KINEMATIC ANALYSIS

A Practical Course for

Establishing and Understanding Shear Sense
in the Context of Structural History and
Controls to Mineralisation
Table of Contents

1 Determining Shear Sense.................................................................................................................1

1.1 Geological Features and Relationships Utilised in Kinematic Analysis ....................................4
1.1.1 Location of Low-Strain Zones and Strain Shadows............................................................4
1.1.2 Offset of a Geological Marker.............................................................................................6
1.1.3 Deflection/Rotation of Geological Markers Across Strain Transitions ................................7
1.1.4 Foliation Curvature .............................................................................................................9
1.1.5 Shear Band Cleavages - S-C Fabrics and C’ Fabrics ......................................................11
1.1.5.1 Crenulation and Fold Asymmetries ..................................................................14
1.1.6 Asymmetry of Competent Bodies in Zones of High Strain ...............................................17
1.1.6.1 Asymmetric Boudinage, Geometries of Dismembered Veins, and
Extension Veins ................................................................................................19
1.1.6.2 An Alternative Model of Vein Formation ...........................................................24
1.1.7 Quartz Fibre Growth .........................................................................................................25
1.1.8 ‘Tiling’ Geometries............................................................................................................26
1.1.9 Slickenlines and Fault Steps ............................................................................................28
1.1.10 Extension Fractures..........................................................................................................32
1.1.11 Fault Splay Asymmetries Within Fault Zones...................................................................33
2 Establishing Shear Sense and Deformation History ...................................................................34
3 References .......................................................................................................................................35

Kinematic Analysis
List of Figures

Figure 1_1 – Apparent movement sense across a fault 2

Figure 1_2 – Non-coaxial deformation of a strain field diagram illustrating the division into zones of variable forms of
strain 3
Figure 1_3 – Diagram to illustrate how shear sense is related to strain field geometries and a transition from low strain to
high strain 4
Figure 1.1.1_1 – Photograph and line drawing of a greywacke unit 5
Figure 1.1.2_1 – Curvature and offset of a geological marker (dyke) in an granite 6
Figure 1.1.2_2 – Gold-bearing quartz veins from the Mulgarrie mine in Western Australia 6
Figure 1.1.2_3 – Carbonate veins exposed underground at the Callie Mine 7
Figure 1.1.3_1 – Deflection of a geological marker through a zone of high strain dominated by shearing strain 8
Figure 1.1.3_2 – Example of a geological marker passing through a competent body 8
Figure 1.1.3_3 – Photomicrograph of an andalusite porphyroblast from the highly strained schistose aureole 9
Figure 1.1.4_1 – Foliation curvature into a shear in a granitoid 9
Figure 1.1.4_2 – Curvature of geological markers into a zone of high strain 10
Figure 1.1.4_3 – Curvature of a shear foliation into the shear zone orientation, indicating a sinistral sense of shear 10
Figure 1.1.5_1 – Geometric relationship between S- and C-planes : lineation that defines the tectonic movement
direction 11
Figure 1.1.5_2 – Hand-specimen example displaying the features shown schematically in Figure 2.1.5_1 12
Figure 1.1.5_3 – Well developed stretching lineation defined by the preferred growth elongation of biotite porphyroblasts 12
Figure 1.1.5_4 – Geometries of S-C and C’ foliation relationships 13
Figure 1.1.5.1_1 – Strain field geometry showing differentiation into folded domains 14
Figure 1.1.5.1_2 – Crenulation cleavage that has differentiated into near-continuous mica-rich differentiation zones and
quartz-rich hinges 15
Figure 1.1.5.1_3 – Crenulated sample from the Boppo 3 pit on the Bogoso-Prestea trend, Ghana 15
Figure 1.1.5.1_4 – the effects of folding of a fabric that initially formed at high angle to the axial plane 16
Figure 1.1.5.1_5 – Fold geometry in gneiss in southeast Ghana 16
Figure 1.1.6_1 – Idealised sketch of an asymmetric porphyroclast such as a feldspar in a mylonitic foliation 17
Figure 1.1.6_2 – Dextral sense of shear indicated by an asymmetric quartz pebble 17
Figure 1.1.6_3 – Lineations associated with asymmetric chert nodules in float in Colliwobble pit 18
Figure 1.1.6_4 – Deformed granitoid showing two forms of kinematic indicator 18
Figure 1.1.6.1_1 – Asymmetrically deformed quartz vein produced during accommodation of reverse shear 20
Figure 1.1.6.1_2 – Deformed quartz veining present as asymmetric quartz boudins 20
Figure 1.1.6.1_3 – Detail of Figure 2.1.6.1_2 looking south 21
Figure 1.1.6.1_4 – Fabric asymmetries in the fault containing the veins 21
Figure 1.1.6.1_5 – Development of quartz extension vein arrays within an argillaceous unit between two sandstone
units 22
Figure 1.1.6.1_6 – Sigmoidal quartz extension vein arrays developed in a siltstone unit, Australia 22
Figure 1.1.6.1_7 – Scan and line diagram of vein geometries in the Fortnum area, Western Australia 23
Figure 1.1.6.1_8 – Salient features of veins that have undergone deformation to produce shearband boudins 23
Figure 1.1.6.2_1 – How the magnitudes of stress axes can influence vein formation parallel to a synchronously
developing cleavage 25
Figure 1.1.7_1 – Quartz vein fibres oriented at an angle to the vein contact due to oblique opening of the vein 26

Kinematic Analysis
Figure 1.1.8_1 – A feldspar crystal has undergone deformation such that slip has occurred along the mineral cleavage 26
Figure 1.1.8_2 – Sample of deformed porphyry from the Porphyry mine in Western Australia 27
Figure 1.1.8_3 – Example of countryrock fabric geometries and movement senses 27
Figure 1.1.9_1 – Relationship between fault features and the sense of movement 28
Figure 1.1.9_2 – Fault surface exposed in the Chatree Mine in central Thailand 28
Figure 1.1.9_3 – Subhorizontal slickenlines and fault steps marked by quartz fibres 29
Figure 1.1.9_4 – Myriad of slickenline orientations exposed in the Boulder-Lefroy Fault 29
Figure 1.1.9_5 – Strongly curved quartz fibre orientations exposed on the surface of a fault 30
Figure 1.1.9_6 – Subhorizontal slickenlines developed on a fault surface at Chatree Mine in central Thailand 30
Figure 1.1.9_7 – Slickenlines developed on a clast from a quartz vein 31
Figure 1.1.9_8 – Slickenlines developed as cm-scale grooves on a quartz vein surface 31
Figure 1.1.10_1 – Various forms of extension fractures 32
Figure 1.1.11_1 – Fault zone comprising major subparallel structures bounding linking structures 33
Figure 1.1.11_2 – A fault zone comprising several discrete morphologies 33

