
• xiphoid process of sternum
7 ____________________________________________________
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FIGURE 15.2 Surface anatomy of the trunk.

F. Surface Anatomy Other Structures

• linea alba—Tendinous raphe between the xiphoid
of the Abdomen process and pubic symphysis forming a vertical
groove along the midline. This is a common incision
Structures located in Figure 15.2(b) and (c).
site because there is little damage to muscles and
Bone and Bone Surface Structures little bleeding.
• anterior superior iliac spine—Located at the ante- • linea semilunaris—Lateral margin of rectus abdominis
rior end of the iliac crest. Palpate the iliac crest with that is observable in lean people as a groove.
your fingers and move your fingers medially until you • tendinous intersection—Transverse grooves across
feel the “bump” at the anterior end of the iliac crest. rectus abdominis muscles that are observable in
• iliac crest—Marks the inferior border of the abdo- muscular individuals.
men. Palpate the iliac crest by placing your hands on • umbilicus—Most notable feature of the abdomen
your hips. and a common incision site. The umbilicus is located
• pubic symphysis [not shown in Figure 15.2(b)]— between L3 (3rd lumbar vertebra) and L4.
Anterior joint between os coxae (hip bones). Palpate • liver [not shown on Figure 15.1(b) and (c)]—Inferior
midline of the inferior pelvic area. to the diaphragm. The position of the liver varies with
Skeletal Muscles body position, respiration, and degree of distension of
the stomach and intestines.
• serratus anterior muscle—Located on the lateral
chest wall, extending from the ribs under the arm • gallbladder [not shown on Figure 15.1(b) and (c)]—
to the scapula. Flex your forearm and abduct your Located deep to the lateral margin of the rectus
elbow. Use your opposite hand to palpate the serratus abdominis.
anterior muscle as it abducts the scapula. If you • appendix—Deep to McBurney’s point, which is
move too far posteriorly, you will be palpating the located along the line between the umbilicus and the
latissimus dorsi muscle instead. right anterior superior iliac spine, about 1 to 2 inches
• external oblique muscle—Inferior to serratus anterior away from the latter. During appendicitis, pressure
muscles. Palpate while twisting trunk toward the on McBurney’s point results in tenderness. This is the
opposite side. most common site of incision for an appendectomy.
• rectus abdominis muscle—Longitudinal muscles • common iliac arteries [not shown on Figure 15.1(b)
lateral to the linea alba. Lie back in your chair and and (c)]—The abdominal aorta bifurcates into the
palpate these muscles as you sit up. common iliac arteries at the level of the anterior
superior iliac spines.
(b) Anterior view of abdomen (c) Anteriolateral view of abdomen
• anterior superior iliac spine • anterior superior iliac spine
• external oblique muscle • external oblique muscle
• iliac crest • iliac crest
• linea alba • McBurney’s point
• linea semilunaris • rectus abdominis muscle
• McBurney’s point • serratus anterior muscle
• rectus abdominis muscle • tendinous intersection
• tendinous intersection
• umbilicus 1 _____________________________________________________
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(b) Anterior view of abdomen
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(c) Anteriolateral view of abdomen
FIGURE 15.2 Surface anatomy of the trunk, continued.

G. Surface Anatomy Skeletal Muscles

• deltoid muscle—This large, triangular muscle forms
of the Back the rounded protrusion of the shoulder. It is used as a
site for intramuscular injections. Palpate this muscle
Structures located in Figure 15.2(d) and (e).
as you flex, abduct, and extend the arm to locate the
Bones and Bone Surface Markings deltoid’s anterior, lateral, and posterior portions.
• acromion—The flattened lateral end of the spine • trapezius muscle—Large muscle of the posterior
of the scapula located at the peak of the shoulder. neck and middle of back.
Palpate this prominent projection. • supraspinatus muscle—Located superior to the
• spine of scapula [not shown in Figure 15.2(d) and spine of the scapula. Palpate this muscle.
(e)]—The ridge across the posterior surface of the • infraspinatus muscle—Located inferior to the spine
scapula that extends from the acromion to the medial of the scapula. Palpate area inferior to the spine of
border of the scapula. Palpate this bone with your the scapula to feel this muscle.
fingers. The spine is easier to palpate on a lean body. • teres major muscle—Located inferior to the infra-
• vertebral border of scapula—Draw left shoulder spinatus muscle.
back and run the fingers of your right hand just • latissimus dorsi muscle—Broad muscle located
lateral to the the midline to feel the vertebral border between the lumbar region and axillary region.
of the scapula. Together with teres major muscle forms the posterior
• spinous processes of vertebrae—Located along the axillary fold.
midline of the back. Run your fingers along midline • erector spinae muscle—Large muscle of lower
to feel the spinous processes. back. Bend over and palpate this muscle while
• vertebra prominens—Located at base of neck. extending the vertebral column.
Prominent single spinous process of C7 (7th cervical
vertebra). The vertebra prominens can be seen as a Other
bump at the base of the neck and palpated. • triangle of auscultation—Triangular region of
• T3—Tip of spinous process of 3rd thoracic vertebra the back formed by the latissimus dorsi, trapezius,
is at the level of medial end of spine of scapula. and vertebral border of scapula. This region is not
• L4—Tip of spinous process of 4th lumbar vertebra is covered by superficial muscles enabling respiratory
at same level as highest point of iliac crest. Lumbar sounds to be heard with a stethoscope.
punctures to obtain CSF are usually done between
L3 and L4.
(d) Posterior view of back (e) Posterior view of back with arms flexed
• acromion • deltoid muscle , lateral fibers
• erector spinae muscle • deltoid muscle posterior fibers
• infraspinatus muscle • latissimus dorsi muscle
• latissimus dorsi muscle • spinous process of lumbar vertebra
• spinous process of thoracic vertebrae • spinous process of thoracic vertebra
• supraspinatus • teres major muscle
• teres major muscle • trapezius muscle
• trapezius muscle • triangle of auscultation
• vertebral border of scapula • vertebral border of scapula
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(d) Posterior view of the back
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(e) Posterior view of the back with arms flexed

H. Surface Anatomy • greater trochanter—Palpate this bony landmark

on the lateral side of your hip. Flex and extend your
of the Posterior Pelvis thigh to feel this structure move with the joint action.
and Gluteal Region
Skeletal Muscles
Structures located in Figure 15.2(f) and (g). • gluteus maximus muscle—Most students are familiar
with these muscles that make up the largest portion
Bones and Bone Surface Markings of the buttocks. Palpate this prominent superficial
• iliac crest—Superior boundary of the ileum. The muscle as you extend your thigh.
iliac crest can be palpated when you “put your hands • gluteus medius muscle—These muscles are inferior
on your hips.” to the iliac crests in the upper, outer quadrant of the
• posterior superior iliac spine—Located on posterior buttocks. Palpate this muscle that is deeper to the
end of iliac crest. Locate the dimple in the skin gluteus maximus as you shift your weight onto the
located just lateral to sacrum. palpated leg, causing the gluteus medius to contract.
• sacroiliac joint [not shown on Figure 15.2(f) and These muscles are the site of intramuscular (IM)
(g)]—Joint between sacrum and ilium. Middle of injections.
sacroiliac joint is deep to posterior superior iliac
spine. Other Structures
• sacrum—The sacrum can be palpated in the area • gluteal (natal) cleft—A midline crevice between the
superior to the gluteal cleft. buttocks.
• coccyx—The tip of the coccyx can be palpated in the • kidneys [not shown in Figure 15.2(f) and (g)]—
superior portion of the gluteal cleft. Place your hands on the iliac crest. Your thumbs land
at the approximate level of the kidneys that are more
• ischial tuberosity—Sit down to palpate this structure medially located.
that is near the gluteal folds of the inferior buttocks.
This is the bony prominence of the hip bone that you
sit upon.
(f) Surface anatomy of the posterior male (g) Surface anatomy of the posterior female pelvis and
pelvis and gluteal region gluteal region
• coccyx • sacrum
• gluteus maximus muscle • greater trochanter of the femur
• gluteus medius muscle • coccyx
• greater trochanter • gluteal cleft
• iliac crest • iliac crest
• ischial tuberosity • posterior superior iliac spine
• posterior superior iliac spine • gluteus maximus muscle
• sacrum
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(f) Surface anatomy of the posterior male pelvis and gluteal region
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(g) Surface anatomy of posterior female pelvis and gluteal region

lateral part of the shoulder. As you bend your fore-

LAB ACTIVITY 3 Surface Anatomy arm at the elbow and abduct your arm, move your
of the Upper Limb fingers a little anteriorly to feel the intertubercular
1 Read the location and description of each structure. groove where the proximal tendon of the long head
2 Locate and label each structure in Figure 15.3(a), (b), of the biceps traverses. The greater tubercle is just
(c), and (d). posterior to this groove.
3 Palpate the designated structures on your body. ■ Skeletal Muscles
• deltoid muscle—This large, triangular muscle forms
the rounded protrusion of the shoulder. It is used as a
I. Surface Anatomy site for intramuscular injections. Palpate this muscle
as you flex, abduct, and extend the arm to locate the
of the Shoulder deltoid’s anterior, lateral, and posterior fibers.
Structures located in Figure 15.3(a).
Bones and Bone Surface Markings J. Lateral Surface of Arm

