Holy Name University

Janssen Heights, J.A. Clarin St., Tagbilaran City, Bohol

College of Arts and Sciences
BIO 114 – Human Anatomy and Physiology Laboratory
Prof. Desiderio C. Asane (MWF 7:30-9:30)
EXERCISE 5: THE AXIAL SKELETON
Name: _________________________________________ Course & Year: _____________________ Date: _______________ Score: _________

Materials The axial skeleton (see Figure 7.1 on page 68) is made up of three
parts: the skull, the vertebral column, and the bony thorax.
• Intact skull and Beauchene skull
• Isolated fetal skull
Objective 1. Identify the bones of the axial skeleton either by
• X-ray films of individuals with scoliosis,
examining isolated bones or by pointing them out on an articulated
lordosis, and kyphosis (if available)
skeleton, and name the important markings on each. Be sure to
• Articulated skeleton, articulated vertebral
observe how many cranial and facial bones contribute to the orbit
column
(eye socket).
• Isolated cervical, thoracic, and lumbar
vertebrae; sacrum, and coccyx
THE SKULL
The skull is composed of two sets of bones—the cranial bones and
the facial bones. All but one of the bones of the skull are joined by interlocking joints called sutures. Only the mandible, or
lower jawbone, is attached to the rest of the skull by a freely movable joint.

ACTIVITY 1
Identifying the Bones of the Adult Skull
The bones of the skull (Figures 8.1–8.4) are described in Tables 8.1 and 8.2 on pages 78–80. As you read through this material,
identify each bone on a skull. The most important bone markings are listed in the tables for the bones on which they appear.
The Cranium
Eight large flat bones construct the cranium, which
encloses and protects the brain. With the exception of two
paired bones (the parietals and the temporals), all are
single bones.

Major Sutures
• Sagittal suture: Occurs where the left and right
parietal bones meet superiorly.
• Coronal suture: Located where the parietal
bones articulate with the frontal bone.
• Squamous suture: Occurs where each parietal
bone meets each temporal bone, on each lateral
aspect of the skull.
• Lambdoid suture: Occurs where the parietal
bones meet the occipital bone posteriorly.

Hyoid Bone
The hyoid bone is not really considered or counted as a skull bone. Located in the throat
above the larynx (Figure 8.5), it is the point of attachment for many tongue and neck
muscles. It is horseshoe-shaped with a body and two pairs of horns, or cornua.

Paranasal Sinuses
Four skull bones—maxillary, sphenoid, ethmoid, and frontal— contain sinuses (mucosa-
lined air cavities), which lead into the nasal passages (Figure 8.6). These paranasal
sinuses lighten facial bones and may act as resonance chambers for speech. The maxillary
sinus is the largest of these sinuses.
ACTIVITY 2
Palpating Skull Markings
Palpate the following areas on yourself. (Place a check mark in the boxes as you locate the skull markings.)
▪ Zygomatic bone and arch. Run your hand anteriorly from your ear toward your eye and feel the zygomatic arch at the
high point of your cheek just deep to the skin.
▪ Mastoid process (the rough area behind your ear).
▪ Temporomandibular joint. Place your finger directly in front of the external
acoustic meatus, and open and close your jaws to feel this joint in action.
▪ Greater wing of sphenoid. Find the indented area posterior to the orbit and superior
to the zygomatic arch on your lateral skull.
▪ Mandibular angle (most inferior and posterior aspect of your lower jaw).
▪ Nasal bones. Run your index finger and thumb along opposite sides of the bridge of
your nose until they “slip” medially at the inferior end of the nasal bones.

Objective 2. Demonstrate important differences between the fetal and adult skulls.

