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Frontiers of Textile Materials
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Frontiers of Textile Materials

Polymers, Nanomaterials, Enzymes,

and Advanced Modification Techniques

Edited by
Mohd Shabbir, Shakeel Ahmed
and Javed N. Sheikh
This edition first published 2020 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA
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10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
 Contents

Preface xv
1 Introduction to Textiles and Finishing Materials 1
Mohd Shabbir and Javed N. Sheikh
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Polymers 2
1.3 Nanomaterials 3
1.4 Enzymes 4
1.5 Plasma and Radiations for Textiles 6
1.6 Flexible Electronics 7
References 8
2 Polymers for Textile Production 13
Mohammad Tajul Islam, Md. Mostafizur Rahman
and Nur-Us-Shafa Mazumder
2.1 Polymers 13
2.2 History of Polymer 15
2.3 Classification of Polymers 16
2.4 Polymerization 19
2.4.1 Chain Polymerization 19
2.4.2 Step Polymerization 21
2.5 Polymers in Textile Fibers 23
2.5.1 Natural Polymers 24
2.5.1.1 Cellulose 24
2.5.1.2 Cotton 25
2.5.1.3 Jute 26
2.5.1.4 Keratin 26
2.5.1.5 Wool 27
2.5.1.6 Fibroin 28
2.5.1.7 Silk 28
2.5.2 Synthetic Polymers 29
2.5.2.1 Polyethylene 29

v
vi Contents

2.5.2.2 Polypropylene 33
2.5.2.3 Polytetrafluoroethylene 36
2.5.2.4 Poly Vinyl Chloride 38
2.5.2.5 Poly Vinylidene Chloride 40
2.5.2.6 Polyamide 41
2.5.2.7 Polyethylene Terephthalate 47
2.5.2.8 Polyacrylonitrile 50
2.5.2.9 Modacrylic Fiber 52
2.5.2.10 Spandex Fiber 52
2.6 Polymers in Textile Processing 54
2.6.1 Polyvinyl Alcohol 54
2.6.2 Starch 56
2.6.3 Sodium Alginate 56
2.7 Conclusion 57
References 57
3 Advances in Polymer Coating for Functional Finishing
of Textiles 61
Asma Bouasria, Ayoub Nadi, Aicha Boukhriss,
Hassan Hannache, Omar Cherkaoui and Said Gmouh
3.1 Introduction 62
3.2 Polymer Coating Methods 63
3.2.1 Dip Coating 63
3.2.2 Transfer Coating 64
3.2.3 Kiss Roll Coating 64
3.2.4 Gravure Roll Coating 64
3.2.5 Slot Die or Extrusion Coating 65
3.2.6 Powder Coating 65
3.2.7 Knife Coating 66
3.2.7.1 Choice of the Thickness 67
3.2.7.2 The Viscosity 67
3.2.7.3 Drying 67
3.2.7.4 Type of Knife 68
3.2.7.5 Knife Use Technologies 69
3.2.7.6 Type of Knife Coating 70
3.3 New Technologies in Polymer Coatings 71
3.3.1 Plasma Treatment Technology 71
3.3.2 Electrofluidodynamic Treatment Technology 72
3.3.3 Supercritical Carbon Dioxide-Based
Method Technology 73
3.4 Coating Materials 73
3.4.1 Polyvinylchloride (PVC) 74
 Contents vii

3.4.2 Polyacrylics (PA) 74

3.4.3 Polyurethane (PU) 75
3.5 New Functionalities of Polymer Coatings 77
3.5.1 Application in Smart Textile 77
3.5.2 Flame Retardant 77
3.5.3 Water Repellence 79
3.5.4 Antibacterial Function 81
3.6 Conclusions and Future Outlook 82
References 82
4 Functional Finishing of Textiles with β-Cyclodextrin 87
Aminoddin Haji
4.1 Introduction 87
4.2 Properties of Cyclodextrins 89
4.3 Chemical Modification of Cyclodextrins 91
4.4 Methods for Attachment of β-CD on Textiles 91
4.5 Functional Properties Obtained by Attachment
of β-CD on Textiles 100
4.5.1 Antimicrobial Activity and Drug Delivery 100
4.5.2 Fragrance Release and Anti-Odor Finishing 101
4.5.3 Improved Dyeing and Printing 105
4.5.4 Wastewater Treatment 105
4.5.5 Flame Retardant Finishing 105
4.6 Conclusion 109
References 109
5 Synthesis of Nanomaterials and Their Applications
in Textile Industry 117
Rizwan Arif , Sapana Jadoun and Anurakshee Verma
5.1 Introduction 118
5.2 Synthesis of Nanomaterials 119
5.2.1 Preparation of Chitosan Nano-Fibers 119
5.2.2 Preparation of Polyethylene Glycol Capped Silver
Nanoparticles (AgNPs) 120
5.2.3 Preparation of Silk Textile Nano-Composite
Materials of TiO2 Nanoparticles 122
5.3 Synthesis of Nano-Fiber-Based Hydrogels (NFHGs) 122
5.3.1 Electrospinning 123
5.3.2 Weaving 123
5.3.3 Freeze Drying 124
5.3.4 3D Printing 124
5.4 Application of Nano Textiles 124
viii Contents

5.5 Conclusion 130

References 131
6 Modification of Textiles via Nanomaterials
and Their Applications 135
Sapana Jadoun, Anurakshee Verma and Rizwan Arif
6.1 Introduction 136
6.2 Nanotextiles and Its Properties 137
6.3 Modification of Textiles via Nanoparticles 138
6.3.1 Modification via Silver Nanoparticle 139
6.3.2 Modification via Zinc Oxide Nanoparticle 143
6.3.3 Modification via Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticle 144
6.3.4 Modification via Magnesium Oxide (MgO)
Nanoparticles 144
6.3.5 Modification via Polymer Nanoparticles 146
6.4 Applications 146
6.5 Conclusion 147
References 148
7 UV Protection via Nanomaterials 153
Kunal Singha, Subhankar Maity and Pintu Pandit
7.1 Introduction 154
7.1.1 Different Types of Nano-Finishing
on Textile Materials 154
7.1.1.1 UV Protection 154
7.1.1.2 Nano-Silver (Ag) (Antimicrobial Activity) 155
7.1.1.3 Water Repellence Finishing 155
7.1.1.4 Self-Cleaning or “Lotus Effect” 155
7.1.1.5 New-Age Nano-Finishing on
Textile Materials Nano-Care 156
7.2 Zinc Oxide Particle (ZnO) Physical Properties 156
7.2.1 Chemical Properties 156
7.2.2 Nanophase ZnO 157
7.2.3 TiO2 Structure and Properties 157
7.2.3.1 TiO2 Nanoparticle 157
7.3 UV Protective Applications 157
7.3.1 Nanocoating of ZnO–TiO2 on Textile Fabric 158
7.3.2 Polymer Dispersion Methods of Nanocoating 158
7.4 Applications as UV Absorber and Sunscreen 159
7.4.1 Nanomaterials Used in UV Protective Finishing 159
7.5 Nano-ZnO-TiO2 Finishing 161
7.5.1 Mechanism of UV Protection 162
 Contents ix