• clavicle—Starting at the manubrium of the sternum,
trace the clavicle’s S-shaped curvature laterally to its Structures located in Figure 15.3(b).
acromial end.
• acromion—The flattened lateral end of the spine
of the scapula located at the peak of the shoulder. • lateral epicondyle of humerus—Move your fingers
Palpate this prominent projection. lateral of the olecranon to palpate the lateral epicon-
• acromioclavicular joint—Palpate the acromio- dyle of the humerus.
clavicular joint just posterior to the acromial end
of the clavicle as you thrust your shoulder joint Skeletal Muscles
anteriorly. • biceps brachii muscle—Flex your forearm and
• spine of scapula—The ridge across the posterior tighten the biceps brachii as you palpate this muscle
surface of the scapula that extends from the acromion on the anterior surface of your arm.
to the medial border of the scapula. Palpate this bone • triceps brachii muscle—This muscle can be pal-
with your fingers. The spine is easier to palpate on a pated on the posterior surface of the arm when the
lean body. forearm is extended against resistance. If a person
• greater tubercle of humerus—This bony landmark has a muscular arm with definition, all three heads of
can be palpated through the deltoid muscle on the the triceps can be distinguished.
(a) Right lateral view of shoulder (b) Lateral surface of the arm
• acromion • acromion
• acromioclavicular joint • deltoid muscle (lateral fibers)
• clavicle • biceps brachii muscle
• deltoid muscle (lateral fibers) • lateral epicondyle of humerus
• greater tubercle of humerus • triceps brachii muscle
• spine of scapula
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(a) Right lateral view of shoulder
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Olecranon 5
(b) Lateral surface of the arm and elbow
FIGURE 15.3 Surface anatomy of the upper limb.

K. Medial Surface of the anterior arm and runs from just proximal of
the cubital fossa, through the cubital fossa, to insert
of Arm and Elbow on the radial tuberosity.
Structures located in Figure 15.3(c).

L. Surface Anatomy
Bones and Bone Surface Markings of the Antecubital Region
• medial epicondyle of humerus—Move your fingers
medially from the olecranon to feel the medial epi- Structures located in Figure 15.3(d).
condyle. The groove between the olecranon and the
medial epicondyle has the ulnar nerve that you can Skeletal Muscles
palpate when the forearm is extended. • brachioradialis muscle—As its name indicates,
• olecranon of ulna—With the forearm flexed, palpate this muscle originates in the distal arm (brachium),
this prominent point at the end of the elbow. Extend borders the lateral side of the cubital fossa, and
and flex the forearm as you feel this bony landmark. extends to the proximal forearm to insert on the
radius. Observe and palpate this muscle as you flex
your forearm against resistance.
Skeletal Muscles
• biceps brachii muscle—Flex your forearm and Other Structures
tighten the biceps brachii as you palpate this muscle • basilic vein—This superficial vein is seen on the
on the anterior surface of your arm. medial side of the anterior forearm and ascends to
• triceps brachii muscle—This muscle can be palpated the arm. This vein is discernible under the skin of
on the posterior surface of the arm when the forearm lean people.
is flexed against resistance. If a person has a muscular • cephalic vein—This superficial vein can be viewed
arm with definition, all three heads of the triceps can on the lateral side of the anterior forearm and
be distinguished. ascends to the arm. This vein is discernible under
the skin of lean people.
Other Structures • cubital fossa (antecubital)—This triangular-shaped
• groove for brachial artery—Palpate the medial concavity is on the anterior surface of the elbow joint.
border of the flexed biceps brachii muscle. You can • median cubital vein—This superficial vein diagonally
feel your brachial pulse if you press into this groove crosses the anterior surface of the elbow in the cubi-
with your fingers. tal (antecubital) fossa. This vein connects the lateral
• tendon of biceps brachii muscle—The distal tendon cephalic vein with the medial basilica vein. The
of the biceps brachii can best be palpated with the median cubital vein is a typical site for drawing
forearm flexed. The tendon is located in the middle blood or for inserting an intravenous (IV) catheter.
(c) Medial view of the arm and elbow (d) Anterior view of antecubital region
• biceps brachii muscle • basilic vein
• groove for brachial artery • biceps brachii muscle
• medial epicondyle of humerus • brachioradialis muscle
• olecranon • cephalic vein
• tendon of biceps brachii muscle • cubital fossa
• triceps brachii muscle • median cubital vein
1 _____________________________________________________ 1 _____________________________________________________
2 _____________________________________________________ 2 _____________________________________________________
3 _____________________________________________________ 3 _____________________________________________________
4 _____________________________________________________ 4 _____________________________________________________
5 _____________________________________________________ 5 _____________________________________________________
6 _____________________________________________________ 6 _____________________________________________________
6
Mark Nielsen
(c) Medial view of the arm and elbow
1 5
6
Mark Nielsen
(d) Anterior view of cubital region
FIGURE 15.3 Surface anatomy of the upper limb, continued.

M. Anterior Surface N. Dorsum

of the Wrist and Hand of Hand and Wrist
Structures are located in Figure 15.3(e). Structures located in Figure 15.3(f).
The muscles of the forearm are difficult to differentiate
from surface anatomy, but four of the muscle tendons are Bones and Bone Surface Markings
readily discernible in the anterior forearm. • head of ulna—Palpate this distal end of the ulna on
the medial side of the wrist.
Tendons
• styloid process of ulna—Palpate just distal to the
• flexor carpi radialis tendon—Make a fist to head of the ulna.
observe and palpate this laterally located tendon.
• styloid process of radius—Palpate this distal end of
• flexor carpi ulnaris tendon—Make a fist to palpate the radius on the lateral side of wrist.
this most medially located tendon. Tendon is not
readily apparent. Other Structures
• flexor digitorum superficialis tendon—Make a fist • cephalic vein and dorsal venous arch—The dorsal
to observe and palpate this tendon located medial to venous arch on the dorsum of the hand drains into
the palmaris longus tendon. the cephalic vein. The plexus of veins in the dorsal
• palmaris longus tendon—Make a fist to observe venous arch is also a site for drawing blood and
and palpate this center-most tendon that is located inserting an IV catheter.
just medial to the flexor radialis tendon. • anatomical snuffbox—Palpate this depression located
on the dorsum of the hand between the tendon of the
Bone and Bone Surface Markings extensor pollicis longus muscle and the tendon of the
• pisiform bone—Located on the medial side just extensor pollicis brevis muscle.
distal to the wrist crease. Palpate this small bone that • tendons of extensor muscles—Extend the fingers
feels like a bump. and palpate the tendons of the extensor digitorum
muscles.
Other Structures
• radial artery—Note the location of the radial artery
just lateral to the flexor carpi radialis tendon. With
two fingers, press down on the radial artery and feel
your pulse.
• hypothenar eminence—Palpate this small hand pad
located medially just distal to the pisiform bone.
• thenar eminence—Palpate this larger elevation
located between the wrist crease and the thumb.
Tendon of palmaris
longus muscle
Tendon of flexor
carpi radialis muscle Tendon of flexor
digitorum superficialis
Radial artery muscle
Wrist crease Tendon of flexor carpi

ulnaris muscle
Thenar eminence Pisiform bone
Hypothenar eminence
©John Wiley & Sons
(e) Anterior right wrist and hand
Head of ulna
Styloid process
of ulna
Cephalic vein
Styloid process of
radius
“Anatomical snuffbox”
Dorsal venous arch
Tendon of extensor
Tendons of extensor pollicis brevis muscle
digitorum muscle
Tendon of extensor
pollicis longus muscle
©John Wiley & Sons
(f) Dorsum of hand and wrist
FIGURE 15.3 Surface anatomy of the upper limb, continued.

