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Csir-Mind-Maps-Sample 2 2 2 (1) Unlocked Removed
Csir-Mind-Maps-Sample 2 2 2 (1) Unlocked Removed
Enzyme classification
Stages in embryogenesis
Maturation stage Embryo folds over within the seeds and the
seed starts to lose water to get into a
dormant stage.
Seedling stage
Seedling takes place
Modified shoot
Many genes involved in
conversion of vegetative
Copyright © 2022 Biotecnika meristem to floral meristem
Androecium ( group of stamens)
Reproductive whorls Essential whorls
Gynoecium ( group of carpels)
Flower Structure
Calyx ( group of sepals)
Accessory whorls Non essential whorls
Corolla ( group of petals)
Type c- Carpels- Dominant AG Type C ABC Genes Concept of ABC model: All
homeotic gene interact & forms
Type A and B are equally ABC Model floral organ
dominant Explains genetics behind the
B genes always express in Keypoints formation of whorl in flower
association with A & C
Determine the identity of tissue
during anatomical development
Plant Homeotic genes belong to
Homeotic gene
MADS Box( Floral identity gene)
Eg: Apetalla, agamous, Pistilata
Conserved motifs found in
1st whorl: Calyx( sepals) Wild type gene( MADS Box gene family)
2nd whorl: Corolla( petals) Encodes DNA binding MADS
3rd whorl: Androecium ( MADS Box domain
stamens) Length of MADS Box: 168-180
4th whorl: Gynoecium ( Carpels) bps
ABC model/floral organ M- MCM1 from budding
Mutation in AP1 & AP2 genes Homeotic genes & yeast,S.cerevisceae
Sepals and petals are not
identity genes
MADS Box A-AGAMOUS from Arabidopsis
formed thaliana
Controls organ identity in 1st & Type A activity encoded by 2 Origin of MADS Box D- DEFICIENS from Snapdragon
2nd whorl genes AP1 &AP2 ( Antirrhinum)
Loss of type A function ( S- SRF (Serum Response
AP1& AP2 mutated) Factor) from Homo sapiens
Male & female gametophyte
Forms stamens instead of
petals floral identity
Forms carpels instead of sepals embryo development
MADS-Box gene Controls Development
seed development
Mutation in AP3 & PI genes
Fruits, flower & root
Petals and stamens are not development
formed
Controls organ identity in Type B activity encoded by 2 Homeotic genes / Floral
2nd(petal) & 3rd whorl(stamen) genes AP3 & PI 1) APETALA 1 ( AP1)
Loss of type B function organ identity genes 2) APETALA 1 ( AP2)
(mutated AP3 & PI) 3) APETALA 1 ( AP3)
4) PISTILATA (P1)
Forms sepals instead of petals 5) AGAMOUS (AG)
Forms carpel instead of
stamens
Mutation in AG genes
Carpels and stamens will not be
formed
Controls organ identity in 3rd
whorl(stamen) & 4th whorl ( Type C activity encoded by AG
Carpel) Gene
Loss of type c function
(mutated AG)
Examples Definition
Adaptive radiation is a rapid
increase in the number of species
with a common ancestor,
Darwin's Finches characterized by great ecological
and morphological diversity.
