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High-Speed Railway Bridges
High-Speed Railway Bridges
Conceptual Design Guide
José Romo, Alejandro Pérez-Caldentey, and Manuel Cuadrado

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v
Contents
Foreword xv
About the Authors xvii
Acknowledgements xix
1 Introduction to High-Speed Railway Bridges 1

José Romo
1.1 Book’s Content 1
1.2 What is Special About a High-Speed Rail Bridge? 2
1.2.1 Dynamic Amplification and Resonance 2
1.2.2 Rail Traffic Security 3
1.2.3 Passenger’s Comfort 3
1.2.4 Track–Structure Interaction 4
1.3 General Ideas on High-Speed Railway Bridges 4
1.4 Evolution and Trends in High-Speed Bridge Design 6
1.4.1 First High-Speed Bridges 6
1.4.1.1 First-Generation German Bridges 6
1.4.1.2 First-Generation French Bridges 8
1.4.1.3 First-Generation Spanish Bridges 8
1.4.2 Recent High-Speed Bridges 9
1.4.2.1 Recent French Bridges 9
1.4.2.2 Second-Generation German Bridges 9
1.4.2.3 Recent Spanish HSRB 10
1.4.2.4 Bridges for High-Speed Railway Lines in China 10
1.4.2.5 British High-Speed Bridges 12
1.4.2.6 High-Speed Railway Bridges in the USA 12
1.4.3 Conclusions 12
1.4.3.1 Viaducts 13
1.4.3.2 Long-Span Bridges 13
1.5 The Landscape and the Design of High-Speed Railway Bridges 13
1.5.1 The Traveller’s Experience 13
1.5.2 The Bridge in the Landscape 15
1.5.2.1 Long Viaducts with Low Vertical Level 16
1.5.2.2 Long Viaducts with Medium or High Level 16
vi Contents
1.6 Railway Bridges as Landmarks or Icons of a Line 22

1.7 Railway Bridge’s Legacy 23
1.8 Building for the 21st Century 24
1.9 Conclusions 24
References 25
2 Track for High-Speed Bridges 29

Manuel Cuadrado
2.1 Introduction 29
2.2 Specific Criteria for Railway Bridges 29
2.2.1 General Criteria 29
2.2.2 Specific Criteria for High-Speed Bridges 31
2.3 Description of the Track Superstructure 31
2.3.1 Track Components: Definitions, Functions, and Qualities 32
2.3.1.1 Ballast 32
2.3.1.2 Sleepers 32
2.3.1.3 Fasteners 33
2.3.1.4 Rails 33
2.3.1.5 Switches and Crossings 34
2.3.2 Most Important Conceptual Improvements 35
2.3.2.1 Continuous Welded Rail (CWR) 35
2.3.2.2 Track–Infrastructure Interaction: Better Understanding 36
2.3.3 Evolution of the Different Components 36
2.3.3.1 Ballast 36
2.3.3.2 Sleepers 37
2.3.3.3 Fastenings 39
2.3.3.4 Rails 40
2.3.4 Track Options Currently Available for High Speed 41
2.3.4.1 Optimised Ballasted Track 41
2.3.4.2 New Ballastless Track 43
2.4 SLS Related to the Track 44
2.4.1 Dynamic Interaction: Track–Vehicle 44
2.4.2 Track Geometry Quality 46
2.4.3 SLS Verifications Regarding Deformations and Vibrations 48
2.4.3.1 Criteria for Traffic Safety 48
2.4.3.2 Comfort Criteria 55
References 57
3 Conceptual Design of High-Speed Railway Bridges 61

José Romo
3.1 Introduction 61
3.2 Structural and Functional Specific Requirements for High-Speed
Railway Bridges 62
3.2.1 Introduction 62
3.2.2 Control of Vertical Acceleration 62
Contents vii
3.2.3 Rotation at Expansion Joints 62

3.2.4 Horizontal Braking and Traction Forces and Relative Movements
Between Deck and Infrastructure 62
3.2.5 Track-Bridge Deck Interaction 63
3.2.6 Expansion Joints 63
3.3 Longitudinal Design Strategies 64
3.3.1 General Concepts 64
3.3.2 Ballasted Track 65
3.3.3 Ballastless Track 66
3.3.4 Actions to be Considered at the Fixed Point 66
3.4 Design Situation of High-Speed Railway Bridges 66
3.4.1 Short Crossing at Low Level 67
3.4.2 Long Structures 67
3.4.2.1 Low Profile 68
3.4.3 High-Level Viaducts 71
3.4.4 Long Span Structures 72
3.5 Structural Types 72
3.5.1 Straight Deck Solutions 72
3.5.1.1 Simply Supported Deck 72
3.5.1.2 Continuous Slab Concrete Decks 73
3.5.1.3 Precast Beam Decks 74
3.5.1.4 Concrete Box Hollow Sections 78
3.5.1.5 Steel Beam Decks 80
3.5.1.6 Steel Semi-through Decks 81
3.5.2 Truss Bridges 82
3.5.3 Arch Bridges 83
3.5.3.1 Upper Deck Bridges 83
3.5.3.2 Tied Arch Bridges 85
3.5.4 Cable-Supported Bridges 85
3.5.4.1 Extradosed Bridges 85
3.5.4.2 Cable-Stayed Bridges 86
3.5.4.3 Suspension Bridges 88
3.5.4.4 Hybrid Bridges 89
3.6 Structural Elements – Substructure 89
3.6.1 Abutments 90
3.6.1.1 Abutments with Expansion Joint in Structure Only 90
3.6.1.2 Abutments with Expansion Joint in Structure and Track 90
3.6.1.3 Fixed Abutments 91
3.6.2 Piers 95
3.6.3 Bearings 95
3.6.3.1 General Bearing Layout 96
3.7 Seismic Design 99
3.7.1 Seismic Design Strategies 99
3.7.2 Seismic Behaviour and Deck Articulation 99
3.7.3 Longitudinal Behaviour 100
viii Contents
3.7.3.1 Simply Supported Spans 100

3.7.3.2 Continuous Deck 100
3.7.4 Transversal Behaviour 101
3.7.4.1 Introduction 101
3.7.4.2 Fixed Transversal Support 101
3.7.4.3 Transversal Damping Systems 102
3.7.4.4 Damping Devices Plus Bearings 104
3.8 Worked Example 106
3.8.1 Introduction: Aim and Data 106
3.8.1.1 Topography 106
3.8.1.2 Plan and Elevation 106
3.8.1.3 Railway Platform Section – Project Speed 106
3.8.1.4 Water Flood Level 107
3.8.1.5 Preliminary Geotechnical Data 107
3.8.2 Methodology 107
3.8.3 Critical Analysis of Existing Information 107
3.8.4 Determination of the Length of the Viaduct, Selection of the Fixed
Point 108
3.8.5 Span Distribution 109
3.8.6 Deck Pre-dimensioning 109
3.8.7 Pre-design of the Infrastructure 112
3.8.7.1 Fixed Point 112
3.8.7.2 Bearings 112
3.8.7.3 Abutments 112
3.8.7.4 Piers 113
References 115
4 Design Basis 117

José Romo
4.1 Introduction 117
4.2 Design Situations 117
4.3 Rail Traffic Actions and Other Actions Specific of Railway Bridges 118
4.3.1 Permanent Loads 118
4.3.1.1 Self-Weight 118
4.3.1.2 Dead Loads 118
4.3.1.3 Partial Ballast Removal 119
4.3.2 Variable Loads 119
4.3.2.1 Vertical Live Loads 119
4.3.2.2 Traction and Braking Forces 121
4.3.2.3 Centrifugal Forces 122
4.3.2.4 Nosing Forces 123
4.3.2.5 Aerodynamic Actions from Passing Trains 123
4.3.2.6 Thermal Actions 123
4.3.2.7 Bearing Friction 124
4.3.3 Dynamics Effects 124
Contents ix

4.3.3.2 Consideration of Dynamic Effects 125
4.3.4 Railway Vehicle Derailment 125
4.3.4.1 Railway Vehicle Impacts 125
4.4 Application of Traffic Loads on Railway Bridges 126
4.4.1 General 126
4.4.1.1 Load Situations for Structural Design 127
4.4.1.2 Load Situations for Limit State and Associated Acceptance
Criteria 127
4.4.2 Groups of Loads 127
4.4.2.1 Characteristic Values of Multicomponent Action 127
4.5 Traffic Loads for Fatigue 128
4.6 Verifications Regarding Deformation and Vibrations for Railway
Bridges 128
4.7 Worked Example 129
4.7.1.1 Calculation of Reactions at Bearings: Pre-dimensioning 130
4.7.1.2 Calculation of Forces and Preliminary Design of the Fixed
Abutment 130
4.7.2 Actions 130
4.7.2.1 Vertical Loads 130
4.7.2.2 Horizontal Forces 131
4.7.2.3 Wind Speed 132
4.7.3 Calculation of Reactions at Bearings: Pre-dimensioning 133
4.7.3.1 Vertical Forces 133
4.7.3.2 Centrifugal Forces 134
4.7.3.3 Wind at Unloaded State 135
4.7.3.4 Wind with Live Load 135
4.7.3.5 Reactions in Pier Heads 135
4.7.3.6 Transversal Wind Bearings Reactions 136
4.7.3.7 Loads per Bearings 136
4.7.4 Fixed Abutment Loads 137
4.7.4.2 Loads Transmitted by the Deck 137
4.7.4.3 Forces Acting on the Abutment 138
References 140
5 Dynamic Behaviour of High-Speed Railway Bridges 143

Alejandro Pérez-Caldentey
5.1.1 Resonance 143
5.1.2 Envelope Dynamic Factor 144
5.1.3 Dynamic Factor for Real Trains Obtained by Means of Analytical
Formulations 145
5.1.4 Dynamic Factor Obtained by Dynamic Analysis 147
x Contents
5.2 Methods for Dynamic Calculations and Structural Response 153

5.2.1 Modal Superposition 153
5.2.1.1 Matrix Formulation for Finite Element Analysis 153
5.2.1.2 Formulation Based on Assumed Eigenforms 155
5.2.2 Response to the Isolated Load 158
5.2.3 Response to the Train Loads 162
5.2.4 Effect of Damping 164
5.2.5 Dynamic Interaction Between Vehicle and Structure 165
5.3 Interoperability 167
5.3.2 Universal Dynamic Train A 167
5.3.3 Universal Dynamic Train B 167
5.4 Application Examples 168
5.4.1 Case Without Dynamic Analysis 168
5.4.2 Case with Dynamic Analysis 169
References 183
6 Longitudinal Track–Structure Interaction 185

Manuel Cuadrado and Alejandro Pérez-Caldentey
6.2 Problem Statement 185
6.3 Model for Analysis 188
6.3.1 General Considerations 188
6.3.1.1 Rails 189
6.3.1.2 Deck 189
6.3.1.3 Interaction Between Rails and Track Base 189
6.3.1.4 Bearings 189
6.3.1.5 Columns 190
6.3.1.6 Foundations 190
6.4 Actions 191
6.4.1 Temperature Variations 191
6.4.1.1 Case Without Track Joint 191
6.4.1.2 Case with Track Joint 191
6.4.2 Traction and Braking Forces 191
6.4.3 Vertical Loads 192
6.4.4 Creep and Shrinkage 192
6.4.5 Combination of Actions 193
6.5 Verifications 194
6.5.1 Verifications in Terms of Stresses 194
6.5.2 Verifications in Terms of Displacements 195
6.5.3 Criteria for Placing a Track Joint 196
6.6 Rail Expansion Joints 197
6.6.1 Design of REJs – Calculation of the Maximum Displacement 197
6.6.2 Regulation 201
6.6.3 Installation 201
6.7 Longitudinal Schemes 203
Contents xi
6.7.1 Continous Deck with a Single Fixed Point Located at One of the
Abutments 203
6.7.1.1 General 203
6.7.1.2 Examples 204
6.7.2 Continous Deck with the Fixed Point Located on One of the Central
Piers 211
6.7.2.1 General 211
6.7.3 Simply Supported Spans Without Longitudinal Continuity, with a Fixed
Point on Each Span 211
6.7.3.1 General 211
6.7.3.2 Example 212
6.7.4 Fixed Points at the Two Abutments and a Structural Joint in the
Middle 212
6.7.4.1 General 212
6.7.4.2 Example 214
6.7.5 Deck Divided into Several Continuous Stretches, Each One Including
Several Spans and One Fixed Point 216
6.7.5.1 General 216
6.7.5.2 Example 217
6.7.6 Especial Situations 218
6.7.6.1 Seismic Design 218
6.7.6.2 Exceptional Geometries 226
6.7.6.3 Example of Exceptional Geometry 226
6.8 Example of Track–Structure Interaction 229
6.8.1 Verification of Stresses in the Rails 229
6.8.2 Verification of Horizontal Displacement at Abutment 2 Due to Braking
and Traction Forces 231
6.8.3 Verification of Horizontal Displacement at Abutment 2 Due to Vertical
Train Loads 232
6.8.4 Verification of Vertical Displacement at Abutment 2 Due to Vertical
Train Loads and Temperature Variations 234
References 235
7 Conceptual Design for Maintenance 239

