SENSORS and

SIGNAL PROCESSING

Lecture notes
Ha Le Nhu Ngoc Thanh, Ph.D.
 Lecture 6-8:
Resistive sensors
Main contents
1. Potentiometers
2. Strain gages
3. Resistive Temperature Detectors
4. Thermistors
5. Magneto resistors
6. Other characteristic
7. Primary sensors

Mechatronics Engineering – Sensors and Actuators 2 © Ha Le Nhu Ngoc Thanh, Ph.D.

 POTENTIOMETERS
❖ This chapter discusses sensors based on a variation in resistance.

❖ A potentiometer is a resistive device with a linear or rotary sliding contact.

Where 𝜌 is the resistivity, 𝐴 is the cross section, 𝑙 is the length,

𝑥 is the distance traveled from the bottom terminal, and 𝛼 a
is the corresponding length fraction.

Mechatronics Engineering – Sensors and Actuators 3 © Ha Le Nhu Ngoc Thanh, Ph.D.

 POTENTIOMETERS*
- A constant voltage 𝑣𝑟𝑒𝑓 is applied across the coil (or film) using an external dc voltage supply.
- The output signal 𝑣𝑜 of the transducer is the DC voltage between the movable contact (wiper arm)
sliding on the coil and the reference-voltage terminal of the coil

L
L

Given :
L, vref , x , find v0 ?

Mechatronics Engineering – Sensors and Actuators 4 © Ha Le Nhu Ngoc Thanh, Ph.D.

 POTENTIOMETERS*
Practical potentiometer configurations for measuring: (a) Rectilinear motions. (b) Angular motions

Mechatronics Engineering – Sensors and Actuators 5 © Ha Le Nhu Ngoc Thanh, Ph.D.

 POTENTIOMETERS*
Example:
Given the circuit as follow figure, with 𝑅𝑐 is the total
resistance of the potentiometer coil. Let find 𝑣0 based
𝑣𝑟𝑒𝑓 , 𝑅𝐿 , 𝑅𝐶 , 𝜃, 𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥
Solve:

OB

A rotatory potentiometer with a resistive load

Mechatronics Engineering – Sensors and Actuators 6 © Ha Le Nhu Ngoc Thanh, Ph.D.

 POTENTIOMETERS
Example:
Given the circuit as follow figure, Vs=3V, R1=100[Ohm], R2=200[Ohm], RL=200[Ohm].
Find Vout with and without RL?
Solve:

R2 200
Without RL : Vout V1 3 2(volt )
R1 R2 200 100
R2L
With RL : Vout V1, where R2L R2 || RL
R1 R2L
R2RL 200 200
R2L 100
R2 RL 200 200
100
Vout 3 1.5(volt )
100 100

Mechatronics Engineering – Sensors and Actuators 7 © Ha Le Nhu Ngoc Thanh, Ph.D.

 POTENTIOMETERS
Loading effect problem:
In the practical application of potentiometers to electrical computer circuits, loading errors are
invariably present.

Add Load

Vm 1 Vm 1

(Loading effect)
R2 200
Vm 1 V1 3 2(volt ) R2m 100
R1 R2 200 100 Vm 1
R1 R2m
V1
100 100
3 1.5(volt )
Problem: Compute the maximum
loading effect and how to reduce it?
Mechatronics Engineering – Sensors and Actuators 8 © Ha Le Nhu Ngoc Thanh, Ph.D.
 POTENTIOMETERS
Solve loading effect problem
Assume potentiometer having a total resistance RT. The linear or
rotary movement from the device to be measured turns or slides
the wiper, vm is the open circuit voltage, and Rm is the output
resistance
a) Compute vm , b) compute max of relative loading error, max ?
Solution :
a ) compute vm
Vr vm vm vm 1 1 1 1 1 RT
Vr vm
1 RT RT Rm 1 RT RT Rm 1 RT
1 1 RT Rm 1 RT RT RT Rm
Vr
1 RT 1 RT RT Rm RT Rm
1 Rm 1 RT Rm
Vr vm
Rm
k Rm RT k
vm Vr (1)
k 1
Mechatronics Engineering – Sensors and Actuators 9 © Ha Le Nhu Ngoc Thanh, Ph.D.
 POTENTIOMETERS
Solve loading effect problem
b) Compute max of relative loading error
vm v0 v0 vm
the relative loading error is computed by: =
v0 v0
Vr
where v0 is the ideal output without Rm : v0 RT Vr (2)
RT 1 RT
k
Vr Vr 1
(1),(2) v0 vm k 2
, how to find max ?
v0 Vr k 1
To compute maximum value of we can consider:
1 k 2 d k 1 2 1
Let : 1 max min y Method 2 :
d
0 2
=0
2
1 max k 1

y 0 12
0.25 Rm
max , k to reduce , Rm , with constant Load, can not increase Rm
k 0.25 RT
How to reduce 𝜀, without increase Rm
Mechatronics Engineering – Sensors and Actuators 10 © Ha Le Nhu Ngoc Thanh, Ph.D.
 POTENTIOMETERS
- A simple way to reduce the loading error without increasing Rm is to place a resistor equal to Rm on
the top side of the potentiometer, as shown in Figure.
- The measured voltage is:

- The added resistor forces 𝑣𝑚 = 𝑉𝑟 /2 at the central position (𝛼 = 0.5) thus achieving zero error at that
point (Student prove with above Figure the loading error becomes zero)

- By using two different resistors as below Figure, we can obtain zero error at any desired point

Mechatronics Engineering – Sensors and Actuators 11 © Ha Le Nhu Ngoc Thanh, Ph.D.