Other Structures
LAB ACTIVITY 4 Surface Anatomy
of the Lower Limb • patellar ligament—The quadriceps femoris tendon
extends beyond the patella as the patellar ligament
1 Read the location and description of each structure. and inserts on the tibial tuberosity. Press your fingers
2 Locate and label each structure in Figure 15.4(a) on the tendon between the patella and the tibial
and (b). tuberosity to palpate the patellar ligament as you
3 Palpate the designated structures on your body. ■ extend and flex the leg at the knee.
• femoral triangle [not shown on Figure 15.4(a)]—
Triangle of the medial thigh bordered laterally by the
sartorius and medially by the gracilis. The femoral
artery, vein, and nerve traverse through this tri-
O. Anterior Surface angle. Palpate your femoral artery to feel your pulse.
of the Lower Limb

Structures located in Figure 15.4(a). 2. Leg, Ankle, and Dorsum of Foot
1. Anterior Thigh
• lateral condyle of tibia—Palpate the bump or
Bones and Bone Surface Markings projection on the proximal tibia lateral and inferior
• lateral condyle of femur—Palpate the bump or to the patella.
projection on the distal femur lateral to the patella. • medial condyle of tibia—Palpate the bump or
• medial condyle of femur—Palpate the bump or projection on the proximal tibia medial and inferior
projection on the distal femur medial to the patella. to the patella.
• patella—The patella or kneecap is the most anterior • tibial tuberosity—Palpate this bump on the anterior
bone of the knee. Place your fingers on the patella surface of the proximal tibia just inferior to the patella.
and move it slightly. • anterior border of tibia (shin)—With your fingers
on the tibial tuberosity, slide down the anterior
Skeletal Muscles border of the tibia, better known as the shin.
• adductor longus muscle—Located in the superior • medial malleolus of tibia—Palpate the projection at
part of the thigh in the femoral triangle, just medial the medial side of the ankle. This bump is formed by
to the sartorius. the medial malleolus of the tibia.
• gracilis muscle—Located in the inner thigh region, • lateral malleolus of fibula—Palpate the projection
medial to the femoral triangle. This muscle has fibers at the lateral side of the ankle. This bump is formed
that run longitudinally from the pubic bone to the knee. by the lateral malleolus of the fibula.
• sartorius muscle—Anteriorly located, this muscle
diagonally spans the area between the anterior Skeletal Muscles
superior iliac spine laterally and the medial region • tibialis anterior muscle—Move your fingers laterally
of the knee. This muscle forms the lateral border of from the anterior border of the tibia. Palpate this muscle
the femoral triangle. as you dorsiflex your foot. Note the thick tendon of
• rectus femoris muscle—Located in the anterior this muscle as it crosses medially at the ankle to insert
compartment of the thigh, lateral to the sartorius. on the medial cuneiform bone and the first metatarsal.
This muscle is in the midline and is the most • extensor digitorum longus muscle—Palpate the
superficial of the quadriceps femoris muscle group. tendon as you dorsiflex your second through fifth toes.
• vastus lateralis muscle—Large muscle of the • fibularis (peroneus) longus muscle—This lateral
quadriceps femoris group located on the lateral muscle of the leg is superficial to the fibula and can
surface of the thigh. be palpated as you plantar flex the foot. Its tendon
• vastus medialis muscle—Large muscle of the inserts on the plantar surface of the foot.
quadriceps femoris group located on the medial • extensor hallucis longus muscle—Palpate the
surface of the thigh. tendon as you dorsiflex your great toes.
(a) Anterior surface of the lower limb

• adductor longus muscle
• gracilis muscle
• rectus femoris muscle
• sartorius muscle
1
• vastus lateralis muscle
• vastus medialis muscle
1 ____________________________________________________
2
2 ____________________________________________________
3
4 3 ____________________________________________________
5
4 ____________________________________________________
5 ____________________________________________________
6
6 ____________________________________________________
• lateral condyle of femur

7 10 • lateral condyle of tibia
11 • medial condyle of femur
8 • medial condyle of tibia
12
• patella
9 13 • patellar ligament
• tibial tuberosity
14 7 ____________________________________________________
15 8 ____________________________________________________
9 ____________________________________________________
16 10 ____________________________________________________
11 ____________________________________________________
17
12 ____________________________________________________
13 ____________________________________________________
18
19 • anterior border of tibia (shin)

Mark Nielsen
• lateral malleolus of fibula

20 • fibularis (peroneus) longus muscle
• medial malleolus of tibia
• tendons of extensor digitorum longus muscle
• tendon of extensor hallucis longus muscle
(a) Anterior surface of the lower limb • tibialis anterior muscle
FIGURE 15.4 Surface anatomy of the lower limb. 14 ____________________________________________________
15 ____________________________________________________
16 ____________________________________________________
17 ____________________________________________________
18 ____________________________________________________
19 ____________________________________________________
20 ____________________________________________________
P. Posterior Surface
of Lower Limb
Structures located in Figure 15.4(b).
6
1. Posterior Thigh
Skeletal Muscles
• biceps femoris muscle—Lateral hamstring muscle. 7
Palpate muscle while flexing the knee.
• biceps femoris tendon—Move your fingers inferi-
orly until you feel the rope-like that crosses the knee
joint.
• semitendinosus and semimembranosus muscles— 1 5 Popliteal
Medial hamstring muscles. Palpate these muscles fossa
while flexing the knee.
• tendon of semitendinosus muscle—Move your fin-
gers inferiorly until you feel the tendons that crosses 2
the knee joint.
2. Posterior Leg and Ankle

Bone and Bone Surface Markings
• calcaneus—Heel bone of the foot.
Skeletal Muscles
• gastrocnemius muscle (medial and lateral heads)— 3
Two large bellies of the calf muscles that form most
of the superior portion of the calf. To palpate these Calcaneal
two heads, extend the knee and place your fingers tendon
over the medial and lateral heads of the gastrocne- 4
mius. Plantar flex the foot.
Mark Nielsen
• soleus muscle—The flatter calf muscle that lies deep
to the gastrocnemius. This muscle extends laterally
from the gastrocnemius, and its tendon is in the
middle to distal portion of the calf. Palpate the soleus
as you plantar flex the foot. (b) Posterior surface of the lower limb
Other Structures FIGURE 15.4 Surface anatomy of the lower limb,

continued.
• popliteal fossa—A depression located on the poste-
rior of the knee.
• calcaneal (Achilles) tendon—The tendons of both the
gastrocnemius and the soleus merge to insert on the
calcaneus bone of the foot. Palpate this thick tendon 1 _____________________________________________________
as you alternately plantar flex and dorsiflex the foot.
2 _____________________________________________________
(b) Posterior surface of the lower limb 3 _____________________________________________________
• biceps femoris muscle
• biceps femoris tendon 4 _____________________________________________________
• calcaneus
5 _____________________________________________________
• gastrocnemius muscle (medial and lateral heads)
• semitendinosus and semimembranosus muscles 6 _____________________________________________________
• soleus muscle
• tendon of semitendinosus 7 _____________________________________________________
EXERCISE 16 NERVOUS TISSUE 263
E X E R C I S E
Nervous Tissue
16
1 Describe the functions of the nervous system • compound microscope, lens paper, prepared
2 Name the 2 major divisions of the nervous system slides of astrocytes, motor neurons, dorsal root
and their organs ganglia, cerebral cortex, and teased myelinated
axons or use Real Anatomy (Histology)
3 Explain the difference in function between
neurons and neuroglia • Simulation of Schwann Cell and Axon: zippered
1-quart plastic bag (1 per group), long pencil
4 Identify neuron structures and describe their
(1 per group), small smooth pebble or dry bean
functions
(1 per group)
5 Describe how neurons are classified structurally
and functionally
• section of brain (human or animal)
6 Identify unipolar, bipolar, and multipolar neurons

• section of spinal cord (human or animal)
7 Describe the difference between myelinated and

• PowerPhys Experiment: Graded and
Action Potentials
unmyelinated axons
8 Identify where the gray and white matter are
located in the brain and spinal cord
N ervous tissue is found in the organs of the

nervous system—the nerves, brain, and spinal
cord—and contains cells that enable the nervous
system to generate and transmit electrical signals called
nerve impulses or action potentials.
(CNS), which consists of the brain and spinal cord, and
the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The PNS contains
an afferent division composed of sensory receptors and
sensory neurons, and an efferent division composed of
motor neurons.
Sensory receptors detect changes in the environment
and transmit this information along sensory or afferent
nerves to the CNS. The CNS coordinates and integrates
A. Overview information received from sensory receptors and initiates
of Nervous System responses that are transmitted by neurons to effectors (neu-
rons, muscle cells, or glands). Motor nerves transmit
The nervous system senses changes in our internal and impulses from the CNS to effectors in the PNS. The nervous
external environments, coordinates and integrates data, system is streamlined to send rapid signals from cell to cell
and initiates and transmits action potentials. It is organized to maintain homeostasis and coordinate body organs and
into two basic components: the central nervous system functions.
263
264 EXERCISE 16 NERVOUS TISSUE
B. Structure (phago- = to eat) of the CNS that engulf debris, necrotic