Accelerate facilitateddiffusion of
Control of secretion of glucagon glucose into cells
and insulin Speed conversion of glucose into
Insulin acts on various body cells
glycogen
to:
Increase uptake of amino acids
High blood glucose Increase protein synthesis speed
(hyperglycemia) stimulates beta synthesis of fatty acids
cells to secrete INSULIN
Blood glucose level falls
If blood glucose continues to fall,
hypoglycemia inhibits release of
insulin
High cytokinin: Shoot
development
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Low cytokinin: Root
development 1. Morphogenesis
Auxin=Cytokinin: Callus
formation
Basic in nature
2. Vascular tissue development;
xylem formation Derivatives of either amino
purine or phenyl urea
3. Shoot Apical Meristem (SAM)
rescue Promote cytokinesis (cell
division)
axillary bud formation
4. Lateral growth 1. Introduction First cytokinin disovered:
Anatgonist to apical dominance 6. Functions Kinetin (6-furfuryl amino-
In dicot plants purine); synthetic hormone
Help Agrobacterium tumifaciens 5. Crown gall formation Natural cytokinin: Zeatin (from
in the process unripe maize); present in
enhances cell division coconut milk
Process:
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The production of
The production of
Ovum/egg(n) from
sperms(n) from
oogonia (2n) is called as spermatogonia (2n) is
oogonia called Spermatogenesis
Oogenesis is a Oogonia Continuous process
discontinuous process Spermatogenesis
occuring after puberty
Occurs in the germinal till death
epithelium of the foetal Occurs in the germinal
ovary Location epithelium of
All the stages takes seminiferous tubule of
place in the ovary Location testis
except the formation of All the stages take place
ovum from secondary Stages in the testis
oocyte will takes place
Production of Sperms
in the Fallopian tube
Duration take place everyday
(oviduct) Stages
Produces small motile
Production of ova takes
Sperm(n) gametes
place only in a month Duration
Equal cytokinesis
Produces large non- Gametogenesis- occurs during the
motile gametes Ovum/egg Oogenesis Difference between Spermatogenesis
spermatogenesis
Unequal cytokinesis Spermatogenesis and producing four haploid
occurs during oogenesis Cytokinesis sperms
oogenesis producing
The production of
one large ovum and tiny
sperms is in millions
polar bodies Cytokinesis
Production rate every day.
Only one ovum is
The growth phase is
released per month. Production rate
Growth short.
The growth phase is
Nuclear Condensation It takes place in sperm
extended. Growth
Primary spermatocytes
No nuclear
divide by meiosis I
condensation Nuclear Condensation
resulting in the
Primary Oocyte formation of 2
undergoes meiosis I to secondary
form one secondary Primary Spermatocyte spermatocytes
oocyte and 1 polar body Primary Oocytes
Lasts from day 6 to 13
Process:
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Definition Types
Gene mutations
Mutations where the size of the Base Substitution
DNA lesion is relatively small that
affects a single gene only. A nitrogen base in the DNA is
substituted by a different base.
Changes a single codon, if
occurred in the coding region of
the gene.
Insertion
One or a few nucleotides are
inserted in the DNA.
Changes the reading frame, if
occurred in the coding region of
the gene.
Deletion
One or a few nucleotides are
deleted from the DNA.
Changes the reading frame, if
occurred in the coding region of
the gene.
Causes
Bifunctional enzyme
Structure
Immunoblotting
Three different subunits Subunits
ATP, Mg2+, S-
adenosylmethionine Cofactors
Bipartite & asymmetric Recognition site Type I
Nonspecific>1000 bp
from recognition site Cleavage site
EcoAI, EcoKI
Examples
Unifunctional enzyme
Either with endonuclease/ Structure
methylase activity Also Known
as"Restriction
Two identical subunits Subunits Endonuclease/Molecular
Mg2+ Cofactors Scissors"
4-6 bp sequence, often Type II Classification Belong to larger class of
palindromic Recogntiton site enzymes called
Same as or close to “Nucleases”
recognition site Cleavage site Introduction
Recognizes specific base
EcoRI, BamHI Example pair sequence in DNA
Bifunctional enzyme called “Restriction site”
Endonuclease & Structure Cleaves DNA within
methylase activity sequence
Named according to
organism in which they
were discovered
Using system of letters &
numbers
First three letters of the
name are italicized
Abbreviate genus &
species names of the Nomenclature
organism
"H": First letter of Genus
name (Haemophilus)
"in": First two letters of the
species name (influenza)
"d" : strain type Example: HindIII
"III" : Third enzyme
discovered in that
organism (Roman
numerals used)
Refers to the synthesis of ATP,
coupling to a cyclic passage of
Copyright © 2022 Biotecnika electrons from P700
Occurs in isolated chloroplasts
and photosynthetic bacteria
Electrons move in a
cyclic fashion
Only Photosystem I is
involved
Electrons are first excited
from the reaction center of
PS I
Electrons return to P700
Cyclic after passing throuh
1.