 POTENTIOMETERS
Example

Solution

(Student prove)

15%
V 10%
1 4 RT 15%

Mechatronics Engineering – Sensors and Actuators 13 © Ha Le Nhu Ngoc Thanh, Ph.D.

 POTENTIOMETERS
Example
The The´venin equivalent circuit seen by the sensor has output voltage V0 and resistance R0, resistive
sensor is R, let find the maximum power dissipated by sensor?
V0
Solution: The current through the circuit is: i
R R0
V0
Accordingly, the voltage acoss the load is: V0 iR R
R R0
2
V0
The power absorbed by the load is: p iV0 R
R R0
2
dp V02 R R0 2V02R R R0
For maximum power, we consider: 0
dR 4
R R0
2
V0 V02
V02 R 2
V02R02 0 max p1 V02R2 V02R02 R0 R pmax R0
2R0 4R0

Mechatronics Engineering – Sensors and Actuators 14 © Ha Le Nhu Ngoc Thanh, Ph.D.

 POTENTIOMETERS*
Amplifier: Op Amp (Operational Amplifier):
- An amplifier is an electronic device that increases the voltage, current, or power of a signal.
- Many types of sensors produce weak signals that have to be upgraded before they could be fed
into a monitoring system, data processor, controller, or data logger

- Op-amps

Mechatronics Engineering – Sensors and Actuators 15 © Ha Le Nhu Ngoc Thanh, Ph.D.

 POTENTIOMETERS*
Amplifier
- Op-amps widely used as the basic building blocks in producing other types of amplifiers

Zo , Zi

vout K vip vin Kvi

Mechatronics Engineering – Sensors and Actuators 16 © Ha Le Nhu Ngoc Thanh, Ph.D.

 POTENTIOMETERS*
Amplifier

Example:
Ideal Op - Amp Properties :
+ Infinite open-loop differential gain, K v1 v2
+ Infinite input impedance Zi i1 i2
+ Zero output impedance Zo 0

Mechatronics Engineering – Sensors and Actuators 18 © Ha Le Nhu Ngoc Thanh, Ph.D.

 POTENTIOMETERS*
Op Amp configuration and Golden rule

Ex.
(Negative feedback)

Mechatronics Engineering – Sensors and Actuators 19 © Ha Le Nhu Ngoc Thanh, Ph.D.

 POTENTIOMETERS*
Op Amp configuration and Golden rule

Example: remove loading effect of the second rule

Mechatronics Engineering – Sensors and Actuators 20 © Ha Le Nhu Ngoc Thanh, Ph.D.

 POTENTIOMETERS*
Op Amp configuration and Golden rule

Example:

Mechatronics Engineering – Sensors and Actuators 21 © Ha Le Nhu Ngoc Thanh, Ph.D.

 POTENTIOMETERS*
Example: Solution:

Find Vout?

Mechatronics Engineering – Sensors and Actuators 22 © Ha Le Nhu Ngoc Thanh, Ph.D.

 POTENTIOMETERS*
Example: Solution:

Find Vout?

Mechatronics Engineering – Sensors and Actuators 23 © Ha Le Nhu Ngoc Thanh, Ph.D.

 POTENTIOMETERS*
Remind:

Mechatronics Engineering – Sensors and Actuators 24 © Ha Le Nhu Ngoc Thanh, Ph.D.

 POTENTIOMETERS*
Example

Sensor

Inverting amplified circuit

Mechatronics Engineering – Sensors and Actuators 25 © Ha Le Nhu Ngoc Thanh, Ph.D.

 POTENTIOMETERS
Example

(Ohm)
Rmax
R
Rmin
Xmin X Xmax (mm)
Mechatronics Engineering – Sensors and Actuators 26 © Ha Le Nhu Ngoc Thanh, Ph.D.
 POTENTIOMETERS
Example
Find Vout?
Rf

Rn Kirchhoff s law:
V V1 Vout V1
0
Rn Rf R R

V1 V V V V Vout
Rn Rf
Rf
V0 V V V V k 1 k
Rn
k
Rf
in linear region V0 V k 1 k , where k
Assuming Opamp: V1 V2 Rn
ideal opamp
R
V1 V2 V V, 0 1
R

Mechatronics Engineering – Sensors and Actuators 27 © Ha Le Nhu Ngoc Thanh, Ph.D.