tissue, and invading bacteria or viruses. Ependymal cells
of Nervous Tissue (epen- = above; dym- = garment) line all 4 ventricles
(spaces or cavities) of the brain, as well as the central canal
Nervous tissue is located in the brain, spinal cord, ganglia, of the spinal cord. These cells form cerebrospinal fluid
and nerves, and is composed of 2 types of cells: neurons and (CSF), and their cilia move the CSF through the ventricles.
neuroglia. Neurons conduct action potentials and are the The 2 neuroglial cells in the PNS are Schwann cells and
structural and functional units of nervous tissue. Neuroglia satellite cells. Schwann cells are flattened cells that wrap
(neuro- = nerve; -glia = glue) are cells that support, protect, around the axons in the PNS. Many Schwann cells form the
and furnish nutrients to neurons, and augment the speed of myelin sheath around one axon. The myelin sheath increases
neuron transmission. nerve impulse speed and aids in the regeneration of PNS
axons. Satellite cells have processes that are flattened and
surround the sensory neuron cell bodies located in ganglia
1. Neuroglia in the PNS. They give support to these neurons and regulate
their chemical environment.
Neuroglial cells are generally smaller and more abundant
than neurons. Although they do not create action potentials,
neuroglial cells have important roles in the nervous system.
Of the 6 types of neuroglial cells, 4 are in the CNS and 2 are Before Going to Lab
in the PNS. The 4 neuroglial cells in the CNS are astrocytes, 1 Complete Table 16.1 using the following list of cells.
oligodendrocytes, microglia, and ependymal cells. Astro- Under the “Location” heading, circle CNS or PNS.
cytes (astro- = star; -cyte = cell) have many processes that • astrocyte
make them look star-shaped. Their perivascular (peri- = • ependymal cell
around; vascular = vessel) feet wrap around and cover neu- • microglia
rons and blood vessels to keep neurons in place. Astrocytes • oligodendrocyte
also guide neurons during development and control the • satellite cell
composition of the chemical environment of the neurons by • Schwann cell
forming a blood–brain barrier. This barrier allows only
2 Label the neuroglial cells in Figure 16.1(a) and (b).
certain substances to enter the nervous tissue at the blood
vessel sites. Oligodendrocytes (oligo- = few; dendro- =
tree) support the CNS neurons and have processes that form
myelin sheaths around axons to increase the speed of nerve
impulses. Microglia (micro- = small) are the phagocytes
TA B L E 1 6 . 1 Neuroglia
CELL TYPE L O C AT I O N FUNCTION
1. ____________________ CNS or PNS Entire cell forms myelin sheath around a segment of an axon;
helps regeneration of axons.
2. ____________________ CNS or PNS Lines four brain ventricles; forms and circulates CSF.
3. ____________________ CNS or PNS Engulfs invading microbes; clears debris; migrates to injured nerves.
4. ____________________ CNS or PNS Maintains environment around neurons; forms blood–brain barrier.
5. ____________________ CNS or PNS Covers sensory neuron cell bodies; maintains neuron environment.
6. ____________________ CNS or PNS Processes from this cell form myelin sheaths around axons.
Cells of pia mater
1
Node of Ranvier
2
Myelin sheath
Axon
Neuron
Blood capillary
3
Neurons
Microvillus
Cilia
(a) CNS
Neuron cell body

in a ganglion
5
• astrocytes (AS-troh-cytes)
• ependymal (ee-PIN-dih-mahl) cell
• microglial (my-CROG-lee-al) cell
• oligodendrocyte
(OL-ih-go-DEN-droh-site)
• satellite cell
• Schwann (shh-WAN) cell
(a) CNS
6 3
(b) PNS
Axon
5
(b) PNS 6
FIGURE 16.1 Neuroglia of the CNS and PNS.

2. Structure of a Neuron
Before Going to Lab
The longest cells in the body are neurons, which can be
1 Label the structures in Figure 16.2(a) and (b). Note the
over 3 feet long. Think about one neuron being long
magnification of the cells in these figures.
enough to reach from your spinal cord to the tips of your
fingers or toes. There are 3 basic parts to any neuron: 2 Label the structures in Figure 16.3.
dendrites, a cell body, and an axon. Both the dendrites
and the single axon are processes (extensions) of the
neuron cell body. Dendrites receive information from LAB ACTIVITY 1 Comparison of a Neuron
receptors or other neurons and send it as a change in and an Astrocyte
membrane potential to the neuron cell body or soma
1 Examine a prepared slide of astrocytes.
(soma = body). Neuron cell bodies have most of the
• Using the low-power objective, find an astrocyte and
organelles that are present in other types of cells. There
center it in the field of view.
is usually a triangular or cone-shaped area of the cell
• Using the high-power objective, identify the cell
body called the axon hillock (hillock = small hill). The
body and processes.
axon (axon = axis), a longer process than the dendrites,
• Note the size of the astrocytes.
extends from the axon hillock. Changes in membrane
potential travel to the axon hillock where they are inte- 2 Examine a prepared slide of motor neurons or use Real
grated to determine whether an action potential will be Anatomy (Histology).
initiated in the axon. The first part of the axon is known • Using the low-power objective, find a large motor
as the trigger area (initial segment), where the action neuron and center it in the field of view.
potential begins. The axon may be a single process, or it • Using the high-power objective, identify the cell
may have side branches called axon collaterals. Axons body, nucleus, and dendrites. The axon is difficult
and axon collaterals conduct action potentials along their to distinguish.
full lengths to end in many fine branches called axon • Note the size of the motor neuron and the numerous
terminals. Many axon terminals end in synaptic end small, dark-stained neuroglial cells near the neuron.
bulbs which contain neurotransmitter molecules that 3 With your lab group compare the size of astrocytes and
transmit signals across a synapse. motor neurons. ■
1 Blood 2 3 4 5 6 7
capillary
Jan Leesma/Custom Medical Stock Photo, Inc.

Courtesy Michael Ross, University of Florida
(a) Astrocyte LM 700× (b) Motor neuron LM 100×
(a) 1 (b) 3 6
• cell body • axon
• processes 2 • axon hillock 4 7
• cell body
• dendrites 5
• nucleus
FIGURE 16.2 Photomicrographs of nervous tissue cells.

7
5 (yellow)
3 9
8
Mitochondrion
Nucleus
10 Nucleolus
Cytoplasm • axon (AX-on)

Nucleus of • axon collateral
Schwann cell
• axon hillock (HILL-ock)
• axon terminal
• cell body or soma (SO-mah)
• dendrites
Neurolemma of
• myelin (MY-e-lin) sheath
Schwann cell
• node of Ranvier (RON-vee-ay)
• Schwann cell
• trigger zone (initial segment)
2
1
10
Dendrite
1
Neuroglial
cell
Synaptic end bulb
Cell body
(a) Parts of a neuron

Mark Nielsen
Axon
LM 400x
FIGURE 16.3 Parts of a motor neuron. (b) Motor neuron

C. Classification of Neurons spinal cord, the axon of the sensory neuron synapses with
either a motor neuron or an interneuron. The interneuron
1. Structural Classification of Neurons (association neuron) is structurally a multipolar neuron
and makes up about 90% of the neurons in the CNS. In
Neurons are classified both structurally and functionally. the spinal cord, the interneuron can synapse with a chain
The number of processes that project from the cell body of interneurons that sends the signal to the brain, and/or it
of the neuron determine its structural classification. The can synapse with a motor (efferent) neuron that takes the
multipolar neurons have numerous processes, with impulse out of the CNS via a spinal or cranial nerve to an
many dendrites and one axon. Motor neurons and inter- effector (muscle or gland). Motor neurons are structurally
neurons (association neurons) are multipolar neurons and multipolar neurons.
compose most of the CNS neurons. Bipolar neurons have
2 processes—1 dendrite and 1 axon—on either side of the
cell body and are found in the special senses like the retina Before Going to Lab
of the eye, the olfactory cells of the nose, and the inner 1 Label the neurons in Figure 16.4(a) and (b).
ear. Unipolar neurons have only 1 process, leading to
2 Label the structures listed in Figure 16.5(a) and (b).
and from the neuron cell body. This process is formed by
the fusion of dendrites and the axon. Unipolar neurons are
sensory neurons that bring sensory information from the
skin, muscles, and organs to the spinal cord. LAB ACTIVITY 2 Structural and
Functional
2. Functional Classification of Neurons Classifications
of Neurons
There are 3 classifications of neurons based on their func-
tions: sensory, interneuron (association neuron), and motor 1 Examine prepared microscope slide of dorsal root
neuron. Changes in the environment produce a stimulus ganglia.
that is detected by the receptors associated with the den- • Using the low-power objective, locate a neuron and
drites of a sensory (afferent) neuron. This neuron changes place it in the center of the field of view.
the stimulation into an action potential or nervous impulse • Identify the neuron cell body, nucleus, and processes.
that travels along the axon to the spinal cord. Most 2 Examine a prepared microscope slide of cerebral
sensory neurons are structurally unipolar neurons. In the cortex. Follow the same steps as above. ■
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Cavallini James/BSIP/Phototake
(a) Dorsal root ganglia, unipolar neurons LM 300× (b) Cerebral cortex, multipolar neurons
(a) 1 (b) 5
• neuron cell body • axon
• nucleus 2 • dendrites 6
• process • neuron cell body
• satellite cells 3 7
FIGURE 16.4 Sectional views of the dorsal root ganglion and cerebral cortex.
1 2 3
(a) Structural classification of neurons
4 neurons
conduct signals from
receptors to the CNS
5
neurons
are confined
to CNS
6 neurons
conduct signals from
the CNS to effectors
such as muscles and
glands
Peripheral nervous system Central nervous system
(b) Functional classification of neurons
(a) Structural classifications (b) Functional classifications

• bipolar neuron • interneuron (association neuron)
• multipolar neuron • motor neuron (efferent)
• unipolar neuron • sensory neuron (afferent)
1 4
2 5
3 6
FIGURE 16.5 Structural and functional classifications of neurons.

