I N T R O D U C T I O N TO

R O B OT I C S
(OEC-EE 703)

NIRMAL MURMU
D E PA RT M E N T O F A P P L I E D P H Y S IC S
U N I V E R S I TY O F C A LC U T TA
Department of Applied Physics, University of Calcutta

SYLLABUS
• Module 1: Basics of Robotics ( 10 Hours)
• Introduction, components and structure of robotics system.

• Module 2: Robotics Kinematics (10 Hours)

• Kinematics of manipulators, rotation translation and transformation, David –
Hastemberg Representation, Inverse Kinematics. Dyamics – modeling using Newton
Euler equation.

• Module 3: Robot Dynamics ( 10 Hours)

• Linearization of Robot Dynamics – State variable continuous and discrete models.

• Module 4: Robotic Motion (10 Hours)

• Different types of trajectories and introduction to their generation. Position Control:
Independent joint control. Introduction to advanced control for robot application.

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INTRODUCTION TO ROBOTICS
• Industrial Manipulator
• Robot arm kinematics and dynamics
• Planning of manipulator trajectory
• Elementary steps for robot arm design
• Control of robot arm
• Force and Impedance Control
• Mobile Robot: Wheeled and legged robots, trajectory planning,
locomotion, SLAM.

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BOOKS & REFERENCES

[1] J. Craig, Introduction to robotics. Upper Saddle River, N.J.:
Pearson/Prentice Hall, 2005.
[2] J. Selig, Introductory robotics. New York, NY: Prentice Hall, 1992.
[3] R. J. Schilling, Fundamentals of robotics analysis and control, 5th
ed. New Delhi: Prentice-Hall, 1990.
[4] M. Groover, M. Weiss, R. Nagel, N. Odrey and A.
Dutta, Industrial robotics. New Delhi: McGraw-Hill, 2012.ork, NY:
Prentice Hall, 1992.
[5] R. Murray, Z. Li and S. Sastry, A Mathematical Introduction to
Robotic Manipulation. CRC, 1994.

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 ODD SEMESTER, 2023
BOOKS & REFERENCES
Department of Applied Physics, University of Calcutta
Department of Applied Physics, University of Calcutta

V E L O C I T I E S A N D S TAT I C
FORCE

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D I F F E R E N T I AT I O N O F P O S I T I O N
VECTORS
• Derivative of a vector:

𝐵 𝐵
𝐵 𝑑 𝐵 𝑄(𝑡 + Δ𝑡) − 𝑄(𝑡)
𝑉𝑄 = 𝑄 = lim
𝑑𝑡 Δ𝑡→0 Δ𝑡

• We are calculating the derivative of Q relative to frame B.

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D I F F E R E N T I AT I O N O F P O S I T I O N
VECTORS
• A velocity vector may be described in terms of any frame:
A

( V ) = dt
A B
Q
dB
Q

( V )=
• We may write it: A B A
Q B R BVQ .
• Speed vector is a free vector
• Special case: Velocity of the origin of a frame relative to some
understood universe reference frame
U
=
V C V CORG
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EXAMPLE 5.1
• Both vehicles are heeding in 𝑋෠ direction of 𝑈
100 mph
A fixed universal frame

30 mph
U
dU
PCORG =U VCORG = vC = 30 Xˆ .
dt
( VTORG )=C vT =UC RvT =UC R (100 Xˆ )=CU R −1100 Xˆ .
C U

C T
( VCORG )=TC RT VCORG =UC RUT RT VCORG =−CU R −1UT R 70 Xˆ .

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ANGULAR VELOCITY VECTOR (𝛀) :

• Linear velocity → attribute of a point
• Angular velocity → attribute of a body
• Since we always attach a frame to a body we can consider
angular velocity as describing rational motion of a frame.

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ANGULAR VELOCITY VECTOR (𝛀) :

𝐴
• 𝛺𝐵 describes the rotation of frame {𝐵} relative to{𝐴}
• Direction of AΩB indicates instantaneous axis of rotation
• Magnitude of 𝐴𝛺𝐵 indicates speed of rotation
• In the case which there is an understood reference frame:

 C
= U
C

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LINEAR VELOCITY OF A RIGID

BODY
We wish to describe
motion of {𝐵} relative to
frame {𝐴}

If rotation 𝐵𝐴𝑅 𝐴
𝑉𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉𝐵𝑂𝑅𝐺 + 𝐵𝐴𝑅 𝐵𝑉𝑄 .
is not changing with time:
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R O TAT I O N A L V E L O C I T Y O F A
RIGID BODY
• Two frames with coincident
{A}
origins
A
B {B}
B
Q
• The orientation of 𝐵 with
respect to 𝐴 is changing in
time.
• Lets consider that vector 𝑄 is
constant as viewed from B.
𝐵
𝑉𝑄 = 0

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R O TAT I O N A L V E L O C I T Y O F A
RIGID BODY
• Δ𝑄 is perpendicular to AΩ𝐵 and A𝑄
• Magnitude of differential change is:
Δ𝑄 = (|A𝑄| sin 𝜃)(|AΩ𝐵 |Δ𝑡)
𝐴
𝑉𝑄 = AΩ𝐵 × A𝑄
Vector cross product

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R O TAT I O N A L V E L O C I T Y O F A
RIGID BODY

In general case:𝐴𝑉𝑄 = 𝐴(𝐵𝑉𝑄 ) + AΩ𝐵 × 𝐴𝑄

𝐴
𝑉𝑄 = 𝐵𝐴𝑅 𝐵𝑉𝑄 + 𝐴Ω𝐵 × 𝐵𝐴𝑅 𝐵𝑄

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S I M U LTA N E O U S L I N E A R A N D
R O TAT I O N A L V E L O C I T Y

𝐴
𝑉𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉𝐵𝑂𝑅𝐺 + 𝐵𝐴𝑅 𝐵𝑉𝑄 + 𝐴Ω𝐵 × 𝐵𝐴𝑅 𝐵𝑄.

