EE302 - Electronics-II 2023 - 2024 Spring Prof. Dr. Olcay ÜZENGİ AKTÜRK

ADNAN MENDERES UNIVERSITY
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
EE302 – Electronics-II
2023 – 2024 Spring
Prof. Dr. Olcay ÜZENGİ AKTÜRK
Ch8: Operational Amplifiers (Op-Amps)
• The term “operational amplifier” (op amp) was coined in the 1940s, well
before the invention of the transistor and the integrated circuit. Op-amps
realized by vacuum tubes served as the core of electronic “integrators,”
“differentiators,” etc., thus forming systems whose behavior followed a given
differential equation. Called “analog computers,” such circuits were used to
study the stability of differential equations that arose in fields such as control
or power systems. Since each op amp implemented a mathematical operation
(e.g., integration), the term “operational amplifier” was born.
• Op-amps find wide application in today’s discrete and integrated electronics. In
the cellphones integrated op amps serve as building blocks in (active) filters.
Similarly, the analog-to-digital converter(s) used in digital cameras often
employ op-amps.
• The outline of this chapter is shown below:
EE302-Electronics, Prof. Dr. Olcay ÜZENGİ AKTÜRK,2023-2024 Spring

• The operational amplifier can be abstracted as a black box having two inputs and
one output.
• Shown in Fig. 8.1(a), the op amp symbol distinguishes between the two inputs by
the plus and minus sign; Vin1 and Vin2 are called the “noninverting” and “inverting”
inputs, respectively. We view the op-amp as a circuit that amplifies the difference
between the two inputs, arriving at the equivalent circuit depicted in Fig. 8.1(b).
• The voltage gain is denoted by A0:

• It is instructive to plot Vout as a function of one input while the other remains at zero.

• How does the “ideal” op amp behave? Such an op amp would provide an infinite
voltage gain, an infinite input impedance, a zero output impedance, and infinite
speed.
• In fact, the first-order analysis of an op-amp-based circuit typically begins with this
idealization, quickly revealing the basic function of the circuit.
• We can then consider the effect of the op-amp “nonidealities” on the performance.
• The very high gain of the op-amp leads to an important observation. Since realistic
circuits produce finite output swings, e.g., 2V, the difference between Vin1 and Vin2 in
Fig. 8.1(a) is always small:
• In other words, the op-amp, along with the circuitry around it, brings Vin1 and Vin2
close to each other. Following the above idealization, we may say Vin1 = Vin2 if A0 =∞.

EE302-Electronics, . Prof. Dr. Olcay ÜZENGİ AKTÜRK,2023-2024 Spring

EE302-Electronics, Prof. Dr. Olcay ÜZENGİ AKTÜRK,20232024 Spring

Non-inverting Amplifier


Ch8: Op-Amps – Linear Op-Amp Circuits
Non-inverting Amplifier

Inverting Amplifier

Inverting Amplifier

Inverting Amplifie``r

Integrator & Differentiator
• Our study of the inverting topology in previous sections has assumed a resistive
network around the op-amp.
• In general, it is possible to employ complex impedances instead (Fig. 8.9). We can

write;
• where the gain of the op-amp is assumed large. If Z1 or Z2 is a capacitor, two

interesting functions result.



Integrator



Differentiator

Summing Amplifier (Voltage Adder)
• The need for adding voltages arises in many applications.
• For example, in audio recording, for example, a number of microphones may

convert the sounds of various musical instruments to voltages, and these voltages
must then be added to create the overall musical piece. This operation is called
“mixing” in the audio industry.
• For example, in “noise cancelling” headphones, the environmental noise is applied

to an inverting amplifier and subsequently added to the signal so as to cancel itself.

Ch8: Op-Amps – Nonlinear Op-Amp Circuits
• It is possible to implement useful nonlinear functions through the use of op-amps and
nonlinear devices such as transistors. The virtual ground property plays an essential
role here as well.

