VEINS IN ORE SYSTEMS

Analysis of and Interpretation of

Veining and Alteration in
Hydrothermal Ore Systems
Table of Contents

1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................................1

2 Characterisation of Veins and Vein Systems .................................................................................2

2.1 Introduction ...............................................................................................................................2
2.2 Basic Structural Classification of Veins.....................................................................................2
2.3 The Role of Veins During Deformation .....................................................................................7

3 Structural Ages of Veins...................................................................................................................8

3.1 Structural Timing of Veins from the Comparison of Strain Axes ..............................................8
3.2 Structural Timing of Veins from Overprinting Relationships with Hostrock Structures .............8
3.2.1 Pre-Tectonic Veins .............................................................................................................9
3.2.1.1 Folded Veins...................................................................................................................9
3.2.1.2 Boudinaged Veins ........................................................................................................11
3.2.1.3 Folded Boudinaged Veins ............................................................................................11
3.2.2 Syn-Tectonic Veins...........................................................................................................14
3.2.2.1 Veins Affected by the same Strain as the Countryrocks but to a Lesser Degree .......17
3.2.2.2 Boudinaged Veins Parallel to Fold Axial Planes..........................................................18
3.2.2.3 Veins Parallel to, and Deformed by, the Hostrock Foliation ........................................19
3.2.3 Post-Tectonic Veins .........................................................................................................22
3.2.3.1 Veins Containing Foliated Clasts .................................................................................22
3.2.3.2 Planar Veins Cutting Pre-Existing Structures ..............................................................23
3.2.4 Information from Alteration ...............................................................................................26

4 Vein History and Paragenesis........................................................................................................29

4.1 Procedure for Establishing a Vein-Alteration Paragenesis in Diamond Drill Core ..................29
4.2 Some Tricks - Composite Veins and Changes in Vein Character ..........................................34

5 References .......................................................................................................................................37

Vein System Analysis

List of Figures

Figure 2.2_1– Quartz-K-feldspar extension veins in a meta-psammitic rock 2

Figure 2.2_2 – Barite-enargite extension vein in a high-sulfidation system 3
Figure 2.2_3 – Oblique Extension Vein 3
Figure 2.2_4 – Quartz-carbonate Shear Vein in Amphibolite 4
Figure 2.2_5 – Boudinaged and Attenuated Quartz Shear Vein 4
Figure 2.2_6 – Sigmoidal Extension Vein Array - EVA 5
Figure 2.2_7 – Planar Extension Vein Array 6
Figure 2.2_8 – Stockwork of Irregular Quartz Extension Veins 6
Figure 2.2_9 – Hydrothermal Breccia: Country-Rock Clasts in Quartz-Carbonate Matrix 6
Figure 2.2_10 – Laminated Quartz Shear Vein 7
Figure 3.2.1.1_1 – Open to close folding of carbonate veins 9
Figure 3.2.1.1_2 – Isoclinally folded vein 10
Figure 3.2.1.1_3 – Open folding of a shear-laminated quartz reef 10
Figure 3.2.1.2_1 – Open folding of a shear-laminated vein that has been boudinaged prior to folding 11
Figure 3.2.1.3_1 – Deformation of a vein that was boudinaged prior to folding 11
Figure 3.2.1.3_2 – Boudinaged veins that pre-date folding 12
Figure 3.2.1.2_3 – Boudinaged veins that pre-date folding 12
Figure 3.2.1.2_4 – Boudinaged veins that pre-date folding 13
Figure 3.2.1.3_5 – Boudinaged veins that pre-date folding 13
Figure 3.2.2_1 – Syntectonic extension veins, Damang Mine, Ghana 14
Figure 3.2.2_1 – Some of the Syntectonic Geometric Relationships between Shear Veins, Extension Veins and Shear
Zone Elements 16
Figure 3.2.2.1_1 – Different degrees of folding due to different ages of structures being folded 17
Figure 3.2.2.1_2 – Syn-deformational veins in drill core 17
Figure 3.2.2.2_1 – Laminated vein parallel to a foliation 18
Figure 3.2.2.2_2 – Sketch of Vein Foliation Relations in the Adamus Prospect, Southern Ghana 18
Figure 3.2.2.2_3 – Vein-Structure Relations from the Mulgarrie Mine in the Eastern Goldfields of Western Australia 19
Figure 3.2.2.3_1 – Two Sets of Synchronously Deformed Veins Cross-Cutting a Fuchsite-Altered Komatiite from the
Ballarat -Last Chance Deposit, Western Australia 19
Figure 3.2.2.3_2 – Two sets of synchronously deformed veins cross-cutting a komatiite unit from the Ballarat - Last
Chance Deposit, Western Australia 20
Figure 3.2.2.3_3 – Two Sets of Synchronously Deformed Veins Cross-Cutting a Komatiite Unit from the Ballarat-Last
Chance Deposit, Western Australia 20
Figure 3.2.2.3_4 – A Mineralised Vein from the Kanowna Belle Deposit, Western Australia 21
Figure 3.2.2.3_5 – Two sets of synchronously deformed veins cross-cutting a turbiditic unit from the near Prestea,
Ghana 21
Figure 3.2.2.3_6 – An Example of Two Stages of Syntectonic Veining 22
Figure 3.2.3.1_1 – Breccia vein with rotated clasts 22
Figure 3.2.3.2_1 – Vein with well-developed alteration halo cross-cutting pre-existing cleavage 23
Figure 3.2.3.2_1 – A Suite of Closely Packed Sheeted Extension Veins from the Dog Shit Creek areas in North
Queensland, Australia 23
Figure 3.2.3.2_2 – Late extension vein cross-cutting a breccia 24