José Romo
7.2 Accesses 240
7.2.1 Decks 240
7.2.2 Piers 240
7.2.3 Abutments 241
7.3 Bearings 242
7.4 Expansion Joints 243
7.5 Drainage 246
7.6 Conclusions 248
References 248
xii Contents
Appendix A Basic Concepts of Dynamics 249

Alejandro Pérez-Caldentey
A.1 Dynamics of Single Degree-of-Freedom Systems 249
A.1.1 Dynamic Response to Moving Loads (Dynamic Load Factor) 249
A.1.2 Basics of Resonance 257
A.1.3 Solution of the Equation of Motion of a SDOF Damped System
Subjected to a Triangular Load 258
A.1.3.1 Auxiliary Expressions – Integrals I 1 , I 2 , and Their Derivatives 259
A.1.3.2 Solution for the damped SDOF System Subjected to a Triangular
Load 261
Reference 262
Appendix B Singular Bridges for High-Speed Railway Lines 263

José Romo
B.1 Germany 263
B.1.1 Gemünden Bridge 264
B.1.1.1 Data Summary 264
B.1.1.2 Description 264
Further Reading 264
B.1.2 Veitshöchheim Bridge 266
Further Reading 266
B.1.3 Pfieffetal Bridge 268
Further Reading 268
B.1.4 Nantenbach Bridge 270
Further Reading 270
B.1.5 Unstruttal Bridge 272
Further Reading 272
B.1.6 Gänsebachtal Viaduct 274
Further Reading 274
B.1.7 Hämerten Bridge 276
Further Reading 276
B.1.8 Filstal Bridge 278
Contents xiii

Further Reading 278
B.2 France 281
B.2.1 Garde-Adhémar Viaduct 282
Further Reading 282
B.2.2 Avignon Viaducts 284
Further Reading 284
B.2.3 Mornas Viaduct 286
Further Reading 286
B.2.4 Savoureuse Viaduct 288
Further Reading 288
B.3 Spain 291
B.3.1 Osera Bridge 292
Further Reading 292
B.3.2 Llinars Del Vallès Viaduct 294
Further Reading 294
B.3.3 Salto Del Carnero Railway Bridge, Saragossa 296
Further Reading 296
B.3.4 Viaduct Over AP7 Riudellots de la Selva 298
Further Reading 298
B.3.5 Contreras Bridge 300
Further Reading 300
B.3.6 Viaduct Over River Ulla 302
Further Reading 302
B.3.7 Almonte Bridge 304
xiv Contents

Further Reading 304
B.3.8 Alcántara Bridge 306
Further Reading 306
B.4 Japan 309
B.4.1 Yashiro Bridge 310
Further Reading 310
B.4.2 Kumagawa Bridge 312
B.4.3 Sannai-Maruyama Bridge 314
Further Reading 314
B.5 China 317
B.5.1 Tianxingzhou Yangtze River Bridge 318
Further Reading 318
B.5.2 Nanjing Dashengguan Yangtze River Bridge 320
Further Reading 320
B.5.3 Tongling Yangtze River Bridge 322
Further Reading 322
B.5.4 Beipanjiang Bridge 324
Further Reading 324
B.5.5 Yachihe Bridge 326
Further Reading 326
B.5.6 Wufengshan Yangtze River Bridge 328
Further Reading 328
Index 331
xv
Foreword
At the request of the authors, I have been given the honour of writing the foreword
to this book, which is devoted to railway bridges. It develops the aspects referring to
their structural conception, taking into account the characteristics of railway traffic:
actions, limit states, speeds, etc., and includes a detailed analysis of the superstruc-
ture of the track with its different components and singular elements (for example,
expansion devices) that allow the correct behaviour of the track.
In the following chapters, the knowledge and experience of the authors is passed
on. In this respect, I remember a technical conference that took place in the 1970s
at the Eduardo Torroja Institute, dedicated to bridges; at that time, the undersigned
engineer was assigned to the Renfe Bridge Division and attended it. Ramón
del Cuvillo, professor of Concrete at the School of Civil Engineering in Madrid,
presented a paper in which he focused on the defects and mistakes in design and
execution in projects and works in which he had been involved. His presentation
was the most applauded of the day’s and, personally, the one from which I learned
the most. I hope that reading this book will be useful to avoid the repetition of
problems that can be avoided, without having to wait for experience after the
execution of the works.
As the reader will appreciate, special emphasis is placed on the interactions
between the structure and the track, subjected to railway and environmental
actions, taking into account the requirements of their stability in different situ-
ations; solutions are also proposed and considered in relation to the transitions
between the bridge and the adjacent infrastructure (and track).
Special attention is paid to the dynamic nature of railway actions, studying the
dynamic response of the structure and its influence on the behaviour, also dynamic,
of the track and its components, with the repercussions that this may have on safety,
traffic flow quality, and maintenance needs.
To conclude, I would like to transmit here some ideas that the Emeritus Professor
of Structural Engineering of the University of Berkeley, Edward L. Wilson, sets out in
his book Static and Dynamic Analysis of Structures. In a section of Personal Remarks,
he relates that his first-year physics professor warned his students ‘not to use an
equation they could not prove’; he also advises, with respect to modern structural
xvi Foreword
engineering, ‘not to use a structural analysis program unless you fully understand
the theory and approximations contained in the program’. I fully agree with these
considerations; I therefore share them with the reader, in the hope that they will be
useful to them.
Madrid, June 2023 Jorge Nasarre

Civil Engineer
Caminos de Hierro Foundation
xvii
About the Authors
José Romo is Chief Executive Officer and partner of FHECOR, and also a bridge
engineer fully specialised in large-span bridges with more than 40 years of expe-
rience in bridge design, 35 of them working in FHECOR. He has vast technical
knowledge based on his design background complemented with his activity as
professor of concrete and steel structures at Madrid University, and his active
participation in national and international associations of bridge designers and
concrete and steel materials. He is a member of many scientific committees such as
Eurocodes, IABSE, and ACHE where he became president in 2014 and was awarded
with the honour’s medal in 2008. He is a fellow of the Institution of Civil Engineers
of UK. He has always worked as a bridge designer participating in innumerable
bridge projects in Spain and worldwide, and also in the construction engineering
for many of them. He has a great aesthetic vision that he applies to all the designs,
while having great concern for sustainability and the use of new materials and
construction techniques.
Alejandro Pérez-Caldentey is full Associate Professor at the Department of

Mechanics of Continuous Media and Theory of Structures for the Civil Engineering
School at the Polytechnic University of Madrid. He joined FHECOR in 1989 after
graduating from UPM where he also obtained his PhD in Civil Engineering in
1996. During his more than 34 years of experience, Alejandro has developed
structural bridge projects in countries such as Spain, Chile, Italy, and the USA. He
is experienced in managing multidisciplinary structural teams, developing designs,
and planning and defining the scope of works. He also has extensive experience in
managing and developing Research and Development projects, in Standardisation
(member of the Project Team for EN 1992-1-1:2023), and in Education (Professor
at UPM). He holds Engineering licenses for Spain, Chile, Virginia, Texas, Florida,
North Carolina, Québec, Ontario, and British Columbia. He is also a partner and
member of the Board of FHECOR Consulting Engineers.
xviii About the Authors
Manuel Cuadrado holds an MSc in Civil engineering from the Polytechnic

University of Madrid. He is currently Associate Professor at the Carlos III University
of Madrid and a member of the Technological Committee of the Spanish Railway
Research Foundation (SRRF). Manuel Cuadrado has been working for 34 years,
mainly in the railway industry, for Spanish and French Engineering companies, as
an independent Consultant, and from 2005 to 2017 for the SRRF. He has partici-
pated both in key Spanish High-Speed projects and in International High-Speed
Lines (Portugal, Turkey, California), and has been involved in many R & D projects
mainly related to the mechanical behaviour of railway infrastructures. As a result
of his R & D activity, he has produced many monographs, published several papers
in national and international journals, and presented many papers in national and
international congresses, including WCRR 1999-Tokyo, WCRR 2001-Köln, WCRR
2006-Montreal, WCRR 2008-Seoul, and WCRR 2016-Milan, and UIC High Speed
Congresses 2010-Beijing and 2015-Tokio. He was also invited to participate as a
specialist in the drafting of railway standards, as a member of Spanish, European,
and international technical committees. Finally, from December 2017, he has been
participating as Infrastructure Assessor and Lead Assessor in several Rail Safety &
Interoperability assessments, as Infrastructure expert and as Slab-track expert.
xix
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to express their most sincere thanks to all the staff of
FHECOR and the Caminos de Hierro Foundation who gave us their support and
assistance in the creation and publication of this book.
We are particularly grateful to Francisco Javier Fernández Pozuelo, for his com-
mitment and dedication to this initiative, and to Eduardo Romo for his support from
the Caminos de Hierro Foundation.
The authors would like to express their deepest gratitude to Jorge Nasarre for his
help in the general approach to the publication and its subsequent technical review,
to Julio Sánchez for his advice and technical reviews, to Fabrice Leray for the prepa-
ration of the graphic material and the conception of the book’s design, to Eduardo
Conde for the layout work, and to Marta Heras for her coordination. We would also
like to thank all the FHECOR engineers who prepared the High-Speed Bridge Design
seminar, which was the seed of this book. Without their help and without the strong
support of FHECOR and the Caminos de Hierro Foundation, this book would not
have been possible. Many thanks to all of them.
1
Introduction to High-Speed Railway Bridges

José Romo
1.1 Book’s Content

One of the particularities of this book is that it includes not only the aspects related
to the design and behaviour of these types of bridges, but also those questions linked
to the railway technology of the track itself. It is clear that the knowledge of both
fields and the interaction between these two technologies, structural and railway, is
fundamental for the complete design of these bridges.
The first chapter of the book is dedicated to explain the particularities of
high-speed railway bridges (HSRB), in comparison with structures for conventional
railways. The typological particularities of this type of bridge are also explained, as
well as the importance of these works as a legacy for future generations.
Chapter 2 is devoted entirely to explaining the technology of the track and the
particularities of the high-speed infrastructure. This chapter explains the special
constraints in terms of rail traffic safety and passenger comfort. It also deals with
critical elements in the design of these structures, such as rail joints and other special
track elements.
Chapter 3 reviews the main concepts which affect the design and includes the
main typologies used in structures for high-speed railway lines. The dimensions and
characteristic weights of the different solutions are also included. This chapter also
describes the special structural elements of these structures, such as abutments and
fixed points. Finally, the particulars of the design of HSRB located in seismic areas
are included. This chapter also has a worked example corresponding to a railway
viaduct, which starts with the general definition of the bridge in a specific valley
and the geometric definition of the different structural elements that make up the
structure.
Chapter 4 is dedicated to the Design Basis of bridges of the railways high-speed
lines. In this section, the typical loads and design criteria are indicated, as well as its
application to the worked example defined in Chapter 3.
Chapter 5 is devoted entirely to analysing the dynamic phenomena associated
with HSR bridges. In this section the different methods of analysis, the trains that
High-Speed Railway Bridges: Conceptual Design Guide, First Edition.