Precision Rectifier
• The rectifier circuits suffer from a “dead zone” due to the finite voltage required to
turn on the diodes. That is, if the input signal amplitude is less than approximately
0.7 V, the diodes remain off and the output voltage remains at zero.
• This drawback prohibits the use of the circuit in high-precision applications, e.g., if a
small signal received by a cellphone must be rectified to determine its amplitude.
• It is possible to place a diode around an op amp to form a “precision rectifier,” i.e., a

circuit that rectifies even very small signals.
• Let us begin with a unity-gain buffer tied to a resistive load [Fig. 8.22(a)].

Precision Rectifier
• We note that the high gain of the op amp ensures that node X tracks Vin (for both
positive and negative cycles). Now suppose we wish to hold X at zero during
negative cycles, i.e., “break” the connection between the output of the op amp and
its inverting input. This can be accomplished as depicted in Fig. 8.22(b), where D1 is
inserted in the feedback loop. Note that Vout is sensed at X rather than at the output
of the op-amp.

Logarithmic Amplifier
• Consider the circuit of Fig. 8.24, where a bipolar transistor is placed around the op-
amp. With an ideal op amp, R1 carries a current equal to Vin/R1 and so does Q1.
Ø Logarithmic amplifiers (“logamps”) prove useful in applications where the input signal
level may vary by a large factor. It may be desirable in such cases to amplify weak
signals and attenuate (“compress”) strong signals hence a logarithmic dependence.
Ø Note that Q1 operates in the active region because both the base and the collector
remain at zero.
Ø What happens if Vin becomes negative?

Square-root Amplifier
• Recognizing that the logarithmic amplifier of Fig. 8.24 in fact implements the
inverse function of the exponential characteristic, we surmise that replacing the
bipolar transistor with a MOSFET leads to a “square-root” amplifier.
} Illustrated in Fig. 8.25, such a circuit requires that M1

carry a current equal to Vin/R1:
} If Vin is near zero, then Vout remains at −VTH, placing M1 at the edge of conduction. As
Vin becomes more positive, Vout falls to allow M1 to carry a greater current. With its
gate and drain at zero, M1 operates in saturation.

Ch8: Op-Amps – Nonidealities
Op-Amp Nonidealities
• Our study in previous sections has dealt with a relatively idealized op-amp model
(except for the finite gain) so as to establish insight. In practice, however, op amps
suffer from other imperfections that may affect the performance significantly. In this
section, we deal with such nonidealities.

DC Offsets
• The op-amp characteristics imply that Vout = 0 if Vin1 = Vin2. In reality, a zero input
difference may not give a zero output difference! Illustrated in Fig. 8.26(a), the
characteristic is “offset” to the right or to the left; i.e., for Vout = 0, the input
difference must be raised to a certain value, Vos , called the input “offset voltage.”
• What causes offset? The internal circuit of the op-amp experiences random
asymmetries (“mismatches”) during fabrication and packaging. For example, as
shown conceptually in Fig. 8.26(b), the bipolar transistors sensing the two inputs
may display slightly different base-emitter voltages. The same effect occurs for
MOSFETs. We model the offset by a single voltage source placed in series with
one of the inputs [Fig. 8.26(c)]. Since offsets are random and hence can be positive
or negative, Vos can appear at either input with arbitrary polarity.
DC Offsets
• Why are DC offsets important?
• Let us reexamine some of the circuit topologies studied in Section 8.2 in the
presence of op amp offsets.
• Depicted in Fig. 8.27, the noninverting amplifier now sees a total input of Vin + Vos ,
thereby generating
• In other words, the circuit amplifies the offset as well as the signal, thus incurring
accuracy limitations.

DC Offsets


Input Bias Current
• Op-amps implemented in bipolar technology draw a base current from each input.
While relatively small (≈ 0.1–1 µA), the input bias currents may create inaccuracies
in some circuits.
• As shown in Fig. 8.30, each bias current is modeled by a current source tied
between the corresponding input and ground. Nominally, IB1 = IB2.

Input Bias Current
• Let us study the effect of the input currents on the noninverting amplifier. As
depicted in Fig. 8.31(a),
} IB1 has no effect on the circuit because it flows
through a voltage source. The current IB2, on the
other hand, flows through R1 and R2, introducing
an error.
} Using superposition and setting Vin to zero, we

arrive at the circuit in Fig. 8.31(b),

Input Bias Current
Ø Fig. 8.31(b), which can be transformed to that in Fig. 8.31(c) if IB2 and R2 are
replaced with their Thevenin equivalent.
Ø Interestingly, the circuit now resembles the inverting amplifier, thereby yielding;
(if the op amp gain is infinite.)