List of Tables

Table 1.1.5_1 – Differences Between a Differentiated Crenulation Cleavage and Shear Band Cleavage 13

List of Appendices

Appendix 1 : Kinematic Test Slides

Kinematic Analysis
1 DETERMINING SHEAR SENSE
Determining the sense of movement on structures is fundamental to structural analysis and
of prime importance when trying to understand a mineralised system. Given the dominant
role that structures play in focusing fluids and controlling the deposition of mineral species,
an understanding of the movement history of structures over time (i.e. kinematics) is
essential. Exploration models become increasingly more useful and predictive when the
movement history of structures can be incorporated into the geological history. Similarly,
an understanding of the architecture of existing resources can be enhanced if the
movement history of structures is integrated with the paragenetic history.

The resolution of the movement history of a structure relies on an understanding of

deformation processes such as deformation partitioning, and on the recognition and correct
interpretation of kinematic indicators. Kinematic indicators are geometric relationships
associated with structures that allow us to interpret how portions of a rock mass have
moved relative to other portions.

A number of structural criteria, which range from the micro- to the macroscale, are
commonly utilised to determine the sense of shear. These include:-

Displacement and deflection of markers

Asymmetric geometries of geological features such as foliations, quartz beards
adjacent to minerals, clusters of minerals in a relatively finer-grained matrix,
differentiated crenulation cleavages

Foliation curvature

Shear bands including S-C fabrics

Porphyroclast geometries

Mica fish

Boudin geometries

Lattice-preferred orientations e.g. quartz C-axis fabrics

Imbrication/tiling of crystals

Fault steps

The direction of movement on a shear zone is usually assumed to lie subparallel to

synchronously formed linear structural elements such as striations, slickenlines,
slickenfibres, stretching lineations, preferred mineral lineations, structural elongations
(e.g. the long axes of stretched pebbles). This lineation represents the tectonic
transport direction and the sense of shear is resolved by interpreting the geometry
of kinematic indicators in a section parallel to the lineation and preferably in a plane
at a high angle to the shear plane.

The importance of determining the transport direction and utilising this information in
conjunction with the kinematic criteria listed cannot be emphasised strongly enough.
Figure 1_1 (modified from Passchier and Trouw, 1996) illustrates how the wrong sense of
shear can be interpreted if the movement vector is not identified.

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 Figure 1_1
Apparent movement sense across a fault

Schematic representation illustrating how the deflection of a geological marker can give the wrong sense of shear if the shear zone is
not viewed in a section parallel to the movement direction. The movement direction is shown as the lineation on the fault surface and
represents the movement vector. This vector shows that the block at the back has moved up and to the right (dextrally). Erosion of both
blocks to the same ground level shows an apparent sinistral deflection of the marker horizon across the fault in plan view, when the
movement in that plane has actually been oblique and incorporated dextral movement in plan view.

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 Although there are numerous forms of kinematic (shear sense) indicators, the interpretation
of these can be ambiguous or conflicting. In addition, many situations exist where
opposing senses of shear appear to have operated in the same rock. The approach
presented here for resolving the sense of movement incorporates the use of strain field
geometries to determine overprinting criteria and shear sense. This sounds fancy but really
only means that we can use the geometries of overprinting foliations and of asymmetrically
deformed geological features to resolve deformation and shear sense histories of almost
any rock. The strain field approach incorporates geometries developed around
heterogeneities such as quartz pebbles, pegmatite pods, veins, igneous bodies,
porphyroblasts, breccia clasts etc. This system has been applied dominantly to rocks
deformed in the ductile regime, but ongoing study indicates that it can also be applied to
brittle systems.

The basic premise of the strain field analysis approach is that strain-field diagrams provide
a solution to the geometric development of structures in rocks where there has been
significant partitioning of the deformation. Deformation is inherently heterogeneous and
this is the key to why we can use geometries produced In order to deduce shear sense.
Because different packages of rocks will deform differently and at different rates, the
partitioning of deformation into zones that have undergone shortening that are surrounded
by anastomosing zones that have accommodated shearing strain is a general process
(Figure 1_2).

Figure 1_2
Non-coaxial deformation of a strain field diagram illustrating the division into zones of variable forms of strain

In essence the local shear sense will be indicated by curvature of the strain field in
the transition from zones of low to high strain. In plain English this means that the
asymmetry of the curvature of geological markers as they enter zones of high strain
can be used to determine the shear sense (Figure 1_3).

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 Figure 1_3
Diagram to illustrate how shear sense is related to strain field geometries and a transition from
low strain to high strain

In this case the local shear sense is indicated by curvature of the strain field in the transition from zones of low to high strain. The figure
at the top shows how the displacement increments increase as the shearing strain intensifies toward the zone of highest strain. In
ductile environments, markers such as foliations will show a smooth asymmetry of curvature as they enter zones of high strain.
Redrafted from Hanmer and Passchier (1991).

1.1 Geological Features and Relationships Utilised in Kinematic Analysis

1.1.1 Location of Low-Strain Zones and Strain Shadows
Strain shadows are areas that have experienced relatively less strain than the rest of the
rock mass. Consequently, strain shadows are extremely useful for preserving earlier-
formed structures and geometries that may have been destroyed by progressive
deformation throughout much of the surrounding rock.

Strain shadows are formed in conjunction with a number of geological bodies, particularly
where there is a marked lithological and or mechanical strength difference between different
rock bodies. In terms of deformation partitioning, the strain shadows are produced in zones
of shortening strain where the degree of shearing strain has been low. Strain shadows are
commonly located adjacent to veins, igneous intrusions, boudins, porphyroblasts, and
dismembered portions of competent stratigraphy to name just a few examples.