7.5.2 UV Protection Through Nano-Finishing of Textiles 162

7.6 Evaluation of UV Protection Finishes 163
7.7 Conclusions 164
References 165
8 Synthesis, Characterization, and Application
of Modified Textile Nanomaterials 167
Anurakshee Verma, Rizwan Arif and Sapana Jadoun
8.1 Introduction of Textile Nanomaterials 167
8.2 Synthesis of Textiles Nanomaterials 168
8.2.1 Synthesis via Hydrothermal Method 169
8.2.2 Synthesis via Solvo-Thermal Method 169
8.2.3 Synthesis via Chemical Vapor Deposition
(CVD) Method 169
8.2.4 Synthesis via Physical Vapor Deposition
(PVD) Method 170
8.2.5 Synthesis via Template Method 170
8.2.6 Synthesis via Conventional Sol–Gel Method 170
8.2.7 Synthesis via Microwave Method 170
8.2.8 Synthesis via Fabrication Process 170
8.3 Characterization 171
8.3.1 Microscopic Characterization of Textile
Nanomaterials 172
8.3.1.1 Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) 172
8.3.1.2 Atomic Force Microscope (AFM) 172
8.3.1.3 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) 173
8.3.1.4 Scanning Tunneling Microscopy (STM) 174
8.3.2 Spectroscopic Characterization of Textile
Nanomaterials 175
8.3.2.1 Ultraviolet-Visible (UV-VIS) Spectroscopy 175
8.3.2.2 Raman Spectroscopy 175
8.3.2.3 Infrared Spectroscopy (IR) 175
8.3.3 Characterization of Textile Nanomaterials
by X-Ray 176
8.3.3.1 Energy Dispersive X-Ray Analysis (EDX) 176
8.3.3.2 Wide Angle X-Ray Diffraction 176
8.3.3.3 X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) 176
8.3.3.4 Particle Size Analyzer 177
8.3.4 Characterization of Textile Nanomaterial
by Some Other Technique 178
8.3.4.1 Physical Testing 178
x Contents

8.3.4.2 Determination of Recovery Angle

and Tensile Properties 178
8.3.4.3 Determination of Absorbency by
Wicking Test and Bending Length 179
8.3.4.4 Evaluation of Water and Air Permeability 179
8.4 Application of Textiles Nanomaterials 179
8.4.1 Application Based on Properties of Textile Material 179
8.4.1.1 Anti-Bacterial Properties of Textile
Nanomaterial 179
8.4.1.2 UV Protective Properties of Textile
Nanomaterial 180
8.4.1.3 Water Repellence Properties of Textile
Nanomaterial 180
8.4.1.4 Anti-Static Properties of Textile
Nanomaterial 180
8.4.1.5 Flame Retardant Properties of Textile
Nanomaterial 180
8.4.1.6 Wrinkle-Free Properties of Textile
Nanomaterial 181
8.4.1.7 Self-Cleaning Properties of Textile
Nanomaterial 181
8.4.1.8 Economical and Environmental
Aspects of Textile Nanomaterial 181
8.4.2 Application in Textile Industry 182
8.4.2.1 Textile Nanomaterial Used
in Swimming Costume 182
8.4.2.2 Textile Nanomaterial Used in Sports
Goods 182
8.4.2.3 Textile Nanomaterial Used Inflexible
Electronic Circuit 182
8.4.2.4 Textile Nanomaterial Used in Lifestyle 182
8.5 Current Trends and Future Prospects 183
8.6 Conclusion 183
References 184
9 Biomaterials-Based Nanogenerator: Futuristic Solution
for Integration Into Smart Textiles 189
S. Wazed Ali, Satyaranjan Bairagi and Pramod Shankar
9.1 Introduction 190
9.2 Biomaterial-Based Piezoelectric Nanogenerator 191
9.2.1 Cellulose-Based 191
 Contents xi

9.2.2 Collagen-Based 194

9.2.3 Protein-Based 197
9.3 Conclusion 198
Acknowledgment 199
References 199
10 Textiles in Solar Cell Applications 203
Khursheed Ahmad
10.1 Introduction 203
10.2 Basic Principle and Types of Solar Cells 205
10.3 Textiles in Solar Cells 206
10.3.1 Textiles in Perovskite Solar Cells 206
10.3.2 Textiles in Dye Sensitized Solar Cells 210
10.4 Conclusion 212
References 213
11 Multifunctionalizations of Textile Materials Highlighted
by Unconventional Dyeing 219
Vasilica Popescu
11.1 Introduction 220
11.2 Functionalization of Textile Materials:
Functionalization Techniques 220
11.3 PAN: Functionalization/Multifunctionalization
by Chemical Treatments 223
11.3.1 Dyeing of Functionalized Acrylic Fibers with
Different Reagents 229
11.3.2 Functionalization of PAN-M with
Basic Reagents 230
11.3.3 Dyeing of PAN-M Functionalized with
Basic Reagents 238
11.4 Multi-Functionalization of Acrylic Fiber by Grafting
with Polyfunctional Agents 244
11.4.1 Multifunctionalization of PAN Fiber with
Chitosan 244
11.4.1.1 Multifunctionalization of PAN-M
Fiber with Chitosan by Means
of Electrostatical Bonding 245
11.4.1.2 Multifunctionalization PAN-M
Fiber with Chitosan via
Covalent Bonds 247
11.4.1.3 Multifunction of PAN Fiber
with MCT-β-CD 248
xii Contents

11.5 Polyethylene Terephthalate: Functionalization Ways 249

11.5.1 Functionalization of PET with Basic Reagents 250
11.5.1.1 Dyeing of PET Functionalized
with Agents Having Basic Character 253
11.5.2 PET Functionalization with Alcohols 255
11.5.2.1 Multifunctionalized PET Dyeing
with Alcohols 257
11.5.3 PET-Multifunctionalization with MCT-β-CD 260
11.5.4 Functionalization of the PET Surface with Plasma
Treatment 261
11.5.4.1 Dyeing of PET Functionalized by
Means of Plasma and Grafting with
Polyfunctional Compounds 264
11.6 Cotton: Multifunctionalization Ways 266
11.6.1 Surface Activation with Plasma Followed by
Grafting with Polyfunctional Compounds 267
11.6.1.1 Dyeing of Multifunctionalized Cotton
by Plasma and Grafting Treatments 269
11.6.2 Alkyl Chitosan Grafting on Cotton 269
11.6.2.1 Dyeing of Cotton Grafted
with Alkyl Chitosans 273
11.6.3 Multifunctionalization of Cotton with
Polyfunctional Compounds and
Unconventional Dyeing 275
11.6.3.1 Functionalization of Cotton
with Tetronic 701 and Chitosan 275
11.6.3.2 Functionalization of Cotton with a
Tetrol (Tetronic 701) and MCT-β-CD 277
11.6.3.3 Successive Functionalization of Cotton
with a Tetrol (Tetronic 701), Chitosan,
and MCT-β-CD 277
11.6.4 Multifunctionalization of Cotton with Carbonyl
Compounds and MCT-β-CD 278
11.7 Conclusions 279
References 280
12 Advanced Dyeing or Functional Finishing 291
Kunal Singha, Subhankar Maity and Pintu Pandit
12.1 Introduction 292
12.2 Mechanism of Dyeing by Phase Separation 293
12.3 Advanced Dyeing and Finishing Techniques 293
 Contents xiii

12.3.1 Ultrasound Technology 293

12.3.2 Ultraviolet (UV) Technology 294
12.3.3 Ozone Technology 294
12.3.4 Plasma Technology/Ion Implantation Technology 295
12.3.5 Gamma Radiation Technology 295
12.3.6 Laser Technology 296
12.3.7 Microwave Technology 296
12.3.8 E-Beam Radiation Technology/
Mass-Analyzed Ion Implantation 296
12.3.9 Supercritical Carbon Dioxide (Sc. CO2) Technology 296
12.4 Applications of Ultrasonics in Textiles 297
12.4.1 Principle of Ultrasound Dyeing Technique 298
12.4.2 Basic Design of the Ultrasound Dyeing
Instrument Developed by SASMIRA, India 299
12.4.3 Different Section of the Machine 299
12.4.4 K/S Value 300
12.4.5 Dye Uptake 301
12.4.6 Comparison of Ultrasound Dyeing Technique
with the Conventional Dyeing Technique
for Various Textile Materials 301
12.4.7 Dyeing of Polyester by Disperse Dye 303
12.5 Conclusions 304
References 305
13 Plasma and Other Irradiation Technologies Application
in Textile 309
Kartick K. Samanta, S. Basak and Pintu Pandit
13.1 Introduction 310
13.2 Plasma Treatment of Textile 312
13.3 Optical Properties of Plasma 314
13.4 Improvement in Hydrophobic Attribute 316
13.4.1 Surface Chemistry of Hydrophobic Textile 317
13.5 Improvement in Liquid Absorbency and Coloration 320
13.6 Plasma Treatment of Protein Fiber 322
13.6.1 On Silk Fiber 322
13.6.2 On Wool Fabric 324
13.7 UV Irradiation 325
13.8 Laser Irradiation 326
13.9 Electron Beam Irradiation 327
13.10 Summary 327
References 328
xiv Contents