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MOTION OF THE LINKS OF A

ROBOT

Written in frame i

At any instant, each link of a robot in motion has some linear and
angular velocity.
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VELOCITY OF A LINK
• Remember that linear velocity is associated with a
point and angular velocity is associated with a body.
Thus:
• The velocity of a link means the linear velocity of the
origin of the link frame and the rotational velocity of
the link

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V E LO C I T Y P R O PA G AT I O N F R O M
LINK TO LINK
• We can compute the velocities of each link in order
starting from the base.
• The velocity of link i+1 will be that of link i, plus
whatever new velocity component added by joint i+1.

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R OTAT I O N A L V E LO C I T Y
• Rotational velocities may be added when both w
vectors are written with respect to the same frame.
• Therefore the angular velocity of link i+1 is the same
as that of link i plus a new component caused by
rotational velocity at joint i+1.

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VELOCITY VECTORS OF
NEIGHBORING LINKS

𝑖 +
𝜔𝑖+1 = 𝑖𝜔𝑖 + 𝑖+1𝑖𝑅𝜃ሶ 𝑖+1 𝑖 1𝑍መ𝑖+1 .

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V E L O C I T Y P R O PA G AT I O N F R O M L I N K
TO LINK
i +1
• Note that: 0 
• i +1   
 i +1 Z i +1 = 0 
• 
 i +1 
• By pre-multiplying both sides of previous equation to: 𝑖+1𝑖 𝑅
+1
• 𝑖+1𝑖𝑅 𝑖𝜔𝑖+1 = 𝑖+1
𝑖 𝑅 𝑖
𝜔𝑖 + 𝑖+1 𝑖 ሶ
𝑖 𝑅 𝑖+1𝑅 𝜃𝑖+1
𝑖 𝑍መ𝑖+1 .

𝑖+1 𝑖 +1
𝜔𝑖+1 = 𝑖+1
𝑖 𝑅 𝜔𝑖 ሶ
+ 𝜃𝑖+1 𝑖 𝑍መ𝑖+1 .

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LINEAR VELOCITY
• The linear velocity of the origin of frame {𝑖 + 1}
is the same as that of the origin of frame
{𝑖} plus a new component caused by rotational
velocity of link 𝑖.

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LINEAR VELOCITY
• Simultaneous linear and rotational velocity:
𝐴
𝑉𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉𝐵𝑂𝑅𝐺 + 𝐵𝐴𝑅 𝐵𝑉𝑄 + 𝐴Ω𝐵 × 𝐵𝐴𝑅 𝐵𝑄.
𝑖
𝑣𝑖+1 = 𝑖𝑣𝑖 + 𝑖𝜔𝑖 × 𝑖𝑃𝑖+1 .
• By pre-multiplying both sides of previous equation to: 𝑖+1𝑖𝑅
𝑖+1 𝑖 𝑖+1 𝑖 𝑖 𝑖
𝑖 𝑅 𝑣𝑖+1 = 𝑖 𝑅( 𝑣𝑖 + 𝜔𝑖 × 𝑃𝑖+1 )
𝑖+1
𝑣𝑖+1 = 𝑖+1𝑖𝑅( 𝑖𝑣𝑖 + 𝑖𝜔𝑖 × 𝑖𝑃𝑖+1 )

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P R I S M AT I C J O I N T S L I N K
• For the case that joint 𝑖 + 1 is prismatic:

𝑖+1 𝑖+1 𝑖
𝜔𝑖+1 = 𝑖 𝑅 𝜔𝑖
𝑖+1 𝑖 𝑖 𝑖 +1
𝑣𝑖+1 = 𝑖+1
𝑖 𝑅( 𝑣𝑖 ሶ
+ 𝜔𝑖 × 𝑃𝑖+1 ) + 𝑑𝑖+1 𝑖 𝑍መ𝑖+1

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V E LO C I T Y P R O PA G AT I O N F R O M
LINK TO LINK
• Applying those previous equations
successfully from link to link, we can compute
the rotational and linear velocities of the last
link.

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EXAMPLE
• Calculate the velocity of the tip of the arm as a
function of joint rates?

A 2-link manipulator with rotational joints

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EXAMPLE
• Frame assignments for the two link manipulator

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EXAMPLE
• We compute link transformations:

𝑐1 −𝑠1 0 0 𝑐2 −𝑠2 0 𝑙1 1 0 0 𝑙2
0 𝑠1 𝑐1 0 0 1 𝑠2 𝑐2 0 0 2 0 1 0 0
1 𝑇 = , 2𝑇 = , 3𝑇 = .
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1

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𝑖 𝑖 +1
𝑖
𝜔𝑖+1 = 𝜔𝑖 + 𝑖+1𝑅𝜃𝑖+1 ሶ 𝑖 𝑍መ𝑖+1
𝑖+1
𝑣𝑖+1 = 𝑖+1𝑖𝑅( 𝑖𝑣𝑖 + 𝑖𝜔𝑖 × 𝑖𝑃𝑖+1 )