The asymmetric disposition of strain shadow zones either side of competent bodies
within zones of high shearing strain can be used as an aid in kinematic analysis
(Figure 1.1.1_1). In conjunction with the sense of deflection and re-orientation of
structures as they pass from the strain shadows into the zones of higher shearing strain,
strain shadow locations relative to competent bodies are important tools for determining
shear sense. Consequently, strain shadows provide important information on early
structural histories, the pattern of deformation partitioning, the timing of mineral growth, and
the kinematics of the bulk shear sense affecting the rock.

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 Figure 1.1.1_1
Photograph and line drawing of a greywacke unit that has been dismembered by shearing accommodated by
the surrounding relatively finer-grained and more phyllosilicate-rich argillaceous units

Strain shadows are represented by zones of low strain adjacent to the competent greywacke units. The asymmetric shape of the strain
shadows has been produced during dextral shearing. Earlier-formed fold geometries are locally preserved within the strain shadows.
From the Hodgkinson Province, north Queensland, Australia.

From this it should be obvious that the presence of any relatively competent heterogeneity
will be of interest for shear sense determination because the progressive shearing
component of the deformation will tend to partition around it. Importantly, it does not matter
what initial orientation a foliation has within the heterogeneity as long as zones of high
strain can be distinguished from zones of low strain. The development of a differentiated
character to the rock is the best criterion for this, such as differentiated crenulations or
coarsely spaced cleavages that cross-cut an earlier less intense one. Consequently, the
shear sense can be determined by evaluating the direction of deflection of any foliation or
other geological marker preserved within the heterogeneity as it bends into the adjacent
zone of high shearing strain. For heterogeneities such as pegmatite pods, quartz boudins,
clasts etc, the shear sense can be determined by the curvature of the pre-existing marker
from within the strain shadows into the adjacent zone of high shearing strain.

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1.1.2 Offset of a Geological Marker
This can be anything from faulted bedding, displaced veins (Figures 1.1.2_1), segmented
clasts to faults that offset other faults. Given that many planar surface (such as veins,
cleavages, dykes etc) cross-cut their host rocks at an angle, care must be taken to ensure
that a misinterpretation is not made due to geometries giving an apparent movement sense
(e.g. Figure 1_1).

Figure 1.1.2_1
Curvature and offset of a geological marker (dyke) in an granite

The dyke shows progressive curvature into a shear at top but shows abrupt displacement across the fault at the bottom. Note also that
the sense of curvature at the top suggests a sinistral offset whereas the offset at bottom suggests a dextral sense. One sense may be
apparent, but without a view in the third dimension, or the orientation of a shear-related lineation, this can not be resolved.

Figure 1.1.2_2
Gold-bearing quartz veins from the Mulgarrie mine in Western Australia

The veins have been displaced by, but are locally continuous across, thin high strain zones. An apparent sinistral sense of
displacement is indicated.

Caution: Some movement senses may be apparent.

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 Figure 1.1.2_3 shows several carbonate veins that appear to be segments that originally
comprised a single vein. However, these represent carbonate infill of brittle extensional
openings and the movement sense on structures between veins is the opposite of that
required for displacement. This is analogous to the displacements seen on transform faults
across spreading ridges.

Figure 1.1.2_3
Photograph of carbonate veins exposed underground at the Callie mine, Northern Territory, which illustrate
how apparent displacements can lead to the wrong interpretation of movement sense on a structure

1.1.3 Deflection/Rotation of Geological Markers Across Strain Transitions

Planar or linear geological markers will show progressive rotation toward the orientation of
shear zones that overprint them. This sense of curvature and degree of reorientation
increases as the degree of shearing strain increases toward the overprinting structure
(Figure 1.1.3_1). An opposite sense of curvature will be produced on opposing sides of the
overprinting structure, producing characteristic structural asymmetries that can be used to
determine movement sense (Figures 1.1.3_1, 1.1.3_2 and 1.1.3_3).

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 Figure 1.1.3_1
Deflection of a geological marker through a zone of high strain dominated by shearing strain

The degree of displacement increases as the intensity of strain increases.

Figure 1.1.3_2
Example of a geological marker passing through a competent body and out into the ductile matrix that
encompasses it

This could represent a vein passing through a clast of competent quartzite and out into a siltstone matrix. Shear strain accumulation on
the margin of the competent body has given the marker an asymmetric geometry indicative of sinistral shear.

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 Figure 1.1.3_3
Photomicrograph of an andalusite porphyroblast from the highly strained schistose aureole of the Cannibal
Creek Granite in north Queensland, Australia

The porphyroblast has preserved the S3 foliation, which trends NW-SE in the photo. The foliation shows opposite senses of deflection
into NE-SW orientations where it enters the matrix on opposing sides of the porphyroblast. This sense of deflection indicates a sinistral
sense of shear as viewed.

1.1.4 Foliation Curvature

Foliation curvature represents a similar kinematic indicator to that of deflection/rotation of
geological markers. Foliated ductile shear zones commonly display a gradient in foliation
development, going from relatively undeformed wall rock through to intensely foliated
material comprising the core of the shear zone. Foliations typically display progressive
curvature toward the orientation of the shear zone as strain, and proximity to the core of the
shear zone, increases (Figures 1.1.4_1, 1.1.4_2 and 1.1.4_3).

Figure 1.1.4_1
Foliation curvature into a shear in a granitoid

The sense of curvature indicates accommodation of a sinistral sense of movement on the shear.

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 Figure 1.1.4_2
Curvature of geological markers into a zone of high strain

Sense of shear is dextral.

Figure 1.1.4_3
Curvature of a shear foliation into the shear zone orientation, indicating a sinistral sense of shear

The shear is developed in the Bom Fim Granite in the Quadrilatero Ferrifero, Brazil.

Curvature of foliations into the shear zone can be used in conjunction with the
orientation of lineations on the shear surfaces to determine the movement sense.

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 The greatest curvature and the ideal position from which to resolve the sense of shear is in
a plane that is parallel to the lineation and at a high angle to the shear zone. The similar
asymmetry of the foliation curvature on both sides of the shear zone makes it possible to
determine the sense of shear even if rocks on one side of the shear can not be observed
(e.g. they are covered). Really this is all that you need to know to determine the sense of
shear and use it in a practical sense e.g. during mapping. It is not necessary to fully
understand the technical explanation for the formation of the foliation geometries, which
states that the geometries develop because foliations rotate from the plane of
instantaneous flattening strain toward the plane of finite flattening strain during progressive
noncoaxial deformation.