D. Myelination of Axons infants have slower, less coordinated movements. Also,

dietary fat needs are different than adults and is necessary
Myelinated axons are surrounded by a multi-layered lipo- for proper nervous system development.
protein covering called a myelin sheath. Two neuroglial
cells, the oligodendrocytes (CNS) and the Schwann cells
(PNS) form myelin sheaths. Schwann cells form a myelin Before Going to Lab
sheath by wrapping around a small section of an axon.
1 Label the structures on Figure 16.6(a) and (b) and identify
Multiple layers of the plasma membrane surround the axon,
(a) and (b) as myelinated or unmyelinated axons.
and the cytoplasm and nucleus are pushed to the periphery
forming a neurolemma. Oligodendrocytes have multiple 2 Label the structures in the photomicrograph of a teased
processes that wrap around multiple axons to form a por- myelinated axon in Figure 16.7.
tion of their myelin sheath. Because the cell body does not
wrap around the axon, no neurolemma is formed.
The myelin sheath is not continuous and gaps exist
between Schwann cells and processes of oligodendrocytes. LAB ACTIVITY 3 Myelination of Axons
Gaps in the myelin sheaths are called nodes of Ranvier
1 Examine a microscope slide of a teased myelinated axon.
and are more numerous in the PNS than in the CNS. The
• Using the low-power objective, locate an axon and
myelin sheath insulates the axon and the nodes of Ranvier
place it in the center of the field of view.
enable the nerve impulse to jump from node to node.
• Using the high-power objective, identify the nodes
Axons without a myelin sheath are unmyelinated. They
of Ranvier, myelin sheath, axon, and neurolemma.
still are associated with neuroglial cells but there is only
a thin coating of Schwann cell or oligodendrocyte plasma 2 Simulation of a Schwann cell and axon.
membrane around the axon. Unmyelinated axons conduct • Obtain a 1-gallon zippered plastic bag (sandwich
impulses slower than myelinated fibers. size may be used) and a new pencil.
Infants and young children have less myelin than adults. • Add 15 ml (1 tablespoon) water to the bag and push
Since myelination increases speed of nerve conduction, out all the air.
• Add a small smooth pebble or dry bean to the bottom
of the bag and rezip the bag.
• Starting at the bottom of the bag, wrap the plastic
bag around and around the pencil, watching the bean
being pushed toward the zippered end.
3 Answer the Discussion Questions with your lab group.
4 DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
Myelination of Axons
3 1 What do the bag and the pencil represent?
2 6
1 5
2 What do the water and bean represent?
(a) (b)
• axon • axons
• myelin sheath • Schwann cell cytoplasm
• node of Ranvier
3 Where do the water and the bean end up after the bag is
• Schwann cell cytoplasm 5 totally wrapped around the pencil?
1 6
2
4 Why is it preferable to use a 1-gallon bag versus a sandwich-
3 size plastic bag?
FIGURE 16.6 Myelinated and unmyelinated axons. ■

1 2 3 4

• axon
• myelin sheath (surrounding axon)
• neurolemma (ner-oh-LEM-ma)
• node of Ranvier
FIGURE 16.7 Teased myelinated axon.
E. Gray and White Matter Before Going to Lab

in the CNS 1 Label gray and white matter in Figure 16.8(a) and (b).
Myelin sheaths are white in color, giving nervous tissue

with many myelinated axons a white color. Nervous tissue
with few myelinated axons appears gray, the color of ner-
vous tissue cells. Groups of myelinated axons in the CNS
SAFETY NOTE: Wear safety glasses and gloves when
form tracts and are called white matter, whereas unmy- handling preserved or fresh tissue. Always wash your
elinated areas comprised of neuron cell bodies, dendrites, hands thoroughly with soap and water when you are done.
axon terminals, and neuroglia are called gray matter.
In the brain, there is an outer area or cortex of gray
matter, with an inner layer of white matter. There are also
deeper areas within the brain that have isolated areas of
gray matter; these are called nuclei of the brain and also
LAB ACTIVITY 4 Gray and White Matter
contain neuron cell bodies and their dendrites. Unlike the
brain, the spinal cord has an outer layer of white matter and 1 Examine a section of brain and spinal cord, and identify
a central H-shaped area of gray matter. the gray and white matter in each. ■
©Glauberman/Science Source
Frontal
plane
Transverse
2
ISM/Phototake
plane
(a) Sectional view of brain (b) Transverse view of spinal cord
• gray matter in brain and spinal cord 1

• white matter in brain and spinal cord
2
FIGURE 16.8 Gray and white matter of brain and spinal cord.
F. Synapses Between Neurons, Before Going to Lab

Graded Potentials, and 1 Identify the type of synapse (#1 through 3) in Figure 16.9,
Action Potentials using the bulleted list.
• axosomatic 1.
We have previously discussed a type of chemical synapse • axoaxonic 2.
at the neuromuscular junction where the synaptic end bulb
• axodendritic 3.
released a neurotransmitter across the synaptic cleft to the
receptors in the sarcolemma. Now we will study com- 2 Write the numbers 4 through 8 shown in Figure 16.9 next
munication between neurons at a chemical synapse that to the phrase that describes the action that is occurring.
is similar, except the signal transmission is between two ________ action potential started on postsynaptic neuron
neurons. The neuron sending the neurotransmitter is the
presynaptic neuron, and the neuron receiving the chemi- ________ graded potential sent toward trigger zone
cal is the postsynaptic neuron. The postsynaptic neuron ________ action potential reaches axon terminal
produces a type of graded potential called a postsynaptic
potential. The postsynaptic neuron converts the postsyn- ________ action potential travels down axon
aptic potential into an electrical signal. ________ dendrites on postsynaptic neurons receive
There are three types of neuron-to-neuron synapses neurotransmitter at synapse
that are named according to where the presynaptic neuron
anatomically forms a synapse with the postsynaptic neuron.
Most synapses are either axoaxonic (from axon to axon), LAB ACTIVITY 5 Graded and Action
axodendritic (from axon to dendrite), or axosomatic (from Potentials
axon to the cell body).
1 Complete the PowerPhys Experiment: Graded and
Action Potentials. ■
1
2
4
Dendrites
6 5
Cell body
Axon
3
Axon of
Presynaptic
Eye of Science/Science Source
neuron
Synapses
8 Postsynaptic
neuron
LM 2500x
(a) Examples of synapses (b) Synapses between neurons
FIGURE 16.9 Types of neuron-to-neuron synapses.

Name ___________________________________ Date _________________ Section ______________________________
Reviewing Your Knowledge E X E R C I S E
A. Organization of Nervous System

16
Fill in the blanks with the correct term chosen from the following:
afferent motor
effectors peripheral
efferent receptors
If you touch a hot stove with your hand, the sensory (1) ________________ in your hand send
a signal of pain to the CNS through the (2) ________________ axons of the
(3) _______________ nervous system. When the information
reaches the CNS and is processed, a(n) (4) ________________ response
is sent through the (5) ________________ axons of the
PNS system to skeletal muscles that are (6) ________________.
B. Nervous Tissue Cells

Write the name of the nervous tissue cell described.
⎫
1.⎪
⎬ Supporting cells of PNS
2.⎪
⎭
3.⎫
⎪
4.⎪
⎬ Supporting cells of CNS
5.⎪
⎪
6.⎭
⎫
7.⎪
⎬ Form myelin sheaths
⎪
8.⎭
⎫
9.⎪
⎬ Regulate chemical environment of neurons
10.⎪
⎭
273
11. Generate and transmit nerve impulses
12. Line cavities of brain and spinal cord; form and move CSF
13. Phagocytes that destroy debris, dead tissue, and pathogens
C. Structural Classification of Neurons

Identify the neuron type described.
1. Many processes associated with the cell body
2. Has two cell processes
3. One short process extends from the cell body and divides
4. Neuron is rare and is the sensory neuron in the eye and nose
D. Functional Classification of Neurons

Identify the neuron type described.
1.⎫
⎪
⎬ Functional neuron types that are structurally multipolar neurons
2.⎪
⎭
⎫
3.⎪
⎬ Neuron types whose cell bodies are in the spinal cord (CNS)
⎪
4.⎭
5. Neuron type that is structurally either a unipolar neuron or bipolar neuron whose cell
body is found in the PNS
6. Functional neuron type most prevalent in the CNS
E. Myelination of Axons and Gray and White Matter

Match the description to the appropriate term.
a. gray matter
b. white matter
c. myelinated fibers
d. unmyelinated fibers
e. nodes of Ranvier
____ 1. Contains myelinated fibers ____ 4. Axons that are gray in color
____ 2. Contains neuron cell bodies ____ 5. Gaps in the myelin sheath
and unmyelinated fibers
____ 3. Axons that are white in color and conduct nerve

impulses faster
Name ___________________________________ Date _________________ Section
______________________________
EXERC ISE
Using Your Knowledge E X E R C I S E
A. Conduction of a Nervous Impulse

