Strategies

A Journal for Physical and Sport Educators

ISSN: (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: www.tandfonline.com/journals/ustr20

Using the Sources of Self-Efficacy to Improve

Motor Performance

Kason O’Neil

To cite this article: Kason O’Neil (2023) Using the Sources of Self-Efficacy to Improve Motor
Performance, Strategies, 36:1, 49-52, DOI: 10.1080/08924562.2022.2147376

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/08924562.2022.2147376

Published online: 31 Jan 2023.

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THEORY INTO PRACTICE
Column Editor: Anthony Parish
© iStockphoto/ FatCamera

By Kason O’Neil

Volume 36 ∙ January/February 49
O
ne of the central tenents of being a quality physi-
cal educator or athletic coach is understanding
and adapting to the various factors that influence
motor learning and performance. A significant amount of
research, both in education and athletic performance, has
shown that a student’s beliefs in their own capabilities play
an essential role in motivation, self-regulation and overall
performance (Urdan & Pajares, 2006). One of the seminal
theories of human behavior and motivation is self-eff icacy
theory, developed in the late 1970’s by renowned psycho-
logical researcher Albert Bandura (1977). Bandura (1997)
has defined self-efficacy as “beliefs in one’s capabilities to
organize and execute the courses of action required to pro-
duce given attainments” (p. 3). In other words, self-efficacy
is an individual’s judgment of their ability to successfully
perform a skill/action within a specific context (Urdan &
Pajares, 2006). Thus, perceived self-efficacy does not focus
on the skills one has, but how one believes they can apply
those skills in particular situations (Bandura, 1977, 1997).
In addition, individuals who have high levels of self-effi-
cacy are more inclined to approach difficult tasks as chal-
lenges to be mastered, have higher levels of interest and ef-
fort, set challenging goals and stay committed to said goals,
and quickly rebound after failure (Bandura, 1977, 1997).
So how does a physical educator or youth-sport coach
transform perceived ability and motivation into desired
performance (i.e., self-efficacy)? Bandura’s (1977, 1997)
theory suggested that one can increase self-efficacy be-
liefs in those they are teaching/coaching by developing the
individual’s response to four sources of information: (1)
mastery experiences, (2) vicarious experiences, (3) verbal
persuasion, and (4) psychological and affective states. The
purpose of this theory into practice is to review the four
sources of self-efficacy and provide practical examples of
how physical educators and youth-sport coaches can im-
plement them into their current practice to improve motor
performance.
Source 1: Mastery Experiences
Arguably the most influential source of information in
the development of self-efficacy perceptions, mastery ex-
periences are defined as one’s interpretations of their own
previous authentic experiences to perform a particular task
(Bandura, 1977, 1997). In its simplest form, the successful
completion of a task leads to higher self-perception and
motivation toward future similar tasks. Successful expe-
riences in performing an action build robust perceptions
of self-efficacy, whereas failures work to undermine self-
efficacy (Bandura, 1997).
The major stipulation the influence of mastery experi-
ences has on self-efficacy is that the individual must reflect
and process their abilities and experiences as they happen.
In addition to the need for personal reflection on perfor-
50 Strategies
mance, the complexity of the task (particularly one that is
too easy) can have strong influence on the cognitive pro-
cessing required to improve one’s self-efficacy (Bandura,
1997).
Mastery experiences: Applications for teachers and
coaches
•• Require all motor skill activities to lead to some sort of
success. To the greatest extent possible, practice with suc-
cess in mind. Moving on to a new task without experi-
encing and processing success can hinder progress.
•• Modifications and accommodations are essential in
building successful motor skill performances. To achieve
success, modifications to equipment, tasks and environ-
ment are necessary to meet the needs of the child. In
addition, modifications are also necessary to keep con-
tinually increasing the complexity of the skill following
success.
•• Repetition of fundamental skills builds self-efficacy. If a
specific motor skill is essential to the task (e.g., receiv-
ing a pass in soccer), have the practice of that skill built
in to every practice. In addition, provide opportunity for
repetition of that skill in diverse task constraints (e.g., re-
ceiving a soccer ball stationary, moving toward the passer,
moving away from the passer).
• • Talk with the performer about their success. Have
the student/athlete discuss why they were successful,
and what led to that success.
• • Continually remind the student/athlete of their pre-
vious success. Reflection on success does not only
have to live in a singular moment in time.
Source 2: Vicarious Experiences
The second source of self-efficacy is through vicarious
experiences, often experienced through modeling and the
observation of others participating in a skill with a high
degree of transferability (Chase, 1998). Vicarious experi-
ences allow individuals to observe and compare their own
abilities to others. A concept that is common in motor
learning and physical education instruction, modeling is
usually most influential in athletes who are in the early
stages of development, as they can use their own obser-
vations as judgments toward validating their own perfor-
mance (Gernigon & Delloye, 2003). Thus, a student who
watches others complete a task successfully will produce an
increased sense of self-efficacy, and believe they can accom-
plish the same task (Gernigon & Delloye, 2003). Bandu-
ra’s (1997) research also showed that vicarious experiences
most increase self-efficacy when someone is observing the
actions of an individual at a similar ability level.
Vicarious experiences: Applications for teachers and
coaches
• • Highlight students who are performing a skill cor-
rectly and ask them to demonstrate to others (i.e.,
pinpointing). Make specific notes to the observers of
the behavior that is being performed correctly.
• • Have students video record themselves, reviewing
the footage of their own performance as a form of
self-modeling. Watch the video with the student and
emphasize particularly strong aspects of the perfor-
mance.
• • Show a class or group a video of someone perform-
ing the skill correctly at a level above their own (e.g.,
middle schoolers watching a high school student’s
performance). Discuss not only the correct aspects of
the skill in the video, but where continued success
and practice can lead to further skill progression.
Source 3: Verbal Persuasion
The third source of self-efficacy, verbal persuasion, is
the verbal encouragement through cues and positive talk
(Bandura, 1997). This source of self-efficacy most often
comes from a teacher or coach who has a positive relation-
ship with the student. Self-efficacy research has indicated
that although parents and peers can provide verbal persua-
sion, efficacy is strongest when the feedback and encour-
agement come from someone who has strong social persua-
sion toward the performer (e.g., physical educator, coach)
and is seen by the performer as knowledgeable and credible
(Chase, 1998). Bandura (1997) noted that negative verbal
persuasion can be detrimental to self-efficacy, so much so
that it has a much higher impact on self-efficacy than that
of positive verbal persuasion. Thus, teachers and coaches
must be diligent about feedback that is positive, corrective
and goal oriented.
Mastery experiences: Applications for teachers and
coaches
• • Be diligent and purposeful about feedback to stu-
dents/athletes that is positive, consistent and sincere.
• • Discuss and set realistic goals with the student/ath-
lete. Positive verbal persuasion toward an unrealistic
goal will only hurt the overall progress of the per-
former, and can drastically reduce self-efficacy. Re-
visit, discuss and refine the performance goals often.
• • Remind the performer about the first two sources
of self-efficacy, as they will help create and affirm
thoughts about successful performance (e.g., remind-
ing the performer about past success during a time
when they are struggling).
• • To the highest degree possible, regulate the com-
ments and feedback provided by peers, emphasizing
positivity and encouragement across the entire class.
• • Highlight those in class who are working hard, help-
ing others, and so on. This type of verbal persuasion
helps affirm positive behavior expectations and moti-
vates those in future classes.
Source 4: Psychological and Affective
States
The last sources of self-efficacy, one that is often seen as
the hardest to control, is that of the performers psychologi-
cal and affective states. This source of self-efficacy relates
to how a student/athlete perceives and regulates individual
arousal and anxiety in association to a motor performance
stimulus (e.g., executing a shot during a game, performing a
skill while being assessed) (Bandura, 1997). Thus, someone
with a high sense of self-efficacy is likely to see a scenario
that heightens anxiety and arousal as an energizer, or a fuel,
for motor performance. In contrast, a low self-efficacious
individual in that same setting will have hesitations and
doubts that will hinder performance (Chase, 1998). Self-
efficacy theory denotes that it is essential for performers to
learn how to manage their moods and anxieties in stress-
ful and challenging situations to allow for maximal perfor-
mance (Feltz et al., 2008).
Psychological and affective states: Applications for
teachers and coaches
• • Have the performer practice positive self-talk. Posi-
tive mantras and statements of self-support can calm
anxieties. Teachers and coaches need to be purposeful
in teaching self-talk prior to the desired performance.
• • Self-talk can also be paired with visualization of suc-
cessful performance. Have the performer close their
eyes and walk through a performance step-by-step, all
while giving positive self-support. Have them visual-
ize themselves completing the performance success-
fully, as if they were a performer in their own movie.
• • Breathing techniques can greatly help an individual
during a state of arousal. Even one long inhale/exhale
during a pressure situation can help calm the per-
former.
• • To the highest degree possible, replicate stressful sit-
uations during practice scenarios.
Conclusion
As teachers and coaches diligently prepare students and
athletes, self-efficacy theory states that optimal motor per-
formance cannot occur without mental preparation and the
Volume 36 ∙ January/February 51
building of self-confidence (Feltz et al., 2008). Coaches Urdan, T., & Pajares, F. (Eds.). (2006). Self-eff icacy beliefs of adoles-
and teachers looking to improve motor performance should cents. IAP. S