14 Bio-Mordants in Conjunction With Sustainable Radiation

Tools for Modification of Dyeing of Natural Fibers 335
Shahid Adeel, Shumaila Kiran, Tanvir Ahmad,
Noman Habib, Kinza Tariq and Muhammad Hussaan
14.1 Natural Dyes 336
14.2 Health and Environmental Aspects 336
14.3 Isolation Process 336
14.3.1 Conventional Methods 337
14.3.2 Modern Methods 337
14.4 Role of US and MW in Isolation 337
14.5 Fabric Chemistry 338
14.6 Shade Development Process 338
14.6.1 Chemical Mordant 339
14.6.2 Bio-Mordant 339
14.7 Arjun 340
14.8 Neem 340
14.9 Coconut 340
14.10 Harmal 340
14.11 Recent Advances 341
Acknowledgments 344
References 344
Index 349
 Preface

Humans have been using textiles since prehistoric times. Although initially
used only to protect the body from environmental changes, those with
high scientific knowledge and awareness are now focusing on multidi-
mensional applications of textiles. To meet the needs of modern mankind,
various modifications have already been implemented on textiles, ranging
from simple coloration to advanced energy applications, and researchers
are continuously exploring new frontiers in this field. Advancing conven-
tional techniques with green and sustainable products that replace the
harmful compounds in textile processing and the quest for advanced mate-
rials for functionalization of textiles are currently very much underway.
All these developments have motivated us to compile this reference book
with the help of eminent authors from around the world with expertise in
textiles-related research areas.
The 14 chapters of Frontiers of Textile Materials: Polymers, Nanomaterials,
Enzymes, and Advanced Modification Techniques cover various research
areas dealing with modification of textile materials. Following an intro-
ductory chapter on materials (polymers, nanomaterials, enzymes, etc.) for
textile modification, the initial chapters are devoted to the construction
and functional finishing of textile materials using polymers. The first few
chapters explore nanomaterials for the textile industry, fabrication and
characterization of nanomaterials, application on textiles and functional-
ities achieved on them. Two of the chapters focus on flexible electronics
dealing with the incorporation of nanogenerators and solar cells into the
matrix of textiles to design wearables. Further chapters discuss advanced
dyeing and dyeing materials (biomordants, plasma and radiations) for sus-
tainable and eco-friendly coloration.
This book contains informative chapters from authors specializing in
fields encompassing materials, dyeing, functional finishing and flexible
electronics. Thus, the editors hope that students, researchers and acade-
micians of various fields, such as textiles chemistry and dyeing, chemical
engineering, environmental science, and materials science, will find this

xv
xvi Preface

book to be of great interest and useful in their curriculum. We expect this

book will definitely be helpful in inspiring new ideas in textiles research,
leading to interdisciplinary research collaborations.
At this time, we would like to thank those who have been supportive
of this book in any way. We acknowledge the great efforts of the eminent
authors without whom this book would have been unimaginable. We also
appreciate the support of the publisher in showing interest in the compila-
tion of such a reference book.

Mohd Shabbir
Shakeel Ahmed
Javed N Sheikh
January 2020
 1
Introduction to Textiles and
Finishing Materials
Mohd Shabbir1* and Javed N. Sheikh2†

Department of Chemistry, NIET, Greater Noida, UP, India

1

Department of Textile Technology, Indian Institute of Technology, New Delhi, India

2

Abstract
Textile is one of the basic needs of the human being, and the modern human being
has a lot of choices for their clothing. Textiles have various characteristics depend-
ing on the fibers they are made from, such as wool, silk, cotton, viscose, nylon,
polyester, etc. and the finishing applied on them via materials such as finishing
chemicals, nanoparticles, polymers, enzymes, etc. Thus, so many materials are
available which can be utilized in the development of functional and smart textiles.
In the era of technology (miniaturization of this world), flexible electronics based
on textiles are gaining momentum. The chapter presents the emerging materials
in the field of textiles with a major focus on the functionalization of textiles. In the
next chapters of this book, all these are reviewed in great detail.

Keywords: Textiles, viscose, polyester, polymers, nanomaterials

1.1 Introduction
The textile industry is of great importance to the economies of every
country in terms of trade, employment, investment, and revenue.
Simultaneously, the chemical processes associated with textile production
generate a lot of waste, greenhouse gases, and consume a large amount of
water [1]. Innovative research and developments are very much needed

*Corresponding author: shabbirmeo@gmail.com

†
Corresponding author: jnsheikh@textile.iitd.ac.in

Mohd Shabbir, Shakeel Ahmed, and Javed N. Sheikh (eds.) Frontiers of Textile Materials:
Polymers, Nanomaterials, Enzymes, and Advanced Modification Techniques,
(1–12) © 2020 Scrivener Publishing LLC

1
2 Frontiers of Textile Materials

for the textile industry to minimize waste production and maximize

clothing production simultaneously. A series of steps are involved from
textiles manufacturing to finishing and dyeing, need the attention of tex-
tile chemists as well as environmentalists. Technological advancements for
functional finishing have emerged in recent years. Textile materials from
the natural origin such as cotton, wool, and silk are prone to microbes,
so antimicrobial finishing technologies are developed via application of
polymers, nanomaterials, and dyes [2, 3].
This chapter overviews the advanced structural and finishing materials
for textiles. All textiles fibers are polymers e.g. silk and wool are proteins
made up of polymeric chains of amino acids, cotton is made up of glucose
monomeric units and synthetic fibers Nylon and polyesters are the synthetic
polymers. Chitosan, sericin, and tannins are a few examples of natural poly-
mers used for functional finishing of textiles. Nanomaterials are considered
as both present and future of every technological advancement including
textiles. Various conventional methods of finishing have been replaced with
new and technologically advanced techniques. In the next chapters of this
book, all these aspects of the textiles industry are reviewed in great detail.