Input Bias Current
• The error due to the input bias current appears similar to the DC offset effects
illustrated in Fig. 8.27, corrupting the output. However, unlike DC offsets, this
phenomenon is not random; for a given bias current in the bipolar transistors used
in the op-amp, the base currents drawn from the inverting and noninverting inputs
remain approximately equal. We may therefore seek a method of canceling this
error.
• For example, we can insert a corrective voltage in series with the noninverting
input so as to drive Vout to zero (Fig. 8.32). Since Vcorr “sees” a noninverting amplifier,
we have

Input Bias Current

Input Bias Current
• Vcorr depends on IB2 and hence the current gain of transistors. Since β varies with
process and temperature, Vcorr cannot remain at a fixed value and must “track” β.
Vcorr can be also obtained by passing a base current through a resistor equal to
R1||R2, leading to the topology shown in Fig. 8.33.
} Here, if IB1 = IB2, then Vout = 0 for Vin = 0.
(take the finite gain of the op amp into
account and prove that Vout is still near
zero.)
} Observe that the input bias currents have
an identical effect on the inverting
amplifier. Thus, the correction technique
shown in Fig. 8.33 applies to this circuit as
well.
} In reality, asymmetries in the op-amp’s internal circuitry introduce a slight (random)
mismatch between IB1 and IB2. Problem 8.53 (in the book) studies the effect of this
mismatch on the output in Fig. 8.33.

Finite Input and Output Impedances
• Actual op-amps do not provide an infinite input impedance or a zero output
impedance—the latter often creating limitations in the design. We analyze the effect
of this nonideality on one circuit here.
• Consider the inverting amplifier shown in Fig. 8.42(a), assuming the op amp suffers
from an output resistance, Rout .
• How should the circuit be analyzed? We return to the model in Fig. 8.1 and place Rout
in series with the output voltage source [Fig. 8.42(b)].
• We must solve the circuit in the presence of Rout.

Finite Input and Output Impedances
• Recognizing that the current flowing through
Rout is equal to (−A0vX − vout )/Rout , we write
a KVL from vin to vout through R2 and R1:

Speed Limitations
• Finite Bandwidth: Our study of op-amps has thus far assumed no speed limitations.
In reality, the internal capacitances of the op-amp degrade the performance at high
frequencies.
• Another critical issue in the use of op amps is stability; if placed in the topologies
seen above, some op-amps may oscillate. Arising from the internal circuitry of the
op-amp, this phenomenon often requires internal or external stabilization, also
called “frequency compensation.”
• Slew Rate: In addition to bandwidth and stability problems, another interesting

effect is observed in op amps that relates to their response to large signals. The
slewing is a nonlinear phenomenon

Ch1: Differential and Multistage Amplifiers
q The differential-pair or differential-amplifier configuration is the most
widely used building block in analog integrated-circuit design. For
instance, the input stage of every op-amp is a differential amplifier. Also,
the BJT differential amplifier is the basis of a very-high-speed logic circuit
family, called emitter-coupled logic (ECL).
q Why differential?
q Basically, there are two reasons for using differential in preference to
single-ended amplifiers.
– First, differential circuits are much less sensitive to noise and interference than
single-ended circuits.
– The second reason for preferring differential amplifiers is that the differential
configuration enables us to bias the amplifier and to couple amplifier stages
together without the need for bypass and coupling capacitors such as those
utilized in the design of discrete-circuit amplifiers.

Ch1: The MOS Differential Pair
q Figure shows the basic MOS differential-pair
configuration.
q It consists of two matched transistors, Q1 and Q2, whose
sources are joined together and biased by a constant-
current source I.
q A constant-current source is usually implemented by a
MOSFET circuit of the type shown below.
q Assume that the current source is ideal and that it has infinite output
resistance.
q Although each drain is shown connected to the positive supply through a
resistance RD, in most cases active (current-source) loads are employed.
However, the essence of the differential-pair operation will be explained by
utilizing simple resistive loads.
q Whatever type of load is used, it is essential that the MOSFETs not enter
the triode region of operation.