1.1.5 Shear Band Cleavages - S-C Fabrics and C’ Fabrics

Within zones of high strain, typically in rocks such as granitoids, there are commonly two
foliations developed. These foliations are termed S (after the French word schistosité) and
C (cisaillement) fabrics and their geometry can be used as a shear sense indicator. Both
foliations are generally considered to form at broadly the same time although exceptions
exist. The C-planes are the shear surfaces along which displacement occurs and are
parallel to the shear zone walls. The S-surfaces define broad sigmoidal geometries that
wrap into the C-planes, with the acute angle between the S- and C-planes pointing in the
direction of the sense of shear (Figures 1.1.5_1 and 1.1.5_2). With increasing strain the
angle between the S- and C-planes decreases to the point where they coincide at the
ultramylonite stage and their individual identities are lost. The C-surfaces commonly exhibit
a lineation defined by mineral streaking or attenuated minerals, or the preferred growth
direction of minerals (Figure 1.1.5_3). This lineation represents the transport direction and
the asymmetric S-C geometries must be viewed in surfaces parallel to this and at right
angles to the C-plane.

Figure 1.1.5_1
Schematic diagram to show the geometric relationship between S- and C-planes and the lineation
that defines the tectonic movement direction

Note that best development of S-plane asymmetries, and the most reliable orientation for establishing the movement sense, is in a plane
parallel to the lineation and at a high angle to the S- and C-planes.

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 Figure 1.1.5_2
Hand-specimen example displaying the features shown schematically in Figure 2.1.5_1

Figure 1.1.5_3
Well developed stretching lineation defined by the preferred growth elongation of biotite porphyroblasts in an
amphibolite-grade mica schist

Important: Always view the sample in a plane that is both normal (or at a high angle)
to the intersection between the S- and C-surfaces and parallel to the
lineation on the C-surface. This may be difficult in zones of very high strain
(mylonites) because the S-C intersection lineation may have rotated into an
orientation similar to the lineation on the C-surface.

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 Note that this geometry is the same as that of a differentiated crenulation cleavage. As
such, differentiated crenulations can be used in the same manner, with the lineation on the
C-surface corresponding to a stretching lineation. However, there are a number of
differences in morphology and formation between S-C fabrics and differentiated crenulation
cleavage. These are given in Table 1.1.5_1.

Table 1.1.5_1
Differences Between a Differentiated Crenulation Cleavage and Shear Band Cleavage

Crenulation cleavage Shear band cleavage

Angles between the older fabric being crenulated and the new The angle between the S- and C-planes is typically
differentiation zones is generally between 45º and 90º less than 45º
Host rock is typically micaceous e.g. a phyllite Host rock is usually a mylonite or phyllonite
The differentiation zones typically develop at a high angle to Shear band cleavages develop oblique to the bulk
the bulk shortening direction shortening direction

In addition to the formation of S-C fabrics during the ductile deformation process, a suite of
structures termed C’-fabrics are also produced. These have a similar geometry to the C-
fabrics but form oblique to the shear zone boundary and oblique to the older foliation in
micaceous mylonites. The angle between the shear zone boundary and the C’ fabrics is of
the order of 15-35º. C’-type shears typically develop in strongly foliated mylonites and
mylonitic mica schists, and do not continue into relatively more weakly foliated layers.

C’-type shears have the same asymmetry as fabrics associated with C-shears on the same
rock and can be used as shear sense criteria. In addition, the consistent sense of
inclination of the C’-shears relative to the shear zone boundaries is another set of kinematic
criteria. The relationship between C and C’-fabrics is shown in Figure 1.1.5_4.

Figure 1.1.5_4
Geometries of S-C and C’ foliation relationships

Note that the sense of asymmetry is the same in both cases, but that the C’-planes are oblique to the shear zone boundary whereas C-
planes are parallel to it.

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1.1.5.1 Crenulation and Fold Asymmetries
Crenulations and crenulation cleavage development are an extremely common component
of deformed rocks. The geometry of crenulations reflects the patterns of deformation
partitioning (e.g. Figure 1.1.5.1_1). The hinge regions of the crenulations represent zones
of shortening strain and the limbs represent the zones of shearing plus shortening strain.
With increased development of the crenulation cleavage the limb regions commonly evolve
to throughgoing continuous cleavages defined by concentrations of aligned phyllosilicates
that separate the less deformed hinge regions (Figures 1.1.5.1_2 and 1.1.5.1_3).

Figure 1.1.5.1_1
Strain field geometry showing differentiation into folded domains dominated by shortening strain and planar
limb zones that have accommodated shearing strain

This geometry is directly analogous with a differentiated crenulation cleavage. Compare this with Figure 1.1.5.1_2.

The application of strain field analysis to interpret shear sense and geometries developed
during deformation partitioning in crenulated rocks is important technique for understanding
the structural history of host rocks to mineralisation. The implication of this is shear
sense can be determined along a differentiated cleavage by noting the sense of
curvature of the crenulated fabric as it curves into the zone of differentiation on the
crenulation limb. For folded rocks, this allows the determination of the sense of shear on
the fold limbs because the sense of curvature and sense of shear change from limb to limb.
The fold geometries mimic the crenulation geometries at a larger scale and form due to the
same bulk displacement (Figures 1.1.5.1_4 and 1.1.5.1_5). A note of caution – if the
crenulations have not developed a differentiated limb then they should not be used as a
shear sense criterion.

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 Figure 1.1.5.1_2
Example of a crenulation cleavage that has differentiated into near-continuous mica-rich differentiation zones
and quartz-rich hinges

Shearing was accommodated on the mica-rich differentiation zones. Sense of shear is indicated by the sense of curvature of the
foliation in the quartz-rich domains into the differentiation zones and was dextral.

Figure 1.1.5.1_3
Crenulated sample from the Boppo 3 pit on the Bogoso-Prestea trend, Ghana

The sample contains millimetre-scale ex-carbonate porphyroblasts. Curvature of the NW-SE trending cleavage into the cleavage
differentiation zones at a low angle to the long edge of the photo indicates a sinistral sense of shear.