1.2 Polymers
Textiles and polymers are the interconnected materials and all textiles
fibers are polymers. Apart from this, polymers play an important role
in textile processing and are utilized for various applications like sizing
agents, thickeners for textile printing, finishing chemicals, coating chemi-
cals, etc. As far as applications of polymers in finishing are concerned, they
are widely utilized in various finishing treatments ranging from soften-
ing finish, stiffening finish, repellent finishes, antimicrobial finishes, flame
retardant finishes, and abrasion-resistant finish. The conventional silicones
are widely consumed polymers in textile finishing. Silicone softeners show
various advantages over other types of softeners and the proper chemistry
of silicones can be selected to fine-tune the properties of finished textile
materials. Fluorochemicals supported on acrylic backbones are used for
imparting water repellent finishing to textile materials. Starch, polyvinyl
alcohol, polyvinyl acetates are used for imparting stiffness.
With the development of technical textiles, the demand for functional
textiles is increased which resulted in the development of functional fin-
ishes for textiles. The properties of polymers were tailor-made by selecting
the suitable monomers and such polymers were utilized in the functional
finishing of textiles. Textile coating and lamination have opened a new area
 Textiles and Finishing Materials 3

of modification of textiles which has further enhanced the scope of poly-

mers in textile finishing. The polymers like polyvinylchloride (PVC), poly-
vinylidene chloride (PVDC), acrylic polymers, silicones, fluoro-­polymers,
rubbers (both natural and synthetic) find applications in the functional
coating of textiles. The resultant film of a coated polymer can also be suit-
ably modified using the various layers of a coating or by addition of fillers.
The coating has an added advantage of higher add-on of functional chemi-
cal on fabric which can show enhanced functionalities as compared to low
add-on involved in the conventional padding-based finishing process.
The increase in awareness regarding health and hygiene and the require-
ment of protection against pathogenic microbes resulted in development
of various polymers, which can act as antimicrobial finishes for textiles.
Such polymers include natural polymers like chitosan, sericin and tannins,
synthetic polymers like quaternized polymers, polymers with N-halamine
moieties, biguanide-based polymers, and conjugated polymers such as
polypyrrole and polyaniline.
Chitosan is an interesting functional biopolymer, which is widely researched
for its applications in textile finishing. The various reports regarding applica-
tion of chitosan and its derivatives in antimicrobial finishing, flame retar­dant
finishing, and multifunctional finishing are available in the literature.
Smart textile and apparels are developed in recent times and led to the
development of stimuli-sensitive polymers (SSPs), which show a reversible
transformation from one state to another as a response to various stimuli
from the environment [4]. The stimulus includes temperature, electric field,
pH, light, pressure, sound, etc. Shape memory polymer is another important
class of polymers, which can be integrated into textile substrates to obtain
thermal and moisture control, self-adaptability of shape, shape retention,
and smart wettability [5]. Even though smart polymers are available for tex-
tile applications, their integration/application in/on textiles is a big chal-
lenge. A continuous research in this area is expected to solve the technical
issues in the application of such smart materials on textiles.

1.3 Nanomaterials
Nanomaterials are defined as the materials of size in the range 1–100 nm.
Nanomaterials are expected to have a higher efficiency than bulk materials
owing to their larger surface area–mass ratio. Size and shape are the pri-
mary characteristics of nanomaterials responsible for the efficacies of the
functional properties imparted by them. Designing of nanomaterials is
widely studied under nanotechnology. The way of synthesis or fabrication
4 Frontiers of Textile Materials

methods and the reducing or stabilizing agents determine the shape and size
of nanomaterials which lead to their specific characteristics [6]. Today nan-
otechnology plays an important role in almost every aspect of life, having a
wide range of applications such as biomedical, environmental, and textiles.
The demand for high-quality textiles is highly increased nowadays with the
rising population and developed clothing sense of human being, and the
textile industry is highly pressurized to manufacture the best quality textiles
[7]. Nanoscience and nanotechnology play an important role not only for
textile functionalization but also for the remediation of textile effluent to
keep water ecosystem clean. Both metal (Ag, Au, Cu, etc.) and metal oxide
(ZnO, TiO2, etc.) nanomaterials had been explored toward textile function-
alization in recent past. Some of these nanoparticles like silver, gold, zinc
oxide, and titanium dioxide are widely studied for imparting antimicrobial,
self-­cleaning, hydrophobic, and UV protection abilities to textiles [8–10].
Various fabrication and application processes on textile materials have
been developed to get optimum benefits from nanoparticles. Eco-friendly
fabrication of nanoparticles was also reported via in situ synthesis and
simultaneous application on textiles using various plant extracts as reduc-
ing and stabilizing agents. Fabrication methods, characterization of nano-
materials, and application on textiles are discussed in detail in the coming
chapters of this book.

1.4 Enzymes
Textile chemical processing is water-intensive and generates large quanti-
ties of effluent, which necessitates the shifting to more eco-friendly enzy-
matic processes. Some of the enzymes are commercially exploited, which
offers numerous advantages in textile chemical processes. Although some
technical issues were witnessed for complete shifting to enzyme-based
processes, the ongoing collaborative research in the field of biotechnology
and textile processing might answer such issues. The ideologies of Green
Chemistry [11] are truly followed by enzyme technology which being sus-
tainable and hence can be a prudent choice.
In the quest of the development of eco-friendly chemicals and processes
for chemical processing of textiles, the increased interest has been shown
by the research community in the exploration of new products through
industrial biotechnology [12–15]. This resulted in the replacement of
harsh chemicals and the development of some new alternatives providing
a reduction in manufacturing cost and ecological problems. Enzymes are
widely utilized in textile chemical processing including pre-treatments for
 Textiles and Finishing Materials 5

removal of impurities, denim finishing like bio-washing, and also in the

treatment of the effluents arising from textile industries. The rate of enzy-
matic reactions is dependent on various factors including pH, temperature,
concentrations of enzyme and substrate, and presence of any activators or
inhibitors/retarder [16]. Enzymes are ideal for chemical reactions because
of their specificity for the substrate as per the reaction [17].
Some of the dominant processes where enzymatic technology is already
established are pre-treatments of denim, bio-washing of denim, desizing,
scouring and bio-polishing of cotton. Denim is a popular textile substrate
among the people of all age groups. The denim garments with faded–abraded
look are widely demanded, which were traditionally produced using wash-
ing with pumice stones which can cause deterioration of treated garment
along with the machine damages [18, 19]. Such issues can be solved by the
use of a variety of cellulases, working at broad temperature ranges and pH,
which can be used alone or in combination with other enzymes [20–22].
Two critical issues are associated with bio-washing of denim like degradation
of cotton fiber in case of uncontrolled treatment and indigo back-­staining/
re-deposition on the uncolored back side of denim [23]. These issues can
be solved by controlling the bio-washing to the surface and the selection
of proper cellulase. The efficient after-wash using soap, soda, peroxide, and
optical brightening agent is generally done to remove the back-staining [24].
Bio-polishing is another important finishing process, which reduces
hairiness by removing the protruding micro hairs of cotton and pilling
of cellulose fabric leading to velvety, slicker feel, and brighter color [25].
This can also be achieved by using cellulase, which can hydrolyze cellulosic
micro-fibrils [22, 26–29]. Agitation is an important factor, which facilitates
the cellulolytic attack, which necessitates the use of textile machineries
capable of producing agitation, like jet dyeing machines [26, 27, 30, 31].
Both bio-washing and bio-polishing involve two important aspects, viz.
removal of fibrils and their suspension in aqueous treatment media thus
preventing redeposition on the fabric. The accurate control of parameters,
suitable agitation, the use of suitable dispersing agents/anti-redeposition
agents based on polyvinylpyrrolidone and acrylates are therefore necessary
to prevent redeposition of fuzz on fabric and achieve efficient bio-polishing.
Apart from the actual application of enzymes in finishing, several
enzymes like amylase, pectinase, catalase, and glucose oxidase are used in
preparatory processes. Even though these are not directly used in finishing,
these are used to remove impurities from the fabric, which also affects the
efficiency of further coloration and finishing processes.
The functional finishing of textiles is an upcoming area where enzymes
can be explored. Laccase-mediated grafting of polyphenols on textile fibers
6 Frontiers of Textile Materials

for functionalization is reported widely in the literature. Immobilization

of enzymes, use of advanced techniques like ultrasound, and combined
textile processes using a mixture of enzymes are the latest developments in
the area of enzymatic textile processing.