ACTIVITY 3
Examining a Fetal Skull
1. Obtain a fetal skull, and study it carefully. Make observations as needed to answer
the following questions.
• Does it have the same bones as the adult skull?
• How does the size of the fetal face relate to its cranium?
• How does this compare to what is seen in the adult?
2. Fontanels, fibrous membranes between the bones of the fetal skull, allow the fetal
skull to be compressed slightly during birth and also allow for brain growth in the
fetus and in an infant. These areas become bony (ossify) as the infant ages, completing the process by the age of 20 to
22 months. Locate the following fontanels on the fetal skull with the aid of Figure 8.7: anterior, mastoid, sphenoidal, and
posterior.
3. Notice that some of the cranial bones have conical protrusions. These are growth (ossification) centers. Notice also that
the frontal bone is still two bones and that the fetal temporal bone is little more than a ring of bone.

THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN

The vertebral column, also called the spine, extends from the skull to the
pelvis. It forms the body’s major axial support and surrounds and protects
the delicate spinal cord.
The vertebral column consists of 24 single bones called vertebrae
and two bones that are formed of fused vertebrae (the sacrum and coccyx)
that are connected in such a way as to provide a flexible curved structure
(Figure 8.8). Of the 24 single vertebrae, the seven bones of the neck are
called cervical vertebrae; the next 12 are thoracic vertebrae; and the 5
supporting the lower back are lumbar vertebrae. Remembering common
mealtimes for breakfast, lunch, and dinner (7 a.m., 12 noon, and 5 p.m.) may
help you to remember the number of bones in each region.
The individual vertebrae are separated by pads of fibrocartilage,
intervertebral discs, that absorb shocks while providing the spine
flexibility. Each disc has two major regions: a central gelatinous region that
behaves like a fluid and an outer ring of tough collagen fibers that stabilizes
the disc.

Objective 3. Discuss the importance of the intervertebral discs and spinal

curvatures.

The discs and the S-shaped or spring like construction of the

vertebral column help prevent shock to the head in walking and running
and make the body trunk flexible.

ACTIVITY 4
Examining Spinal Curvatures

1. Observe the normal curves of the vertebral column in your

laboratory specimen, and compare it to Figure 8.8. Then examine Figure 8.9,
which depicts three abnormal spinal curvatures—scoliosis, kyphosis, and
 lordosis. These abnormalities may result from disease or poor posture.
Also examine X-ray images, if they are available, showing these same
conditions in a living person.
2. Next, using an articulated vertebral column (or an articulated skeleton),
examine the freedom of movement between two lumbar vertebrae
separated by an intervertebral disc.
• When the disc is properly positioned, are the spinal cord or peripheral
nerves impaired in any way?
___________________________________________________________________________________
• Remove the disc, and put the two vertebrae back together. What happens
to the nerve?
___________________________________________________________________________________
• What might happen to the spinal nerves in areas of malpositioned, or
“slipped,” discs?
___________________________________________________________________________________

Structure of a Typical Vertebra

Although they differ in size and specific features, all vertebrae have some common
features (Figure 8.10).

Body: Rounded central portion of the vertebra; faces anteriorly in the human
vertebral column.
Vertebral arch: Composed of pedicles, laminae, and a spinous process, it represents
the junction of all posterior extensions from the vertebral body.
Vertebral foramen: Opening enclosed by the body and vertebral arch through which
the spinal cord passes.
Transverse processes: Two lateral projections from the vertebral arch.
Spinous process: Single posterior projection from the vertebral arch.
Superior and inferior articular processes: Paired projections lateral to the
vertebral foramen that enable adjacent vertebrae to articulate with one another
Figure 8.11 shows how specific vertebrae differ; refer to it as you read the sections
that follow.

Objective 4. Distinguish the different types of vertebrae.

Cervical Vertebrae
The seven cervical vertebrae (C1 through C7) form the neck portion of the vertebral column. The first two cervical vertebrae
(atlas and axis) are modified to perform special functions. The atlas (C1) lacks a body, and its lateral processes contain large
depressions on their superior surfaces that receive the occipital condyles of the skull. This joint enables you to nod yes. The axis
(C2) acts as a pivot for rotation of the atlas (and skull) above. Its large vertical process, the dens, acts as the pivot point. The joint
between C1 and C2 allows you to rotate your head from side to side to indicate “no.”
The more typical cervical vertebrae (C3 through C7) are the smallest, lightest vertebrae (Figure 8.11a). The vertebral
foramen is triangular and the spinous process is short and often bifid, or split into two branches. Transverse processes of the
cervical vertebrae contain foramina through which the vertebral arteries pass superiorly to the brain. Any time you see these
foramina in a vertebra, you can be sure that it is a cervical vertebra.