Vein System Analysis

Figure 3.2.3.2_3 – Cross-cutting vein-vein and vein-cleavage relationships 24
Figure 3.2.3.2_4 – Subhorizontal millimetre-scale Fe-carbonate veins cross-cut the penetrative fabric at Wassa, Ghana 25
Figure 3.2.3.2_5 – Late planar fault-fill vein cross-cutting countryrock cleavage 25
Figure 3.2.3.2_6 – Extension vein in a foliated granitoid 25
Figure 3.2.4_1 – Relationship between alteration and wallrock structures 26
Figure 3.2.4_2 – Carbonate alteration adjacent to a quartz-carbonate vein extends out along the wallrock cleavage 26
Figure 3.2.4_3 – Carbonate has been localised in the hinge of the fold, indicating it is probably of the same age as the
folding event 26
Figure 3.2.4_4 – Several generations of alteration and veining 27
Figure 3.2.4_5 – Well Developed Alteration Haloes in Basaltic Hostrock around Auriferous Veins in the Quarters
Deposit, Western Australia 27
Figure 3.2.4_6 – Well Developed Alteration Haloes in Basaltic Hostrock around Auriferous Veins in the Quarters
Deposit, Western Australia 28
Figure 3.2.4_7 – An extension vein cross-cutting a sample of granite from the Hyperion prospect in the Tanami region in
central northern Australia 28
Figure 4.1_1 – Initial stages of establishing a vein paragenetic history 29
Figure 4.1_2 – Pieces of core with key relationships are lifted up in the tray to highlight them for further work 30
Figure 4.1_3 – Highlighted core intervals with depths marked on them 30
Figure 4.1_4 – Allocation of Identifiers to Different Vein Types 31
Figure 4.1_5 – Allocation of Identifiers to Different Vein Types 32
Figure 4.1_6 – Allocation of Identifiers to Different Vein Types 32
Figure 4.1_7 – Example of a Preliminary Working Paragenesis in a Notebook 32
Figure 4.1_8 – Example of a Paragenetic Table Incorporating Veins, Alteration, and Structure 33
Figure 4.2_1 – An example of a composite vein from the Chatree deposit, Thailand 34
Figure 4.2_2 – Detail of Cross-Cutting Relationships shown in Figure 4.2_1 35
Figure 4.2_3 – Example of a composite quartz vein viewed in both sides of diamond core 35
Figure 4.2_4 – Variation in morphology of the same vein set and its alteration due to distance from fluid source 36

Vein System Analysis

1 INTRODUCTION
A vein can be defined as any body of minerals which have been precipitated into a fracture
or other structure within rocks. Veins are important components of most epigenetic,
hydrothermal ore systems. Understanding their formation is the key to unravelling the
structural controls on these ore systems.

Vein System Analysis Page 1

2 CHARACTERISATION OF VEINS AND VEIN SYSTEMS
2.1 Introduction
Epigenetic, hydrothermal ore deposits show a vast range of textural/structural vein styles.
A natural division can be made between mesothermal (12-4km depth) and epithermal
(<4km depth) vein types. Indeed, some hydrothermal deposits have been classified as
epithermal or mesothermal based exclusively on their component vein textures. The basis
for the structural classification of veins comes mostly from mesothermal deposits, because
these generally show the most consistent relationships between vein types.

2.2 Basic Structural Classification of Veins

All veins and vein arrays in ore deposits are made up of one or more of three main
structural vein types. This vein classification is based on the failure mode under which
they were formed (Sibson 1990). These 3 vein types are:-

Extension veins - formed under pure extensional conditions with low differential
stress. Vein minerals are normally undeformed and commonly grow at 90° to vein
margins (Figures 2.2_1 and 2.2_2). Extension veins often form at high angles to the
dominant fabric in the host rock. Crack-seal textures sometimes occur in extension
veins. Old terminology = tension vein.

Oblique extension veins - hybrid vein type formed under moderate differential
stress conditions. They are characterized by vein minerals growing at moderate
angles to vein margins (Figure 2.2_3). Also know as extensional-shear veins.

Shear veins - formed under local compressional conditions and high differential
stress. Veins are strongly sheared, laminated and locally boudinaged (Figure 2.2_4).
Also known as compressional-shear veins or fault veins.

Figure 2.2_1
Quartz-K-feldspar extension veins in a meta-psammitic rock

Vein System Analysis Page 2

 Figure 2.2_2
Barite-enargite extension vein in a high-sulfidation system

Figure 2.2_3
Oblique Extension Vein

The long axes of the minerals within the vein grew at a moderate angle to the vein walls.

Vein System Analysis Page 3

 Figure 2.2_4
Quartz-carbonate Shear Vein in Amphibolite

Note the multiple laminations within the vein, and the sigmoidal shear-fabrics. The slickenlines on the top surface and the
shear fabrics are consistent with dextral movement (top to the RHS).

Figure 2.2_5
Boudinaged and Attenuated Quartz Shear Vein

The asymmetry of the vein gives sinistral (RHS up) movement.