1.5 Plasma and Radiations for Textiles

Plasma is considered to be the fourth state of matter and can be utilized
for activation, cleaning, surface deposition and functionalization of tex-
tiles. Applications of radiations are widely researched for the performance
enhancement of various processes used in textile processing. Natural dye-
ing of textiles goes through various steps from the extraction of dyes to the
application on textile materials. The first step starts from extraction, which
is of high importance in term of getting the higher quantity of dyeing
compounds in the extracts which ultimately affects the color strength of
dyed textiles. Dyers usually go for aqueous extraction, which needs higher
time and energy. Researchers nowadays are focusing to find efficient and
innovative techniques to obtain natural dye compounds, which could pro-
vide better yield, minimize extraction time and solvent consumption [32].
Microwave-assisted and ultrasound-assisted extraction techniques already
have been utilized and proved to be highly efficient. Microwave energy is
considered more efficient for heating as it provides uniform heating in a
reaction mixture unlike the ordinary methods of heating. It enables the
heating of all particles at the same time with its easy penetration property
into the particles of the matter and thus the solution is regularly heated
to quickly attain the high temperature [33]. Microwave-assisted extraction
was carried on Eucalyptus robusta leaves to get an optimal yield of total
phenolic compounds and results were in accordance to prove it as a good
eco-friendly alternative to conventional extraction [34]. Response surface
methodology (RSM) and artificial neural network (ANN) modelling were
applied in association with microwave-assisted extraction of dyeing com-
pounds from pomegranate rind and application of microwave irradiation
method proved to be a rapid and improved technique for dye extraction
with improved yield and significantly reduced extraction time [35]. Plasma
and radiations further have been utilized for improving dye absorptivity,
disinfestation and imparting other functionalities on textiles [36–39].
Drábková et al. [40] studied the influence of gamma radiations for dis-
infestation of paper and textiles (silk and cotton), but their results sug-
gested some structural changes in cellulosic and proteinaceous materials
due to the treatment. Fabrics of polyester and polyamide were treated with
 Textiles and Finishing Materials 7

atmospheric pressure plasma to successfully improve the wettability of fab-

rics after plasma treatment, while dryability was not improved significantly
[41]. Samanta et al. [42] improved water and oil absorbency of textile sub-
strates by treating them with atmospheric pressure cold plasma. Several
studies were discussed about non-thermal plasma treatment of textiles for
various functional characteristics by Morent et al. [43].

1.6 Flexible Electronics

Miniaturization of things is leading to the development of countless tiny
devices in our daily life use. Textiles can be a matrix to install them on cloth-
ing to function for various application areas from fashion and functional
clothing to healthcare and interior design. Conducting yarns and fibers are
very much popular in today’s research for integrating electronic devices in
textiles. Materials such as conjugated polymers (e.g., polypyrrole (PPy),
polyaniline (PANI), and poly (3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT)),
carbon nanotubes, graphene, etc., have been explored for this purpose of
making the smart textiles. A lot of research has been focused for the envis-
aged functionalities, such as sensing, data processing and storage, as well as
energy harvesting, e.g., by using the piezoelectric, thermoelectric, triboelec-
tric, or photovoltaic effect and a lot to be explored in future. Processing and
development of conducting yarns and textiles are well discussed in a review
paper by Lund et al. [44]. In one of the studies, cotton was turned into con-
ducting textiles with high porosity and excellent toughness by coating metal
oxide on the cotton and subsequent pyrolysis [45]. Various formulations
and inks have also been developed to make conducting fibers. Islam et al.
[46] reported a simple, low cost, and highly scalable fabrication method of
functional Carbon Black ink from dry charcoal, and it was then coated on
cotton by pad–dry–cure method to get durable electrically and thermally
conductive cotton E-textiles. In another study, a dense and thin layer of
polypyrrole (PPy) was deposited onto the fabric surface by an improved
in situ polymerization method. Some woven and knitted fabrics were then
transformed into conductive electrodes of high electrical conductivity with-
out compromising their breathability, flexibility, and comfortability [47]. Ye
et al. [48] reported a scalable dip-coating strategy to construct conductive
silk fibers (CSFs). Natural silk fibers were coated by a tailor-made carbon
nanotube (CNT) paint without destroying the internal structure of the
fibers. The CSFs developed possess characteristics such as high mechanical
performance, super-hydrophobicity, solvent resistance, and thermal sensi-
tivity. Polyurethane-coated Ni–Ti alloy fiber-based pressure sensors were
8 Frontiers of Textile Materials

fabricated for real-time sitting posture correction and tested for durability
aspects in terms of washing and sit-down numbers [49].

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 2
Polymers for Textile Production
Mohammad Tajul Islam1*, Md. Mostafizur Rahman2
and Nur-Us-Shafa Mazumder3
1
Department of Textile Engineering, Ahsanullah University of Science and
Technology, Dhaka, Bangladesh
2
Department of Textile Engineering, World University of Bangladesh,
Dhaka, Bangladesh
3
Department of Textile Engineering, Port City International University,
Chittagong, Bangladesh

Abstract
For the obvious reason of human needs, the textile sector has become the second-­
largest manufacturing industries just after the agricultural sector. One of the import-
ant and major areas of applications of polymers is the textile sector, more specifically
in fiber production. Polymers are essential chemicals for the production of textile.
Polymers are used in every step of textile manufacturing from fiber manufacturing to
textile coloration and finishing. This chapter will discuss the source, chemical struc-
ture and properties, manufacturing process, and characterization of natural polymers
such as cellulose, keratin, and fibroin as well as synthetic polymers such as polyeth-
ylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, polyesters, polyamides, polyurethanes, polytetra-
fluoroethylene, polyvinyl chloride, and polyvinyl alcohol. This chapter will also give an
insight into the basics of polymer, classification of polymer, and polymerization process.

Keywords: Polymers, textile production, natural polymer, synthetic polymer and fiber

2.1 Polymers
Polymer came from the Greek word “poly” and “meros”, where poly means
many and meros means part [1]. Polymers are macromolecules or giant

*Corresponding author: tajul.dtt@aust.edu

Mohd Shabbir, Shakeel Ahmed, and Javed N. Sheikh (eds.) Frontiers of Textile Materials:
Polymers, Nanomaterials, Enzymes, and Advanced Modification Techniques,
(13–60) © 2020 Scrivener Publishing LLC

13
14 Frontiers of Textile Materials

substances made from interlinking of many small units. These small units
from which polymers are formed are known as a monomer, which means
single part. The process by which individual monomers are linked together
to form polymers is known as “polymerization” [2]. The polymer can be
formed from one type of monomer. The polymer formed from one type of
monomer is known as a homopolymer. For examples, polyethylene is formed
only from ethylene monomer. On the other hand, the polymer formed from
more than one type of monomers is called copolymer. Polyester can be taken
as an example here, two types of monomers—acid and alcohol are used for
the polyester polymerformation.
Polymers vary from small molecular weight compounds in many ways.
The molecular weight of a small molecule is fixed whereas the polymer’s
molecular weight can vary. The molecular weight and size of a polymer
depend on the number of monomers in a polymer. The number of mono-
mers in a polymer is denoted by the degree of polymerization (DP). The
molecular weight of a polymer is the product of the molecular weight of
the repeat unit and the DP [3]. For example, polyethylene polymer with a
DP of 1,000 and ethylene (–CH2–CH2–) as repeat unit (molecular weight
of ethylene is 28), the molecular weight of the polymer will be 28 × 100 =
2,800. This very high molecular weight of the polymer makes its behav-
ior different from commonly known lower molecular weight chemicals
such as water. Solid water melts at 0°C, and on further heating boils at
100°C into gaseous form. On the other hand, polymer does not melt at
any particular temperature. A solid polymer becomes softer on heating
and on further heating turns into viscose molten mass. On further heat-
ing, it may decompose but usually does not convert into gaseous form.
Another major difference between polymer and lower molecular weight
compound lies in their solubility behavior. Lower molecular weight com-
pound like sugar dissolves in the water up to a certain limit. More sugar
than the saturation limit does not go into solution, they settle at the bot-
tom as solid. The viscosity of the water and water containing sugar is not
much different. On the other hand, polymer does not go into solution
immediately. As polymers are added into water, they absorb water first
then swelled and their shape changes and goes into solution after certain
times. As more and more polymers are added the required time it takes
to go into solution increases. Compare to lower molecular weight a very
large amount of polymer can be added into the water without reaching
saturation point. Here, the viscosity increase is prominent compared to
sugar and water solution. The polymer in water never retains in its solid
form like sugar in water [2].
 Polymers for Textile Production 15