16
Reorder the following parts of a multipolar neuron in the correct order (1–8) of receiving and sending the nerve impulse.
Start with the dendrites as number 1.
____ 1. axon
____ 2. axon hillock
____ 3. axon terminal
____ 4. cell body
____ 5. dendrites
____ 6. second neuron or effector
____ 7. synapse
____ 8. trigger zone
B. Nervous Tissue and Diseases

Using your textbook or other references, identify the nervous tissue cell(s) that is (are) involved in the following diseases:
9. Multiple sclerosis
10. Epilepsy
C. Overview of Communication within the Nervous System

Match the numbers in Figure 16.10 with the description of what is happening as the sensory neurons, interneurons, and
motor neurons communicate with one another. Start with number 1.
1
____ Graded potential starts in a sensory receptor in the skin.
____ At a second synapse, a graded potential followed by an action potential occurs in a secondary interneuron,
which reaches the cerebral cortex.
275
____ The graded potential triggers an action potential in a sensory neuron.
____ The lower motor neuron forms a neuromuscular synapse with the hand muscles, which causes the muscles to
contract as he writes the letter.
____ In another synapse, the neurotransmitter creates a graded potential, which triggers an action potential in the lower
motor neuron.
____ A primary interneuron forms an action potential and crosses to the opposite side of the brain.
____ A stimulus from the brain causes a graded potential and then an action potential to form in an upper motor neuron
(which crosses back to the original side of the body).
____ At the first synapse, a presynaptic sensory neuron stimulates the postsynaptic interneuron to form a graded poten-
tial in its cell body followed by an action potential.
Right side of brain Left side of brain
5 Cerebral cortex
Brain
Interneuron
Upper
motor neuron
Thalamus
6
4
3
Interneuron
Sensory
neuron
Spinal cord
2 Lower motor neuron
Key:
Graded potential
Nerve action potential
Muscle action potential
1
8
Sensory
receptor
Neuromuscular junction
Skeletal muscles
FIGURE 16.10 Overview of nervous system communication.

EXERCISE 17 SPINAL CORD STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION 277
E X E R C I S E
Spinal Cord
Structure and 17
Function
1 Describe the protective structures of the spinal • models or charts of the complete spinal cord,
cord transverse section of the spinal cord, and verte-
2 Identify and describe the external features of the bral column with spinal cord or use Real Anatomy
spinal cord (Nervous)
3 Identify and describe the anatomical features • compound microscope, lens paper, and prepared
of a spinal cord transverse section microscope slides of spinal cord transverse section
• Dissection: preserved or fresh spinal cord with
meninges, dissection equipment, disposable
gloves, safety glasses
T he spinal cord and the brain make up the

central nervous system. Being continuous with
the brain, the spinal cord begins at the foramen
magnum and terminates between vertebrae L1 and L2. It is
suspended within the vertebral canal, an area formed by the
A. Protective Structures
and Spinal Meninges
The spinal cord is protected by the bony vertebrae,
vertebral foramina of the cervical, thoracic, and lumbar adipose tissue, spinal meninges, and cerebrospinal fluid.
vertebrae. The spinal cord has 2 functions: (1) it carries sensory Adipose tissue cushions the spinal cord and is found within
information to the brain and motor output to nerves, and the space between the vertebrae and the meninges known
(2) it mediates spinal reflexes. Spinal reflexes process sen- as the epidural space. The 3 meninges (meninx, sing.) or
sory input from and convey motor output to the spinal nerves. connective tissue membranes cover the spinal cord and are
continuous with the cranial meninges that protect the brain.
Dura mater, the outer meninx, is a tough, single-layered
membrane that is deep to the epidural space and super-
ficial to the spider web-like arachnoid mater. The inner
meninx, the pia mater, is delicate and hugs the spinal cord.
Denticulate ligaments are lateral extensions of pia mater
that fuse with arachnoid mater and secure the spinal cord.
Between the pia and arachnoid mater is the subarachnoid
space that contains cerebrospinal fluid, which also cush-
ions the spinal cord.
277
278 EXERCISE 17 SPINAL CORD STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
POSTERIOR
Spinous process
(meninx) 2 of vertebra
(meninges) 1
3 (space)
4
5
Body of vertebra
Denticulate
ligament
ANTERIOR
• dura mater and arachnoid mater 1 ________________________
• epidural space
• pia mater 2 ________________________
• subarachnoid space
• web-like projection of arachnoic mater 3 ________________________
4 ________________________
5 ________________________
FIGURE 17.1 Transverse section of spinal cord showing meninges.
The inferior lumbar enlargement is located at levels T9

Before Going to Lab through T12 and contains nuclei for the lower extremities.
1 Label the meningeal structures in Figure 17.1. The spinal cord ends inferiorly as the conus medullaris
between vertebral levels L1 and L2. Nerves arising from
the inferior portion of the spinal cord continue inferiorly as
a group called the cauda equina (cauda = tail; equin- =
LAB ACTIVITY 1 Spinal Meninges horse), or “horse’s tail.” An extension of the pia mater con-
tinues past the conus medullaris as the filum terminale
1 Identify the meningeal structures in Figure 17.1 on a (filum = filament; termin- = terminal) and connects the
spinal cord model, chart, or use the search text box in inferior end of the spinal cord to the coccyx.
Real Anatomy (Nervous) to find these structures. ■
Before Going to Lab

B. External Features 1 Label the spinal cord structures in Figure 17.2.
of the Spinal Cord
The long, cylindrical spinal cord has 31 pairs of spinal
nerves attached to it, with each pair of spinal nerves aris- LAB ACTIVITY 2 External Features
ing from a different segment of the cord. The cord is wider of the Spinal Cord
in the cervical and lumbar regions, forming two enlarge-
ments. The cervical enlargement is located at levels C3 or 1 Identify the spinal cord structures in Figure 17.2 on a
C4 through T1. This bulge designates the location of nuclei spinal cord model, chart, or use the search text box in
(collection of neuron cell bodies) for the upper extremities. Real Anatomy (Nervous) to find these structures. ■
SUPERIOR
Conus medullaris
C1
Dura mater
C2
C3 Cervical Posterior (dorsal)
spinal rami of spinal nerves
C4 nerves
C5
C6
1 C7
Cauda equina
C8
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
Dissection Shawn Miller, Photograph Mark Nielsen

T6 Sacrum
Thoracic
T7
spinal
nerves
T8
T9 Filum terminale
T10 Right coccygeal

nerve
2
T11
T12
3
INFERIOR
L1
4 L2 (b) Posterior view of inferior portion of spinal cord
Lumbar
L3 spinal
nerves
L4 • cauda equina (CAU-da ee-QUI-na)
• cervical enlargement
L5 • conus medullaris (CO-nus med-u-LAR-is)
• filum terminale (FI-lum ter-min-AL-ee)
S1 • lumbar enlargement
S2
Sacral 1 _____________________________________________________
S3 spinal
nerves 2 _____________________________________________________
S4
S5 3 _____________________________________________________
5 4 _____________________________________________________
5 _____________________________________________________
(a) Posterior view
FIGURE 17.2 Posterior view of longitudinal spinal cord.

C. Transverse Section sensory and motor roots merge to form the spinal nerve,
these nerves are called mixed nerves. Near the spinal cord,
of the Spinal Cord there is a bulge in the posterior (dorsal) root called the
posterior (dorsal) root ganglion. The posterior (dorsal)
The most obvious parts of the spinal cord in cross-section root ganglion consists of somatic sensory neuron cell bod-
are the anterior median fissure, the posterior median ies that synapse onto interneuron and/or motor neuron cell
sulcus, and the gray and white matter. The anterior median bodies in the spinal gray matter.
fissure is a wide, deep groove on the anterior surface of the
spinal cord, and the posterior median sulcus is a narrow
groove on the posterior surface. The gray matter looks Before Going to Lab
like a butterfly or a modified “H” and is more centrally
located than the white matter. The gray matter is divided 1 Label Figures 17.3 and 17.4.
into the anterior, lateral, and posterior gray horns and 2 Label the photomicrograph of a transverse section of the
consists of nerve cell bodies and dendrites. Somatic motor spinal cord in Figure 17.5.
neuron cell bodies are located in the anterior (ventral)
gray horns, whereas the lateral gray horns (not present in
cervical cord segments) contain cell bodies of autonomic
motor neurons. The posterior (dorsal) gray horns contain LAB ACTIVITY 3 Transverse Section
neuron cell bodies that receive impulses from sensory of Spinal Cord
neurons. The gray commissure is a narrow bridge of gray
matter that connects the right and left sides of gray matter 1 Identify the spinal cord structures in Figures 17.3 and
in the middle of the spinal cord. The central canal is in the 17.4 on a transverse section model or chart of the spinal
center of the gray commissure and contains cerebrospinal cord, or use the search text box in Real Anatomy
fluid. White matter surrounds the gray matter and forms (Nervous) to find these structures.
the anterior, lateral, and posterior white columns. These 2 Examine a prepared microscope slide of a transverse
columns or funiculi are made up of white, myelinated section of the spinal cord.
fibers (axons) that are either sensory or motor fibers. • Using the low-power objective lens, identify the
A spinal nerve is formed from a posterior (dorsal) structures listed in Figure 17.5.
root and an anterior (ventral) root. Roots are collections • Using the high-power objective, observe myelin-
of axons that are going to and leaving the spinal cord. The ated axons in the white matter and unmyelinated
posterior (dorsal) root carries sensory fibers, whereas the processes, neuron cell bodies, and neuroglia in the
anterior (ventral) root carries motor fibers. Because the gray matter. ■
POSTERIOR
White matter 4 5
• anterior median fissure 1 ________________________

• anterior (ventral) root
• central canal 2 ________________________
• posterior (dorsal) root 3 ________________________
• posterior (dorsal) root
1 6 ganglion (GANG-li-on) 4 ________________________
• posterior median sulcus
Gray matter 5 ________________________
• spinal nerve
7 Anterior rootlets
6 ________________________
ANTERIOR 7 ________________________
FIGURE 17.3 Transverse section of spinal cord.