José Romo, Alejandro Pérez-Caldentey, and Manuel Cuadrado.
© 2024 Ernst & Sohn GmbH. Published 2024 by Ernst & Sohn GmbH.
2 1 Introduction to High-Speed Railway Bridges
must be analysed to calculate the dynamic response, as well as the way to consider
other aspects of the response, such as the irregularity of the track and the vehicle or
the interaction between the vehicle and the structure, are presented. The chapter
is completed with several practical examples and an appendix which includes
the theoretical aspects of general dynamics and their application to the analysis
of HSRB.
Chapter 6 is dedicated to the interaction between the track and the structure.
This section analyses this phenomenon and how to take into account the thermal
effects, traction and braking forces, vertical loads and rheological effects, in the case
of concrete decks. In addition to the analysis models, the checks to be carried out
to calculate stresses in rails and relative displacements are analysed. This chapter
also deals with the criteria for the placement of track joints, as well as the practical
application of the worked example.
Chapter 7 deals specifically with aspects linked to the conceptual design with
maintenance of bridges for high-speed rail lines in mind.
In addition to Chapters 1–7, the book includes two appendices. One is devoted
to a review of the general concepts of dynamics that the reader of Chapter 5 on the
dynamic behaviour of these bridges should be familiar with. The second appendix
includes a ‘register’ of high-speed railway bridges built in different parts of the world.
1.2 What is Special About a High-Speed Rail Bridge?

It is often asked what is so special about a railway bridge for a high-speed line and
particularly, what makes a railway bridge for a high-speed line different from a con-
ventional railway bridge. The corresponding Sections 1.2.1–1.2.4 that follow in this
chapter describe the causes or aspects that make HSRB so special.
1.2.1 Dynamic Amplification and Resonance

On railway bridges, there are a number of factors that lead to a dynamic response of
the structure under traffic loads.
On the one hand, the loads are fast so there is an impact effect. On the other hand,
the trains are composed of a more or less long succession of vehicles which means
that the loads are repeated, so the dynamic effect is amplified. Finally, the imperfec-
tions of both the track and the vehicles create disturbances in the value and the way
of applying the loads, which leads to an increase in the response of the structure.
Therefore, the actual forces and deformations of a bridge due to rail traffic are
of a dynamic nature and their values can be considerably higher than those due to
static actions. In order to take this amplification into account in the calculations, an
impact or dynamic magnification coefficient is applied to the static loads, a coeffi-
cient established in the design standards on the basis of statistical studies carried out
on bridges in service.
But all these causes are increased when the speed of trains is increased, and as
will be seen throughout the book, the critical range of speeds for the phenomenon
of resonance on a bridge occurs when trains run over 220 km/h.
1.2 What is Special About a High-Speed Rail Bridge? 3
Resonance of a structure occurs when the frequencies of the dynamic excitatory

actions coincide with the eigenfrequency of vibration of the structure f 0 (a whole
fraction of it). In the case of railway bridges, resonance can be produced by the
passage of trains with regularly spaced axle loads or groups of axles (dk metres)
running at a certain critical speed (v in m/s).
v∕dk = f0 ∕i with ; i = 1,2,3 … (1.1)
Thus for a 30 m span bridge with a typical eigenfrequency of 3.5 Hz, on which
high-speed trains with 18 m coaches are running, the critical speed of passage is
3.5 ⋅ 18 ⋅ 3.6 = 227 m/s.
The coefficients of dynamic load magnification do not cover the risk of the effects
of the resonance of the structure.
The amplification of stresses and accelerations due to the proximity to the
resonance frequency means that special problems typical of HSRB can occur.
These problems can affect the functionality of the structure as they can lead on
the one hand to safety problems for rail traffic and on the other hand to a loss of
comfort for train users.
Therefore, it must be verified that the vibrations of the deck do not reduce the
lateral support of the track or reduce the contact pressure between the wheel and
the rail, which could cause the wheel to come off the track and the convoy to derail.
1.2.2 Rail Traffic Security

One of the effects that can jeopardise the safety of rail traffic as a result of the high
speed of the train is the high vertical acceleration of the deck produced as a dynamic
effect of the excitation of the structure if the frequency of the loads is close to the
vertical frequency of the structure. In these cases, track instability can occur as a
result of the loss of ballast support or the loss of geometric quality of the track.
Other effects, such as the danger of derailment by deck twist or by the deformation
of the deck or rotations in supports, or by the transverse deformation of the deck,
or by the relative displacement of the deck, increase considerably as the speed of
passage of train increases.
All this obliges the establishment of much more rigorous limits for the highest
speeds and even, as will be seen later, to create fixed longitudinal connection points
between the deck and the infrastructure to avoid its relative movement.
1.2.3 Passenger’s Comfort

Also, as a consequence of the vertical accelerations suffered by the structure, there
may be a loss of comfort for train users. For this reason, the design of the structure
must seek to distance the vibration frequencies of the structure from the frequency of
passage of the bogies and therefore the loads, in order to reduce this problem so that
the acceleration experienced by the passengers and therefore their loss of comfort is
within manageable limits. To analyse that a dynamic analysis used different types of
trains has to be carried out.
1.2.4 Track–Structure Interaction

On all railway bridges there is an interaction between the track and the structure.
The track is laid on the structure and therefore there is a joint response to the loads.
For example, the difference in temperature between the rails and the structure, the
transmission of traction and braking loads make it necessary to control the stresses
on the rails to prevent them from breaking. The complexity of the mechanics
of the connection between the rails and the deck and between the deck and the
substructure (including the foundations) means that in any bridge project for a
high-speed line it is necessary to analyse the interaction between the rails and the
structure by means of a non-linear analysis. This type of complex analysis allows
calculating the value of the stresses in the rails as well as the distribution of loads to
the different part of the structure.
1.3 General Ideas on High-Speed Railway Bridges

Here again it might be asked what the differences are between a conventional railway
bridge and a high-speed one. Firstly, it should be noted that the deformation and
acceleration limits that must be met in this type of bridge are much more demanding,
due to the stricter demands on the regularity of the track to achieve high-throughput
speeds, and consequently the decks are slightly more robust than in the case of a
conventional railway bridge.
But perhaps what most differentiates an HSRB from other bridges is the need
to rigidly fix the deck to a fixed point in the infrastructure, in the common case
of continuous decks. This means that on the one hand the longitudinal typology
of these bridges is different and on the other hand the connection details between
superstructure and substructure are special as will be explained below [1]. There is
also another factor that conditions the longitudinal typology. The stroke of the track
expansion devices homologated for high-speed. For a time the maximum stroke
was 600 m and then in the last decades it went up to 1200 mm.
The need to fix the deck longitudinally to one point of the infrastructure, in bridges
with a continuous deck, means that on the one hand the longitudinal behaviour
of this type of bridge is radically different from that of other bridges. Firstly, the
resistance to longitudinal action is concentrated at one point, which means that the
deck will be subject to significant traction and this influences the design of the deck.
On the other hand, when the deck is fixed at one point, it is often necessary to have
rail expansion joints in one of the abutments when the structure exceeds a length of
approximately 90 m in order to reduce the over-stress on the rails.
In all cases where the deck is continuous, at least one element of the infrastructure
must be designed with high longitudinal rigidity (Figure 1.1). As will be seen later,
in the case of long viaducts, and due to the limitation of maximum movements of
commercial expansion joint devices, it may be necessary to have a fixed point in the
middle of the bridge.
An alternative to the previous design is to make isostatic bridges in which each
pier takes the corresponding part of the longitudinal load, especially the traction and
1.3 General Ideas on High-Speed Railway Bridges 5
Figure 1.1 Sar Viaduct (FHECOR), Spain (Source: FHECOR).
Figure 1.2 Span by span isostatic solution: China, China Railways (Courtesy of China
Railways).
braking force. This allows the elimination of joints in the rails but on the contrary,
there are structural expansion joints in all sections of the deck coinciding with the
piles. This solution, which might seem better from the point of view of track mainte-
nance, has the disadvantage of higher maintenance of the structure and in the case
of bridges in seismic areas, the lack of robustness in combination, which could cause
relative movements between adjacent decks during the seismic actions. This type of
design is being used very often in China because it is highly industrialisable and
because it allows for very flexible construction (Figure 1.2).
There are some intermediate alternatives that involve the construction of a series
of continuous sections having intermediate joints every certain number of spans.
This solution has recently been used in Germany [2] and [3], shown in Figure 1.3.
Figure 1.3 Gänsebachtal Viaduct (schlaich bergermann partner sbp), Germany, DB Netz AG
(Source: Störfix).
In summary, and from a typological point of view, high-speed bridges have some
specific aspects which make them, at least from a longitudinal perspective, different
from other bridges, as will be seen in Sections 1.4 and 1.5.
1.4 Evolution and Trends in High-Speed Bridge Design

1.4.1 First High-Speed Bridges
The first high-speed railway lines were built in the 1960s and 1970s in Japan and
later in Europe in Germany, France, and Spain. The first viaducts for high-speed rail-
way lines were built in Japan. The population density throughout Japan has meant
that most of the lines have been built on viaducts. The typologies of bridges for
the Shinkansen are varied, although the most singular are the extradosed bridges, a
typology that originated in Japan itself.
In Europe, the first high-speed railway lines were built between one and two
decades later than the Japanese lines. On these lines, large sections of embankment
or cuttings alternate with a few viaducts and tunnels at specific points along the
route.
1.4.1.1 First-Generation German Bridges

The German bridges for first-generation high-speed lines were designed according
to the principle of rapid replacement of the decks in case of failure of one of them.
Thus, except in exceptional cases, the bridges were built with isostatic spans, with
maximum spans of 55 m. These bridges were obviously heavier than the continu-
ous bridges and required four bearings and expansion joints in all the pier supports,
which is obviously a problem for the maintenance of the structures. However, this
typology allowed the track to be continuous and therefore without rail joints, with
the great advantage that this entailed for track maintenance.
On these early lines, when the size of the obstacle made it impossible to use iso-
static spans, Deutsche Bahn allowed the use of continuous bridges but with a length
LFC LFC LFC

Horizontal TEJ TEJ Horizontal
fixed point fixed point
Horizontal Horizontal
SEJ 162.5 SEJ 168.0 SEJ 299.0 SEJ 164.0 SEJ
SEJ = Structural expansion joint
TEJ = Track expansion joint
LFC = Longitudinal force coupler
Figure 1.4 Structural scheme bridge over the river Main at Gemünden (1984).
LFC LFC LFC Horizontal

TEJ Horizontal TEJ TEJ
fixed point
fixed point
SEJ SEJ SEJ SEJ SEJ SEJ

237.0 369.5 214.0 160.5 281.6
820.5 442.1
Figure 1.5 Structural scheme bridge over the river Main at Veitshöchheim (1987).
limited to 400 m so that this section could be replaced, at least theoretically, in a

single operation.
The bridges over the river Main in Gemünden (Figure 1.4) and Veitshöchheim
(Figure 1.5) built in 1984 and 1987, respectively, are structures with continuous
spans and therefore with rail expansion joints between the individual deck
subsections [4].
The Pfieffetal Viaduct, built in 1989 (Figure 1.6), was the first bridge in which,
while maintaining the isostatic replaceable span solution, a central point was
designed to collect the braking loads there. The isostatic decks were connected to
each other longitudinally by means of a prestressing system centred on the deck,
which allows the braking loads to be transferred to this central point. In this case,
the track has two expansion joints coinciding with the abutments [4].
Longitudinal force couplers Longitudinal force couplers

TEJ TEJ
Horizontal
fixed point
Structural expansion joints Structural expansion joints

493.0 493.0
Figure 1.6 Structural scheme bridge over the Pfieffetal Viaduct (1989).
LFC LFC
Horizontal TEJ TEJ Horizontal
SEJ SEJ SEJ SEJ