2.2 History of Polymer

The history of natural polymers is a few billion years old! As the living body
is made of protein, a natural polymer, it can be said that polymers were
present in this world before human exist! Polymers had appeared in many
natural forms like vegetable, animal, and mineral substances. The human
had been using these polymers such as cellulose, starch even before the
understanding of polymers. Rubber the natural polymer had been using
science 15th century. During that time, it was used for playing a bouncing
game, and they called it “weeping wood” as it could rub off pencil marks,
which a few centuries later grew into a multibillion-dollar rubber industry.
Until 1839 rubber could not be used successfully as it was sticky or become
sticky during the summer heat. Charles Goodyear found that treating rub-
ber with nitric acid made the rubber heat resistant and it did not adhere
to itself. However, acidic treatment was sufficient only to prevent surface
stickiness but internal rubber still remains susceptible to heat. Later he
found that treating rubber with led and sulfur gave it far superior prop-
erties, which is known as vulcanization, the secret that made the rubber
commercially successful. The synthesis of synthetic rubber from isoprene
was first reported in 1875. The first commercially successful synthetic rub-
ber was polychloroprene obtained formed chloroprene.
Fiber is threadlike, flexible and finer substance. Fibers can be metal-
lic, mineral, or organic materials. All non-metallic fibers are formed from
polymeric materials. Until the beginning of the 20th-century textile fibers
come from natural sources like plant: cotton, flax, jute, and animal: silk,
wool. It is believed that flax fibers were used in 3800 BC in Egypt to weave
fine linen cloth. References to hemp and ramie can be found in Chinese
writing dated 2800 BC. Wool has been used for clothing for at least 5,000
years. Until the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century, all
fibers came from natural sources. During this period people discovered
that man-made fiber can be produced. Early man-made fibers were known
as regenerated fiber as these fibers were obtained from natural polymers
like cellulose from wood. Soon after around 1930 humans were able to pro-
duce synthetic fibers. The first regenerated cellulose was based on nitrated
cellulose by Swan. Cross and Bevan discovered that cellulose can be con-
verted by alkali and carbon disulfide to form sodium cellulose xanthate,
which then can be reconverted into cellulose by various reagents in 1894.
This new regenerated fiber is known as “viscose,” which had few advan-
tages over nitrated cellulose. The commercial viscose was developed in
1903. Nylon 66 the first synthetic fiber was invented by Carothers. In 1929
16 Frontiers of Textile Materials

he published this polycondensation theory and compared it with polyad-

dition. Nylon 66 was commercialized before 1940 and continues to grow
its importance today. Carothers was also investigating several polyesters
under DuPont program started in 1929. These polyesters were mainly ali-
phatic and were not much useful due to its low melting temperature. In
1941, Whinfield and Dickson produced aromatic polyester known as PET
polyester. The properties of this polyester found very suitable to be used as
fibers [4].

2.3 Classification of Polymers

There are many polymers with a variety of different behaviors. They can
be classified in different ways based on their origin, physical properties,
thermal behavior.

1. B
 ased on Sources: Source of origin is the easiest way to clas-
sify a polymer. Based on their origin polymers are classified
into natural and synthetic.
i. Natural Polymer: Polymers have been found naturally
existing in natural sources like vegetable and ani-
mals are known as natural polymers. Some examples
include cellulose and starch present in vegetables, the
protein present in animals and rubber from plant’s
latex.
ii. Synthetic Polymer: Polymers that are produced artifi-
cially in labs from lower molecular weight compound
are known as synthetic polymers. They are produced
commercially by the industries according to the demand.
Commonly produced synthetic polymers that we used
in our day-to-day life are Polyethylene, PVC, Polyester,
Nylon, etc.
iii.  Semi-synthetic Polymer: Polymers obtained by the
modification of natural polymers. These types of poly-
mers also are commercially important like vulcanized
rubber, where the rubber is treated with sulfur for
cross-linking between the polymers. C ellulose ace-
tate is another example of a semi-synthetic polymer.
Naturally occurring cellulose polymers are acetylated
to produce a cellulose derivative known as cellulose
acetate.
 Polymers for Textile Production 17

2. B ased on Polymer Structure: Based on the structure poly-

mers are classified as follows:
i. Linear Polymer: These polymers are straight and long-
chain polymer. These are the high-density polymer as
polymers are straight a compact structure is possible
to obtain. Polymers’ melting temperature is generally
very high due to high density. PVC is a straight-chain
polymer.
ii.  Branch Chain Polymer: As the name suggests, poly-
mers have a branch chain at random point of the main
chain. Branching does not allow polymers to be packed
closely; as a result, low-density polymer with lower
melting temperature is obtained.
iii.  Cross-linked Polymer: Polymers are internally linked
with each other are known as cross-linked polymers.
Monomers with tri-functional groups are prone to
form a cross-linked network. Cross-linked polymers
are rigid and brittle. Urea and Melamine formaldehyde
are examples of cross-linked polymers.
3. Based on Type of Polymerization: The process by which
monomers are linked together to form a polymer is called
polymerization. Based on polymerization types polymers
are classified as follows:
i.  Addition Polymers: Polymers that are produced by
addition polymerization process is called addition
polymers. Monomers linked together without any
elimination in this process. In this case, double or triple
bonds present in the chemical structure of the mono-
mers work as a functional group. Monomer and poly-
mer have the same composition as no elimination of
chemical species of monomer take place. Polyethylene,
PVC, etc., are addition polymers.
ii. Condensation Polymers: Polymers produced by the
combination of monomers with the elimination of
small molecules like water, methanol etc. Active reac-
tive sites present in the monomer work as functional
groups here. Polyester, Nylon is the examples of con-
densation polymers.
4. Based on Thermal Behavior: Polymers behave differently
when the heat is applied. Based on the behavior of heating
polymers are classified as follow:
18 Frontiers of Textile Materials

i.  Thermoplastic: Polymers without cross-linking soften

on heating and can be given any shape. These polymers
on cooling become hard again and retain its shape.
Polymers those soften on heating and stiffen on cooling
are known as thermoplastic polymers. This process can
be repeated several times without any deterioration of
the properties of the polymers. PVC, Nylon, Polyester
are common examples of thermoplastic polymer.
ii.  Thermosetting: Polymers those generally undergo
chemical changes during heating known as thermoset-
ting polymers. These are generally low molecular weight
semi-liquid substance, on heating, they start crosslink-
ing with each other and become hard, insoluble and
infusible masses. They form three-dimensional link-
ing on heating which is irreversible. Urea, melamine–
formaldehyde, and Bakelite are the common examples.
5. Based on Ultimate Form and Use: Intramolecular forces are
the forces that hold the atom in a polymer chain whereas
intermolecular forces are the forces between the molecules.
The form of a polymer ultimately depends on these two
forces. Based on the form and uses polymers are classified
as follows [5]:
i. Plastics: These polymers are long-chain polymers where
intermolecular forces hold them together. They do not
have any cross bonds and can be shaped into hard and
tough when pressure and heat is applied. Polystyrene
and PVC are examples of polymers used as plastic.
ii. Elastomers: Polymers that are elastics in nature and
rubber-like solid material are known as elastomers.
Polymers are cross-linked with each other so that they
can recover to original shape after releasing from stress.
Polymers that easily stretched and come back to their
original shape after releasing stress are called elas-
tomers. Vulcanized rubber and synthetic rubber are
examples of elastomers.
iii.  Fibers: Polymers have strong intermolecular forces
results in high strength and less elasticity can be used
as fiber. Fibers are a finer, flexible, and thread-like sub-
stance that can be woven easily. Fiber has a high melting
temperature with a sharp value. Nylon66 and Polyester
are common examples of fiber [2].
 Polymers for Textile Production 19

2.4 Polymerization
A polymer is formed by the inter-linking of monomers. The process where
the polymer is formed by the interlinking of many monomers is called
polymerization. Basically, two types of reactions are involved in polymer-
ization. Monomers are either linked together without any elimination, this
type of reaction is called addition reaction or chain polymerization. Or
reaction between the reactive groups of the monomers where elimination
of low molecular compound is involved, this type of reaction is called con-
densation reaction or step polymerization [6].