All vein arrays, vein zones and hydrothermal breccias are made up of components of the
three main structural vein types described above. The main types of vein arrays, vein
zones and hydrothermal breccias (adapted from Robert and Poulsen 2001) are:-

Vein System Analysis Page 4


EVA - extensional vein arrays contain multiple sub-parallel extension veins. The two
main types are sigmoidal EVAs (Figure 2.2_6) and sheeted EVAs (Figure 2.2_7).
Sigmoidal EVAs are characterized by en echelon, sigmoidal-shaped extension veins
within a shear zone, or between two shear zones. The old terminology for these was
tension vein array or TVA. Sheeted EVAs are characterized by numerous stacked,
planar extension veins. These often occur in homogenous, competent rock bodies.
Extension veins within the EVAs often occur at high angles to the local foliation.

Vein stockworks occur where two or more oblique to orthogonal sets of extension veins,
or oblique extension veins intersect. Intense stockworks grade into hydrothermal
breccias. Vein stockworks are preferentially developed in competent rock types.

Breccia veins can be divided into two main groups. Hydrothermal breccias
(implosion breccias) contain angular, non-rotated wall-rock clasts in a matrix of
hydrothermal minerals. Hydrothermal breccias have a large component of
extensional veining, with extension having occurred in two or three directions. These
are normally formed in dilatant zones along faults. Fault breccias are characterized
by vein and wall-rock clasts that have been abraded, and often contain a matrix of
hydrothermal minerals. Fault breccias are the result of shear failure with localized
extensional failure. Fault breccias can often form parts of shear veins.

Tensile failure occurs under low differential stress conditions and will result in extension
veins.

Shear failure occurs under high differential stress conditions and will result in faults,
shears or shear veins.

Mean stress is the average of all the principal stress σ1, σ2 and σ3

Differential stress is the difference between σ1 and σ3. High differential stresses will
result in shear-failure, low differential stresses will result in tensile failure.

Bulk rock is the undeformed host rocks.

Figure 2.2_6
Sigmoidal En echelon Extension Vein Array - EVA

Vein System Analysis Page 5

 Figure 2.2_7
Planar Extension Vein Array

Note that these veins can be en echelon extension vein arrays viewed from a different direction.

Figure 2.2_8
Stockwork of Irregular Quartz Extension Veins

Note that the stockwork becomes a hydrothermal breccia near the centre of the sample.

Figure 2.2_9
Hydrothermal Breccia: Country-Rock Clasts in Quartz-Carbonate Matrix

Vein System Analysis Page 6

 Figure 2.2_10
Laminated Quartz Shear Vein

Note the extension veins above and below the shear vein. Dextral displacement is indicated by the curvature of the
extension veins into the shear vein.

2.3 The Role of Veins During Deformation

Veins are products of dynamic deformation systems and represent accumulations of
minerals formed from hydrothermal fluids. Veins are not passive entities that simply
undergo deformation once they have been emplaced. Rather, veins influence fluid flow
and deformation processes and an appreciation of this must be made when studying vein
systems. Some of the roles played by veins are:
1. Fluid pathways. Veins represent the conduits accessed by hydrothermal fluids.
2. Volume compensators. Veins are commonly formed in zones where open space has
been created.
3. Fluid barriers. The emplacement of veins produces a suite of planar structures that
contain interlocked crystals that are commonly overprinted and cemented by
subsequent episodes of hydrothermal mineral deposition. Such structures can then
impede the flow of subsequent packages of fluids and serve to compartmentalise
later alteration and mineralisation.
4. Strain localisers. Veins vary significantly in geometry, width, length, composition and
grain size. All of these factors can lead to the accumulation of strain at the margins
of the veins, thereby localising subsequent deformation in the vicinity of previous
zones of fluid flow. Thick, coarse-grained veins are particularly important in this
respect, especially if they contain minerals such as feldspar that are difficult to
deform.

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3 STRUCTURAL AGES OF VEINS
Veins in many deposits commonly comprise a number of different populations.
Overprinting relationships between the different vein types will define the vein paragenesis.
In addition, the deposits of interest typically show evidence for one or more stages of
deformation. It is critical that the timing of emplacement of each vein set relative to the
deformation fabrics is established i.e. the structural ages of the veins must be resolved.
The confident determination of the structural timing of veins in deposits is critical but
challenging, and is at the centre of different interpretations of many gold deposits. This
section of the course offers a number of guidelines that should help distinguish the ages of
veins relative to structures.

Two complimentary approaches can be followed to constrain the structural timing of veins.
The first is based on a comparison of the axes of incremental strain recorded by the veins
or vein networks with those of well-established strain increments in the districts (e.g Robert
and Poulsen, 2001). The second approach is based on a determination of the timing of
veins relative to specific fabrics and structures in the host rocks. The second method takes
into account certain geometries that are produced pre-, syn- and post-vein emplacement.

3.1 Structural Timing of Veins from the Comparison of Strain Axes

This approach compares the axes of strain related to specific deformation increments that
correspond to penetrative structures (cleavages, folds, extension lineations) with those of
vein networks. As a first-pass interpretation, a similarity in orientation suggests that a
temporal link may exist between the two.

For example, the area being studied may have the following:-

A well developed vertical foliation with a vertically plunging extension lineation

A suite of veins that are horizontal and have vertical extension-related fibres. The
veins are locally folded about a subvertical cleavage.

The geometries of the cleavage and lineation are compatible with the strain axes of the
deformed veins, suggesting a possible temporal link.

This method will not be pursued any further here. Rather, the course will emphasise the
interpretation of vein structural ages from specific structural and geological relationships
developed at the mesoscale. If these relationships can be confidently interpreted then the
comparison of strain axes is another complimentary method that will be easily achieved.
However, it is important to first understand the structural geometries in the veined rocks.
This is discussed in the following section.