447.0 53.0 447.0

Figure 1.7 La Grenette Viaduct with ‘inert’ section and double expansion joints of
structure and track.
Horizontal Horizontal LFC

TEJ fixed point TEJ fixed point TEJ TEJ Horizontal
fixed point
470.0 630.0 456.0

SEJ SEJ SEJ
SEJ
Figure 1.8 Avignon viaducts with intermediate expansion joint (1999).
1.4.1.2 First-Generation French Bridges

In contrast to the first-generation German bridges, the first French high-speed
bridges were built with continuous decks. This implies that for long bridges it is
necessary to provide track expansion joints.
Usually, long decks are divided into three parts. The two lateral sections are long
and are connected longitudinally to their respective abutments. Between these two
spans is an isostatic central span called the neutral or inertial span, which allows
the effective expansion length of the bridge to be divided by two (Figure 1.7). These
bridges have two rail joints coinciding with the two expansion joints of the neutral
portal frame structure [5].
In some cases, the provision of a central expansion joint coinciding with an inter-
mediate point of a span has been tested in order to provide one single track expansion
joint in one intermediate point of and intermediate span instead of the two necessary
in the case of solutions with an inert span (Figure 1.8) [6].
Unlike in other countries, special bridges on French high-speed lines have always
been designed in collaboration with architects and engineers. This has perhaps
meant that all the designs have been special and have somehow departed from
purely structural solutions.
1.4.1.3 First-Generation Spanish Bridges

Spanish bridges built from 1987 are characterised by the use of continuous solutions
with a fixed point, usually at one abutment, and a structural and track expansion
joint at the opposite abutment. In the case of very long bridges, it is common to have
TEJ TEJ
Horizontal
fixed point

SEJ SEJ
Figure 1.9 Example of a Spanish bridge with a continuous deck.
one or two intermediate fixed points in the form of A-shaped piers that transmit the
braking loads to the ground (Figure 1.9).
On the other hand, Spain’s rugged orography has given rise to a series of long-span
bridges in which structural rigour has been combined with the aesthetic and land-
scape aspects of the works, as described below [7].
1.4.2 Recent High-Speed Bridges

1.4.2.1 Recent French Bridges
The bridges on the most modern TGV (Train à Grande Vitesse) lines have generally
maintained the design criterion of long bridges with an inert central span.
A singular bridge in the French high-speed lines is the Savoureuse Viaduct
(Figure 1.10). This viaduct is a succession of short sections with special piers that
have structural expansion joints between them and allow the rail to be continuous
and therefore there is no track expansion joint [8].
1.4.2.2 Second-Generation German Bridges

The bridges already built in Germany in the second decade of the 21st century
have been developed according to the indications of the DB Netz Design Guide for
Railway Bridges in 2008 [2]. With the implementation of this guide, the condition
that the decks should be quickly replaceable has been eliminated and semi-integral
bridges have been designed, generally without track expansion joints and structure
joints every 100–120 m or so. Examples of bridges designed along these lines are the
Unstruttal Bridge and the Gänsebachtal Viaduct.
The Unstruttal Bridge has a height of about 40 m above the valley, the arch spans
have a span of 108 m, and the standard spans have a span of 58 m (Figure 1.11). There
are structural and track expansion joints every 580 m [3].
The Gänsebachtal Viaduct (Figure 1.12) with a deck height of about 18 m, has
shorter spans (24.50 m) and structural expansion joints every 112 m and does not
need track expansion joints [3].
Structural expansion joints

42.0 24.0
66.0
Figure 1.10 La Savoureuse Viaduct (2011).

TEJ TEJ TEJ TEJ TEJ

HFP HFP HFP HFP HFP HFP
580.0
SEJ SEJ SEJ SEJ SEJ

HFP = Horizontal fixed point
Figure 1.11 Unstruttal Bridge (2012).
Horizontal fixed points
112.0
Structural expansion joints
Figure 1.12 Gänsebachtal Viaduct (2012).
1.4.2.3 Recent Spanish HSRB

On the other hand, Spain’s rugged orography has given rise to a series of long-span
bridges in which structural rigour has been combined with the aesthetic and
landscape aspects of the works, as described in [7] including:
1. Precast decks with constant depth with spans up to 45 m
2. Precast decks with variable depth with spans up to 60 m
3. Prestressed concrete box-section bridges built with movable scaffolding system
(MSS) with spans of up to 75 m
4. Steel–concrete composite deck up to 66 m of span
5. Extradosed steel bridges with spans up to 75 m
6. Bow-string arches with spans in the range of 125–130 m
7. Concrete box deck built by cantilevering up to 150 m of span
8. Steel truss decks with 240 m of span
9. Concrete arches with a maximum span of 384 m
For the above-mentioned bridges see Appendix B.
1.4.2.4 Bridges for High-Speed Railway Lines in China

The structures that have been and are currently being built in China are grouped into
two characteristic types. On the one hand, there are the long multi-span viaducts and
on the other hand, special bridges with one or more main spans with long spans.
The long viaducts currently being built in China are isostatic spans that are prefab-
ricated completely and assembled directly from previously built spans (Figure 1.13).
On the other hand, the orography of mountainous areas and the width of riverbeds
have led to the construction of long-span bridges. The construction of arch bridges,
cable-stayed bridges, and even the first suspension bridge are undoubtedly a sign
of China’s determination to build a high-speed network that does not stop at any
technical challenge.
For bridges mentioned above see also Appendix B and Table 1.1.
Figure 1.13 Isostatic multi span bridge, China (Courtesy of China Railways).
Table 1.1 List of the major high-speed railway bridges (HSRB).
Design
Name of the Main Year of Operation
Bridge Span (m) Typology Completion (km/h) Function* Country
Wufengshan 1092 Suspension 2020 250 4R+8H China

Yangtze River
Hutong Yangtze 1092 Cable stayed 2020 250 4R+6H China
River
Tongling Road-Rail 630 Cable stayed 2015 250 4R+6H China
Anqing Yangtze 580 Cable stayed 2015 250 4R China
River
Huanggang 567 Cable stayed 2014 250 2R+4H China
Yangtze River
Tianxingzhou 504 Cable stayed 2008 250 4R+6H China
Zhaoqing Xi River 450 Steel box arch 2014 250 2R China
Beipan River 445 Concrete arch 2016 300 2R China
Wuhu Yangtze 588 Cable stayed 2019 250 4R+6H China
River
Yachi River 436 Steel truss arch 2019 250 2R China
New Baishatuo 432 Cable stayed 2019 250 6R China
Yangtze River
Almonte River 384 Concrete arch 2016 330 2R Spain
Dashengguan 336 Truss arch 2011 300 6R China
Yangtze River
Yibin Jinsha River 336 Bow-string arch 2018 250 4R+6H China
Alcántara 324 Concrete arch 2019 330 2R Spain
Grümpen 270 Concrete arch 2011 300 2R Germany
Contreras 261 Concrete arch 2009 350 2R Spain
Dongping Channel 242 Truss arch 2009 NA NA China
Ulla Estuary 240 Truss beam 2015 250 2R Spain
*
R = number of railway tracks.
H = number of highway lines.
Figure 1.14 Colne Valley Viaduct of HS2, England, UK (Courtesy of Knight Architects).
Figure 1.15 Fresno Viaduct in California, USA (Source: California High-Speed Rail
Authority).
1.4.2.5 British High-Speed Bridges

The HS2 line between London and Birmingham is currently under construction.
This line runs on flat terrain and the viaducts to be built have a very low gradient. The
solutions being used in general are prefabricated multi-girder decks with continuity
lintels constructed on site.
The Colne Valley Viaduct (Figure 1.14), which crosses one of the most scenic
areas of the line, stands out as a singular bridge within the section. It is a contin-
uous viaduct with maximum spans of 105 m that has a very careful design and will
undoubtedly be the most emblematic bridge on the line.
1.4.2.6 High-Speed Railway Bridges in the USA

The high-speed rail line from San Francisco and Sacramento to Los Angeles is
currently under construction. The structures being built are generally continuous
viaducts with concrete box section or prefabricated girders. One of the most
important works on the line is the Fresno River Viaduct (Figure 1.15).
The other line in the project phase is the line from Dallas to Houston, which is
also planned with solutions using concrete box-section decks and precast concrete
elements.
1.4.3 Conclusions
In order to establish an analysis of trends in the design and construction of
high-speed bridges, it is first necessary to make a clear distinction between viaducts
of more or less length on the one hand, and bridges requiring a long main span on
the other hand.
1.4.3.1 Viaducts
There are currently three types of solutions for viaducts with moderate spans and
shorter or shorter lengths.
In Europe, with the exception of Germany, continuous bridges are generally built
with a minimum number of structural expansion joints and corresponding track
expansion joints. The deck is supported by two devices per pier and per abutment.
The bridges on the US lines also generally follow these design criteria.
In China, on the other hand, isostatic solutions are being built with a complete
prefabrication in one piece of the deck of each span and therefore with an expansion
joint on each pier, but without track expansion joints.
As seen in Germany, semi-integral bridges are being designed and built, i.e. with-
out pier bearings, but with structural expansion joints, and in some cases without
track expansion joints.
1.4.3.2 Long-Span Bridges

The typologies being used to date are similar to road bridges. Deck trusses with
variable edge have been used up to 250 m span. For longer spans (up to 450 m), arch
bridges have been successfully built. For longer spans, cable-stayed bridges are the
usual solution. In these cases, the decks are trussed to give greater rigidity to the
system and often have two levels: the lower one for rail traffic and the upper one
for road traffic.
Table 1.1 summarises the bridges for high-speed lines with the longest spans built
to date.
1.5 The Landscape and the Design of High-Speed

Railway Bridges
1.5.1 The Traveller’s Experience
The 21st century society, at least in the West, is governed by feelings [9]. The quality
of any service is measured by the user experience [10]. High-speed rail is no excep-
tion to this premise.
Traditionally, when the designer analysed the engineering work and its relation-
ship with the landscape, they did so taking into account only the view of the observer
of the bridge from the surrounding environment. In this way, it is common to anal-
yse from the different points from which the bridge or viaduct can be observed what
modification it will introduce into the pre-existing landscape. The height and config-
uration of the abutments, the cadence of the deck spans, the relative dimensions of
the deck and its spatial relationship with the morphology of the site are the aspects
on which the bridge designer concerned with the landscape reflects.
1 m high parapet for

maintenance
Noise barrier panels

with partial or complete
opacity to avoid fow
and bat impact
where needed
OLE posts on the external

side of the deck following
the modulation of the piers
What a HS2 user would see from the window of the train if a solid noise barrier is
arranged (static image on the left and train running at a speed of 340 km/h on the right).
Users wouldn’t even notice they are crossing the Colne Valley
Figure 1.16 Example of a standard anti-noise panel on the bridge (Courtesy of Knight
Architects).
However, it is clear that this is no longer enough. The 21st century bridge designer
must also consider the landscape that the traveller will be able to contemplate when
the train travels over the bridge being designed [11].
When this aspect is analysed, it is discovered that the structure itself rarely
obstructs the view from the train in any way. However, it is common that parts of
the bridge equipment, especially the anti-noise or wind barriers (when these are
opaque), disturb or limit the view of the landscape from the train (Figure 1.16).
If the bridge is short, the loss of vision caused by such panels would only be for
a few seconds. However, when the tracks run continuously through urban or
peri-urban areas, the tunnel effect can be annoying or uncomfortable for the user.
The same applies when the railway line passes through a point of outstanding
scenic beauty, such as a major river crossing, if the passenger’s view of the outside
is limited by some element of the bridge.
In such cases, it will be important for the viaduct designer to be aware of whether
the structure requires any type of panelling that will at least partially obstruct
the vision of the traveller. Whether it is necessary to install panels or whether
it is the structure itself that is disturbing, for example if the resistant section of
3 m high linear elements act as a fowl

and bat protection barrier and as a
support for transparent panels when
a noise barrier is needed
1 m high linear elements act as a

parapet for maintenance
Transparent noise barrier

panels where needed
OLE posts on the external

side of the deck following the
modulation of the piers
Concrete surface with vertical
grooves to guide water coming from
the noise barrier/parapet/fowl and
bat protection system
What a HS2 user would see from the window of the train
with the transparent Specimen Design barrier (static
image on the left and train running at a speed of 340 km/h
on the right). At train speed, motion blur makes the vertical
elements of the edge condition almost completely invisible,
achieving an unobstructed view of the Colne Valley.
Figure 1.17 Study of the view from the train as it passes over the Colne Valley Viaduct,
England, UK (Courtesy of Knight Architects).
the deck is U-shaped, the project team must analyse whether it is possible to
reconcile functional requirements (noise emission control, wind safety, etc.) with
the possibility of the traveller being able to enjoy the landscape at least for a fleeting
glimpse (Figure 1.17).
1.5.2 The Bridge in the Landscape