Ch1: Operation with a Common-Mode Input Voltage
q To see how the differential pair works, consider first the
case when the two gate terminals are joined together
and connected to a voltage VCM , called the common-
mode voltage.

q Now, let us vary the value of the common-mode

voltage VCM. We see that, as long as Q1 and Q2
remain in the saturation region, the current I will
divide equally between Q1 and Q2 and the
voltages at the drains will not change. Thus the
differential pair does not respond to (i.e., it
rejects) common-mode input signals.

Exercise Solve the same exercise to find the

input common-mode range for the case in
which two drain resistances are increased by
a factor of 2.
Ans. -0.28V to 1.0 V

Solution b c d e

Ch1: Operation with a Differential Input Voltage
qNext we apply a difference or differential input voltage by grounding the gate of Q2 and
applying a signal vid to the gate of Q1, as shown in figure below.
q If vid > 0 vGS1 > vGS2 iD1 >iD2
and the difference output voltage (vD2 – vD1) > 0
qIf vid < 0 vGS1 < vGS2 iD1 < iD2

and the difference output voltage (vD2 – vD1) < 0
qFrom the above, we see that the differential pair

responds to difference-mode or differential
input signals by providing a corresponding
differential output signal between the two
drains.
q What is the value of vid that causes the entire bias current I to flow in one of the two
transistors?
qIn the positive direction, this happens when vGS1 reaches the value that corresponds to iD1 = I,
and vGS2 is reduced to a value equal to the threshold voltage Vt , at which point vS = –Vt. The
value of vGS1 can be found from

Ch1: Operation with a Differential Input Voltage

End of Lesson

EE302 - Electronics-II 2023 - 2024 Spring Prof. Dr. Olcay ÜZENGİ AKTÜRK

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ADNAN MENDERES UNIVERSITY

EE302-Electronics, Prof. Dr. Olcay ÜZENGİ AKTÜRK,2023-2024 Spring

• The voltage gain is denoted by A0:

EE302-Electronics, Prof. Dr. Olcay ÜZENGİ AKTÜRK,2023-2024 Spring

EE302-Electronics, Prof. Dr. Olcay ÜZENGİ AKTÜRK,2023-2024 Spring

EE302-Electronics, Prof. Dr. Olcay ÜZENGİ AKTÜRK,2023-2024 Spring

EE302-Electronics, . Prof. Dr. Olcay ÜZENGİ AKTÜRK,2023-2024 Spring

EE302-Electronics, Prof. Dr. Olcay ÜZENGİ AKTÜRK,20232024 Spring

EE302-Electronics, Prof. Dr. Olcay ÜZENGİ AKTÜRK,2023-2024 Spring

EE302-Electronics, Prof. Dr. Olcay ÜZENGİ AKTÜRK,2023-2024 Spring

EE302-Electronics, Prof. Dr. Olcay ÜZENGİ AKTÜRK,2023-2024 Spring

EE302-Electronics, . Prof. Dr. Olcay ÜZENGİ AKTÜRK,2023-2024 Spring

EE302-Electronics, Prof. Dr. Olcay ÜZENGİ AKTÜRK,2023-2024 Spring

EE302-Electronics, Prof. Dr. Olcay ÜZENGİ AKTÜRK,2023-2024 Spring

• In general, it is possible to employ complex impedances instead (Fig. 8.9). We can

• where the gain of the op-amp is assumed large. If Z1 or Z2 is a capacitor, two

EE302-Electronics, Prof. Dr. Olcay ÜZENGİ AKTÜRK,2023-2024 Spring

EE302-Electronics, Prof. Dr. Olcay ÜZENGİ AKTÜRK,2023-2024 Spring

EE302-Electronics, . Prof. Dr. Olcay ÜZENGİ AKTÜRK,2023-2024 Spring

EE302-Electronics, Prof. Dr. Olcay ÜZENGİ AKTÜRK,2023-2024 Spring

EE302-Electronics, Prof. Dr. Olcay ÜZENGİ AKTÜRK,2023-2024 Spring

EE302-Electronics, Prof. Dr. Olcay ÜZENGİ AKTÜRK,2023-2024 Spring

EE302-Electronics, Prof. Dr. Olcay ÜZENGİ AKTÜRK,2023-2024 Spring

• For example, in audio recording, for example, a number of microphones may

• For example, in “noise cancelling” headphones, the environmental noise is applied