3.2 Structural Timing of Veins from Overprinting Relationships with Hostrock Structures
This technique uses the relationship of the vein geometries and countryrock structures to
provide a structural age of the veins within the overall deformation history. In deposits that
have been subjected to several stages of deformation the veins will obviously have several
structural ages depending on which fabric they are compared to. For example, a vein may
be the same structural age as a particular countryrock fabric but structurally older than
another fabric and structurally younger than another. Hence, it is critical to state relative to
which fabric the vein is being timed. For situations where a reliable countryrock
deformation history has been established (e.g. D1, D2, D3) the vein can be given a unique
structural age e.g. the vein may be syn-D2. In this case it is also post-D1 and pre-D3.

Vein System Analysis Page 8

 Difficulties arise in structural environments that have experienced progressive deformation
and vein emplacement. In such situations a single vein population may show a variety of
geometries and apparent structural ages due to ongoing emplacement throughout the
course of the deformation. An example is the progressive formation of veins within an
evolving shear zone where overprinting deformation is an ongoing phenomenon.

3.2.1 Pre-Tectonic Veins

Pre-tectonic veins will show moderate to intense deformation by overprinting structural
features. In zones where the post-vein deformation intensity has been high the structural
age of the veins may be difficult to ascertain. In cases such as this it is better to go areas
where the strain is relatively lower because structural timing criteria may be preserved in
these zones.

A number of criteria can be used to support pre-tectonic interpretation of vein

emplacement. These include:-
1. The presence of post-vein dykes (or a later vein set) that is also deformed.
2. A transition from well-preserved vein relationships (e.g. stockworks) outside of a
shear zone that show a transition to strongly deformed geometries within the shear
zone.
3. The presence of at least two deformation events affecting the vein. Although the
relative timing of the vein and the first-formed fabric may be equivocal, this
relationship indicates that the vein pre-dates the second deformation.
4. The geometric arrangement of a suite of en-echelon veins (e.g. EVAs) or multiple
vein sets may be incompatible with the kinematics of high strain zones in the same
rock. For example, steeply-dipping sigmoidal extension veins may be overprinted by
a penetrative foliation with a down-dip extension lineation.

The following figures show a number of vein-structure relationships and the interpreted
timing of the veins.

3.2.1.1 Folded Veins

Figure 3.2.1.1_1
Open to close folding of carbonate veins

The carbonate veins are parallel to S1 and do not appear to be deformed by it, suggesting that they were emplaced along S1
at the end of D1. Both S1 and the veins are folded by F2 folds, making the veins pre-tectonic relative to D2.
From the Mulgarrie deposit, Western Australia.

Vein System Analysis Page 9

 Figure 3.2.1.1_2
Isoclinally folded vein

The tightly folded vein to the right of the pen contains chloritic shear laminations indicating deformation prior to folding.
The vein is pre-tectonic with respect to the folding event. From the Sunrise deposit, Western Australia.

Figure 3.2.1.1_3
Open folding of a shear-laminated quartz reef

The vein has shear lamination parallel to the countryrock fabric. This suggests that the vein was emplaced parallel to the
intense tectonic foliation and that deformation associated with the tectonic foliation outlasted vein emplacement. Both the
tectonic fabric and the vein have been folded and are pre-tectonic with respect to the folding event.
From the Prestea deposit, Ghana.

Vein System Analysis Page 10

3.2.1.2 Boudinaged Veins

Figure 3.2.1.2_1
Open folding of a shear-laminated vein that has been boudinaged prior to folding

The vein is pre-tectonic relative to the late open folding event. From the Prestea deposit, Ghana.

3.2.1.3 Folded Boudinaged Veins

Figure 3.2.1.3_1
Deformation of a vein that was boudinaged prior to folding

The quartz carbonate veins display attenuation and boudinage within the folded fabric, which is S1. Boudinage is interpreted
as a syn-D1 feature. The boudinaged veins and S1 have been folded by D3 to produce a recumbent F3 fold. The veins are
pre-tectonic relative to D3. From the Wassa deposit, Ghana.

Vein System Analysis Page 11

 Figure 3.2.1.3_2
Boudinaged veins that pre-date folding

The quartz veins display attenuation and boudinage within the folded fabric. Boudinage is interpreted as occurring during
development of the foliation that has been subsequently folded. The boudinaged veins and the foliation are pre-tectonic
relative to D3. From the Prestea deposit, Ghana.

Figure 3.2.1.2_3
Boudinaged veins that pre-date folding

The quartz veins display attenuation and boudinage within the folded fabric, which is S1. Boudinage is interpreted as a syn-
D1 feature. The boudinaged veins and S1 have been folded by D2 to produce an upright F2 fold. The veins are pre-tectonic
relative to D2. From the Fortnum goldifield, Western Australia.

Vein System Analysis Page 12

 Figure 3.2.1.2_4
Boudinaged veins that pre-date folding

The quartz veins display attenuation and boudinage within the folded fabric, which is S1. Boudinage is interpreted as a syn-
D1 feature. The boudinaged veins and S1 have been folded by D2 to produce an upright F2 fold. The veins are pre-tectonic
relative to D2. From the Fortnum goldifield, Western Australia.

Figure 3.2.1.3_5
Boudinaged veins that pre-date folding

The quartz carbonate veins display attenuation and boudinage within the folded fabric, which is S1. Boudinage is interpreted
as a syn-D1 feature. The boudinaged veins and S1 have been folded by D3 to produce a recumbent F3 fold. The veins are
pre-tectonic relative to D3. From the Wassa deposit, Ghana.