2.4.1 Chain Polymerization

Monomers with double or triple bonds can react without any elimina-
tion. This type of polymerization involves joining of the monomers very
rapidly. As no byproduct is formed in this type of polymerization the
polymer and the monomer have the same elemental composition. The
functionality of the monomers is provided by the double or triple bonds
present in the monomer. Three major steps involved in chain polymeriza-
tion: initiation, propagation, and termination. The chain polymerization
process can be brought by free radical, ionic or coordination techniques.
Depending on techniques involved in the polymerization, chain polym-
erization can be classified as Free-radical, Ionic, and Coordination
polymerization.

1. F
 ree-Radical Polymerization: The initiation of chain growth
is caused by a free-radical, which is the decomposition
product of initiators. The process (Figure 2.1) involves con-
tinuous and very rapid addition of the monomers to form
polymer chains. Initiators are thermally unstable com-
pounds and decomposed into free radicals when energy is
supplied in terms of heat, light, or catalyst. A free radical is
highly reactive and attacks the double bond of the mono-
mers. This attack results in the attachment of the initiator
to the monomer and simultaneously transfers the radical
side to the monomer. This step is known as initiation. The
monomer bearing the radical is reactive now and attacks
the second monomer. As a result, the second monomer is
attached to the first and radical site is transferred to the
second. This reaction goes on; monomers keep succes-
sively adding to the chain and free radical remains on the
20 Frontiers of Textile Materials

R + H 2C CH R CH2 CH

X X

R CH2 CH + n H2C CH R CH2 CH CH2 CH

X X X X
n

Figure 2.1 Free radical polymerization.

last monomer. This step is called propagation. As more and

more monomers are added to the chain the length of the
polymer increases. Lastly, the step where the growth of the
polymer chain is arrested known as termination step. There
are several ways for the termination of the free radicals like
coupling, disproportion, chain transfer and presence of
inhibitor [2].
2. Ionic Polymerization: The ionic polymerization also
involves attaching like chain polymerization. But this time
monomer is attacked not by an unpaired electron but by
either positive or negative ion. If the initiation and prop-
agation are done by a positively charged ion is called cat-
ionic polymerization and if by a negative ion it is called
anionic polymerization. Like free radical polymerization,
cationic polymerization also has three steps: initiation,
propagation, and termination. Anionic polymerization
also has two steps: initiation and propagation. But the ter-
mination of the anionic polymerization is not a simultane-
ous process unless strong cationic agents are present in the
reactor. Polymers produced by anionic polymerization are
live polymers as they are active and can react anytime if a
favorable condition is given. Figure 2.2 shows an example
of an ionic polymerization.
3. Coordination Polymerization: Chain polymerization started
by a coordination bond and goes on through this coordina-
tion bond is known as coordination polymerization (Figure
2.3). Olefins monomers form a complex with organometallic
compounds in the first step. A coordination bond is involved
 Polymers for Textile Production 21

H+ + H2C CH H CH2 CH+

X X

H CH2 CH+ + n H2C CH H CH2 CH CH2 CH+

X X X X
n

Figure 2.2 Ionic polymerization.

CH2 R
CH2 CH2
HC
+ CH2 R HC
CH2
HC

Mt 2– CH2
Mt–
CH2

Figure 2.3 Coordination polymerization.

between the metal and the carbon of the monomer in this com-
plex. Afterward, more monomers keep successively adding
to the polymer chain through this coordination bond. As the
monomers are inserted between the metal and the carbon of
the monomer this polymerization is also known as insertion
polymerization.

2.4.2 Step Polymerization

Monomers having reactive groups can react with themselves through a
stepwise slow reaction to form a polymer. As this type of reaction, goes
stepwise manner it is thereby slow, unlike chain polymerization. This
type of reaction mostly accompanied by the elimination of small com-
pound through step polymerization may proceed without any elimina-
tion. Composition of the monomer and repeat unit will be the same or
not depending on the elimination. If no elimination is involved in the
polymerization the composition of the monomer and the repeat unit
will be the same. If byproduct is formed then the composition of the
22 Frontiers of Textile Materials

monomer and the repeat unit will not be the same. Poly condensation,
polyaddition, and ring-opening are the most common examples of step
polymerization [3].

1. P olycondensation: Monomers containing reactive groups

can be condensed by reacting with each other. Elimination
of small molecules is known as condensation. As conden-
sation is involved in every reaction during polymerization
this polymerization is called polycondensation (Figure 2.4).
Monomers must have two functional groups for the poly-
condensation to proceed. Only one type of reaction is
involved in polymer formation. The polymer formed still
have the two reactive groups at their chain end hence poly-
mers are active.
2. Polyaddition: This type of polymerization is brought about
by the migration of atom from one monomer to another.
Monomers having double bonds or reactive groups as func-
tional groups can undergo this type of reaction. Styrene
can be polymerized by this method (Figure 2.5). Hydrogen
atom transfer from one monomer to another and simul-
taneously monomers keep adding with one another. Like
chain polymerization monomers are added without pro-
ducing any byproduct. An interesting feature is that chain

HOOC R1 COOH + HO R2 OH HO CO R1 COO R2 O H

n

Figure 2.4 Polycondensation polymerization.

H2C CH H2C CH H2C C CH CH

H2C C CH CH H2C CH H2C C CH2 CH CH CH

+ n

Figure 2.5 Polyaddition polymerization.

 Polymers for Textile Production 23

H2C NH
5 HOOC CH2 NH2
5

H2O
CO

HOOC CH2 NH2 + n HOOC CH2 NH2 HO CO CH2 NH H

5 5
n+1

Figure 2.6 Ring-opening polymerization.

polymerization requires either free radicals or ions for

polymerization to proceed, whereas styrene can be polym-
erized without any of them. But like in chain polymeriza-
tion monomers here do not react rapidly. As every reaction
requires the transfer of an atom this type of reaction requires
time.
Monomers having reactive functional groups can also
undergo polyaddition polymerization without any byprod-
uct. For example, polyurethane polymer is formed by the
reaction between diisocyanates and diols where a transfer of
atom is involved. Hydrogen from diol transfer to diisocya-
nates results from the addition of the two monomers [7].
3. Ring-opening: Monomers having a ring structure can be
polymerized after the opening of the ring. Monomers after
opening follow either polyaddition or polycondensation
type of polymerization. Ethylene oxide and caprolactam
are the examples of the monomers those polymerized by
ring-opening polymerization. Where ethylene oxide fol-
lows polyaddition reaction and caprolactam follows poly-
condensation polymerization after their ring is opened [1].
Figure 2.6 is an example of a ring-opening polymerization.