EXAMPLE
• Link to link transformation

0 0
1 1
𝜔1 = 0 , 𝑣1 = 0 ,
𝜃ሶ1 0

0 𝑐2 𝑠2 0 0 𝑙1 𝑠2 𝜃ሶ1
2 2
𝜔2 = 0 , 𝑣2 = −𝑠2 𝑐2 0 𝑙1 𝜃ሶ1 = 𝑙1 𝑐2 𝜃ሶ1 ,
𝜃ሶ1 + 𝜃ሶ2 0 0 1 0 0
𝑙1 𝑠2 𝜃ሶ1
3 2 3 𝑙1 𝑠2 0 𝜃ሶ1
𝜔3 = 𝜔2 , 𝑣3 = 𝑙1 𝑐2 𝜃ሶ1 + 𝑙2 (𝜃ሶ1 + 𝜃ሶ2 ) = .
𝑙1 𝑐2 + 𝑙2 𝑙2 𝜃ሶ2
0

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EXAMPLE
• Velocities with respect to non moving base

𝑐12 −𝑠12 0
0
3𝑅 = 01𝑅 1
2𝑅
2 =
3𝑅 𝑠12 𝑐12 0 .
0 0 1
−𝑙1 𝑠1 𝜃ሶ1 − 𝑙2 𝑠12 (𝜃ሶ1 + 𝜃ሶ 2 )
0
𝑣3 = 03𝑅 3𝑣3 = 𝑙1 𝑐1 𝜃ሶ1 + 𝑙2 𝑐12 (𝜃ሶ1 + 𝜃ሶ 2 )
0
−𝑙1 𝑠1 − 𝑙2 𝑠12 −𝑙2 𝑠12 𝜃ሶ1
=
𝑙1 𝑐1 + 𝑙2 𝑐12 𝑙2 𝑐12 𝜃ሶ2

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D E R I VAT I V E O F A V E C TO R
FUNCTION
• If we have a vector function r which represents a
particle’s position as a function of time 𝑡:

𝐫 = 𝑟𝑥 𝑟𝑦 𝑟𝑧

𝑑𝐫 𝑑𝑟𝑥 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑑𝑟𝑧

=
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

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V E C TO R D E R I VAT I V E S
• We’ve seen how to take a derivative of a vector vs. A
scalar
• What about the derivative of a vector vs. A vector?

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JACOBIAN
• A Jacobian is a vector derivative with respect to
another vector
• If we have 𝑓(𝑥), the Jacobian is a matrix of partial
derivatives- one partial derivative for each
combination of components of the vectors
• The Jacobian is usually written as 𝐽(𝑓, 𝑥), but you can
really just think of it as 𝑑𝑓/𝑑𝑥

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JACOBIAN

𝜕𝑓1 𝜕𝑓1 𝜕𝑓1

...
𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑥2 𝜕𝑥𝑁
𝜕𝑓2 𝜕𝑓2
𝐽 𝐟, 𝐱 = 𝜕𝑥 ... ...
𝜕𝑥2
. . .1 ... ... ...
𝜕𝑓𝑀 𝜕𝑓𝑀
... ...
𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑥𝑁

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PA R T I A L D E R I VAT I V E S
• The use of the 𝜕 symbol instead of 𝑑 for partial
derivatives just implies that it is a single
component in a vector derivative.

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JACOBIAN
𝑦1 = 𝑓1 (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 , 𝑥4 , 𝑥5 , 𝑥6 ),
𝑦2 = 𝑓2 (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 , 𝑥4 , 𝑥5 , 𝑥6 ),
⋮
𝑦6 = 𝑓6 (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 , 𝑥4 , 𝑥5 , 𝑥6 ), 𝑌 = 𝐹(𝑋).
𝜕𝑓1 𝜕𝑓1 𝜕𝑓1
𝛿𝑦1 = 𝛿𝑥1 + 𝛿𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝛿𝑥 ,
𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑥2 𝜕𝑥6 6
𝜕𝑓2 𝜕𝑓2 𝜕𝑓2
𝛿𝑦2 = 𝛿𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝛿𝑥 ,
𝜕𝑥1 1 𝜕𝑥2 2 𝜕𝑥6 6 𝑱(𝑿)
⋮
Chain rule
𝜕𝑓6 𝜕𝑓6 𝜕𝑓6 𝜕𝐹
𝛿𝑦6 = 𝛿𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝛿𝑥 , 𝛿𝑌 = 𝛿𝑋
𝜕𝑥1 1 𝜕𝑥2 2 𝜕𝑥6 6 𝜕𝑋

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JACOBIAN
• In the field of robotics, we generally speak of
Jacobians which relate joint velocities to Cartesian
velocities of the tip of the arm.

Y = J ( X ) X .
 0
v 0 .
0
V =  0  = J ()
 
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JACOBIAN
For a 6 joint robot the Jacobian is 6x6, 𝜃ሶ is a 6x1 and
𝑣 is 6x1.
The number of rows in Jacobian is equal to number of
degrees of freedom in Cartesian space and the
number of columns is equal to the number of joints.

0 0 
V = J ()

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JACOBIAN
• In the example we had:

−𝑙1 𝑠1 𝜃ሶ1 − 𝑙2 𝑠12 (𝜃ሶ1 + 𝜃ሶ 2 )

0 −𝑙1 𝑠1 − 𝑙2 𝑠12 −𝑙2 𝑠12 𝜃ሶ1
𝑣3 = 03𝑅 3𝑣3 = 𝑙1 𝑐1 𝜃ሶ1 + 𝑙2 𝑐12 (𝜃ሶ1 + 𝜃ሶ2 ) = .
𝑙1 𝑐1 + 𝑙2 𝑐12 𝑙2 𝑐12 𝜃ሶ2
0
• Thus:
0 −𝑙1 𝑠1 − 𝑙2 𝑠12 −𝑙2 𝑠12
𝐽(Θ) =
𝑙1 𝑐1 + 𝑙2 𝑐12 𝑙2 𝑐12
• And also:
3 𝑙1 𝑠2 0
𝐽(Θ) =
𝑙1 𝑐2 + 𝑙2 𝑙2