Vein System Analysis Page 13

3.2.2 Syn-Tectonic Veins
Veins that are syntectonic relative to a well-developed countryrock foliation can display
marked variation in development of deformation textures depending on when they have
been emplaced during the event. If the veins have formed late in the history of the host
structure they will retain many of their original textures and primary geometries (e.g.
Fig.3.2.2_1). If deformation significantly outlasts vein development then the veins will
display deformation textures and may look similar to pre-tectonic veins as shown in
Section 3.2.1.

Figure 3.2.2_1
Syntectonic Extension Veins in the Damang Mine, Ghana

B C

A) An extension vein array in the Damang Mine, Ghana formed during east-over-west thrusting as shown in C). B) In faces at
right angles to A the extension vein arrays appear to be formed of parallel veins. (Tunks et al., 2004).

Vein System Analysis Page 14

 A number of field criteria can be used to establish whether or not the veins of interest are
syn-tectonic, even if they are overprinted by progressive shear zone deformation. Some of
these geometries include:-

1. Where both shear veins and fringing extension veins are present, the overall vein
configuration and geometry will be compatible with the kinematics of the host shear
zone, provided both sets of veins are contemporaneous. For example, the line of
intersection between shear and extension veins is expected to be perpendicular to
the slip direction along the host shear (Figure 3.2.2_2). The vein-vein intersection
will be parallel to the intersection between conjugate shears and to the intersection
between S- and C-planes in the shear.
2. Planar extension veins will cut the penetrative foliation and be at a high angle to the
foliation and extension lineation in the shear zone or strained host rocks. The line of
extension between the veins and the foliation will lie nearly perpendicular to the
extension lineation. Mineral fibres within the veins will also be subparallel to the
extension lineation (Figure 3.2.2_2).
3. If extension veins are folded by progressive shortening during evolution of the shear
zone, the enveloping surface of the vein remains at a high angle to the shear zone’s
extension lineation unless the shear strain is very high.
4. The internal geometry of extensional vein arrays are compatible with the sense of
shear determined for the synchronously forming host shear zone.
5. Striations on slip surfaces within shear veins, and especially those defined by
hydrothermal minerals present in the veins, will be subparallel to the elongation in
the host foliated rocks.

Other criteria and mesoscale relations are given in the following figures.

Vein System Analysis Page 15

 Figure 3.2.2_2
Some of the Syntectonic Geometric Relationships between Shear Veins, Extension Veins and Shear
Zone Elements

Vein System Analysis Page 16

3.2.2.1 Veins Affected by the same Strain as the Countryrocks but to a Lesser Degree

Figure 3.2.2.1_1
Different degrees of folding due to different ages of structures being folded

This example shows a well developed fold of pyritic banded ironstone formation that has been cut by a carbonate vein.
The carbonate vein shows the same fold geometry but it is much less developed. This is interpreted as a product of
carbonate vein emplacement in the final stages of fold formation. Thus the vein is syntectonic with respect to the
deformation that has produced the folding. From the Sunrise deposit, Western Australia.

Figure 3.2.2.1_2
Syn-deformational veins in drill core

Weak folding and cleavage development has affected the metasedimentary host rock. Veins have been emplaced
subparallel to the cleavage suggesting a syn-cleavage timing of vein formation. The cleavage is best-developed adjacent to
the veins due to ongoing deformation and strain accumulation at the vein margins. This indicates that deformation outlasted
vein emplacement. The vein is interpreted as syn-tectonic with respect to the fold- and cleavage-forming event.
From the Bogoso-Prestea trend, Ghana.

Vein System Analysis Page 17

3.2.2.2 Boudinaged Veins Parallel to Fold Axial Planes

Figure 3.2.2.2_1
Laminated vein parallel to a foliation

The vein above has been emplaced parallel to the intense countryrock foliation. Margin-parallel stylolites in the vein
developed during shortening that was normal to the vein margin and a product of the deformation that produced the cleavage.
Weak pinch-and-swell of the vein is evident and would be expected to have been much more intense if the vein had been
emplaced early in the development of the cleavage. From the Prestea pit, Ghana.

Figure 3.2.2.2_2
Sketch of Vein Foliation Relations in the Adamus Prospect, Southern Ghana

S1 trendlines define open to tight F2 folds. Veins have been emplaced parallel to S2 and subsequently boudinaged by
D2, indicating syn-tectonic emplacement relative to D2. The cleavage intensifies adjacent to the veins due to strain
accumulation during progressive D2.

Vein System Analysis Page 18

 Figure 3.2.2.2_3
Vein-Structure Relations in the Mulgarrie Mine in the Eastern Goldfields of Western Australia

S1 is defined by an intense foliation that is folded. Carbonate veins have been emplaced parallel to S1 and are attenuated
and boudinaged in S1. Both S1 and the carbonate veins are folded and define F2 folds. F2 folds are developed adjacent to
the quartz-carbonate vein due to progressive accumulation of D2 shortening strain at the vein margin. The quartz-carbonate
vein has been emplaced parallel to S2 and has then undergone D2 boudinage due to ongoing D2 shortening that outlasted
vein emplacement. The carbonate veins in the countryrock are interpreted as syn-D1 and thus pre-tectonic with respect to
D2. The large quartz-carbonate vein is interpreted as syn-tectonic with respect to D2.
From the Mulgarrie deposit, Western Australia.