2.5 Polymers in Textile Fibers

Fiber is defined as thread-like form substance without any restriction
on its chemical composition. Fibers are available in different forms such
as metallic, mineral, or organic. All non-metallic fibers are polymeric
24 Frontiers of Textile Materials

materials available in nature or synthesized by man. Fibers found in nature

have been used for long such as cotton, wool, silk. Organic synthetic fibers
are mostly thermoplastic, although thermosets are also possible. Here
polymers that constitute textile fibers are described.

2.5.1 Natural Polymers

2.5.1.1 Cellulose
Cellulose is a linear polymer of 1,4 β glucan, is the most copious polymer
available worldwide. Cellulose, the basis of all plants fibers has a formula
of (C6H10O5)n (Figure 2.7). The molecular weight of cellulose varies widely
depending on its sources. The DP of cellulose is probably between 2,000
and 3,000. Some estimates put this figure even higher; cotton cellulose may
contain as many as 10,000 glucose units per molecule. Cellulose is pro-
duced by natures, partially in pure form like seed hairs in cotton plant, but
mostly combined with lignin and another polysaccharide, called hemicel-
lulose [8, 9]. Hemicellulose is the second available abundant polymer avail-
able in nature after the cellulose. Roughly one-fourth materials of a plant
are hemicellulose. Hemicelluloses are branched-chain non-crystalline low
molecular weight polymer with a degree of polymerization of 80–100.
Their general formulas are (C5H8O4)n and (C6H10O5)n [10].
Cellulose is the basic structural component of the plant cell wall, 33 per-
centages of all vegetable matters are comprised of cellulose (90% of cotton
and 50% of wood is cellulose). Maximum quantities of cellulose are avail-
able to us in the plant world. We use a very negligible amount of cellulose
for making fine fibers such as cotton. Most of it is used as structural mate-
rials of tree such as stems and leaves. This cellulose is largely useless to us
for using directly as fiber; it is in fibrous form, but contaminated with other
substances.

CH2OH CH2OH
H HO H HO
O O O O
H H H H
H OH H OH
H H
H H
OH H OH H
H H H
OH H O O OH
O
H OH H OH CH2OH
CH2OH

Figure 2.7 Structure of cellulose polymer.

 Polymers for Textile Production 25

In the last century, human has learned to convert this natural cellu-
lose into a suitable state for using as textile fibers. These types of fibers are
known as regenerated fibers.
The cellulosic fibers we are using now can be classified by referring to
the part of a plant from which it comes. There are three major types:

1. Seed and Fruit fibers, i.e., Cotton, Coir, Kapok, etc.

2. Bast fibers, i.e., Jute, Hemp, Kenaf, etc.
3. Leaf fibers, i.e., Sisal, Henequen, etc.

2.5.1.2 Cotton
Cotton is the most important textile fiber, as well as cellulosic textile fiber
in the world, used to produce apparel, home textiles, and industrial prod-
ucts. 40% of fiber consumed worldwide in 2004 was cotton [11]. Cotton
is seed fiber from the plant of the order Malvales, family Malvaceae. Raw
cotton, after ginning and mechanical cleaning is approximately 95% cellu-
lose [12].

Properties
Physical Properties
Cotton is a moderately strong fiber; tenacity is 3.0–5.0 g/den. The elon-
gation property of cotton is not good; fiber does not stretch easily. It has
only 5–10% elongation at break. The fiber has excellent resistance to heat.
It does not degrade readily; turns yellow after several hours at 120 °C and
decomposed at 150 °C.

Chemical Properties
Cotton is attacked by hot dilute or cold concentrated acids. But, it has resis-
tance to cold concentrated acid. Cotton has excellent resistance to alkalis.
It swells in caustic alkali, and no damage takes place with careful treatment
with alkali.

Uses
Cotton is used widely as a fabric for hot weather wear; however, it is also
able to provide warmth as well. Cotton fibers are able to absorb ample
amount of moisture, garments made of cotton are therefore comfortable
and cool. This absorbency makes it particularly useful for household fab-
rics like sheets and towels. It is widely used for making raincoats. The ver-
satility of cotton has made it into the most widely used of all textile fibers.
It goes onto carpets and curtains, shoes, clothing, and hats [10].
26 Frontiers of Textile Materials

2.5.1.3 Jute
Like the other bast fibers, jute has been using from the prehistoric times.
Jute is a bast fiber composed of 60–70% cellulose, 12–13% hemicellu-
lose, and 12–15% lignin. This fiber is mainly grown in Bangladesh, India,
Myanmar, China, Nepal, and Thailand. Among the thirty Corchorus spe-
cies, but only two of them Corchorus capsularis and Corchorus olitorius are
widely known [13].
Jute is a cheap fiber and along with its strength and availability in large
quantity has carried it into making packing clothes and sacks. This fiber is
also used for storage and transporting agricultural products. The resistance
to elongation has made it particularly useful for the above uses. Curtain
and furnishing fabrics are also can be made from finer qualities of jute.
Nowadays jute is successfully blended with cotton fiber for making denim
fabric [12].

2.5.1.4 Keratin
Keratin is a structural name of proteins, which are available in the outer
layer of human skin, in hair, and nails. Keratin has the ability to self-
assemble into a bundle of fiber. Within the fiber bundle, individual poly-
mer chains are cross-linked with S-S linkage involving the cysteine side
chain. As a result, keratins are tough insoluble products [14]. Humans have
used and developed keratin from animals over many thousands of years,
e.g., animal skins for protection, different kind of horns, etc. [15].
The side groups of the keratin chain (Figure 2.8) may vary to a large
extent in size and chemical nature. Some of the side chains may be
hydrophilic and some of them may be hydrophobic, and acidic or basic.

CH2 NH CO CH2 NH CO CH2 NH CO CH2 NH CH3

H2N CO CH NH CO CH NH CO CH NH CO CH

H2C H2C
CH2 2
CH2
4
COOH
SH
NH2

HO

Figure 2.8 Structure of keratin.

 Polymers for Textile Production 27

Hydrocarbon present in the keratin chain as a side chain is non-polar and

hence hydrophobic in nature. On the other hand, the hydroxyl-containing
side chain gives hydrophilic characteristics to the chain. The side chain
constitutes about 50% of the weight of the polymer. Cystine results in a
considerable amount of cross-linking in the fiber and plays an important
role in determining many properties of the polymer [16].

2.5.1.5 Wool
The wool fiber is mainly composed of a protein called keratin. The struc-
ture of keratin is shown in Figure 2.2. The basic composition of keratin in
different types of wool is almost the same, but only the sulfur content dif-
fers. This component is responsible for the various characteristics of wool
fiber. Wool fiber lost its market during the Second World War because of
the invention of many synthetic fibers. The consistent properties and stable
price of synthetic fibers are the main reasons for declining the market share
of wool fiber. As yet no synthetic fibers possess all the natural properties of
wool fiber [17].

Properties
Physical Properties
The tensile strength of wool is in the range of 1,190–230 kg/cm2. The
tenacity of wool fiber is of 1.0–1.7 g/den in the dry state, and 0.8–1.6 g/
den in wet state, respectively. It can be elongated to 25–35% before the
break. Wool is very resilient in nature due to its high elongation at break
coupled with high elastic recovery. It can recover completely of about 2%
extension.

Chemical Properties
Wool can absorb moisture to a greater extent than any other fibers. Its
moisture regain is as high as 17%. Wool is weakened by acids. It can be
decomposed completely into amino acid by hot concentrated sulfuric acid.
It has general resistance to other mineral acids. Wool is very sensitive to
alkali. Caustic soda can dissolve wool completely. It has good resistance to
dry cleaning solvents.

Uses
Wool is best known for its warmth. It has been used as clothing for winter
such as jacket, sweaters, cardigans, pullovers, inner garments. Wool fiber
is also used as filler in the duvet. Blanket made of wool fiber is popular in
winter countries.
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