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JACOBIAN
• Jacobian might be found by directly differentiating the
kinematic equations of the mechanism for linear
velocity, however there is no 3x1 orientation vector
whose derivative is rotational velocity. Thus we get
Jacobian using successive application of:
𝑖+1 𝑖+1 𝑖 𝑖 𝑖
𝑣𝑖+1 = 𝑖 𝑅( 𝑣𝑖 + 𝜔 𝑖 × 𝑃𝑖+1 )
𝑖+1 𝑖+1 𝑖 +1
𝜔𝑖+1 = 𝑖𝑅 𝜔𝑖 + 𝜃𝑖+1 ሶ 𝑖 𝑍መ𝑖+1

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SINGULARITIES
• Given a transformation relating joint velocity to
Cartesian velocity then
• Is this matrix invertible? ( Is it non singular)
0 
V = 0 J ( )
•
−1
 = J ( )v
det[ 𝐽] = 0: s𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦
det[ 𝐽] ≠ 0: 𝑛𝑜𝑛 − sin𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦

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SINGULARITIES
• Singularities are categorized into two class:
• Workspace boundary singularities:
• Occur when the manipulator is fully starched or folded back on
itself.
• Workspace interior singularities:
• Are away from workspace boundary and are caused by two or
more joint axes lining up.
• All manipulators have singularity at boundaries of their
workspace. In a singular configuration one or more degree of
freedom is lost. ( movement is impossible )

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EXAMPLE
• Find the singularities

A 2-link manipulator with rotational joints

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EXAMPLE
• Find the singularities

𝜃2 = 0 or 180

The arm is The arm is folded

stretched completely back on
straight out. itself

Motion of the hand again is possible

only in one Cartesian direction
instead of two.
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S TAT I C F O R C E S I N
M A N I P U L ATO R S
• Force and moments
propagation
• To solve for joint torques
in static equilibrium

𝑓𝑖 =force exerted on link 𝒊 by link 𝒊 − 𝟏

𝑛𝑖 = torque exerted on link 𝒊 by link 𝒊 − 𝟏

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S TAT I C F O R C E S I N
M A N I P U L AT O R S
• Solve for the joint torques
which must be acting to keep
the system in static equilibrium.
• Summing the force and setting
them equal to zero
𝑖
𝑓𝑖 − 𝑖𝑓𝑖+1 = 0
• Summing the torques about
the origin of frame 𝑖
𝑖
𝑛𝑖 − 𝑖𝑛𝑖+1 − 𝑖𝑃𝑖+1 × 𝑖𝑓𝑖+1 = 0

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Department of Applied Physics, University of Calcutta

S TAT I C F O R C E S I N
M A N I P U L ATO R S
• Working down from last link to the base we formulate the force moment
expressions
• Static force propagation from link to link:

𝑖
𝑓𝑖 = 𝑖𝑓𝑖+1 ,
𝑖
𝑛𝑖 = 𝑖𝑛𝑖+1 + 𝑖𝑃𝑖+1 × 𝑖𝑓𝑖+1 .

𝑖
𝑓𝑖 = 𝑖+1𝑖𝑅 𝑖+1𝑓𝑖+1 ,
𝑖
𝑛𝑖 = 𝑖+1𝑖𝑅 𝑖+1𝑛𝑖+1 + 𝑖𝑃𝑖+1 × 𝑖𝑓𝑖 .

• What torques are needed at the joint to balance reaction forces and moments
acting on the links? 𝜏 = 𝑖𝑛𝑇 ෢
𝑖
𝑖
𝑖𝑍.𝑖
𝑖 𝑇෢
𝜏𝑖 = 𝑓𝑖 𝑖𝑍𝑖 .

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Department of Applied Physics, University of Calcutta

EXAMPLE
• The two-link manipulator is applying a force vector
3
𝐹 with its end-effector. Find the required
joint torques as a function of configuration and of the
applied force.

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Department of Applied Physics, University of Calcutta

EXAMPLE
• Starting from the last link and going toward the base
of the robot:

ODD SEMESTER, 2023

 ODD SEMESTER, 2023
• The torques are,
EXAMPLE
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Department of Applied Physics, University of Calcutta

WO R K- E N E R GY P R I N C I P L E
• The change in the kinetic energy of an object is equal
to the net work done on the object.
• Principle of virtual work allows us to make certain
statements about the static case by allowing the
amount of this displacement to go to an infinitesimal

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Department of Applied Physics, University of Calcutta

PRINCIPLE OF VIRTUAL WORK

External virtual work equals the internal virtual strain energy.

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Department of Applied Physics, University of Calcutta

JACOBIANS IN THE FORCE

DOMAIN
• Can equate the work done in Cartesian terms with the work done in joint-
space terms
• Work is the dot product of a vector force or torque and a vector
displacement
𝐹 ⋅ 𝛿𝑋 = 𝜏 ⋅ 𝛿Θ
• It can be written as: F 𝑇 𝛿𝑋 = 𝜏 𝑇 𝛿Θ
• The definition of Jacobian is
𝛿𝑋 = 𝑗𝛿Θ
• So we have ,
F 𝑇 𝐽𝛿Θ = 𝜏 𝑇 𝛿Θ → F 𝑇 𝐽 = 𝜏 𝑇 .
𝜏 = 𝐽𝑇 F.
𝜏 = 0𝐽𝑇 0F.