4
POSTERIOR
5
3
6
7
2
ANTERIOR
Transverse section of the thoracic spinal cord
• anterior gray horn 1 ___________________________________ 5 ___________________________________

• anterior white column
• gray commissure (COM-mis-sure) 2 ___________________________________ 6 ___________________________________
• lateral gray horn
• lateral white column 3 ___________________________________ 7___________________________________
• posterior gray horn
4 ___________________________________
• posterior white column
FIGURE 17.4 Transverse section of spinal cord with areas of gray and white matter.
1 2 3 4 5 6
POSTERIOR
Carolina Biological Supply Company/Phototake
ANTERIOR
7 8 9 10 11 12
• anterior gray horn • posterior gray horn 1 ________________________ 7 _______________________

• anterior median fissure • posterior white column
• anterior (ventral) root • posterior median sulcus 2 ________________________ 8 _______________________
• anterior white column
• central canal 3 ________________________ 9 _______________________
• gray commissure
4 ________________________ 10 _______________________
• lateral white column
• posterior (dorsal) root 5 _________________________ 11 _______________________
• posterior (dorsal) root
ganglion 6 ________________________ 12 _______________________
FIGURE 17.5 Photomicrograph of transverse section of spinal cord with spinal nerve.
D. Dissection SUPERIOR
of the Spinal Cord Cerebellum of brain (cut)

Fourth ventricle
Use either a preserved cow or sheep spinal cord or a fresh
spinal cord from a butcher. Remember: If the specimen is
preserved, it will be firmer and look different than a fresh
specimen. Occipital bone (cut)
Posterior median sulcus
SAFETY NOTE: Use safety glasses and gloves when Vertebral artery
handling preserved or fresh tissue. Always wash your hands
thoroughly with soap and water when you are done.
Posterior rootlets
LAB ACTIVITY 4 Spinal Cord Dissection Denticulate ligaments
1 Observe the posterior structures of the spinal cord

in Figure 17.6(a) and then the anterior structures in
Figure 17.6(b).
• After putting on your gloves, place the spinal cord in
Mark Nielsen
Dura mater
the dissection pan.
• Use a blunt probe or forceps to separate the spinal
meninges.
• Identify the dura and arachnoid mater. INFERIOR
• Use a pointed dissection probe or pin to detach the (a) Posterior view
pia mater from the spinal cord.
• Identify the denticulate ligaments.
• Peel back the meninges to uncover the posterior Denticulate ligament
Spinal nerve
(dorsal) and anterior (ventral) roots of the spinal
Anterior (ventral) ramus
nerve. Locate the rootlets. Posterior (dorsal) ramus
• Identify the anterior rami and posterior rami. Pedicle of vertebra
(cut)
2 Observe transverse section structures. Refer to
Figure 17.4 and Figure 17.5. Anterior (ventral) root
• Cut a 1 × 4 inch to 1 × 2 inch section from your Posterior (dorsal) root
Mark Nielsen
spinal cord specimen. Spinal nerve

• Identify the anterior median fissure, posterior Dura mater and
median sulcus, central canal, gray commissure, arachnoid mater
gray horns, and white columns. (b) Anterior view and oblique
section of spinal cord
3 Clean up as directed by your instructor. ■
FIGURE 17.6 Spinal cord.
Reviewing Your Knowledge E X E R C I S E
A. Meninges
17
Write the name of the structure described.
1. Middle meninx; web-like
2. Tough, outer meninx
3. Space filled with adipose tissue
4. Thin meninx intimate with spinal cord
5. Contains cerebrospinal fluid
6. Extension of pia mater attaching to dura
B. Spinal Cord Structures

Write the terms that match the description.
1. Contains neuron cell bodies and unmyelinated processes
2. Shallow groove on dorsal side of spinal cord
3. Connects right and left halves of gray matter in spinal cord
4. Sensory branch of spinal nerve entering spinal cord
5. Tapered end of spinal cord
6. Motor branch of spinal nerve exiting spinal cord
7. Contains sensory neuron cell bodies
8. Collection of spinal nerves that arise from inferior end of spinal cord
9. Contains myelinated axons
283
10. Contains somatic motor neuron cell bodies
11. Space in center of spinal cord that contains cerebrospinal fluid
12. Bulge in spinal cord containing cell bodies of motor neurons supplying upper limb
13. Wide, deep groove on ventral side of spinal cord
14. Extension of pia mater that attaches spinal cord to coccyx
15. Bulge in spinal cord at T9–T12
Identify the structures in Figure 17.7 by writing the answer in the blanks below.
3 4 5 6
7
2
8
1
15
14
11 10
13 12
ANTERIOR
1 _____________________________________________________ 9 ____________________________________________________
2 _____________________________________________________ 10 ____________________________________________________
3 _____________________________________________________ 11 ____________________________________________________
4 _____________________________________________________ 12 ____________________________________________________
5 _____________________________________________________ 13 ____________________________________________________
6 _____________________________________________________ 14 ____________________________________________________
7 _____________________________________________________ 15 ____________________________________________________
8 _____________________________________________________
FIGURE 17.7 Transverse section of spinal cord.

Name ___________________________________ Date _________________ Section
______________________________
EXERC ISE
Using Your Knowledge E X E R C I S E
A. Spinal Cord Transverse Section

17
Identify the structures in Figure 17.8 and label them in the appropriate numbered blanks below.
POSTERIOR
Spinous process of 4 (Meninx)

vertebra
Spinal cord
5 (Meninx)
1 6
3
Spinal nerve
Vertebral artery in
Transverse foramen transverse foramen
Mark Nielsen
Body of vertebra
1 _____________________________________________________ 4 _____________________________________________________
2 _____________________________________________________ 5 _____________________________________________________
3 _____________________________________________________ 6 _____________________________________________________
FIGURE 17.8 Photographic cross-section of spinal cord and cervical vertebra.
285
B. Spinal Cord Questions

7. The polio virus can cause skeletal muscle paralysis by destroying neuron cell bodies. Identify the area of the spinal
cord that is destroyed.
8. Shingles is a condition characterized by pain, discoloration of the skin, and eruption of skin blisters along a sensory
nerve. It is caused by the herpes zoster virus, the same virus that causes chicken pox. Using your textbook or another
source, identify the spinal cord structure to which herpes virus retreats after chicken pox. The virus remains dormant
there until it is activated and causes a shingles outbreak.
9. Identify the structural class(es) of neurons whose cell bodies are present in the spinal cord—unipolar, bipolar, or
multipolar.
10. Nerve fibers are classified according to diameter and presence or absence of a myelin sheath. Using your textbook or
another reference, name the nerve fiber types (Type A, B, C) present in the:
(a) anterior root
(b) posterior root
11. When removing cerebrospinal fluid during a spinal tap, the needle is inserted below L2. Explain why spinal taps are
not done above this level.
C. Pathway of Sensory and Motor Impulses

Numbering 1–5, indicate the order of structures through which sensory impulses pass as they enter the spinal cord and
travel toward the brain.
____ 12. posterior (dorsal) root ganglion
____ 13. posterior (dorsal) root
____ 14. posterior gray horn
____ 15. white column
____ 16. spinal nerve
Numbering 1–4, indicate the order of structures through which motor impulses pass as they descend from the brain and
leave the spinal cord.
____ 17. spinal nerve
____ 18. white column
____ 19. anterior (ventral) gray horn
____ 20. anterior (ventral) root