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 Figure 1.1.5_4
Diagram illustrating the effects of folding of a fabric that initially formed at high angle to the axial plane of fold
associated with the overprinting event

Folding is taking place during bulk compression that is horizontal and the bulk sense of displacement from synform to antiform is shown.
The crenulation geometries for opposing fold limbs are shown and also reflect the bulk shear.

Figure 1.1.5.1_5
Fold geometry in gneiss in southeast Ghana

Folds mimic differentiated crenulation cleavage geometries, with the differentiated zone of high shearing strain parallel to the pen. The
sense of shear indicated is dextral.

Important: Crenulation asymmetries can only be used when the crenulations are
differentiated as movement is only accommodated on the through-going
phyllosilicate-rich differentiation zone. Asymmetric crenulations lacking zones
of differentiation can form simply by shortening an inclined surface and need
not have involved displacement by shear.

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1.1.6 Asymmetry of Competent Bodies in Zones of High Strain
(e.g. porphyroclasts, sedimentary phacoids, boudins etc)

The asymmetric shape of many competent bodies is a reflection of their response to the
zones of high shearing strain on their margins. While the competent bodies will not deform
to the extent of the less competent matrix, they will nevertheless undergo some
deformation-induced shape modification. Consequently, their marginal zones will deform
and attenuate in the zones of shearing strain such that originally fairly equidimensional
bodies will become asymmetric. This may be taken as an example of a feldspar in a
mylonite zone (Figure 1.1.6_1) or simply an arenaceous clast or pebbles in relatively finer-
grained sedimentary layers (Figure 1.1.6_2 and 1.1.6_3).

Figure 1.1.6_1
Idealised sketch of an asymmetric porphyroclast such as a feldspar in a mylonitic foliation

Figure 1.1.6_2
Dextral sense of shear indicated by an asymmetric quartz pebble that has been deformed by shearing strain
accommodated along sedimentary layering

From the Duketon Belt in Western Australia.

Porphyroclasts in mylonites are commonly flanked by tapering grain aggregates that

combine with the porphyroclast to form a structural unit. If such aggregates have the same
mineral composition as the porphyroclast they are known as mantles and the whole
structure as a mantled porphyroclast. Mantled porphyroclasts are commonly composed of
feldspar in a matrix of quartz-feldspar-mica.

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 Figure 1.1.6_3
Lineations associated with asymmetric chert nodules in float in Colliwobble pit, Tanami region,
northern Australia

Clast asymmetries indicate a sinistral sense of shear.

Note that strain shadows will be associated with competent bodies. The shear sense
can also be determined by the curvature of the pre-existing marker from within the
strain shadows into the adjacent zone of high shearing strain (Figure 1.1.6_4).

Figure 1.1.6_4
Deformed granitoid showing two forms of kinematic indicator

The large mafic inclusion has undergone shape modification during shearing and shortening. Folds indicative of shortening are preserved in
the upper strain shadow. The sense of deflection of the folded mafic layers into the high strain zones anastomosing around the mafic
inclusion indicates dextral shear. This is supported by the development of tails that are asymmetrically located at the ends of the inclusion.

Kinematic Analysis Page: 18

1.1.6.1 Asymmetric Boudinage, Geometries of Dismembered Veins, and Extension Veins
Quartz veins are particularly useful kinematic indicators because they are typically planar
and oriented at various angles to the principal stresses. Furthermore, they are commonly
of different mechanical strength to the hostrocks, owing to their variable widths, grainsizes
and mineral components. The deformation of veins in the form of boudinage and the
formation of extension vein arrays are discussed together in this section because both
processes can produce similar vein geometries from movements with different shear
senses.

Geometries such as those shown in Figures 1.1.6.1_1, 1.1.6.1_2, 1.1.6.1_3 and 1.1.6.1_4
are useful kinematic indicators and are the result of extreme attenuation of the quartz veins
during noncoaxial deformation. Some workers mistakenly attribute these geometries to
extension and consider them analogous to extension veins. This erroneous interpretation
can result in the interpretation of the wrong sense of shear as it implies a shear sense that
is the opposite of the one that operated to form the vein geometries such as shown in
Figure 1.1.6.1.

There are a number of criteria that allow the distinction between the geometries in
Figures 1.1.6.1_1, 1.1.6.1_2, 1.1.6.1_3 and 1.1.6.1_4 and extension veins. Extension vein
arrays are usually mineral-filled, and can have sigmoidally curved shapes with ‘S’ or ‘Z’
geometries depending on the sense of shear in the zone they are in. Extension vein arrays
typically comprise a population of similar-scale features and are restricted in length to one
repetition of the ‘S’ or ‘Z’ geometry. In zones of competent rock between progressively
deforming shears, extension vein arrays are commonly restricted to the competent material
and typically taper to zero thickness at, or before, the zone of bounding shear. That is, the
veins tend to define an en echelon geometry that is restricted to an individual competent
layer (Figure 1.1.6.1_5) Extension veins are not continuous across the shear zones. In
addition, extension vein arrays can become linked by a central fault-vein structure
(Figure 1.1.6.1_6).

Extension veins can form tight sigmoidal geometries which are difficult to distinguish from
pre-existing veins that have been dismembered and deformed to fold back on themselves
thereby producing local tight ‘S’ shapes (Figure 1.1.6.1_7).

Long-length veins made up of linked asymmetric segments (e.g. Figures 1.1.6.1_1 and
1.1.6.1_2) are commonly products of progressive deformation that have overprinted the
vein, either in the same event in which it formed, or in a subsequent event. In addition, the
same structures that host the veins commonly display similar asymmetric fabric geometries
akin to S-C fabrics that indicate the same sense of movement. Figures 1.1.6.1_2,
1.1.6.1_3 and 1.1.6.1_4 are all from the same fault system, which is approximately a metre
wide and exposed in metasedimentary units in Western Australia. The figures show that
the asymmetry of the vein segments comprising long-length vein structures
(Figures 1.1.6.1_2 and 1.1.6.1_3) are consistent with those fabrics defining asymmetric
geometries in the encompassing fault (Figure 1.1.6.1_4).