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Department of Applied Physics, University of Calcutta

CA RT E S I A N T R A N S F O R M AT I O N O F
V E LO C I T I E S A N D STAT I C F O R C E S
General velocity of a body

𝑣 3 x1 linear velocity
V= 3 x1 angular velocity
ω

General force of a body

𝐹 3 x1 force vector
F=
𝑁 3 x1 moment vector

6 x 6 transformations map these quantities from one frame

to another.

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Department of Applied Physics, University of Calcutta

CA RT E S I A N T R A N S F O R M AT I O N O F
V E LO C I T I E S A N D STAT I C F O R C E S
• Velocity Propagation From Link to Link
𝑖+1 𝑖+1 𝑖 +
𝜔𝑖+1 = 𝑖 𝑅 𝜔𝑖 + 𝜃ሶ𝑖+1 𝑖 1𝑍መ𝑖+1 .
•
Since two frames are rigidly connected 𝜃𝑖+1 = 0
𝐵 𝐴
𝑣𝐵 𝐵
𝐴𝑅
− 𝐵𝐴𝑅 𝐴𝑃𝐵𝑂𝑅𝐺 × 𝑣𝐴
𝐵 = ቈ 𝐵
቉ 𝐴
𝑤𝐵 0 𝐴 𝑅 𝑤𝐴

Where the cross product is the matrix 0 −𝑝𝑧 𝑝𝑦

operator 𝑃 ×= 𝑝𝑧 0 −𝑝𝑥
−𝑝𝑦 𝑝𝑥 0

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Department of Applied Physics, University of Calcutta

C A R T E S I A N T R A N S F O R M AT I O N O F
V E LO C I T I E S A N D STAT I C F O R C E S
We use the term velocity transformation
𝐵
𝑣𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴𝑇𝑣 𝐴𝑣𝐴 Velocity
transformation
𝐵 𝐴
𝑣𝐵 𝐵
𝐴𝑅 − 𝐵𝐴𝑅 𝐴𝑃𝐵𝑂𝑅𝐺 × 𝑣𝐴
𝐵 = 𝐵 𝐴
𝜔𝐵 0 𝐴𝑅 𝜔𝐴

Description of velocity in terms of A when given the quantities in B

𝐴 𝐴 𝐴 𝐵
𝑣𝐴 𝐵𝑅 𝑃𝐵𝑂𝑅𝐺 × 𝐵𝐴𝑅 𝑣𝐵
𝐴 = 𝐴 𝐵
𝜔𝐴 0 𝐵𝑅 𝜔𝐵

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Department of Applied Physics, University of Calcutta

CA RT E S I A N T R A N S F O R M AT I O N O F
V E LO C I T I E S A N D STAT I C F O R C E S

A force-moment transformation
𝐴 𝐴 𝐵
𝐹𝐴 𝐵𝑅 0 𝐹𝐵
=൥𝐴 𝐴 ൨
𝐵𝑅
𝐴 𝐵
𝑁𝐴 𝑃𝐵𝑂𝑅𝐺 × 𝐵𝐴𝑅 𝑁𝐵

𝐴 Force-moment
𝐹𝐴 = 𝐵𝐴𝑇𝑓 𝐵𝐹𝐵
transformation

With similarity to Jacobians

𝐴
𝐵𝑇𝑓 = 𝐵𝐴𝑇𝑣𝑇

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Department of Applied Physics, University of Calcutta

EXAMPLE
Frames of interest with a force sensor

T
FT =TST f S FS ,
 T
SR 0
T
Tf =  T T 
.

S T
 SORG S R
P S R

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 ODD SEMESTER, 2023
M A N I P U L ATO R DY N A M I C S
Department of Applied Physics, University of Calcutta
Department of Applied Physics, University of Calcutta

INTRODUCTION
• Robot arm dynamics deals with the mathematical formulations of the
equations of robot arm motion.
• They are useful as:
• An insight into the structure of the robot system.
• A basis for model based control systems.
• A basis for computer simulations.

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E Q UAT I O N S O F M OT I O N
• The way in which the motion of the manipulator arises
from torques applied by the actuators, or from
external forces applied to the manipulator.

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A C C E L E R AT I O N O F A R I G I D B O DY
• Liner acceleration is computed as,

• Angular acceleration is computed as,

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L I N E A R A C C E L E R AT I O N
• From the equation of velocity computation, can write when the origin of two frames are
coincident

• Taking derivative of both side

The origins are

not coincident

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A N G U L A R A C C E L E R AT I O N
• {B} is rotating relative to {A} with 𝐴Ω𝐵 and {C} is rotating relative to {B} with 𝐵Ω𝐶

• Taking derivative of both side

• Rewriting,

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Department of Applied Physics, University of Calcutta

MASS DISTRIBUTION
• In rotational system, moment of inertia is the subject of interest
compare to mass of rigid body in single degree of freedom
• Inertia tensor, can be used to describe mass distribution for 3
DOF rotation of rigid body
• Describe w.r.t. any reference frame, frame attached to the
body may use
• When the product of inertia are zero, the axes of reference
frame are called the principal axes
• And the corresponding mass moments are the principal
moments of inertia.