E X E R C I S E 1 8 SPINAL NERVES 287
E X E R C I S E
Spinal Nerves
18
1 Describe the connective tissue coverings of the • compound microscope, lens paper, prepared
spinal nerves microscope slide of peripheral nerve cross-section,
2 Identify the rami that carry impulses to and away and longitudinal section
from the spinal cord • model or chart of vertebral column with spinal cord
3 Describe the organization and distribution of and spinal nerves or use Real Anatomy (Nervous)
spinal nerve divisions and the formation of the • model or chart with spinal nerves of the upper and
spinal plexuses lower extremities or use Real Anatomy (Nervous)
4 Identify the 4 spinal plexuses and the major • Dissection: preserved cat or fetal pig, dissection
nerves arising from each plexus equipment, dispoable gloves, safety glasses, and
dissection manual
• Real Anatomy: Virtual Cadaver Dissection
S pinal nerves send information from periph-

eral sensory receptors to the spinal cord and infor-
mation from the spinal cord to effectors (muscles
and glands). The 31 pairs of spinal nerves emerge from
each side of the spinal cord through the intervertebral
A. Connective Tissue
Coverings of Spinal Nerves
Each spinal nerve has 3 protective connective tissue
foramina and are named for the vertebral region and level layers: the epineurium (neuri- = nerve) that surrounds the
from which they emerge. Spinal nerves connect to the whole nerve, the perineurium that encases each fascicle
spinal cord via a posterior (dorsal) root and an anterior (fasciculus = little bundle), and the endoneurium that
(ventral) root and are called mixed nerves because each covers myelinated and unmyelinated axons.
nerve contains sensory and motor axons.
287
288 EXERCISE 18 SPINAL NERVES
Before Going to Lab B. Rami of the Spinal Nerves

1 Label Figures 18.1 and 18.2. The spinal nerves branch lateral to the intervertebral foramen.
These branches or rami (rami (pl.) = branches;
ramus (sing.) = branch) are the posterior (dorsal) ramus,
LAB ACTIVITY 1 Connective Tissue the anterior (ventral) ramus, the meningeal branch, and the
Coverings rami communicantes. The posterior (dorsal) ramus
curves around to the dorsal surface and innervates the
of Spinal Nerves
skin and deep muscles of the back or trunk. The anterior
1 Examine a prepared microscope slide of a cross-section (ventral) ramus supplies the muscles and skin of all four
of a spinal nerve. limbs, as well as the anterior and lateral parts of the body.
• Using the low-power objective lens, identify the The meningeal branch serves the vertebrae, vertebral liga-
epineurium, fascicles, and perineurium. ments, blood vessels of the spinal cord, and the meninges. The
• Using the high-power objective lens, identify the 2 rami communicantes (communicans = communicating)
endoneurium, axons, and the myelin sheath of connect to the sympathetic ganglion (sympathein = to
myelinated neurons. ■ feel with) of the autonomic nervous system.
• axon (AX-on)
1 • endoneurium (endo-NEUR-i-um)
• epineurium (epi-NEUR-i-um)
• fascicle (FAS-i-cul)
2 • myelin sheath
• perineurium (peri-NEUR-i-um)
• spinal nerve
1
3
4 2
3
5 4
5
6
7
6
FIGURE 18.1 Transverse section showing the
coverings of a spinal nerve. 7 _____________________________________________________
1 2 3 4
• axon
• endoneurium
• myelin sheath
• perineurium
Courtesy of Dr. Michael Ross
FIGURE 18.2 Photomicrograph of a transverse section through a fascicle of a spinal nerve.

E X E R C I S E 1 8 SPINAL NERVES 289
Before Going to Lab

1 Label Figure 18.3.
LAB ACTIVITY 2 Rami

of the Spinal Nerves
1 Identify the structures from Figure 18.3(a) and (b) on a
model or chart. ■
Posterior
POSTERIOR
(dorsal) root
Anterior
(ventral) root
2
• anterior (ventral) ramus (RAY-mus)
• posterior (dorsal) ramus
• rami communicantes 1
(RAY-my com-mun-i-CAHN-tayce) Meningeal branch 4
• spinal nerve
Sympathetic
1 _______________________________________ ganglion
2 _______________________________________
3 _______________________________________
4 _______________________________________ ANTERIOR
(a) Transverse section
6
• anterior (ventral) ramus
• intervertebral foramen
• posterior (dorsal) ramus 7
• rami communicantes
• sympathetic ganglion 5
5 _______________________________________ 8
6 _______________________________________
7 _______________________________________ 9
8 _______________________________________
9 _______________________________________ (b) Lateral view
FIGURE 18.3 Spinal cord with branches of a spinal nerve.

290 EXERCISE 18 SPINAL NERVES
C. Spinal Nerve Divisions Before Going to Lab

and the Four Spinal Plexuses 1 Label the cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and coccy-
geal nerves in Figure 18.4.
Of the 31 pairs of spinal nerves, there are 8 cervical, 12
2 Label the 4 spinal plexuses also in Figure 18.4.
thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5 sacral, and 1 coccygeal. Many
spinal nerves join with other spinal nerves to form a braided
network or plexus before they innervate body structures.
This occurs in 4 regions of the body where the networks LAB ACTIVITY 3 Spinal Nerve Divisions
form the cervical, brachial, lumbar, and sacral plexuses. and Spinal Plexuses
The thoracic (intercostal) spinal nerves (T2–T12) do not
form a plexus. 1 Identify the spinal nerve divisions and plexuses from
Figure 18.4 on a model, chart, or use the search text box
in Real Anatomy (Nervous) to find these structures. ■
Medulla oblongata
C1
C2 Atlas (first cervical vertebra)
C3
4 C4 5
C5
C6
C7
3 C8
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6 6
T7
• brachial plexus
(PLEX-us)
T8 • cervical nerves
T9 • cervical plexus
T10 • coccygeal
(cox-sih-GEAL) nerve
T11 • lumbar nerves
• lumbar plexus
T12 • sacral nerves
L1 • sacral plexus
• thoracic nerves
L2 7
L3 1 _______________________
L4 2 _______________________
2 L5
S1 3 _______________________
S2 4 _______________________
S3 8
S4 5 _______________________
S5
9 6 _______________________
1
7 _______________________
8 _______________________
9 _______________________
FIGURE 18.4 Posterior view of the four spinal plexuses.

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E X E R C I S E

S urface anatomy is the study of anatomical

A. Anterior Surface • condylar process (mandibular condyle) [not shown

©John Wiley & Sons

(a) Anterior view of the head

(b) Right lateral view of the head

FIGURE 15.1 Surface anatomy of the head and neck.

(c) Anterior view of the neck

(d) Lateral view of the neck

(d) Lateral view of the neck

FIGURE 15.1 Surface anatomy of the head and neck, continued.

• xiphisternal joint—Joint between body of the sternum

(a) Anterior view of the chest

(a) Anterior view of chest 1 ____________________________________________________

FIGURE 15.2 Surface anatomy of the trunk.

F. Surface Anatomy Other Structures

(b) Anterior view of abdomen

(c) Anteriolateral view of abdomen

FIGURE 15.2 Surface anatomy of the trunk, continued.

G. Surface Anatomy Skeletal Muscles

©John Wiley & Sons

(d) Posterior view of the back

(e) Posterior view of the back with arms flexed

H. Surface Anatomy • greater trochanter—Palpate this bony landmark

(g) Surface anatomy of posterior female pelvis and gluteal region

FIGURE 15.2 Surface anatomy of the trunk, continued.

lateral part of the shoulder. As you bend your fore-

Bones and Bone Surface Markings J. Lateral Surface of Arm

(a) Right lateral view of shoulder

FIGURE 15.3 Surface anatomy of the upper limb.

Structures located in Figure 15.3(c).

(c) Medial view of the arm and elbow

(d) Anterior view of cubital region

FIGURE 15.3 Surface anatomy of the upper limb, continued.

M. Anterior Surface N. Dorsum

Wrist crease Tendon of flexor carpi

Thenar eminence Pisiform bone

(e) Anterior right wrist and hand

(f) Dorsum of hand and wrist

FIGURE 15.3 Surface anatomy of the upper limb, continued.

of the Lower Limb

(a) Anterior surface of the lower limb

• lateral condyle of femur

19 • anterior border of tibia (shin)

• lateral malleolus of fibula

FIGURE 15.4 Surface anatomy of the lower limb. 14 ____________________________________________________

2. Posterior Leg and Ankle

Other Structures FIGURE 15.4 Surface anatomy of the lower limb,

6 Identify unipolar, bipolar, and multipolar neurons

7 Describe the difference between myelinated and

N ervous tissue is found in the organs of the

B. Structure (phago- = to eat) of the CNS that engulf debris, necrotic

Cells of pia mater

Neuron cell body

FIGURE 16.1 Neuroglia of the CNS and PNS.

Jan Leesma/Custom Medical Stock Photo, Inc.

(a) Astrocyte LM 700× (b) Motor neuron LM 100×

FIGURE 16.2 Photomicrographs of nervous tissue cells.

Cytoplasm • axon (AX-on)

(a) Parts of a neuron

FIGURE 16.3 Parts of a motor neuron. (b) Motor neuron

(a) Structural classification of neurons

(b) Functional classification of neurons

• anterior gray horn 1 _ 5 _

• anterior gray horn • posterior gray horn 1 __ 7 _