The railway layouts of the 19th century and those built later for moderate traffic
speeds allowed for the adaptation of the railway line to the orography, except in
mountainous areas. However, compared to roads, railways have always needed more
bridges and viaducts to overcome the natural obstacles they have encountered, as
the layout conditions have been and still are more rigorous in the case of railways
compared to the design requirements of roads.
The railway has transformed and continues to transform the landscape through
which it passes. High-speed lines with their very wide radii of curvature in plan
of about 8000 m minimum for 350 km/h lines require the construction of a large
number of viaducts and tunnels as soon as the terrain has some movement. Even
in flat terrain, it is common for modern high-speed lines to be built in structure in
order to maintain transverse territorial permeability under bridges. It is very impor-
tant in these cases to decide correctly on the level of the railway grade on the ground
because of its implications for the design of the viaducts.
The participation of bridge specialists in the early stages of the project is important
for the definition of the basic geometry of the line and to avoid starting the project
with initial conditioning factors that could damage the overall quality of the solution,
for example: the transverse permeability, the landscape implications of the design,
the technical quality, or the construction cost of the work.
Sections 1.5.2.1 and 1.5.2.2 analyse the landscape aspects of bridges and viaducts
on high-speed lines in different scenarios.
1.5.2.1 Long Viaducts with Low Vertical Level

If the level is relatively low in relation to the ground (less than 8 m), the spans have to
be short in order to leave a sufficient clearance between the bottom of the deck and
the natural ground. If it is also necessary to install noise barriers, the height of the
noise barrier must be added to the actual height of the deck under the track, which
will make the bridge visually very heavy. One way to solve this problem is to use ‘U’
sections, with the structure itself acting as a noise barrier so that the clear span is as
large as possible (Figure 1.18).
However, whenever possible, it is better to raise the level somewhat to avoid
the aforementioned problems. From the point of view of the cost of the bridge, an
increase in the height of the piers from 8 to 12 m has little influence on the final
cost of the structure, since there will only be a slight variation in the foundations
and a higher cost of the pier shafts (which in any case is a small cost in relation
to the total cost of the bridge) and this increase in height will not condition the
construction process of the deck. In any case, and whenever it is necessary to build
either noise barriers or U-shaped structural sections, it is essential to study the
shapes and finishes in order to break up the massiveness of the faces.
1.5.2.2 Long Viaducts with Medium or High Level

As explained above, when viaducts are long, it is necessary to fix the deck to the
infrastructure. If the bridge is also very high, the connecting element(s) will play a
special role in the formal appreciation of the bridge in the landscape.
Figure 1.18 Semi-through deck structure (Source: FHECOR).

Figure 1.19 Isostatic deck, China (Courtesy of China Railways).
Figure 1.20 La Savoureuse Viaduct (2011), France (Courtesy of Wilkinson Eyre).
Isostatic Bridges When the viaduct is made up of a succession of isostatic spans, it is

common for both the deck itself and the piers to be particularly robust. As the decks
are isostatic, they are less efficient than continuous decks and require a greater depth
(see Chapter 3). The piers also have to individually withstand the corresponding
braking load and therefore require larger dimensions than in the case of continuous
structures (Figure 1.19).
The La Savoureuse Viaduct (Figure 1.20) has recently been built, breaking with
the French tradition of continuous bridges. In this viaduct, the piers are formed by
a tetrapod-shaped structure supported at one of its vertices, which on the one hand
breaks the massiveness of the piers of isostatic bridges and on the other hand reduces
the span of the isostatic spans. The result is a unique structure that works well in the
surrounding views.
Continuous Bridges Continuous bridges have the advantage of reducing the number
of expansion joints in the structure. When these bridges are long, they require one
or more points to fix the deck longitudinally.
The first example of this way of solving the central connection by means of a sin-
gle element is the Pfieffetal Viaduct in Germany, 1989 (Figure 1.21). This bridge is
actually an isostatic span bridge, but because of its height the piers cannot carry the
braking load, which is transferred to a portal pier with two inclined piers. The shape
of the V-shaped valley makes the role of this central pier very clear.
Figure 1.21 Pfieffetal Viaduct (1989), Germany (Courtesy of Wolfgang Pehlemann).
Figure 1.22 Bridge over the river Main at Gemünden (1984), Germany (Courtesy of
Deutsche Bahn AG).
Another type of situation occurs when a long viaduct is required which can be
resolved with modest spans, but which presents a singular span due to having
to cross a major obstacle locally. This type of solution perhaps begins with the
Gemünden Bridge (Figure 1.22) , which serves as the cover of the most widely read
book on bridge aesthetics [12].
However, to return to very long viaducts that require a single span, the revolution
brought about in Germany by the Deutsche Bahn Guide [2] is worth mentioning. It
stipulates that long bridges for the Deutsche Bahn should generally be semi-integral
and as far as possible without a track expansion joint.
The first long bridges designed according to these guidelines are the Unstruttal
(Figure 1.23) and Gänsebachtal (Figure 1.24) viaducts [3]. Both bridges are superb in
terms of design, structural efficiency, maintenance of both bridge and track, as well
as structural innovation, with an obvious reading on the landscape to the trained eye.
Singular Bridges Another classic design situation occurs when the obstacle to be
overcome is significant and it is necessary to build at least one large span. This is
a situation that occurs when crossing deep valleys or when passing over very wide
and fast-flowing rivers or streams.
When crossing deep valleys, it is common for the bridge to be a short interval
between tunnels. This is the case, for example, with the colossal Beipanjiang Bridge
(Figure 1.25) on the high-speed line from Shanghai to Kunming in the Chinese
Figure 1.23 Unstruttal Bridge (2012), Germany (Courtesy of Deutsche Bahn AG).
Figure 1.24 Gänsebachtal Viaduct (2012), Germany (Courtesy of Störfix).
Figure 1.25 Beipanjiang Viaduct (2016), China (Courtesy of China Railways).

Figure 1.26 Alcántara Bridge (2019), Spain (Courtesy of Carlos Fernández Casado CFC &
ADIF).
Figure 1.27 Almonte Viaduct (2016), Spain (Courtesy of Arenas Asociados & ADIF).
province of Guizhou, which with its 445 m main span fits perfectly into the nar-
rowing of the gorge flanked by two tunnels [13].
In areas with a hilly but not necessarily mountainous topography, it may be neces-
sary to build a large main span accompanied by two long access viaducts. This is the
case, for example, of two Spanish bridges, the Alcántara viaduct (Figure 1.26) with a
span of 324 m [14] and the Almonte viaduct (Figure 1.27) with 384 m main span [15].
In both cases, the continuity of the deck and the careful design not only of the
main span but also of the access viaducts stand out, making these works excellent
examples of the concern for the visual aspect typical of Spanish engineering.
The above three are good examples of how well rigid arches fit into a rugged land-
scape when there is a major obstacle.
It should be pointed out here that, although at first sight the arch is a typology
which is not very suitable for use on the railway as it has to support significant vari-
able loads, in long-span bridges, the weight of the structure itself is the dominant
gravity load compared to the railway overload and it is sufficient for the arch to be
sufficiently rigid for it to function correctly.
Another special design situation for high-speed line bridges is the crossing of
large rivers or estuaries. Especially when the crossing depths or navigation demands
require long spans.
The solutions in these cases are usually trusses, either with straight girders (for
moderate spans) or bow-string or cable-stayed bridges for large spans.
The Nantenbach Bridge (Figure 1.28) in Germany [16] and the Ulla Bridge
(Figure 1.29) in Spain [17] are good examples of the application of the variable-edge
straight-deck typology at river or estuary crossings. In both cases they are bridges
for two high-speed railways tracks.
When it is a question of covering very long spans and with many railway tracks,
the solution is usually a double-level cable-stayed bridge deck. This is the case, for
example, with the Hutong Bridge over the Yangtze River (Figure 1.30). The bridge
Figure 1.28 Nantenbach Bridge (1993), Germany (Courtesy of Deutsche Bahn AG).
Figure 1.29 Ulla Estuary Viaduct (2015), Spain (Courtesy of ADIF).

Figure 1.30 Hutong Yangtze River Bridge, China (Courtesy of China Railways).
Figure 1.31 Proposal Terceira Travessia do Tejo, Lisbon, Portugal

(Source: ADF-FHECOR-IDEAM).
has a colossal main span (1092 m) in which the upper part of the deck serves a motor-
way while the lower part accommodates the high-speed railway.
In both cases the piers are bottle-shaped. An alternative to these piers is the one
proposed for the Third Tagus River Crossing in Lisbon (Figure 1.31), also designed
with a two-level deck. In this case, the pylon has A-shaped outer shafts, which give
the pylon a very clean form despite its robustness.
1.6 Railway Bridges as Landmarks or Icons of a Line

Fortunately, the requirements for bridges on high-speed lines are so stringent that
only relatively short-span bridges have been built to date, and only very rarely, with
designs that go against the logic of strength or function. Formal speculation is there-
fore far removed from long spans but sometimes manifests itself in long viaducts
with short spans where the structural challenge is not so relevant.
Undoubtedly, at least in Europe, there is a particular attention to aesthetics.
Aesthetics not as a branch of philosophy that studies the essence of beauty and the
perception of beauty in art, but aesthetics as the image of any object.
This ‘aesthetisation’ of the world, as Lipovetsky reminds us [18], strives to make
the formal expression of any object novel or unique. Bridges are no strangers to this
drive, and their design has been influenced in some way, in these first decades of
the 21st century, by this trend in which the most important thing is the appearance
of form.
1.7 Railway Bridge’s Legacy 23
Fortunately, in the case of long-span or long bridges, the site and the functional
requirements they have to meet make each bridge a unique and unrepeatable
example. This should at least calm the desire for novelty [19].
This does not mean that designers should abandon the care for the formal aspects
of their bridges. On the contrary, they should strive to combine appearance and sub-
stance. An effort that should be directed not only towards achieving excellence in
singular works, but also towards seeking beauty, following Yanagi’s ideas [20], in
normal bridges, those that are seen every day.
The expert eye and perhaps also the non-specialist will appreciate the effort made
in many high-speed bridges to wisely reconcile these in no way contradictory aspects
of design. These exemplary works will surely become part of the collective heritage
and culture of the technical community and society in general.
1.7 Railway Bridge’s Legacy
Since its beginnings, the railway has marked the evolution of bridges. The condi-
tions required by the 19th century railway marked the development of structural
engineering, both in terms of materials and in the typology of the bridges themselves
(Figure 1.32).
It is the epic era of engineering marked by successes but also by great failures. The
dynamic loads due to the railway, the fatigue of the materials gave rise to resounding
accidents that served as a lesson to move towards safer structures.
The magnitude of the challenges and the integrity of the engineers had a strong
impact on the society of that time. The material and human development that
was achieved thanks to this new means of transport revolutionised the society of
that time.
Society as a whole and art did nothing but focus on the railway and its works.
Bridges appear in paintings first and then in photography creating a whole imaginary
regarding the progress created by the engineers.
Figure 1.32 Maria Pia Bridge (Ponte de Dona Maria Pia, 1878) Porto, Portugal
(Source: Seyring [21], photo: José Olgon).
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nobody quite realizes the importance of the occasion until he reads
about it afterwards. At the Nile Reservoir all this happened in due
order with the necessary local variations. The officials wore red
tarbushes instead of top-hats, and every sensible person carried a
cotton umbrella over his head.
But apart from the ceremonial, the scene was deeply interesting.
If the day’s routine was insignificant, it was because the
overpowering presence of the Dam itself dwarfed every other
presence. And the names of those assembled there recalled vividly
the thrilling history of Egypt during the last twenty years. There were
statesmen and diplomatists, soldiers and engineers, men of
business and men of letters, all of whom, in some field or other, had
done their part in building up the fallen country. Some, too, were
there who, submitting contentedly before the logic of accomplished
facts, burying old rivalries and animosities, had come in no unfriendly
spirit to witness the realization of much that it had once been their
policy to hinder. But if all the rest had been absent, the presence of
one man, the Chief, whose wise counsel and guiding hand had been
everywhere, would have been sufficient to represent all that these
twenty years have meant to Egypt. Well might Lord Cromer and the
irrigation engineers review their work with satisfaction. To them the
Reservoir means the successful culmination of a great policy long
and steadily pursued, nothing less than the establishment of the
prosperity of Egypt upon a sure and certain basis: for that is what the
regulation of the Nile involves. In Egypt, at any rate, they require no
formal monument. Their praise stands clearly writ on the face of
every cultivated field throughout the country.
CHAPTER X
BRITISH RULE IN EGYPT
At the inauguration of the Nile Reservoir at Assouan, it was an