ACTIVITY 5
Palpating the Spinous Processes
Run your fingers inferiorly along the midline of the back of your neck to feel the spinous processes of the cervical vertebrae. The
spine of C7 is especially prominent, which is why this vertebra is sometimes called the vertebra prominens.

Thoracic Vertebrae
The 12 thoracic vertebrae (T1 through T12) have a larger body than the cervical vertebrae (Figure 8.11b). The body is somewhat
heart-shaped, with two small articulating surfaces, or costal facets, on each side (one superior, the other inferior) that articulate
with the heads of the corresponding ribs. The vertebral foramen is oval or round, and the spinous process is long, with a sharp
downward hook. These vertebrae form the thoracic part of the spine and the posterior aspect of the bony thoracic cage (rib
cage). They are the only vertebrae that articulate with the ribs.

Lumbar Vertebrae
The five lumbar vertebrae (L1 through L5) have massive block like bodies and short, thick, hatchet-shaped spinous processes
extending directly backward (Figure 8.11c). Because the lumbar region is subjected to the most stress, these are also the
sturdiest of the vertebrae.
ACTIVITY 6
Examining Vertebral Structure
Obtain examples of each type of vertebra and examine them carefully, comparing them to Figure 8.11 and to each other.

The Sacrum
The sacrum (Figure 8.12), formed from the fusion of five vertebrae, is the
posterior border of the pelvis. Superiorly it articulates with L5, and inferiorly it
connects with the coccyx.

The median sacral crest is a remnant of the spinous processes of the fused
vertebrae. The wing like alae articulate laterally with the hip bones, forming the
sacroiliac joints. The paired sacral foramina are additional evidence that the
sacrum is formed of separate fused vertebrae and serve as passageways for blood
vessels and nerves. The vertebral canal continues inside the sacrum as the sacral
canal and terminates near the coccyx in the sacral hiatus.

The Coccyx
The coccyx (see Figure 8.12) results from the fusion of three to five small,
irregularly shaped vertebrae. Literally the human tailbone, it is a remnant of the
tail that other vertebrates have.
THE BONY THORAX
The bony thorax is composed of the sternum, ribs, and thoracic vertebrae (Figure 8.13). It is also referred to as the thoracic
cage because it forms a protective cone-shaped enclosure around the organs of the thoracic cavity (heart and lungs, for
example).

The Sternum
The sternum (breastbone), a typical flat bone, is a result of the fusion of three bones—from superior to inferior, the manubrium,
body, and xiphoid process. It is attached to the first seven pairs of ribs. The manubrium looks like the knot of a tie; it articulates
with the clavicle (collarbone) laterally. The body forms most of the sternum. The xiphoid process, at the inferior end of the
sternum, lies at the level of the fifth intercostal space.

The Ribs
Twelve pairs of ribs form the walls of the thoracic cage (see Figure 8.13). All ribs articulate posteriorly with the vertebral column
at two locations, the body and transverse processes of the thoracic vertebrae. They then curve downward and toward the
anterior body surface. The first seven pairs, called the true ribs, attach directly to the sternum by their “own” costal cartilages.
The next five pairs are called false ribs. Of these, rib pairs 8–10 have indirect cartilage attachments to the sternum. The last two
pairs, also called floating ribs, have no sternal attachment.

ACTIVITY 7
Examining the Relationship Between Ribs and Vertebrae
First take a deep breath to expand your chest. Notice how your ribs seem to move outward and how your sternum rises. Then
examine an articulated skeleton to observe the relationship between the ribs and the vertebrae.