EE302-Electronics, Prof. Dr. Olcay ÜZENGİ AKTÜRK,2023-2024 Spring

EE302-Electronics, Prof. Dr. Olcay ÜZENGİ AKTÜRK,2023-2024 Spring

• It is possible to place a diode around an op amp to form a “precision rectifier,” i.e., a

EE302-Electronics, Prof. Dr. Olcay ÜZENGİ AKTÜRK,2023-2024 Spring

EE302-Electronics, Prof. Dr. Olcay ÜZENGİ AKTÜRK,2023-2024 Spring

Ø What happens if Vin becomes negative?

} Illustrated in Fig. 8.25, such a circuit requires that M1

EE302-Electronics, Prof. Dr. Olcay ÜZENGİ AKTÜRK,2023-2024 Spring

EE302-Electronics, Prof. Dr. Olcay ÜZENGİ AKTÜRK,2023-2024 Spring

EE302-Electronics, Prof. Dr. Olcay ÜZENGİ AKTÜRK,2023-2024 Spring

EE302-Electronics, Prof. Dr. Olcay ÜZENGİ AKTÜRK,2023-2024 Spring

EE302-Electronics, Prof. Dr. Olcay ÜZENGİ AKTÜRK,2023-2024 Spring

EE302-Electronics, Prof. Dr. Olcay ÜZENGİ AKTÜRK,2023-2024 Spring

} Using superposition and setting Vin to zero, we

EE302-Electronics, Prof. Dr. Olcay ÜZENGİ AKTÜRK,2023-2024 Spring

(if the op amp gain is infinite.)

EE302-Electronics, Prof. Dr. Olcay ÜZENGİ AKTÜRK,2023-2024 Spring

EE302-Electronics, Prof. Dr. Olcay ÜZENGİ AKTÜRK,2023-2024 Spring

EE302-Electronics, Prof. Dr. Olcay ÜZENGİ AKTÜRK,2023-2024 Spring

EE302-Electronics, . Prof. Dr. Olcay ÜZENGİ AKTÜRK,2023-2024 Spring

• We must solve the circuit in the presence of Rout.

EE302-Electronics, Prof. Dr. Olcay ÜZENGİ AKTÜRK,2023-2024 Spring

EE302-Electronics, . Prof. Dr. Olcay ÜZENGİ AKTÜRK,2023-2024 Spring

• Slew Rate: In addition to bandwidth and stability problems, another interesting

EE302-Electronics, Prof. Dr. Olcay ÜZENGİ AKTÜRK,2023-2024 Spring

EE302-Electronics, Prof. Dr. Olcay ÜZENGİ AKTÜRK,2023-2024 Spring

EE302-Electronics, Prof. Dr. Olcay ÜZENGİ AKTÜRK,2023-2024 Spring

EE302-Electronics, Prof. Dr. Olcay ÜZENGİ AKTÜRK,2023-2024 Spring

q Now, let us vary the value of the common-mode

EE302-Electronics, Prof. Dr. Olcay ÜZENGİ AKTÜRK,2023-2024 Spring

Exercise Solve the same exercise to find the

EE302-Electronics, Prof. Dr. Olcay ÜZENGİ AKTÜRK,2023-2024 Spring

EE302-Electronics, Prof. Dr. Olcay ÜZENGİ AKTÜRK,2023-2024 Spring

qIf vid < 0 vGS1 < vGS2 iD1 < iD2

qFrom the above, we see that the differential pair

EE302-Electronics, Prof. Dr. Olcay ÜZENGİ AKTÜRK,2023-2024 Spring

EE302-Electronics, Prof. Dr. Olcay ÜZENGİ AKTÜRK,2023-2024 Spring

EE302-Electronics, Prof. Dr. Olcay ÜZENGİ AKTÜRK,2023-2024 Spring