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LABORATORY SESSION #4 THE SKELETAL SYSTEM-AXIAL SKELETON

KEY OBJECTIVES:
1) Identify bones as either long, short, flat or irregular.
2) Describe the gross structure of a long bone and identify its parts.
3) Describe the difference between compact (cortical) and spongy (cancellous or trabecular)
bone.
4) Identify microscopic structures of compact and spongy bone (slides).
5) Identify the 3 main parts and the major bones of the axial skeleton –skull, thoracic cage,
vertebral column.
6) Identify the parts of a typical vertebra and compare the 3 individual types of vertebrae.
7) Observe the normal and abnormal curvatures of the vertebral column.
8) Identify the bones of the thoracic cage.
9) Outline the classification of joints based on structure and function.

NEED TO KNOW:

● Osteons: cylindrically shaped components of compact bone

● Lamellae: rings of mineral and collagen fibers that make up an osteon
Look like the rings of a tree stump
● Central canals: spaces that run vertically in each osteon
Blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves run through the space
● Osteocytes: cells that are interspersed between the lamellae
● Lacuna: a space in which the osteocytes are located

● Perforating canals: spaces that radiate horizontally from the central canal and carry blood vessels and nerves,
connecting to various central canals
● Canaliculi: Small passageways containing osteocyte processes through which solutes pass
● Trabeculae: networks of spongy bone
Replace osteons
Contain lamellae
Arrangement is not concentric, as it is in compact bone
Blood vessels pass through the trabeculae rather than in a central canal

● Long-bone regions:
Diaphysis: bone shaft (long axis of bone)
Primarily composed of compact bone
Has a thin internal layer of spongy bone
Medullary cavity: space in the center of the diaphysis
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Epiphyses: proximal and distal ends of bone

Outer, thin layer of compact bone
Primarily composed of internal spongy bone
No medullary cavity
Metaphysis: region between the diaphysis and the epiphysis

● Membranes:
Periosteum: surrounds all of the diaphysis and most of the epiphyses
Made of dense connective tissue
Endosteum: thin membrane that lines the medullary cavity
Articular cartilage: surrounds a small portion of the epiphyses
Made of hyaline cartilage
Prevents the end of the bone from rubbing with the articulating bone

Types of Synovial Joints – should also briefly mention some movements at synovial joints (eg flexion, adduction)

● Gliding: consists of two flat articulating surfaces in which one bone smoothly moves (glides) past the other
Can move in many directions but is typically limited in range

● Pivot: occurs when one bone rotates around another bone

Allows for pronation and supination
Example: the radius pivots (rotates) around the ulna

● Hinge: evident when one articulating surface is curved in a U or C shape and articulates with an indented
structure.
Allows for flexion and extension
Example: the elbow

● Condyloid: concave (rounded indention in the middle) surface articulates with a convex (rounded projection in
the middle) surface
Allows for two planes of motion
Example: the joints between the fingers and palm
Allows for both:
Finger abduction/adduction
Finger flexion/extension

● Saddle: resembles two perpendicular saddle structures articulating together

Example: the thumb

● Ball-and-socket: round head of one bone fits into a cup-shaped depression in the second articulating bone
Allows for a large range of motion

THE AXIAL SKELETON

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● The skull consists of the:

● Cranium, the bony enclosure of the brain
● Facial bones, which form the skeletal structure of the face.
In the table below, the number in brackets indicates whether the bone is paired (2) or unpaired (1).

Cranial Bones Facial Bones

Frontal bone (1) Maxillary bone (2)
Parietal bone (2) Palatine bone (2)
Occipital bone (1) Zygomatic bone (2)
Temporal bone (2) Lacrimal bone (2)
Sphenoid (1) Vomer (1)
Ethmoid (1) Nasal bone (2)
Mandible (1)

● The hyoid:
U-shaped bone.
One of the few freely floating bones in the body, meaning that it does not articulate with any other bone.

● The vertebral column is divided into five structurally and functionally distinct regions:

● Cervical vertebrae:
There are 7.
Their small size allows for the greatest range of motion of all of the vertebral regions.
The atlas (C1) and axis (C2) are first two cervical vertebrae; they are most unique in appearance and allow the
head to pivot.

● Thoracic vertebrae:
There are 12.
They are characterized by long spinous processes.
The ribs articulate with the thoracic vertebrae.

● Lumbar vertebrae:
There are 5.
They are large and sturdy.
They receive most of the load when one is bending over, lifting heavy objects, and sitting.

● Sacrum:
Begins as five different bones and eventually fuses into one bone in the adult.
Contains many foramina for the passage of spinal nerves.

● Coccyx:
Most inferior vertebral bone.
Fuses from 5 bones to form 2 to 4 bones in the adult skeleton.
This is what breaks when a person breaks the “tailbone.”

● Sternum and ribs:

Form the thoracic cavity
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● Sternum—flat bone divided into three regions:

The superior manubrium.
The body.
A small process called the xiphoid process. Avoidance of the xiphoid process is very important in giving CPR. If
too much pressure is applied to the xiphoid process, it can break off and puncture the liver.

● The ribs:
Articulate with the thoracic vertebrae posteriorly and with the sternum anteriorly.
There are 12 pairs.
Classified according to the articulation with the sternum: “true ribs,” “false ribs,” and “floating ribs.”
First 7 pairs of ribs are true ribs and have a direct costal cartilage connection to the sternum.
False ribs connect to the costal cartilage of the seventh rib.
The two floating ribs do not connect to cartilage.

GROUP WORKSHEET QUESTIONS-

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1. Group each of the following bones into one of the four major bone categories. Use L for
long bone, S for short bone, F for flat bone, and I for irregular bone. Enter the appropriate
letter in the space provided. [8 marks]

Calcaneus _______ Frontal _______ Femur _______ Humerus _______

Mandible _______ Metacarpal _______ Sternum _______ Vertebra _______

2. Figure I shows superior views of four types of vertebrae.

a. In the spaces provided below each vertebra, indicate in which region of the spinal
column it would be found. [4 marks]
Figure I
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3. a. Label the regions and curves of the vertebral column in Figure II. [9 marks]

Figure II

4. Figure III is an anterior view of the thoracic cage.

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a. Select different colors to identify the structures below and color the coding circles and
corresponding structures.

b. Label the subdivisions of the sternum indicated by leader lines. [4 marks]

○ All true ribs

○ Costal cartilages
○ All false ribs
○ Sternum
Figure III
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5. The metacarpal bones, metatarsal bones and phalanges are much shorter than most ribs,
and yet the bones in the hands and feet are classified as long bones and the ribs as flat
bones. Why do you think these bones are classified as they are? [2 marks]

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Don’t forget to attempt the interactive activity on labelling the Skull.