Inertia tensor
relative to frame {A}

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EXAMPLE: MASS DISTRIBUTION

• Find the inertia tensor for the rectangular body of uniform density 𝜌 with respect to
the coordinate system

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ROBOT DYNAMICS: INERTIA

TENSOR
Moment of inertia: 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑟 2

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 ODD SEMESTER, 2023
ROBOT DYNAMICS: INERTIA
TENSOR
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Department of Applied Physics, University of Calcutta

ROBOT DYNAMICS: INERTIA

TENSOR
Mass distribution
along principal
axis

Z
b/2

Y
-b/2
-a/2 a/2
X

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 ODD SEMESTER, 2023
ROBOT DYNAMICS: INERTIA
TENSOR
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 ODD SEMESTER, 2023
ROBOT DYNAMICS: INERTIA
TENSOR
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 ODD SEMESTER, 2023
ROBOT DYNAMICS: INERTIA
TENSOR
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Department of Applied Physics, University of Calcutta

ROBOT DYNAMICS: INERTIA

TENSOR
−𝑦 2 − 𝑧 2 + 𝑧 2 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
=
2
= 𝑥2

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 ODD SEMESTER, 2023
ROBOT DYNAMICS: INERTIA
TENSOR
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 ODD SEMESTER, 2023
ROBOT DYNAMICS: INERTIA
TENSOR
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TENSOR
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 ODD SEMESTER, 2023
ROBOT DYNAMICS: INERTIA
TENSOR
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 ODD SEMESTER, 2023
ROBOT DYNAMICS: INERTIA
TENSOR
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 ODD SEMESTER, 2023
ROBOT DYNAMICS: INERTIA
TENSOR
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 ODD SEMESTER, 2023
ROBOT DYNAMICS: INERTIA
TENSOR
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 ODD SEMESTER, 2023
ROBOT DYNAMICS: INERTIA
TENSOR
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 ODD SEMESTER, 2023
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FORWARD AND INVERSE DYNAMICS

Given a trajectory point,𝛩, 𝛩,ሶ and 𝛩,ሷ

find the required vectors of joint torques, 𝜏.

: problem of controlling the manipulator

Given a torque vector, 𝜏

calculate the resulting motion of the manipulator,
𝛩, 𝛩,ሶ and 𝛩ሷ
: problem of simulating the manipulator
ODD SEMESTER, 2023 Department of Applied Physics, University of Calcutta
Department of Applied Physics, University of Calcutta

TWO APPROACHES
• Energy based: Lagrange-Euler.
• Simple and symmetric.
• Momentum/force approach: Newton-Euler.
• Efficient, derivation is simple but messy, involves vector cross
product. Allow real time control.

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Department of Applied Physics, University of Calcutta

NEWTON-EULER ALGORITHM
• Newton-Euler formulations makes two passes over the links of
manipulator

Velocities,
Accelerations

Forces, moments
Gravity

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NEWTON-EULER ALGORITHM
• Forward computation
• First compute the angular velocity, angular acceleration, linear
velocity, linear acceleration of each link in terms of its
preceding link.
• These values can be computed in recursive manner, starting
from the first moving link and ending at the end-effector link.
• The initial conditions for the base link will make the initial
velocity and acceleration values to zero.

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Department of Applied Physics, University of Calcutta

NEWTON-EULER ALGORITHM
• Backward computation
• Once the velocities and accelerations of the links are found,
the joint forces can be computed one link at a time starting
from the end-effector link and ending at the base link.

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N E W TO N ’ S E Q UAT I O N

𝐹 = 𝑚𝑣ሶ 𝐶

Force causing the acceleration

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E U L E R ’ S E Q U AT I O N

𝑁 = 𝐶 𝐼 𝜔ሶ + 𝜔 × 𝐶 𝐼𝜔

Moment causing the rotation

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I T E R AT I V E N E W TO N - E U L E R
DY N A M I C F O R M U L AT I O N
• Outward iterations to compute velocities and accelerations
• The force and torque acting on a link
• Inward iterations to compute forces and torques

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THE FORCE BALANCE FOR A LINK

𝑖
𝐹𝑖 = 𝑖𝑓𝑖 − 𝑖+1𝑖𝑅 𝑖+1𝑓𝑖+1

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THE TORQUE BALANCE FOR A

LINK

𝑖
𝑁𝑖 = 𝑖𝑛𝑖 − 𝑖𝑛𝑖+1 + (− 𝑖𝑃𝐶𝑖 ) × 𝑖𝑓𝑖 − ( 𝑖𝑃𝑖+1 − 𝑖𝑃𝐶𝑖 ) × 𝑖𝑓𝑖+1

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FORCE BALANCE
Using result of force and torque balance:

𝑖
𝑁𝑖 = 𝑖𝑛𝑖 − 𝑖+1𝑖𝑅 𝑖+1𝑛𝑖+1 − 𝑖𝑃𝐶𝑖 × 𝑖𝐹𝑖 − 𝑖𝑃𝑖+1 × 𝑖+1𝑖𝑅 𝑖+1𝑓𝑖+1

In iterative form:
𝑖
𝑓𝑖 = 𝑖𝐹𝑖 + 𝑖+1𝑖𝑅 𝑖+1𝑓𝑖+1
𝑖
𝑛𝑖 = 𝑖𝑁𝑖 + 𝑖+1𝑖𝑅 𝑖+1𝑛𝑖+1 + 𝑖𝑃𝐶𝑖 × 𝑖𝐹𝑖 + 𝑖𝑃𝑖+1 × 𝑖+1𝑖𝑅 𝑖+1𝑓𝑖+1

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T H E I T E R AT I V E N E W TO N - E U L E R
DYNAMICS ALGORITHM
1st step:
Link velocities and accelerations are iteratively computed from link 1 out to
link n and the Newton-Euler equations are applied to each link.

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T H E I T E R AT I V E N E W TO N - E U L E R
DYNAMICS ALGORITHM
2nd step:
Forces and torques of iteration and joint actuator torques are computed
recursively from link n back to link 1.