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 Figure 1.1.6.1_1
Asymmetrically deformed quartz vein produced during accommodation of reverse shear (sinistral as viewed)
on the bedding surfaces within a siltstone unit

From the Fortnum area, Western Australia.

Figure 1.1.6.1_2
Deformed quartz veining present as asymmetric quartz boudins

This same vein is shown in greater detail in Figure 1.1.6.1_3.

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 Figure 1.1.6.1_3
Detail of Figure 2.1.6.1_2 looking south

The asymmetry of the quartz vein boudin indicates west-side-up shear.

Figure 1.1.6.1_4
Fabric asymmetries in the fault containing the veins in Figures 1.1.6.1_2 and 1.1.6.1_3 that are the same
as for the quartz lozenges

Fabric asymmetries indicate west-side-up movement i.e. sinistral as viewed. From the Fortnum area, Western Australia.

Kinematic Analysis Page: 21

 Figure 1.1.6.1_5
Development of quartz extension vein arrays within an argillaceous unit between two sandstone units

Extension vein arrays are largely restricted to the argillaceous layer and possess weakly sigmoidal geometries. The sense of shear to
form the extension vein arrays was sinistral and was accommodated largely at the interface between argillaceous and sandstone layers.
From the Cooktown area, north Queensland, Australia.

Figure 1.1.6.1_6
Sigmoidal quartz extension vein array developed in a siltstone unit in the Cooktown area,
north Queensland, Australia

The centres of the extension vein array is linked by a relatively thicker vein. Sense of shear was sinistral.

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 Figure 1.1.6.1_7
Scan and line diagram of vein geometries in the Fortnum area, Western Australia

Consistent asymmetric deflection of the of all of the veins (black arrows) into the cleavage indicates a dextral sense of shear.

The geometries of asymmetric quartz vein boudins shown in Figures 1.1.6.1_1 and
1.1.6.1_2 conform to those defined as shearband boudins ((Goscombe and Passchier,
2003). These are characterised by long, curved lenticular shapes and large relative
displacements (Figure 1.1.6.1_1) plus synthetic drag on inter-boudin surfaces that were
gently inclined to the boudin exterior surfaces. The geometries of these asymmetric
boudins, and the vergence of foliation-oblique boudin trains as a whole, can be employed
as kinematic indicators. In the latter case, the boudin trains must verge in the same
direction as the bulk shear sense (Figure 1.1.6.1_8).

Figure 1.1.6.1_8
Diagram showing the salient features of veins that have undergone deformation to produce shearband
boudins

Compare with Figure 4.1_6.

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1.1.6.2 An Alternative Model of Vein Formation
The formation of veins parallel to a synchronously developing cleavage is a common
phenomenon. However, adequate explanations for the process of vein emplacement and
growth are commonly absent in papers that document these situations. The major issue
that warrants explanation is the growth of veins in an orientation orthogonal to the principal
stress, which will be operating to close any fractures that may promote nucleation and
formation of the veins. Consequently, many workers rationalise the vein formation process
in terms of emplacement as tensional features (e.g. extension veins), especially where
progressive deformation has produced isolated and/or asymmetric vein segments from
original long-length veins.

The common presence of veins as members of populations rather than as individual

structures suggests a large amount of fluid in the system. Thrust structures will be
favourable conduits for the fluids and will represent both discrete faults and zones of
distributed strain marked by extensive zones of intense cleavage development. Migration
of these fluids will be promoted by, and parallel to, the evolving cleavage, which represents
a zone of weakness. Many of the examples in the literature that show the veins occupying
cleavage-parallel orientations also show the veins as possessing textural zoning resulting
from the addition of progressive veining increments during vein growth (e.g. crack-seal
veins). This indicates sequential opening and sealing of the structure occupied by the vein.
Consequently, a viable explanation for the presence of veins parallel to cleavage is that
fluid pressure intermittently exceeds the principal stress, allowing intermittent opening of
the vein and emplacement of successive amounts of vein material parallel to the primary
hostrock weakness i.e. the cleavage. Fluid pressure will then drop when the vein material
is deposited and progressive deformation will deform the vein.

The above process can be further promoted by transient changes in the orientation of the
principal stress. If σ1 is only marginally greater than σ2, and both are greater than the
minimum principal stress, σ3 (which is the principal extension direction) then σ1 and σ2
may intermittently flip (Figure 1.1.6.2_1). If this occurs, then σ2 (the intermediate stress)
will be orthogonal to the cleavage but σ1 (the principal stress) will lie in the plane of the
cleavage, promoting extensional opening of fractures parallel to the cleavage. Such
changes in the orientations of σ2 and σ3 may occur due to periodic stages of tectonic
relaxation, resulting in local perturbations of the stress field or redistribution of the
deformation such that different portions of the rock mass accommodate different amounts
of shortening versus shearing strain at different times.

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 Figure 1.1.6.2_1
Diagram to explain how the magnitudes of the stress axes can influence vein formation parallel to a
synchronously developing cleavage

In A the principal and intermediate stresses, σ1 and σ2 respectively, are of similar magnitude and greater than the least compressive
stress σ3 i.e. σ1 ≥ σ2 > σ3. This promotes formation of the cleavage and the plane containing σ2 and σ3 approximates the cleavage
orientation and σ1 is orthogonal to it. In B the situation is shown for conditions where σ1 and σ2 flip (i.e. swap orientations). The
principal stress (σ1) is then contained within the cleavage plane and extension in the direction of the intermediate stress (σ2) will
promote opening of fractures parallel to the cleavage and associated emplacement of vein material parallel to it.

1.1.7 Quartz Fibre Growth

Quartz fibres in progressively opening cavities, such as to form crack-seal veins, are
indicative of a direction of opening rather than a sense of shear. However, they are a
useful kinematic indicator and the recognition and documentation of fibre asymmetries can
yield information on the structural history of a rock mass. Other minerals can exhibit fibre
growth as well, e.g. actinolite. Mineral fibres will grow parallel to the instantaneous
stretching direction. That is, the fibre will be oriented parallel to the direction of extension at
the instant of opening and mineral deposition. This direction may change during vein
growth, resulting in variable fibre orientations across the vein. Consequently, some veins
may exhibit fibres at right angles to the walls and inclined in the centre of the vein due to
incremental breaking at the fibre-vein wall contact. Others will display inclined fibres
adjacent to the walls and at right angles in the centre of the vein, indicating incremental
opening localizes in the centre of the vein. Figure 1.1.7_1 shows fibres defining a constant
orientation at an angle to the vein walls, indicating that the direction of opening was
consistently at an angle to the vein-countryrock contact.