Egyptian Minister of Public Works who read an Arabic speech
congratulating the Khedive on the completion of the great work
which is to make his name famous among the rulers of Egypt.
Among all the flags that decorated the town and the craft on the
river, the most infrequent was that of England. A casual observer,
knowing nothing of the country, might easily have overlooked the
number of Englishmen wearing the tarbush, that red badge of
Egyptian officialdom, and gone away thinking that even the presence
of the brother of the King of England marked nothing but a
compliment paid by one great Power to another. He might well have
been astonished to be told that the Dam, which will confirm and
increase the prosperity of Egypt, is no less an evidence of the
stability of British rule. It is just possible that immediately after our
first occupation we might have been able to evacuate the country—
not, indeed, without danger to our hold upon the highroad to India, or
without detriment to the true interests of Egypt, but at least without
loss of honour to ourselves. Since then, in spite of the efforts of our
statesmen at home, it has become more and more impossible.
Among the guests at Assouan there might have been seen a
quiet-looking old gentleman, with a gray beard and bushy whiskers,
beaming benevolently through gold-rimmed spectacles. His figure
was that of a man, once sturdy and square-set, over whose head
had passed years of ease and good living. At the first glance, in his
frock-coat and tarbush, he looked like any other comfortable Turkish
gentleman. Yet there was no one present with a more interesting
past than he. For this was Mukhtar Pasha, who bears the proud title
of Ghazi, ‘the victorious,’ the hero of the Caucasus in the Russo-
Turkish War. He came to Egypt in 1887 as special Turkish
Commissioner, to arrange for the British evacuation under the
Drummond-Wolff Convention. It is well known how France and
Russia at the last moment intervened to prevent Turkey from
ratifying the agreement. A special Providence guards the British
Empire against the efforts of its rulers. But Mukhtar remains as
Turkish Commissioner in Egypt without duties, and probably without
pay, a reminder of past eccentricities of British policy.
We have travelled far from the days when it was seriously
proposed by Conservative statesmen to make Turkey responsible for
civilization and good government in Egypt. To-day no one in his
senses could wish to put an end to British rule. Let a man start from
Assouan and survey the great series of irrigation works—the
Reservoir, the Assiout Barrage, the Regulator of the Ibrahimiyah
Canal, the Koshesha Regulator, the Barrages and Weirs at the point
of the Delta and at Zifta; let him examine the intricate system of
canals, siphons, wheels, drains, dykes, and sluices, by which the
water is distributed over the cultivated lands, and let him reflect on
what would happen if all this were left in Egyptian hands. Inevitably,
sooner or later, the whole thing would come to ruin, and the greater
the height of prosperity to which the country has attained under the
system of perennial irrigation, the greater would be its fall. Egypt has
been called the classic land of baksheesh, and it will not lose its
character in a generation or two. Imagine a Government in need of
money; what better thumbscrew could an Oriental despot wish for
than the command of the water-supply? When a land-owner knew
that he could be ruined by the shutting of a sluice-gate, he would pay
anything without a struggle. The golden goose would be killed in
every direction. Even under a well-intentioned Government it would
only be regarded as natural for a local official to make free use of
such unrivalled opportunities to supplement his pay. Corruption is not
a vice in Oriental eyes; it is the habit of centuries. That is why, with
every extension of scientific irrigation, the need for European
supervision becomes greater, and since we can allow no Power but
ourselves to hold Egypt, European means British.
An amusing instance of the native way of looking at such matters
occurred in connection with the making of the Reservoir. A certain
sum was allotted for the compensation of those who would be
flooded out of house and home. Some of the Assouan people saw
their chance. It does not take much to build a native house. In a
short time the Government inspectors had the pleasure of being
shown a number of brand-new buildings on the foreshore, with the
whitewash still wet upon them. Great was the disappointment of
these ingenious speculators. In another case a man was building a
boat; he was repeatedly warned to move his work, but would not.
Only when the water began actually to rise did he become seriously
alarmed, and sent down a letter of remonstrance. Again the position
was explained to him; but again he advanced his request that the
gates might be opened, accompanied with a hint that he might be
willing to make some small acknowledgment of his obligation.
Realizing at last the futility of his demand, he exclaimed in despair,
‘What is the use of your Dam if you cannot let the water out to save
my boat?’
The two great principles of British policy in Egypt have been
irrigation and low taxation. Irrigation is the vital necessity to Egypt.
Other departments of Government, however urgent their claims
might be, have had to wait and to be starved until the reproductive
works could be established and set going. Every penny that could be
spared had to be cast upon the waters. At the same time we found
the people overburdened with taxation on account of the Public
Debt, and also bound hand and foot in the meshes of the usurer. We
could not, however powerful we might be, hope to hold securely a
country with 11,000,000 of population, unless we have something
else than mere force to look to. To the Egyptians we are aliens by
race and religion, we have no ties of custom or intermarriage; we
have nothing but their material interests to appeal to. If we can make
them prosperous, if they can save money without fear of
confiscation, if we can secure to them the fruits of their labour, we
have done a great deal to strengthen the basis of our rule.
There is no doubt that the fellaheen do appreciate the benefits of
British rule; it would be strange if they did not. The corvée is gone.
Not only has taxation been enormously reduced in amount, but its
method of collection has been made equitable and regular. Whereas
in former days the tax-collector was in league with the money-lender,
and contrived to demand his payments at times when it was certain
that the cultivator of the soil would have no money, and would have
to pledge his growing crops to raise the amount, now the time of
payment is adjusted to suit the harvests. Moreover, the new
Agricultural Bank lends to the fellaheen at a rate far below that
demanded by the Syrian, Greek, or Coptic usurers; the State gives a
small guarantee, and the Government tax-collectors collect the
interest and instalments of the loans at the same time as the taxes.
The Egyptians are naturally a thrifty people; they are taking
advantage of this plan, and are very punctual in their repayments.
When the scheme was first started, it was met with grave
disapproval by the professed economists. The fellaheen, they said,
will borrow first from the Bank, and will then execute a second
mortgage, and borrow more on the same exorbitant terms from their
old blood-suckers. But Lord Cromer’s keen insight into the character
of the people has once again been justified.
It is true that a generation is growing up that knew not Ismail.
These have lived only in the new order of things, and have no
personal reminiscences to sharpen their enjoyment of the present;
but even so the number of those actually discontented must be few,
and the number of those who would carry their discontent into action
still fewer. More than this, perhaps, it would be foolish to expect. In
the East a reforming nation could not be really popular, except
among fighters. And the Egyptians are no fighters—they are
peaceable people, who love their homes; no one joins the army
except by the necessity of conscription. Even the reformatory school-
boy cannot be induced to volunteer for so much as the band. Honour
and glory are nothing to them; they seek no bubble reputation at the
cannon’s mouth. Again, the Englishman endeavours to establish
impartial justice in the Courts. That is all very well if your opponent is
a richer man than you; but what if you could have outbid him quite
easily? It is a good thing to be free from the fear of being
bastinadoed and fined because your neighbour has given false
evidence against you, or because he has influence with the police.
But if you, which is at least as likely, wish to do the same to him, how
do you profit by the reform?
Then, too, the alien rule may be just and righteous and full of solid
benefit, but it is dull. In old days a man might be maltreated and
flogged, he might have his property confiscated, he might even lose
his life, according to the whim of his ruler, but the same whim might
equally make him Grand Vizier. Such fluctuations appeal to the
Oriental imagination. A veiled Protectorate must always be
something of a mystery to an Egyptian; the personal rule of a despot,
Effendina, the Lord of all, is much more suited to his instincts. At any
rate, it is difficult to discover much outward manifestation of an
appreciation of British rule; but it would be wrong to argue too
strongly from that. The fact is rather, indeed, a proof of the lightness
of the governing hand. The Egyptians know very well that we shall
never resent any opposition; they have confidence in our
forbearance. But if time should bring a change once more—and
there have been many changes in the past—it would be an evil day
for those who had been too open in their support of English rule. It is
well to be on the safe side.
If you take an intelligent and prosperous Egyptian, old enough to
remember the days of Ismail—for example, a lawyer who has saved
enough money to make a considerable investment in land, the prime
ambition of every native, a man who speaks a couple of European
languages, has had a good education himself, and is very likely
sending his son to Oxford or Cambridge—and question him upon
British rule in Egypt, he will probably tell you something as follows:—
‘No one who has eyes to see can question the benefit of the
British occupation. The country has attained such prosperity as
never before. We knew very well that no other European nation
would have ruled us with such a single eye to the well-being of the
natives. We realize the devotion and ability of the British officials. We
would rather have you than any other rulers, and we are well aware
that if you went we might easily become subject to a King Stork. In
such a case your popularity would become enormous. Doubtless we
should clamour for your return. But we cannot help dreaming of the
glories that might have been ours if our Khedives had not wasted
their chances. Who can say how great an African empire might have
existed? Long before European nations began to take a hand in the
partition of Africa, we held the whole valley of the Nile to Uganda.
With a wise Government and such a starting-point, what limits could
have been set to our dominions? By the folly of our rulers we
squandered it all, and came to ruin. You have drawn us out of the pit,
but you thrust your benefits upon us at the point of the bayonet. In
spite of them, and perhaps unreasonably, we sigh for rulers of our
own faith and race, and we would sacrifice something of our
prosperity if we could feel ourselves the authors of what remained.’
Such longings are natural and creditable, and if the men who feel
them were capable or numerous enough to form a real governing
class, the prospects of the future might be different from what they
are. But they are not; and these dreams must remain dreams—for
some time to come, at any rate. Such discontents are the inevitable
outcome of the progress of our educative work in Egypt. Nothing
illustrates it better than the recent movement among the Egyptian
officers of some of the Soudanese battalions. These men had been
trained on a British model; they had gained much experience in the
stern school of actual warfare, and yet they found the higher ranks of
the Service barred to them, and filled by a succession of British
officers, younger and less experienced than themselves. Their
discontent was natural, but their disappointment was also inevitable.
In spite of their training and experience, to have given them the
promotion they wished for would have been to ruin the efficiency of
the army. You cannot make bricks without straw, however scientific
your methods.
It would be very easy to exaggerate the importance of such
murmurings. They are as nothing in the face of the rising tide of
prosperity which has come to the mass of the labouring population
as the result of our rule, and which is its overwhelming justification.
In the Delta provinces, in Middle and Upper Egypt, in the Fayoum,
the undeniable facts rise up and confront you. Wages have
increased in some places as much as 50 per cent., and with the rise
has gone an enormous improvement in all the conditions of life. The
fellaheen are building better houses, they are better fed, disease is
less, they are happier every way. And as labourers they well deserve
it. Many faults they have, but nowhere in the world can a more
industrious, patient, and hard-working people be found.
In the Mosque el Azhar, the Mohammedan University of Cairo, the
interpretation of the Koran is the principal subject of study, and it is
said that weeks and months, and even years, are spent by
professors and pupils in subtle and ingenious dissertations on such a
question as, Who is your neighbour? Is a man living over your head
more worthy of the name than one who lives next door? And so on. If
in these reforming days these pundits turn their attention to politics,
they will find an almost equally insoluble problem in attempting to
define the exact nature of British rule in Egypt. To them the question
may safely be left. But while the learned few are labouring through
its intricate maze with the most agreeable lack of success, the
unlearned many will have their own simple answer. They only know
the thing was done; it matters nothing by what authority. The water
came to them regularly in due season, and the wilderness was made
to blossom like the rose.
CHAPTER XI
SCHEMES FOR THE FUTURE
The completion of one programme by the construction of the