closely examine the four sources of self-efficacy, and make

intentional actions to implement each to help the per- Kason O’Neil (oneilkm@etsu.edu) is an associate professor in the De-
partment of Sport, Exercise, Recreation, and Kinesiology at East Ten-
former control, and hopefully improve, their own actions.
nessee State University in Johnson City, TN.

References
Submissions Welcome!
Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: toward a unifying theory of be-
havioral change. Psychological Review, 84(2), 191–215. https:// Readers are encouraged to send “Theory into
doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.84.2.191 Practice” submissions to column editor Anthony Parish
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-eff icacy: The exercise of control. Freeman.
at aparish@georgiasouthern.edu.
Chase, M. A. (1998). Sources of self-efficacy in physical educa-
tion and sport. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 18(1), The purpose of the Strategies Theory into Practice
76–89. https://doi.org/10.1123/jtpe.18.1.76 column is to distill high-quality research into
Feltz, D. L., Short, S. E., & Sullivan, P. J. (2008). Self-eff icacy in understandable and succinct information and to
sport. Human Kinetics. identify key resources to help teachers and coaches
Gernigon, C., & Delloye, J. (2003). Self-efficacy, causal attribu- improve professional practice and provide high-quality
tion, and track athletic performance following unexpected suc- programs. Each column (1,000 –1,300 words or
cess or failure among elite sprinters. The Sport Psychologist, 17 roughly four typed, double-spaced pages) summarizes
(1), 55–76. research findings about a timely topic of interest to the
Samson, A., & Solmon, M. (2011). Examining the sources of readership to enable practitioners to apply research,
self-efficacy for physical activity within the sport and exercise knowledge and evidence-based practice in physical
domains. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, education and sports.
4(1), 70–89.

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52 Strategies