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INCLUSION OF GRAVITY FORCES

• The effect of gravity loading on the links can be included by
setting 0vሶ = G, where G is the gravity vector.
0

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THE STRUCTURE OF THE

M A N I P U L ATO R DY N A M I C
E Q UAT I O N S
𝜏 = 𝑀 (Θ)Θሷ + 𝑉(Θ, Θ)
ሶ + 𝐺(Θ) : state space equation
𝑀(Θ): 𝑛 × 𝑛 : mass matrix
ሶ 𝑛×1
𝑉(Θ, Θ): : centrifugal and Coriolis terms
𝐺(Θ): 𝑛 × 1 : gravity terms

𝜏 = 𝑀(Θ)Θሷ + 𝐵(Θ) Θሶ Θሶ + 𝐶(Θ) Θሶ 2 𝐺(Θ) : configuration space

𝐵(Θ): 𝑛 × 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)/2
𝑇
Θሶ Θሶ : 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)/2 × 1, 𝜃ሶ1 𝜃ሶ2 𝜃ሶ1 𝜃ሶ3
⋯ 𝜃ሶ 𝑛−1 𝜃ሶ𝑛 : matrix of Coriolis
coefficients
𝐶(Θ): 𝑛 × 𝑛 : centrifugal coefficients
𝑇
Θሶ 2 : 𝑛 × 1, 𝜃ሶ12 𝜃ሶ 22 ⋯ 𝜃ሶ𝑛2

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CORIOLIS FORCE
• A fictitious force exerted on a body when it moves in a rotating
reference frame.
𝐹𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑠 = 2𝑚(𝑣 × Ω)

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L AG R A N G I A N F O R M U L AT I O N O F
M A N I P U L ATO R DY N A M I C S
• An energy-based approach (N-E: a force balance approach)
• N-E and Lagrangian formulation will give the same equations of
motion.

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KINETIC AND POTENTIAL ENERGY

O F A M A N I P U L AT O R

1 𝑇
1 𝑖 𝑇 𝐶𝑖 𝑖
𝑘𝑖 = 𝑚𝑖 𝑣𝐶𝑖 𝑣𝐶𝑖 + 𝜔𝑖 𝐼𝑖 𝜔𝑖 ,
2𝑛 2
Total kinetic energy of a manipulator
𝑘 = ෍ 𝑘𝑖 .
𝑖=1

𝑢𝑖 = −𝑚𝑖 0𝑔𝑇 0𝑃𝐶𝑖 + 𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑖 ,

𝑛

𝑢 = ෍ 𝑢𝑖 . Total potential energy of a manipulator

𝑖=1

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LAGRANGIAN
• Is the difference between the kineticand potential
energy of a mechanical system

ሶ = 𝑘(Θ, Θ)
L(Θ, Θ) ሶ − 𝑢(Θ).

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T H E E Q U AT I O N S O F M O T I O N F O R
T H E M A N I P U L AT O R

𝑑 𝜕L 𝜕L
− =𝜏
ሶ
𝑑𝑡 𝜕Θ 𝜕Θ

𝑑 𝜕𝑘 𝜕𝑘 𝜕𝑢
− + =𝜏
ሶ
𝑑𝑡 𝜕Θ 𝜕Θ 𝜕Θ
𝑛 × 1 vector of actuator torque

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M A N I P U L AT O R D Y N A M I C S I N
C A R T E S I A N S PA C E
𝜏 = 𝑀(Θ)Θሷ + 𝑉(Θ, Θ) ሶ + 𝐺(Θ) Joint space formulation
ሶ + 𝐺𝑥 (Θ)
F = 𝑀𝑥 (Θ)Xሷ + 𝑉𝑥 (Θ, Θ) Cartesian space formulation

𝐽−𝑇 𝜏 = 𝐽−𝑇 𝑀(Θ)Θሷ + 𝐽−𝑇 𝑉(Θ, Θ)

ሶ + 𝐽−𝑇 𝐺(Θ),
F = 𝐽−𝑇 𝑀(Θ)Θሷ + 𝐽−𝑇 𝑉(Θ, Θ)
ሶ + 𝐽−𝑇 𝐺(Θ),

Xሶ = 𝐽Θሶ → Xሷ = 𝐽Θሶ ሶ + 𝐽Θሷ

Θሷ = 𝐽−1 Xሷ − 𝐽−1 𝐽Θሶ ሶ

ሶ ሶ + 𝐽−𝑇 𝑉(Θ, Θ)
F = 𝐽−𝑇 𝑀(Θ)𝐽−1 Xሷ − 𝐽−𝑇 𝑀(Θ)𝐽−1 𝐽Θ ሶ + 𝐽−𝑇 𝐺(Θ).

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EXPRESSIONS FOR THE TERMS IN

THE CARTESIAN DYNAMICS:

𝑀𝑥 (Θ) = 𝐽−𝑇 (Θ)𝑀(Θ)𝐽−𝑇 (Θ),

ሶ = 𝐽−𝑇 (Θ) 𝑉(Θ, Θ)
𝑉𝑥 (Θ, Θ) ሶ − 𝑀(Θ)𝐽−1 (Θ)𝐽(Θ)
ሶ Θሶ ,
𝐺𝑥 (Θ) = 𝐽−𝑇 (Θ)𝐺(Θ).

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T R A J E C TO R Y G E N E R AT I O N

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Department of Applied Physics, University of Calcutta

Introduction
How to compute a trajectory in multidimensional space
which describes the desired motion of a manipulator?

How to move a manipulator from its initial position to

some desired goal position in a smooth manner?
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TRAJECTORY
• A time history of position, velocity, and
acceleration for each DOF.
• The system (not the user) will decide the exact
shape of the path to get to the goal, the
duration, the velocity profile, and other details.
• A sequence of desired via points (frames
which specify position and orientation of tool)
can be given.
• Path points include all the via points plus the
initial and final points.