Reservoir and the works dependent upon it does not mean
stagnation. Irrigation is an ever-growing and ever-living science.
There can be no standing still. Even in the ordinary routine there are
thousands of details always pressing forward for fresh consideration.
It takes but a few years for a daring innovation to become old-
fashioned. The system of perennial irrigation in Egypt is so young
that there is still much to be learnt. It means a totally new style of
agriculture. Nothing but constant experiment and constant
watchfulness will enable the engineers to distribute the water to the
best advantage. The best methods of reclaiming new land, and of
preventing the deterioration of the old, the maintenance and
improvement of existing locks, weirs, regulators, barrages, and other
masonry, the care of canals and drains—these and an infinity of
other matters fill the life of the irrigation engineer, so that, always
interesting, it is also at times even exciting. Decisions of great and
immediate importance have to be constantly and promptly taken.
Their duty touches very nearly the lives of all who dwell and labour
within their districts. There can be no question of any folding of the
hands to slumber. But beyond all this, it is the peculiar good fortune
of those whose care is the water-supply of Egypt that they have to
travel in thought or in fact over half a great continent, and discuss
schemes of a magnitude and extent enough to stagger the
imagination of the boldest dreamer. The Anglo-Egyptian army at
Omdurman opened an entirely new chapter in the history of the
control of the Nile.
No one can hold Egypt securely unless he holds also the whole
valley of the Nile. The sources of the river in hostile, or even in
indifferent, lands must always be a grave cause of danger, or, at the
best, anxiety. If tradition be correct, the Abyssinians on more than
one occasion made use of their position on the Nile as a powerful
lever in negotiations with Egypt. Vansleb, the Dutch seventeenth-
century traveller already quoted,[6] is not perhaps perfectly
trustworthy as to his facts, but at least he is evidence as to the
tradition. He had in his possession, he says, a copy in Arabic of a
letter written by David, King of Ethiopia (i.e., Abyssinia), surnamed
Constantine, to ‘Abu Seid Barcuk, King of Egypt, in the year of
martyrs 1193, in which he threatens in two distinct places to turn
aside the river Nilus and hinder it from entering into Egypt,’ so as to
cause all the inhabitants to perish with hunger, if he ‘continues to vex
the Copties.’ Vansleb also says that ‘the King of Ethiopia hindered
the current of Nilus and turned it out of Egypt in the days of
Mostanser, one of the califfes of Egypt, which obliged him to send
the Patriarch of the Copties with rich presents to the King of Ethiopia,
to entreat him to take away the bank, which he had raised to turn
aside the river. The King of Ethiopia having granted this request for
the sake of the Patriarch, the river increased in one night 3 cubits,
which was sufficient to water the fields.’ Doubtless the tradition is
founded on fact; if the country in question had been occupied by a
Power with any engineering skill, there is little doubt that this method
of pressure would have been oftener adopted.
The danger is by no means an imaginary one, and this is
recognised in the latest treaty between the Government of the
Soudan and Abyssinia, concluded May 15, 1902, in which it is laid
down that no work shall be constructed across the Blue Nile, Lake
Tsana, or the river Sobat, which shall arrest the flow of their waters
into the Nile, except by mutual agreement.
If even now it is thought necessary to make formal treaty
arrangements on the subject with Abyssinia, much more real would
be the apprehension if the Soudan Government were hostile to
Egypt. But quite apart from any hostility, an important question might
arise. We have seen what great efforts have been made in Egypt
under the system of perennial irrigation to secure a good supply of
water in the summer months; it is then that the river is at its lowest;
the best of reservoirs can only supplement the natural flow of the
river. At the very time that it would be easiest to do it, an interference
with that natural flow would be most disastrous. The mere
employment of a considerable amount of water on irrigation in the
Soudan during the summer months might have a very serious effect.
The possession of the Soudan practically guarantees to Egypt the
safety of her water-supply. The fact that the sources of the White
Nile are in purely British territory, and that in the Soudan itself the
British flag flies side by side with the Egyptian, gives thus a more
and more permanent aspect to the British position in Egypt.
It is calculated that at the present moment another 3,500,000,000
cubic metres of water over and above the present summer supply,
including the Assouan Reservoir, would amply suffice for all possible
requirements in Egypt. When the Dam is raised to its full height,
about 1,000,000,000 cubic metres more will be provided. If only
Egypt were to be considered, the remainder of the water required
could be stored in a similar reservoir built somewhere above Wadi
Halfa. Egypt could then be developed to its very fullest extent, but
‘such a work,’ as Sir W. Garstin remarks, ‘would leave untouched the
countries bordering the river to the south. Their interests must be
safeguarded by such a scheme as will insure them a proportional
share in the prospective benefits.’
From every point of view the interests of the Soudan are vital to
Egypt. Bitterly has she suffered from the neglect of those interests in
the past. Misrule and oppression caused the Mahdi’s rebellion, with
all its burden of shame and suffering. With a more intelligent enemy
the loss of the control of the Nile might have meant irretrievable
disaster. She knows now that a prosperous and contented Soudan is
the best safeguard against rebellion. Upon England, too, rests the
responsibility for the welfare of those vast provinces, once so
shamefully abandoned to barbarism and ruin. English arms have
retrieved that disgrace. It would be impossible to allow the Soudan to
get nothing and Egypt everything, even if such a course were not
certain to be fatal to both.
At present far-reaching schemes are being carefully inquired into,
under the guidance of Sir W. Garstin. Fortunately for Egypt, she
possesses in him an adviser of unsurpassed experience, cool,
careful, and level-headed, upon whose final judgment she may
confidently rely. He has already made a report, after personal
observation, upon the White Nile and its main affluents, and he has
recently returned from a journey to Lake Victoria Nyanza and Lakes
Albert and Albert Edward, the results of which have not yet been
published. Another expedition was also sent in 1902-1903 to explore
Lake Tsana and the upper course of the Blue Nile. A mass of
information is being collected and quietly digested, and in due time
the policy to be pursued will be settled on. For the moment there is
no occasion for hurrying. It will take time for Egypt to make full use of
the advantages of the Assouan Reservoir. The Soudan, though
rapidly progressing, is hardly yet in a position to reap the advantage
of such changes on a great scale. When the engineers have
completed their observations, there will still be the financial aspect of
the question to take in hand. Schemes involving the regulation of
2,000 miles of river cannot be subjected to too great scrutiny before
arriving at a decision. It would be rash to speculate on what course
will be finally adopted, before all the data are known, but it will not be
out of place to give some indication of the rival projects in view, and
to glance at some of the arguments for and against.
All the schemes aim at establishing a control over the head-
waters of the Blue or the White Nile, and so increasing the supply in
the river when it is most scanty. Anyone can see that the Blue Nile
depends upon Lake Tsana, which is across the Abyssinian frontier,
and the White Nile upon the Lakes Victoria and Albert Nyanza.
Proposals have been made for regulating the outflow from each of
these lakes, or from them all, and also for preventing the waste of
water which now takes place in the swamp country south of
Fashoda. Up till now the plan of building a dam at the point where
the Blue Nile emerges from Lake Tsana has been most in favour.
It has several great advantages. This lonely lake is situated some
6,000 feet above sea-level, in a wild and desolate country in
Northern Abyssinia. It is 3,300 square kilometers in extent, and very
deep. During six months in the year there are very heavy rains in the
area which drains into the lake. Between Lake Tsana and Khartoum,
a distance of 1,350 kilometres, the Blue Nile falls over 1,000 metres,
and its rocky bed makes it very suitable as a channel for carrying the
water. It is deep and narrow, with high, steep banks, and so the less
liable to evaporation. For every metre by which the level of the lake
was raised, 3,300,000,000 cubic metres would be stored, and it is
obvious that, if the level were raised 4 or 5 metres, there would, after
making a proper deduction for evaporation, be ample water to supply
the greatest demand in Egypt, and also plenty besides available in
the Soudan. There are also strong arguments for irrigation works on
the Blue Nile. After the Cataracts of Rosaires, which are roughly
speaking about halfway between Khartoum and Lake Tsana, the
river passes through fertile plains consisting of rich alluvial soil,
extending to a great distance on both sides. At present these lands
yield only small returns, dependent as they are upon a somewhat
capricious rainfall. With proper irrigation they would be most
productive, and the water coming down from Tsana might be utilized,
without any great difficulties, by a system of canals starting from this
point, assisted by barrages and weirs. Further, the river would thus
be rendered navigable at all seasons of the year, and would thus
become an effective trade route in the most promising part of the
Soudan. The great objection is that Lake Tsana lies wholly within
Abyssinian territory. Nothing could be done without some very
definite arrangement with the Emperor Menelik, and one that would
be irrevocable by any successor of his who might be less friendlily
disposed. Nothing, in fact, would be absolutely satisfactory unless
complete sovereignty over the Reservoir district were assured to the
Soudan Government. In view of the fact that the whole of this region
is perfectly valueless to Abyssinia, or, indeed, to anybody else,
except for purposes of water-storage, it does not seem impossible
that by some cession of territory, or other compensation elsewhere,
a satisfactory arrangement may be come to. But even so, the
remoteness of the lake and the difficulties of transport would prevent
the immediate realization of the scheme. Without a railway from
some point in the Nile Valley it would be practicably impossible to
collect the necessary materials and supplies, and such a railway will
not be an affair of this year or next.
Precisely on the points where the Lake Tsana scheme is weakest
the schemes for utilizing one or both of the great lakes of Uganda
are strongest. Precisely where it is strong they are weakest. Any
works damming the exits of Lake Victoria Nyanza or Lake Albert
would be wholly within British territory. They would also be in a
region much more easily accessible from the sea. Lake Victoria has
already railway communication with Mombasa, and the transport of
material, and also of coolie labour from India would be comparatively
easy. In the case of Lake Albert, a railway would have to be built
from Lake Victoria; but this would be of service to the country apart
from any irrigation works, and would, indeed, practically establish
through communication by boat and railway between Mombasa and
Alexandria. But here their advantages over Lake Tsana end. The
whole region is very much subject to earthquakes. The strain to
which great masonry works would be subjected might be very
severe. The country through which the White Nile passes is very
unsuited to large irrigation works. Much of it is swamp, and the low
slope of the land is ill-adapted for canals. The soil, too, is poor and
light compared with the rich alluvial tracts on the Blue Nile, which
would of course receive no benefit. Practically only the provinces
north of Khartoum would receive any benefit from the increased
supply, and in them the cultivable land can never be more than a
mere strip along the river, so circumscribed are they by the desert
ridges. In any case they would be equally benefited by water coming
from the Blue Nile. Besides this, the negro population living on the
White Nile is very much less advanced, and less likely to form an
industrious agricultural population than the inhabitants of the Eastern
Soudan.
Nor is the bed of the White Nile well adapted for carrying the
water. From Lake Albert to Khartoum the distance is 2,100
kilometres, and the total drop is only 300 metres. It flows slower
through a hotter country. Except between Duffile and Rejaf it is very
wide and shallow, without any banks to speak of, and with a sandy or
muddy bottom. For at least half its course it runs through swamps,
and between Bor and Lake No alone it is calculated to lose half its
volume by dissipation and evaporation in the marshes. But for the
important contribution made by the Sobat, the volume reaching
Khartoum would be very much smaller than it is. If, then, a
considerable extra supply of water is to be brought down from the
equatorial lakes, the scheme must involve a permanent improvement
in the channel of the Bahr el Gebel, as the upper portion of the White
Nile is called.
This, according to Sir W. Garstin, can only be effected in one way,
by embanking the river for its whole length between Bor and Lake
No, a distance of 624 kilometres. When it is considered that all
supplies would have to be brought from Khartoum, 1,000 kilometres
distant; that during four months of the year work is impossible, owing
to the incessant rains; that the local tribes can never be relied upon
for labour; that the climate is exceedingly bad and unhealthy at all
seasons; and that the actual engineering difficulties in making the
banks would be by no means small, some idea may be formed of the
cost of such an undertaking. It is estimated that to complete it in five
years’ time would involve an expenditure of £3,700,000. Another
proposal, which is really independent of the Reservoir question, is to
use the Bahr el Zeraf to carry the extra summer supply at present
wasted in the marshes. The Bahr el Zeraf is a branch of the Nile,
taking off near Shambe, and entering the river again below Lake No
before the junction of the Sobat. The cost of preparing the Bahr el
Zeraf channel by means of dredging and embanking is estimated at
£1,250,000, and in addition certain supplementary works would be
required.
Until the result of Sir W. Garstin’s observations on the Albert Lake
are known, it will be impossible to make any accurate comparison of
the qualifications of the two lakes Victoria and Albert for being
utilized as reservoirs. Lake Victoria, which lies between the two ‘Rift
Valleys,’ is encircled by a low and shelving shore. It covers
approximately about 70,000 square kilometres. The Somerset Nile
flows out of it, and finds its way into Lake Albert. Lake Albert is the
northernmost of the chain of lakes in the western Rift Valley, and into
it drains the Albert Edward Lake by means of the Semliki River,
partly fed by the glaciers of Mount Ruwenzori. The Nile issues from it
at the northern end, not so very far from where the Somerset Nile
enters. Lake Albert is surrounded by mountains and cliffs. There is
comparatively little flat shore round it. Its area is roughly about 5,000
square kilometres. For every metre that the surface of each lake was
raised, Lake Victoria would store 70,000,000,000 cubic metres, and
Lake Albert 5,000,000,000. These enormous figures are enough to
show that, even when the largest allowance has been made for loss
by evaporation, dams of no great height on either lake would suffice
to store quite sufficient water for all possible needs in Egypt, and all
of the Soudan that could be touched by water coming down the
White Nile.
A very small rise in the level of Lake Victoria would give a very
large reserve of water, and therefore the works regulating its outflow
would be of less dimensions, and so, presumably, less subject to
damage by earthquakes. Being nearer the sea, they would,
moreover, be easier of construction. But Sir W. Garstin so far totally
rejects the idea of Lake Victoria. He says:
‘The amount of water which could be stored even by a very small rise in the
levels would be far beyond any possible requirements. This lake may
consequently be omitted altogether from any projects for water-storage. Much of
the country adjoining Lake Victoria Nyanza is densely populated, and the villages
are situated close to the shores. Any considerable rise in the water-levels would
flood a large and populous area of country. It must not, moreover, be forgotten that
about half the area covered by this lake falls within German territory. As the
inhabitants of the southern half of this lake would derive no benefit from such a
reservoir, it is quite conceivable that they might view any such proposal with
disfavour.’
He proceeds to argue that Lake Albert, on the other hand, is