3.2.2.3 Veins Parallel to, and Deformed by, the Hostrock Foliation

Figure 3.2.2.3_1
Two Sets of Synchronously Deformed Veins Cross-Cutting a Fuchsite-Altered Komatiite from the
Ballarat – Last Chance Deposit, Western Australia

The relatively thinner veins at right angles to the scribe are subparallel to S2. These veins have a restricted thickness due to
ongoing progressive shortening at a high angle to them. However, during D2 shortening the thicker veins opened as
tensional structures and incremental opening has produced the bands in the vein.

Vein System Analysis Page 19

 Figure 3.2.2.3_2
Two Sets of Synchronously Deformed Veins Cross-Cutting a Komatiite Unit from the
Ballarat - Last Chance Deposit, Western Australia

The relatively thicker veins are subparallel to S2 and separate discontinuous extension veins at right angles to them.

Figure 3.2.2.3_3
Two Sets of Synchronously Deformed Veins Cross-Cutting a Komatiite Unit from the Ballarat-Last
Chance Deposit, Western Australia

Vein System Analysis Page 20

 Figure 3.2.2.3_4
A Mineralised Vein from the Kanowna Belle Deposit, Western Australia

The vein has opened in response to D2 shortening and the quartz fibres have grown parallel to S2, which is parallel to the
long edge of the figure. Progressive shortening has caused open folding of the vein. Ongoing vein growth during D2
included introduction of auriferous pyrite, which forms an alteration selvedge that locally extends away from the vein along
synchronously-formed S2 (bottom right-hand inset).

Figure 3.2.2.3_5
Two sets of synchronously deformed veins cross-cutting a turbiditic unit from the near Prestea, Ghana

The less common planar veins that trend at a high angle to the long edge of the photo separate the less continuous, folded
extension veins. The population of extension veins subparallel to the long edge of the photo formed by incremental extension
during D2. The early-formed veins have then been crenulated by the same progressive deformation.

Vein System Analysis Page 21

 Figure 3.2.2.3_6
An Example of Two Stages of Syntectonic Veining

An early stage of veining is represented by the boudinaged quartz-chlorite veins that are parallel to the cleavage.
This set has been cut by the large quartz-carbonate extension vein. The extension vein has then been folded by ongoing
deformation that produced the cleavage. Local cleavage intensification can be seen against the folded portion of the
vein at left. Both stages of veining are interpreted as syntectonic with respect to the cleavage.
From the Sunrise deposit in Western Australia.

3.2.3 Post-Tectonic Veins

The following examples are of veins that are interpreted as post-tectonic. This
interpretation is based principally on overprinting relationships that show the veins to cross-
cut pre-existing tectonic structures such as cleavages and folds.

3.2.3.1 Veins Containing Foliated Clasts

Figure 3.2.3.1_1
Breccia vein with rotated clasts

The breccia vein in the above example contains numerous clasts of foliated countryrock. The same foliation is present in the
hostrock and the intensity of cleavage development is the same in both the wallrocks and the clasts. The foliation orientation
is misaligned from clast to clast within the vein, indicating that the clasts have been rotated during breccia vein formation that
post-dates formation of the foliation. From the Sunrise deposit in Western Australia.

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3.2.3.2 Planar Veins Cutting Pre-Existing Structures

Figure 3.2.3.2_1
Vein with well-developed alteration halo cross-cutting pre-existing cleavage

The quartz vein has a well developed pyritic alteration halo extending out along the wallrock cleavage. The vein cuts the
cleavage and there is no intensification of strain at the vein margin. These relationships indicate that the vein post-dates the
countryrock cleavage. From the Sunrise deposit in Western Australia.

Figure 3.2.3.2_1
A Suite of Closely Packed Sheeted Extension Veins from the Dog Shit Creek areas in
North Queensland, Australia

The relatively planar veins cut across a recumbent F3 fold of bedding (some bedding is outlined in yellow at right).

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 Figure 3.2.3.2_2
Late extension vein cross-cutting a breccia

A planar quartz extension vein with well developed fibre growth at right angles to the vein margin cuts across
brecciation and alteration associated with the earlier mineralising event at Sunrise, Western Australia.

Figure 3.2.3.2_3
Cross-cutting vein-vein and vein-cleavage relationships

Two stages of veining are present. The large vein is a splay off the main reef at Prestea, Ghana. The wallrock is intensely
cleaved and the cleavage has affected the large vein. The subhorizontal vein cuts across the countryrock cleavage and
extends into the larger vein. The smaller vein is not deformed and is post-tectonic with respect to the intense wallrock fabric.

Vein System Analysis Page 24

 Figure 3.2.3.2_4
Subhorizontal millimetre-scale Fe-carbonate veins cross-cut the penetrative fabric at Wassa, Ghana

These veins are undeformed and are post-tectonic relative to the wallrock structures.

Figure 3.2.3.2_5
Late planar fault-fill vein cross-cutting countryrock cleavage

Quartz-carbonate veining at a low angle to the core axis is associated with a thin shear zone that cross-cuts all other
veins and wallrock structures. This relationship combined with the overall planarity of the vein indicates that it is
post-tectonic with respect to the wallrock structures but syntectonic with respect to the shear.

Figure 3.2.3.2_6
Extension vein in a foliated granitoid

An extension vein has developed at a low angle to the countryrock foliation in a granitoid from the Hyperion prospect
in the Tanami region, cental northern Australia. The extension vein is in the wrong orientation to have formed when the
countryrock foliation was produced i.e. it should have formed at right angles to it if both the vein and the countryrock
foliation developed in the same event. The extension vein also contains clasts of the foliated wallrock, indicating
that it is post-tectonic with respect to the wallrock foliation.