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 Figure 1.1.7_1
Quartz vein fibres oriented at an angle to the vein contact due to oblique opening of the vein

1.1.8 ‘Tiling’ Geometries

This can occur more than one situation. In rocks containing a magmatic flow foliation
minerals such as feldspars may accumulate and display an inclined, stacked geometry (tiling)
that indicates the magmatic flow direction. This phenomenon is fairly rare. In mylonitic rocks,
individual crystals such as feldspar may separate along internal cleavages and give the same
geometries (Figure 2.1.9_1). Figure 1.2.1_2 also shows this relationship.

Note that the shear sense in the figure switches from overall dextral on the mylonitic
foliation to sinistral displacement between individual crystal fragments. This switch in shear
sense along linking structures compared to the bounding shears can occur at all scales
from individual crystals (Figure 1.1.8_1) to phenocryst-rich differentiation zones
(Figure 1.1.8_2) to areas on the scale of granite plutons (Figure 1.1.8_3). Importantly, this
process involving the interaction of shears with opposing movement senses in common in
the brittle-ductile environment and can be a major control on the localisation of fluids and
mineralisation. The change in shears sense commonly occurs from one scale to another
and is a result of an attempt to solve strain incompatibilities and because the bounding and
linking shears have different asymmetries relative to the orientation of the principle stress.

Figure 1.1.8_1
A feldspar crystal has undergone deformation such that slip has occurred along the mineral cleavage

The overall shape of the crystal indicates the dextral sense of shear on the mylonitic foliation.

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 Figure 1.1.8_2
Sample of deformed porphyry from the Porphyry mine in Western Australia

Linking shears traversing a relatively lower-strain quart- and feldspar-rich zone have the opposite sense of shear to the throughgoing
bounding shears.

Figure 1.1.8_3
Example of countryrock fabric geometries and movement senses around the Kogkoundi Granite
in the Bissa area of northern Burkina Faso

The granite is elongate in the dextral Sabca Shear. Linking structures cut across the granite, particular through countryrock
embayments such as the Yilou corridor, and have accommodated an opposite sinistral sense of shear.

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1.1.9 Slickenlines and Fault Steps
Slickenlines and fault steps are features that develop on the individual fault and shear
planes. Fibre growth is often represented on these planes and occurs at a low angle to the
planes (Figures 1.1.9_1, 1.1.9_2 and 1.1.9_3). This occurs due to incremental opening/slip
on the faults and is analogous to the quartz fibre growth. Caution needs to be exercised
when interpreting sllickenline orientations as individual slip planes comprising the
fault can develop their own slickenlines with different orientations (Figures 1.1.9_4
and 1.1.9_5). This is because portions of the fault undergo differential amounts and
orientations of movement in an effort to accommodate the strain. Figures 1.1.9_6,
1.1.9_7, and 1.1.9_8 are examples of slickenlines.

Figure 1.1.9_1
Diagram to illustrate the relationship between fault features and the sense of movement accommodated
on the fault

Figure 1.1.9_2
Fault surface exposed in the Chatree Mine in central Thailand

The slickenlines are subhorizontal and the fault steps define subvertical lines marked by quartz fibres. The geometry of the steps
indicate that the block as viewed moved to the left.

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 Figure 1.1.9_3
Subhorizontal slickenlines and fault steps marked by quartz fibres

The geometry of the steps indicates that the block as viewed moved to the left.

Figure 1.1.9_4
Myriad slickenline orientations exposed in the Boulder-Lefroy Fault

The exposure is in the Jubilee pit, Eastern Goldfields, Western Australia. Photo courtesy of Gerard Tripp.

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 Figure 1.1.9_5
Strongly curved quartz fibre orientations exposed on the surface of a fault in the Porphyry pit on the
Zuleika Shear, Eastern Goldfields, Western Australia

Photo courtesy of Gerard Tripp.

Figure 1.1.9_6
Subhorizontal slickenlines developed on a fault surface at Chatree Mine in central Thailand

Fault steps are weakly developed and indicate that the block as viewed moved to the right.

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 Figure 1.1.9_7
Slickenlines developed on a clast from a quartz vein from the Carnage deposit in the Eastern Goldfields,
Western Australia

Figure 1.1.9_8
Well developed slickenlines developed as cm-scale grooves on a quartz vein surface at the Carnage deposit,
Eastern Goldfields, Western Australia

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1.1.10 Extension Fractures
Extension fractures occur in a number of forms and are shown in Figure 1.1.10_1. If the
fractures are crescent-shaped they are concave in the direction of motion of the missing
block.

Figure 1.1.10_1
Various forms of extension fractures

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 Striated secondary fractures also develop in conjunction with extension fractures. These
fractures cut down into the fault surface in the direction of the missing block. Fracturing of
the acute wedge of rock between the secondary shear and the fault surface produces steps
in the fault surface that face in the direction of movement of the missing fault blocks. The
steps may be predominantly linear or they may be lunate.

1.1.11 Fault Splay Asymmetries Within Fault Zones

Figure 1.1.11_1
Sketch of a fault zone comprising major subparallel structures bounding linking structures that lie at an
oblique angle

The asymmetry of the faults is analogous to that seen in ductile systems. Local concentration of strain can produce cataclastic zones
containing clays and rock fragments with fabric geometries analogous to asymmetric foliation geometries noted in ductilely deformed
rocks. These geometries mimic those of the fault splays.

Figure 1.1.11_2
A fault zone comprising several discrete morphologies

Two forms of cataclasite are evident as grey material at left and likely represent two separate stages of fault development. Sigmoidal
foliations wrap asymmetric clasts in the cataclasite and define a sinistral sense of shear as viewed. Ductilely deformed gneissic
basement material at right contained foliations exhibiting the same geometry. The sample is from a major fault exposed in the
Krumovgrad region of southern Bulgaria.