specially adapted by its conformation for the purpose.
‘With a regulating dam at a point on the river below its exit, the Albert Lake
could well be used to store up water during the rainy season, which would be
discharged into the river during the months of low supply. In this way a double
purpose would be served: the volume of the river in flood would be diminished,
and in summer would be largely increased. The lake has an enormous catchment
area, and it seems probable that its levels could be, without serious difficulty,
raised to the required height.’
In all probability the arguments will be found to be conclusive in

favour of a dam at the exit to Lake Albert, but the reasoning against
a regulator for Lake Victoria does not appear at first sight very
cogent. Sir W. Garstin tells us that three years ago the mean water
level of the lake averaged some 8 feet lower than it did twenty years
earlier. But between January 1 and June 1, 1901, the level rose 3
feet 3 inches. When such fluctuations already occur in the ordinary
course of Nature, it would seem that some very useful regulation
might be carried out without causing the least inconvenience to any
dwellers on the shore, German or otherwise. All these remarks,
however, were written quite tentatively by Sir W. Garstin before he
had personally examined these regions, and his next report will be
certain to give fuller information on the matter. Perhaps in the end
both lakes will be subjected to the yoke of the engineers.
Such in brief outline are the gigantic schemes which are now
engaging the attention of the irrigation authorities of Egypt. Great as
are the achievements of the past, they look almost petty before
these visions of the future.
CHAPTER XII
THE SUDD
If the White Nile carried its waters in a channel in any way

resembling that of the Blue Nile, there would be small cause for
anxiety over the summer supply of Egypt. As far as Lado, indeed,
the Bahr el Gebel, or Mountain River, as it is called, does flow with
as good a slope and as sound a rocky bed as any Egyptian could
desire. Then it enters upon the great plain which extends practically
as far as Khartoum, but until Bor is reached it has not to encounter
more than the ordinary troubles of a flat country. The swamps are
still well above the summer level of the river, and the loss of volume
is not great. At Bor, however, the real difficulties begin, and the
‘shorn and parcelled river strains’ miserably along for some 350
miles through the real sudd country. The river that leaves Lado in
April or March with a volume of 600 cubic metres per second is
reduced to less than half this amount by the time it emerges from the
maze on the further side, and that, too, although it has nominally
received at Lake No through the Bahr el Ghazal the drainage of a
vast province.
Lake No is the remains of an inland sea which once covered all
this desolate region. Gradually this lake became silted up with peaty
deposits, and formed a series of swamps and lagoons through which
the Bahr el Gebel from the south and the Bahr el Ghazal from the
west wander in a series of loops and curves without any certain
banks. The smallest rise in the level of the river floods an immense
tract of country, and at all times of the year the sudd region is one
gigantic evaporating pan. The Bahr el Ghazal, so far as any active
contribution to the volume of the Nile is concerned, is practically lost
altogether, though by spreading out over the marshes it fills a space
which the Bahr el Gebel would otherwise occupy, and so helps to
form a sort of reservoir, which prevents any rapid fall in the level of
the White Nile.
All these swamps are covered with a dense growth of reeds and
water-weeds. Of these, the most important is the papyrus, which
grows in great abundance, and often reaches a height of 10 to 16
feet. Once the papyrus was common in Egypt, but now it is not found
north of Abu Zeid, 190 miles south of Khartoum. In Europe it is not
found, except on the river Anapo in Sicily, where, however, it does
not attain anything like the same luxuriant growth. There are also
great stretches of the reed called in Arabic ‘um soof,’ or the mother
of wool. It is no wonder that the party sent by Nero to explore the
river was intimidated by these interminable forests of papyrus and
reeds, and turned back. No travellers have a good word to say for
this country, unless they only pass through it extremely quickly. It is
monotonous and desolate in the extreme, the air is always hot and
steamy, and after dark mosquitoes rage in countless myriads.
As far as Shambe the banks of the river are fairly well defined, but
there are numbers of breaches in them, through which the water
spills into the marshes. In a distance of seventy-five miles Sir W.
Garstin counted 129 of these breaches, usually about 4 yards wide;
nearly all of these were on the eastern side. These channels are
deeply cut with vertical sides, as if dug by hand, and the loss of
water through them is very great. The marshes on the eastern side
drain off into the Bahr el Zeraf, which takes off near Shambe, and,
cutting off the corner, rejoins the Nile below Lake No. Greatly
diminished by this loss, the Bahr el Gebel continues on its way, its
bank being often nothing more than a line of papyrus separating it
from large lagoons or dense thickets of reeds. As long as the
channel is clear, tortuous and winding though it is, a great deal of
water is able to pass; but under certain circumstances the channel
becomes blocked by bars of solid vegetable matter, called sudd.
Upstream of the obstruction the level rises, and, spreading out over
the marshes, more and more water is lost in evaporation.
Sudd occurs both in the Bahr el Ghazal and the Bahr el Gebel,
but it is of different kinds. The Ghazal sudd is very much less
substantial than that of the Gebel. It is chiefly composed of masses
of the smaller swimming plants, which grow in Lake Ambadi and
other shallow lagoons on that river and its affluents. But on the

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High-speed Railway Bridges:

Conceptual Design Guide José Romo

Conceptual Design Guide

José Romo, Alejandro Pérez-Caldentey, and Manuel Cuadrado

Manuel Cuadrado Library of Congress Card No.: applied for

Cover: Riudellots Viaduct, Riudellots de Bibliographic information published by

© 2024 Ernst & Sohn GmbH, Rotherstraße 21,

All rights reserved (including those of

Print ISBN: 978-3-433-03313-5

Cover Design: Petra Franke/Ernst & Sohn GmbH

Printed on acid-free paper.

1 Introduction to High-Speed Railway Bridges 1

1.6 Railway Bridges as Landmarks or Icons of a Line 22

2 Track for High-Speed Bridges 29

3 Conceptual Design of High-Speed Railway Bridges 61

3.2.3 Rotation at Expansion Joints 62

3.7.3.1 Simply Supported Spans 100

4 Design Basis 117

4.3.3.1 Introduction 124

5 Dynamic Behaviour of High-Speed Railway Bridges 143

5.2 Methods for Dynamic Calculations and Structural Response 153

6 Longitudinal Track–Structure Interaction 185

7 Conceptual Design for Maintenance 239

Appendix A Basic Concepts of Dynamics 249

Appendix B Singular Bridges for High-Speed Railway Lines 263

B.1.8.2 Description 278

B.3.7.1 Data Summary 304

Madrid, June 2023 Jorge Nasarre

About the Authors

Alejandro Pérez-Caldentey is full Associate Professor at the Department of

Manuel Cuadrado holds an MSc in Civil engineering from the Polytechnic

Introduction to High-Speed Railway Bridges

1.1 Book’s Content

High-Speed Railway Bridges: Conceptual Design Guide, First Edition.

1.2 What is Special About a High-Speed Rail Bridge?

1.2.1 Dynamic Ampliﬁcation and Resonance

Resonance of a structure occurs when the frequencies of the dynamic excitatory

1.2.2 Rail Trafﬁc Security

1.2.3 Passenger’s Comfort

1.2.4 Track–Structure Interaction

1.3 General Ideas on High-Speed Railway Bridges

Figure 1.1 Sar Viaduct (FHECOR), Spain (Source: FHECOR).

1.4 Evolution and Trends in High-Speed Bridge Design

1.4.1.1 First-Generation German Bridges

LFC LFC LFC

LFC LFC LFC Horizontal

SEJ SEJ SEJ SEJ SEJ SEJ

limited to 400 m so that this section could be replaced, at least theoretically, in a

Longitudinal force couplers Longitudinal force couplers

Structural expansion joints Structural expansion joints

SEJ SEJ SEJ SEJ

SEJ = Structural expansion joint

Horizontal Horizontal LFC

470.0 630.0 456.0

Figure 1.8 Avignon viaducts with intermediate expansion joint (1999).

1.4.1.2 First-Generation French Bridges

1.4.1.3 First-Generation Spanish Bridges

SEJ = Structural expansion joint

Figure 1.9 Example of a Spanish bridge with a continuous deck.

1.4.2 Recent High-Speed Bridges

1.4.2.2 Second-Generation German Bridges

Structural expansion joints

Figure 1.10 La Savoureuse Viaduct (2011).