Photophosphorylation ETS
Final electron acceptor
is P700
Mechanism of Cyclic
4. No photolysis of water
Photophosphorylation
No oxygen evolution
Only ATP produced
Mainly occurs in
anaerobic conditions
Cannot be inhibited by
Diuron
Occurs in anoxygenic
photosynthesis
Mechanism of Non- Comparison between Cyclic Refers to the synthesis of ATP in which
3. Cyclic and Non-cyclic an electron donor is required and oxygen
Photophosphorylation Photophosphorylation produces as a byproduct
Occurs in plants, algae
and cyanobacteria
Electrons move in a
linear fashion
Both Photosystems I
and II are involved
ELectrons are first excited
from the reaction center of
PS II
Electrons return to P700
Non-cyclic and accepted by NADP+
2.
Photophosphorylation
Final electron acceptor
is NADP+
Photolysis occur
Evolution of oxygen
Both ATP and reduced
co-enzymes are
produced
Mainly occurs in
aerobic conditions
Inhibited by Diuron
Occurs in oxygenic
photosynthesis
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Indirect SE Direct SE
When explants produced undifferentiated mass of cells(callus) When embryos are formed directly from explant tissue creating an
which is maintained or differentiated into embryo identical clone without production of intervening callus.
Specific growth regulators and culture conditions are required for The explants capable of direct embryogenesis seem to carry
callus formation and the redetermination of embryogenic competent or “pre-embryonic determined cells”(PEDCs).
development pattern called “induced embryogenic determined
cells”(IEDCs). These cells are committed to Embryo development and need only
to be released.
After this step, cells transform into “induced embryogenic pre-
determined cells” (IEDs) that are equivalent to PEDCs.
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Summary of signal
sequences with their
respective organelles
Membrane proteins will have KKXX Location of Sequence Within Protein varies
Amphipathic helix, 20–50 residues in length, with Arg and Lys Mannose-6-phosphate is the signal sequence
residues on one side and hydrophobic residues on the other
Location of Sequence Within Protein is N terminus Motif rich in Ser, Thr, and small hydrophobic residues and poor in
Glu and Asp
Met-Val-Ala-Met-Ala-Met-Ala-Ser-Leu-Gln-Ser-Ser-Met-Ser-Ser-
Import into Peroxisome Leu-Ser-Leu-Ser-Ser-Asn-Ser-Phe-Leu-Gly-Gln-Pro-Leu-Ser-Pro-
Ile-Thr-Leu-Ser-Pro-Phe-Leu-Gln-Gly
PTS1 signal (Ser-Lys-Leu; SKL) at extreme C-terminus
Location of Sequence Within Protein is N terminus
PTS2 signal at N-terminus
Chemical composition of membrane
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Glycerophospholipids - Glycerol Backbone
Phosphatidic acid
Phosphatidylethanolamine
Phosphatidyl choline
Example
Phospholipids - Phosphate group attached Phosphatidyl serine
Phosphatidylglycerol
Cardiolipin
Predominantly glycoproteins
Cerebrosides and gangliosides
prominent in epithelial cells that line the mammalian digestive tract and
endothelial cells that line blood vessels
Sugars on the surface make up the glycocalyx - Keeps cells moist and slippery
composed of glycosaminoglycans, proteoglycans and other glycoproteins
bearing acidic oligosaccharides and terminal sialic acids.
Membrane Carbohydrates
Cell signalling
Function of Glycocalyx in Eucaryotes Protecting the cell
Adhesion with other cells
Condensed form - tightly associated with the underlying cell wall
Glycocalyx in Procaryotes -2 types
Loosely attached - removed from the cell easily by mild treatment
Enable bacteria to become harder for phagocytic uptake
Function of Glycocalyx in Procaryotes
Becomes more invisible to the immune system of a host.