Note: The shear sense on the internal fault splays is commonly antithetic to that operating
on the overall shear zone, for reasons similar to that shown for feldspars above.
Subordinate fault splays that link the first order splays may switch sense of shear
again. Therefore it is important to assess the whole zone, especially any bounding
features, and to look for other movement sense criteria as well. However, the offset
indicated by fault plane asymmetry can still be used in terms of strain field
geometries at the scale of the individual fault segment.

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2 ESTABLISHING SHEAR SENSE AND DEFORMATION HISTORY
How do we establish the structural relationships in a tectonite i.e. the deformation history,
orientations, and kinematics of different structures?

A few simple steps, utilizing the geometries and criteria described in the previous sections
will establish the majority of relationships and data in the field or handspecimen. In more
complex situations it may be necessary to integrate this information with microstructural
studies but that will not be discussed here.

The first thing to do is to ascertain if the outcrop is in place. If it isn’t then obviously the
structural measurements will not be representative. However, relationships such as
overprinting can still commonly be resolved. Assuming the outcrop is in place, all of the
structures need to be documented. These include fold phases (plunge and plunge
direction, hinge angles, amplitude, wavelength, style, asymmetries), foliations (style such
as schistosity or differentiated crenulation, orientation, what defines them, whether they are
flow foliations as in granites or genuine tectonic fabrics, foliation spacing), lineations (what
defines them, orientation, any plane they may lie in, type such as intersection or stretching
lineation).

Next we have to determine the relationships between the structures. This will have been
partially or totally achieved in step one but things such as overprinting relationships and
vergence may be less clear and require more intense study. From the overprinting history
we can then erect a deformation history using the terminology described above. Generally,
the asymmetries of overprinted foliations etc will give indications of shear sense at the
same time as resolving the overprinting. At this point it will be useful to look for low strain
zones such as the hinges of folds and strain shadows adjacent to heterogeneities such as
veins, clasts, porphyroblasts etc.

The deformation history for each outcrop is then integrated, keeping in mind that the scale
of scale of observation may be variable. A good initial step is to stand back and get a feel
for the overall outcrop. Walk around it if possible to establish the variability of structural
expression and to locate the structurally most fertile areas for initial attention. Sketches in
a notebook will greatly clarify structural overprinting and orientation relationships.

Some other tips:-

Stand back and see if what you are looking at is something of a more obvious larger
structure.

Look for obvious asymmetries in geological features, such as asymmetric clasts,
porphyroclasts or asymmetrically deformed veins.

Look for through-going fabrics or structures i.e. features that were produced during
deformation that remain planar across the outcrop or sample. These will generally
represent the last-formed structure in the rock. Now check for asymmetry of features
either side of them, including progressive rotation of markers into them.

Kinematic Analysis Page: 34


Through-going structures that have accommodated strain may be knife-sharp or they
may be broad and diffuse (e.g. due to alteration associated with fluid that has moved
along them). Moving specimens around (or moving around the outcrop) so that you
view the rocks from different angles can commonly help determine the line of the
structures. This is analogous to looking at aerial photos from different angles to
define lineaments.

Make sketches, including drawing on the rock

Keep in mind that the history that is resolved is a local history and some or all of it
may not be present in the next outcrop. Reasons for this include deformation
partitioning, fault juxtaposition of sequences with different histories, variations in
rocktype etc.

3 REFERENCES
Hanmer, S. and Passchier, C., 1991. Shear-sense indicators: A review. Geological Survey
of Canada, Paper 90, 72pp.
Passchier, C. W. & Trouw, R.A.J. 1996. Microtectonics. Springer Verlag, 325pp.

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 Appendix 1
Kinematic Test Slides

The following photographs show deformed rocks from which the shear sense must be deduced.
Information necessary to resolve the shear sense is given for each photo.
 What is the movement sense on the through going crenulation differentiation zones that
are at a low angle to the long edge of the photo?

What is the sense of displacement accommodated by the shears that have dislocated the
large quartz vein?

Kinematic Analysis Page: 1

 What is the sense of movement accommodated by the pervasive foliation in the
deformed porphyritic basalt?

What is the sense of movement on the pervasive foliation that has overprinted the
porphyritic hostrock and the finer-grained dyke that has intruded it?

Note the extreme refraction of the foliation through the dyke to the extent that the foliation is now
almost parallel to the dyke margins.

Kinematic Analysis Page: 2

 What is the overall sense of movement that has affected the porphyritic granite?
How many shear sense criteria are present?

What is the sense of shear on the pervasive foliation?

Kinematic Analysis Page: 3

 What is the sense of shear on the pervasive foliation?

The laminated reef at Quarters is hosted by a brittle ductile shear and laminations are a
product of deformation, not crack-seal processes. What is the sense of movement on the
host shear? How many shear sense criteria are present?

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 What is the sense of movement on the foliation that is parallel to the scribe?

What is the sense of movement on the discrete shears that have displaced the
quartz veins and the intense country rock foliation?
From the Wendy Gully mine, Western Australia.

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 Strong deformation partitioning is evident into mica-rich zones of shearing strain and
asymmetric quartz-rich zones of shortening strain . What is the sense of shear on the
mica-rich zones?

What is the sense of movement on the two small faults in the centre of the photo that
displace tectonic layering? Are the movement senses conflicting? If so, why?

Kinematic Analysis Page: 6

 Is it possible to resolve a movement sense on the mylonitic fabric that wraps the
amphibolite clast?

What is the movement sense on the shear zone?

Kinematic Analysis Page: 7

 What is the sense of displacement on the reverse faults that have dislocated the
basalt-sediment stratigraphy?

What is the shear sense on the shear zone below the pen?

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What is the sense of shear on the thin (~ 2cm wide) shear at the top of the massive layer?

What is the sense of shear in the fault above the pen?

Kinematic Analysis Page: 9

 The white quartz vein is located in a fault. What is the movement sense on this fault?

What is the movement sense on the central pyrite-rich shear?

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 What is the movement sense on the mylonitic foliation?

What is the movement sense on the planar shears parallel to the gun?

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 Bedding has accommodated intense shearing strain. What was the sense of movement?

What is the sense of movement on the shear on the top side of the vein?

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 Intense shearing strain has been accommodated by bedding, which is inclined at about
60º from upper right to lower left. Cleavage and quartz veins have been deformed by this
bedding-parallel shear. What was the sense of shear on bedding?

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