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G E N E R A L C O N S I D E R AT I O N S
• Each path point is specified in terms of a desired position and
orientation of {T} relative to {S}.
• Each of these points is converted into a set of desired joint
angles. (Inverse kinematics).
• A smooth function is found for each of the n joints which pass
through the via points and end at the goal point.
• The time required for each segment is the same for each joint.

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Department of Applied Physics, University of Calcutta

J O I N T S PAC E S C H E M E
• The path is specified in the joint space. Easy to
compute. No problems with singularities.
• Each path point is usually specified in terms of
desired position and orientation of tool frame
{T}.
• Each of these via points is converted into a set
of desired joint angles by inverse kinematics.
Then a smooth function is fond so that all
joints will reach the via point at the same time.

ODD SEMESTER, 2023

Department of Applied Physics, University of Calcutta

S E V E R A L P O S S I B L E PAT H
SHAPES FOR A SINGLE
JOINT
Goal
position

Initial
position

ODD SEMESTER, 2023

Department of Applied Physics, University of Calcutta

C U B I C P O LY N O M I A L S
4 constraints on 𝜃 𝑡
𝜃 0 = 𝜃0 , 𝜃 𝑡𝑓 = 𝜃𝑓 , : initial and final values

ሶ
𝜃(0) ሶ 𝑓 ) = 0.
= 0, 𝜃(𝑡 : the function is continuous
in velocity
These 4 constraints can be satisfied by a polynomial
of at least third degree.
𝜃(𝑡) = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑡 + 𝑎2 𝑡 2 + 𝑎3 𝑡 3
ሶ
𝜃(𝑡) = 𝑎1 + 2𝑎2 𝑡 + 3𝑎3 𝑡 2

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Department of Applied Physics, University of Calcutta

C U B I C P O LY N O M I A L S
𝜃0 = 𝑎0 , : combining with constraints
2 3
𝜃𝑓 = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑡𝑓 + 𝑎2 𝑡𝑓 + 𝑎3 𝑡𝑓 ,
0 = 𝑎1 ,
0 = 𝑎1 + 2𝑎2 𝑡𝑓 + 3𝑎3 𝑡𝑓2 .

𝑎0 = 𝜃0 ,
𝑎1 = 0,
3 The cubic polynomial that
𝑎2 = 2 (𝜃𝑓 − 𝜃0 ),
𝑡𝑓 connects any initial joint angle
2 position with any desired final
𝑎3 = − 3 (𝜃𝑓 − 𝜃0 ). position when the joint starts and
𝑡𝑓
finishes at zero velocity.

ODD SEMESTER, 2023

Department of Applied Physics, University of Calcutta

EXAMPLE 7.1
• A single-link robot with a rotary joint:
Move the joint in a smooth manner from 𝜃
= 15 to 𝜃 = 75 in 3 seconds
a0 = 15.0
a 1
= 0 .0

a 2
= 20.0

a 3
= −4.44

 (t ) = 15.0 + 20.0 t − 4.44 t

2 3

•
 (t ) = 40.0t − 13.33 t
2

••
 (t ) = 40.0 − 26.66t

ODD SEMESTER, 2023

Department of Applied Physics, University of Calcutta

C U B I C P O LY N O M I A L S F O R A PAT H
WITH VIA POINTS
• Each via point is specified in terms of a desired position and
orientation of {T} relative to {S}.
• Each of these via points is converted into a set of desired joint
angles. (Inv. Kinematics).
• Consider the problem of computing cubics which connect the
via point values for each joint together in a smooth way.

ODD SEMESTER, 2023

Department of Applied Physics, University of Calcutta

Cubic Polynomials for a Path

With Via Points

ሶ
𝜃(0) = 𝜃ሶ0 , 𝜃(𝑡
ሶ 𝑓 ) = 𝜃𝑓ሶ . : some known velocity
at the via points
𝜃0 = 𝑎0 ,
𝜃𝑓 = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑡𝑓 + 𝑎2 𝑡𝑓2 + 𝑎3 𝑡𝑓3 , : the four equations
describing general cubic
𝜃ሶ0 = 𝑎1 ,
𝜃𝑓ሶ = 𝑎1 + 2𝑎2 𝑡𝑓 + 3𝑎3 𝑡𝑓2 .

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Department of Applied Physics, University of Calcutta

C U B I C P O LY N O M I A L S F O R A PAT H
WITH VIA POINTS

• Solving for ai we obtain

a0 = θ0 ,
a1 = θሶ 0 ,
3 2 1
a2 = θf − θ0 − θሶ 0 − θሶ f ,
2 tf tf
tf
2 1
a3 = − 3 θf − θ0 + 2 θሶ f + θሶ 0 .
tf tf
• Connects any initial and final positions with any initial and final
velocities

ODD SEMESTER, 2023

Department of Applied Physics, University of Calcutta

HOW TO SPECIFY DESIRED

V E LO C I T Y AT T H E V I A P O I N T S ?
Several ways:
• The user specifies the desired velocity at each via
point in terms of a Cartesian linear and angular
velocity of {T} at that instant.
• The system automatically chooses the velocities at the
via points.
• The system automatically chooses the velocities at the
via points in such a way as to cause the acceleration at
the via points to be continuous.

ODD SEMESTER, 2023

Department of Applied Physics, University of Calcutta

A SIMPLE HEURISTIC

Tangents to the curve at each via points

If the slope of these lines changes sign at the via point, choose zero
velocity, if the slope of these lines does not change sign,
choose the average of the two slopes as the via velocity.
ODD SEMESTER, 2023
 ODD SEMESTER, 2023
Thank You
Department of Applied Physics, University of Calcutta