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Type I
Palmitoyl group attached by thioester linkage to a Cys residue
Type II
N-myristoyl group attached to an amino-terminal Gly
Type III
Farnesyl and geranyl groups attached to carboxyl-terminal Cys
residue
Type IV
GPI-linked, Glycosyl phosphatidyl Inositol; short oligosaccharide
covalently joined to the carboxyl terminal residue of a protein
through phosphoethanolamine
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STRUCTURAL
ELEMENT IN Example: Fatty acid-
PROTEINS binding proteins
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Location –nucleolous
Synthesizes the precursors of
messenger RNA (m RNA)
also synthesizes small RNAs like
small nuclear RNAs (snRNAs),
microRNA(miRNA), small
interfering RNA (siRNAs)
Location- nucleus
A 550 kDa complex of 10-12
subunits
Yeast Pol II consists of 10
different peptides (RPB1 -
RPB10)
12 in humans (RPB1 - RPB12)
RNA polymerase II
RPB1 and RPB2 are homologous
to E. coli RNA polymerase β and
β'
RPB1 is the largest subunit of
Three distinct classes of RNA
RNA polymerase II
polymerases
composed of up to 52
heptapeptide repeats
(YSPTSPS) Tyr-Ser-Pro-Thr-
Ser-Pro-Ser that are essential
for polymerase activity
initiation of transcription
It contains a carboxy terminal capping of the RNA transcript
CTD involved in the:
domain (CTD)
attachment to the spliceosome
for rRNA splicing
CTD domain does not exist in
RNA Polymerase I or RNA
Polymerase III
used to indicate not only the habitat but also the role played by the organisms in the
environment
1. food
includes all the factors that a species needs to survive, stay healthy, and reproduce 2. abiotic conditions
3. behavior
What all Niche includes?
Place in the food web
Physical conditions required to survive
Range of temperature organism needs to survive
Type of food organism eats
How it obtains food?
Who uses the organism for food?
When & how organism reproduces?
its position in environmental gradients of temperature, moisture, pH, soil, and other
conditions of existence
3. the multidimensional or hyper-volume niche
Population Growth Models
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Two types of popula on growth
pa erns may occur depending on
specific environmental condi ons:
Exponential population growth is
population increase under
idealized conditions
under these conditions, the rate of
increase is at its maximum,
denoted as rmax
exponential growth cannot be
sustained for long in any
population
1. Exponential Growth can be seen in populations that
are very small or in regions that
are newly colonised by a species
the equation of exponential
population growth is
ortho, meta, para positions in Not distinguish between (ii) Fine, highly charged droplets
aromatic ring Positions of substituent formed
Limitations
that produce similar fragmented Scope limited in identifying (iii) Solvent rapidly evaporates
ions hydrocarbons Electrospray Ionization (ESI) from it
Ion Source (iv) Yields gas phase have ionic charges (0.5 to 2 per
p=m/z macromolecular ions kilodalton)
MASS SPECTROMETER BASIC Useful for compounds with
p1=(Mr+z1 )/z1
Protein Molecular weight COMPONENTS molecular masses >100 kD
Where, p= peak in mass determination by MS in crystalline matrix (Eg:
spectrum (i) Macromolecule embedded Gentisic acid)
MASS SPECTROMETRY (MS)
m= total mass of ion (ii) Irradiated with intense short
p2=[Mr+(z1 -1)]/(z1 -1) pulses of laser light
Matrix Associated Laser
z= total charge
Desorption/Ionization(MALDI) (iii) Energy absorbed by matrix
Mr= average mass of protein ejects macromolecules from its surface into gas phase with charge of +1
Polypeptides of >400 kD have
Used to sequence Short been characterized
polypeptides (<25 residues)
Time taken by particle to reach
Two Mass Spectrometers detector at known distance measured
coupled in series
Mass Analyzer Time Of Flight (TOF) Velocity of ion depends on mass- Heavier particles moves with
Peptide ion of interest passed First MS (MS-1), peptide to-charge ratio of particle lower speeds
into collision cell mixture is sorted
Electron multiplier
with “collision gas” (Helium/ Peptide further fragmented by
Faraday cup
Argon) high-energy impact
Detector Example Photomultiplier conversion
m/z for each fragment
dynode
measured in second MS (MS-2)
Tandem Mass
Array detector
Spectrometry(MS/MS)
Atom or molecule ionised
Stage 1: Ionisation By knocking one/more electrons
off to give a positive ion
Ions accelerated
Stage 2: Acceleration So that they all have same
kinetic energy
Ions deflected by magnetic field according to their masses
Stage 3: Deflection Lighter ions/ions with more
charge deflected mor
Beam of ions detected
HOW IT WORKS Stage 4: Detection electrically