Vein System Analysis Page 25

3.2.4 Information from Alteration
Veins commonly have well-developed alteration selvages. It is also common for the
distribution of alteration to be controlled by the wallrock structure. Consequently, resolving
the structural timing of the alteration can also provide the structural age of the veins it is
associated with. The following examples show the relationship between alteration and
wallrock structures.

Figure 3.2.4_1
Relationship between alteration and wallrock structures

Light brown Fe-carbonate alteration is associated with quartz-Fe-carbonate veins such as the one in the upper left-hand
corner of the photo. A train of centimetre-scale fold hinges runs from the coin down to the centre bottom of the photo. The
alteration is localised in these hinges, suggesting that it has been introduced at the time of folding. A much more pervasive
distribution of the alteration would be expected if it post-dated the folds i.e. it would not be expected to be localised in the fold
hinges. From the Aykem deposit, Ghana.

Figure 3.2.4_2
Carbonate alteration adjacent to a quartz-carbonate vein extends out along the wallrock cleavage

This indicates that the alteration, and hence the vein, are of the same age or younger than the wallrock cleavage.

Figure 3.2.4_3
Carbonate has been localised in the hinge of the fold, indicating it is probably of the same age
as the folding event

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 Figure 3.2.4_4
Several generations of alteration and veining

Several generations of alteration and veining cross-cutting a sample of Gardiner Sandstone from the Tanami region in central
northern Australia. Note that the orange alteration locally stops against some of the millimetre-scale quartz veins. That is, it
is present on one side of the vein but not the other. This indicates that the vein was emplaced prior to the alteration and is
not related to it and formed a barrier to subsequent alteration fluids.

Figure 3.2.4_5
Well Developed Alteration Haloes in Basaltic Hostrock around Auriferous Veins in the Quarters Deposit,
Western Australia

This alteration is clearly related to the veins so structural timing of the alteration also gives an indication of the
structural age of the veins.

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 Figure 3.2.4_6
Well Developed Alteration Haloes in Basaltic Hostrock around Auriferous Veins in the
Quarters Deposit, Western Australia

This alteration is clearly related to the veins so structural timing of the alteration also gives an indication of the structural age
of the veins.

Figure 3.2.4_7
An extension vein cross-cutting a sample of granite from the Hyperion prospect in the Tanami region
in central northern Australia

Note that the orange haematitic alteration locally stops against the extension vein. That is, it is present on one side of the
vein but not the other. This indicates that the vein was emplaced prior to the alteration and is not related to it and formed a
barrier to subsequent alteration fluids.

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4 VEIN HISTORY AND PARAGENESIS
4.1 Procedure for Establishing a Vein-Alteration Paragenesis in Diamond Drill Core
The following notes are a summary of the procedure required to establish the veining-
alteration history of a sequence of rocks intersected in diamond drill core. Ideally, this
process will result in the formulation of a relatively complete geological history that
incorporates the structural history. The best information will obviously come from oriented
core as this will provide data on the orientations of individual populations within the overall
history.

Step 1
If possible, the entire hole should be laid out such that an overall assessment of the rock
and vein types, the complexity of geology etc can be gained (Figure 4.1_1).

Figure 4.1_1
Initial stages of establishing a vein paragenetic history

The whole diamond hole is laid out at waist height for an overall assessment of lithology and vein types.

Step 2
The first step in establishing the vein paragenesis is to get an idea of how many different
vein sets and alteration styles we are dealing with. To do this, sticks of core should be
highlighted that have the following information:-

Examples of each different, or apparently different, vein set.

Any pieces of core displaying vein cross-cutting relationships

All pieces of core showing structural relationships to veins and cleavages e.g. folded
veins, alteration controlled by foliation etc

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 One of the simplest ways to highlight the intervals of interest is to lift them up so that they
lie on the adjacent piece of core (Figures 4.1_2 and 4.1_3). The core intervals should then
be marked with their depth in the hole (Figure 4.1_3) so that any relationships in them can
be correctly documented and easily checked at a later date if necessary.

Figure 4.1_2
Pieces of core with key relationships are lifted up in the tray to highlight them for further work

Figure 4.1_3
Highlighted core intervals with depths marked on them

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 Step 3
Now comes the relatively more onerous part of the exercise. Each apparently different
vein set must be documented such that it can be characterized and compared and
contrasted with other veins. Veins should be described in terms of:-

Mineralogy

Morphology e.g. crack-seal, breccia, laminated, fine-grained, infill, colour etc

Cross-cutting relationships with other veins and structures

Geometry e.g. planar, boudinaged, folded etc

Alteration

Veins belonging to the same population will commonly exhibit significant variation in one or
more of the above features. Initially this will result in the description of more vein types
than there really are. This is not an issue and will resolve itself, and a number of vein types
may ultimately be grouped into a single population once all of the data has been obtained.

This step needs to be done systematically and there is really no better way than to start at
one end of the hole and work your way through the hole. Progress will initially be slow but
will speed up as individual populations are characterized and easily recognised when
encountered later on.

Step 4
This step will overlap with Step 3. Each apparently different set of veins needs to be given
an identifier. Letters such as A, B, C etc are good as they do not necessarily denote the
chronology of vein formation. Once a vein has been described, the letter for that vein type
needs to be written next to it on the core (Figures 4.1_4, 4.1_5 and 4.1_6). This will allow
reference back to this piece of core when deciding if, for example, Vein E is the same or
not as Vein A. Initially there will be a bit of scribbling on the core and then rubbing it out
(Figure 4.1_6). Chinagraph pencils are good in this regard as they do not leave permanent
records of all the scribblings on the core.

At this stage it is a good idea to start putting together a rough chronology (Figure 4.1_7).
The best way is to do it as a paragenetic table. This way, ongoing amendments will
ultimately result in the overall paragenesis as required rather than a series of disjointed
relationships.

Figure 4.1_4
Allocation of Identifiers to Different Vein Types

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 Figure 4.1_5
Allocation of Identifiers to Different Vein Types

Figure 4.1_6
Allocation of Identifiers to Different Vein Types

Note that several of the labels have been scribbled out and changed as the work progressed.

Figure 4.1_7
Example of a Preliminary Working Paragenesis in a Notebook

Note that some of the stages have been scribbled out or moved as a result of new information. Tentative ages with respect
to the deformation history have also been suggested.

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 Step 5
Once the general paragenesis has been established it should be rechecked to see if it is
robust. There will commonly be several vein sets that can not be timed relative to one
another due to an absence of cross-cutting relationships. In this case it is time to look for
other overprinting relationships, such as the sequence of vein development relative to
countryrock structures e.g. cleavages, folds, shears. For example, if the veins can be
timed relative to a cleavage it may then be possible to establish the relative ages of the
veins. If Vein A is cut by the cleavage but Vein B is not, then Vein B must be younger than
Vein A.

Other elements of the geology should be incorporated into the paragenesis, such as
structures, igneous intrusions, timing of metamorphism and metamorphic mineral growth,
sulphides etc. The end result should be a robust, comprehensive geological history as
represented in the drillhole. The ultimate aim is to establish the mineralising phase within
this history (e.g. Figure 4.1_8).

Figure 4.1_8
Example of a Paragenetic Table Incorporating Veins, Alteration, and Structure

Similar events or structures are coded with similar colours e.g. silica alteration and veining is red.
Mineralisation has been highlighted in yellow.

Step 6
Once all of the veins and structures have been identified and labelled they have to be
measured. This will provide a number of orientation datasets that can then be plotted. In
particular, the orientations of mineralised structures can be plotted, allowing confident
interpretation of mineralised intervals from drillhole to drillhole.

Vein System Analysis Page 33

4.2 Some Tricks - Composite Veins and Changes in Vein Character
It is not uncommon to have a set of veins that seem to defy characterisation. They will
display different mineralogies even though they look superficially the same and have the
same structural ages. Composite veins can be contributors to this problem because they
appear to be a single structure but are actually the product of completely different veining
episodes. A second phase of veining, which is mineralogically and temporally different to
the first, will utilise the weakness represented by the contact between the early vein and
the countryrock. This allows the second vein to be emplaced along the margin of the first
and, commonly, across the first vein at a very acute angle.

Composite veins can be recognised by:

An asymmetric distribution of vein minerals. This may mean that one side of the vein
is the product of an early vein phases, whereas the other side is attributable to the
later vein (Figures 4.2_1 and 4.2_2).

The presence of two sets of minerals that have markedly different formation
conditions. For example, lower greenschist-grade metamorphic minerals may
comprise a vein that has adjacent bands of amphibolite-grade minerals

An asymmetric distribution of alteration. Alteration on one side of the vein may
belong to the early vein and be affected by later events. However, on the side of the
composite vein containing the second vein stage, the wallrock alteration selvedge
will be more complex owing to the overprint of the first stage of mineralisation by the
second.

Cross-cutting relationships (e.g. Figure 4.2_3) that are developed along strike
(Figure 4.2_1).

Figure 4.2_1
An example of a composite vein from the Chatree deposit, Thailand

The older grey quartz vein is overprinted by a subparallel laumontite vein that progressively cuts across the older vein along
strike. Detail of the cross-cutting relationships are shown in Figure 4.2_2.

Vein System Analysis Page 34

 Figure 4.2_2
Detail of Cross-Cutting Relationships shown in Figure 4.2_1

Figure 4.2_3
Example of a composite quartz vein viewed in both sides of diamond core

A younger quartz extension vein cross-cuts the older vein and then trends parallel to the contact of the older vein.

Vein System Analysis Page 35

 Some veins may also show a variation in texture and mineralogy depending on their
location in the deposit and proximity to the conduit that supplied the hydrothermal fluids
(Figure 4.2_4). Such relationships can be demonstrated by identifying transitional phases
between the two different vein types.

Figure 4.2_4
Variation in morphology of the same vein set and its alteration due to distance from fluid source

Variation in character of gold-bearing veins belonging to the same population but emplaced at progressively greater distances
from the fluid source. A well-developed silica-sericite alteration selvage is present around the quartz-carbonate veinlets at
the top. The middle photo shows that with increased distance from the fluid source the veinlets retain the same quartz-
carbonate mineralogy but the silica-sericite alteration halo is reduced in intensity and rimmed by chlorite. The bottom photo
represents the greatest distance from the fluid source. Quartz-carbonate veins now have minor to negligible silica-sericite
alteration but the chloritic halo is well developed. The hostrock is the same in all cases.

Vein System Analysis Page 36

5 REFERENCES
Robert, F., Poulsen, H.K., 2001. Vein formation and deformation in greenstone gold
deposits. Reviews in Economic Geology 14, 111-155.

Sibson, R.H., 2001. Seismogenic framework for hydrothermal transport and ore deposition.
Reviews in Economic Geology 14, 25-50.

Tunks, A.J., Selley, D., Rogers, J.R., Brabham, G. (2004) Vein mineralization at the
Damang Gold Mine, Ghana: controls on mineralization. Journal of Structural Geology
26: 1257–1273.

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