 POTENTIOMETERS
Convert potentiometer to ADC
The digital output of potentiometer will be given by:
iAD 0

Compute ADC: D=?

Vr 2n 1
vm n vm
vm ADC 2 1
Vr
ADC 2n 1

Mechatronics Engineering – Sensors and Actuators 29 © Ha Le Nhu Ngoc Thanh, Ph.D.

 STRAIN GAGE (GAUGE)
- Strain gauges is electrical sensor used to measure force.

- Length change → Resistance change

- When a force F is applied to a wire, within the elastic limit ➔

Length wire change

F dl
E E
A l
dl
- Where 𝜎 is the mechanical stress (sức căng), 𝜺 is the strain (độ
biến dạng), unit “µε” (microstrain), E is the Young’s factor (specific
E
for each material and temperature-dependent)

Mechatronics Engineering – Sensors and Actuators 30 © Ha Le Nhu Ngoc Thanh, Ph.D.

 STRAIN GAGE (GAUGE)*
- Strain gauges shape as picture
- If there is a small variations, the resistance of the metallic wire
changes dR, thus

dR dl
G G
R0 l
where l is length of resistance, G gage factor
and R 0 is the resistance when there is no applied stress
is strain factor, with unit (microstrain)

dR
R R0 dR R0 1
R0
dR
R R0 1 x , where x G
R0
where l is length of resistance, G gage factor

Mechatronics Engineering – Sensors and Actuators 31 © Ha Le Nhu Ngoc Thanh, Ph.D.

 STRAIN GAGE (GAUGE)*
Operational principle (remind)
- The shape of workpiece is changed (expansion or
compression) due to external loading, so the resistance
of strain gauge also changes.
- This change in resistance can be detected by a using a
Wheatstone’s resistance bridge.

How to find out

value of V = ?

Mechatronics Engineering – Sensors and Actuators 32 © Ha Le Nhu Ngoc Thanh, Ph.D.

 STRAIN GAGE (GAUGE)*
Categories of strain gage

Mechatronics Engineering – Sensors and Actuators 33 © Ha Le Nhu Ngoc Thanh, Ph.D.

 STRAIN GAGE (GAUGE)
Example: Ramon P-A, J.G. Webster, “sensor and signal conditioning,” 2nd John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Solution:

0.52
%increase .100% 0.1486% of the initial resistance
350
Mechatronics Engineering – Sensors and Actuators 34 © Ha Le Nhu Ngoc Thanh, Ph.D.
 STRAIN GAGE (GAUGE)*
Operational principle (remind)
- The shape of workpiece is changed (expansion or
compression) due to external loading, so the resistance
R1 R2
of strain gage also changes.
- This change in resistance can be detected by a using a
A B
Wheatstone’s resistance bridge. Vref
R4
- What is condition of 𝑅𝑥 , 𝑅1 ,𝑅2 and 𝑅3 to ensure balance R3
of the Wheatstone’s bridge?

Wheatston's bridge balance: VA VB 0

Vref Vref
R4 R3
R1 R4 R2 R3
R4 R3 0

R1R3 R2R4
R1 R2

Mechatronics Engineering – Sensors and Actuators 35 © Ha Le Nhu Ngoc Thanh, Ph.D.

 STRAIN GAGE (GAUGE)*
Operational principle (remind)
- Once a load applies to strain gage R3 will change

R4 R3
R3 change VAB 0
R1 R2 A B
Base on VAB we can determine the value of load/force,..

- Op Amp can be used to amplify the output

Mechatronics Engineering – Sensors and Actuators 36 © Ha Le Nhu Ngoc Thanh, Ph.D.

 STRAIN GAGE (GAUGE)*
Sensitivity and Linearity
- Compute the value of v0 , and sensitivity S0?
If the Wheatstone bridge is balanced when x 0, which is the usual situation
R1 R2
let k
R4 R0
The nonlinear voltage difference v0 is obtained as follow,
R3 R4
kx
v0 Vr Vr
R2 R3 R1 R4 k 1 k 1 x
+ Thus, the output voltage is linearity to the changes
kx
in R 3 only when x k 1, v0 Vr 2
k 1
+ The sensitivity depends on x, k and Vr
dv0 k 1 k 1 x k 1x 1 if x k 1 linear approximation Vr k
S0 Vr k 2 2
Vr k 2
S0 2
dx k 1 k 1 x k 1 x k 1
Mechatronics Engineering – Sensors and Actuators 37 © Ha Le Nhu Ngoc Thanh, Ph.D.
 STRAIN GAGE (GAUGE)*
Applications:
• 1. Weighing systems in manufacturing environments (Load cell)

M ( P = Mg )

Mechatronics Engineering – Sensors and Actuators 40 © Ha Le Nhu Ngoc Thanh, Ph.D.

 STRAIN GAGE (GAUGE)*
Applications:
2. Measuring the stress of turbine blades 3. Airplane application: measure stresses along
load paths for wing deflection
strain gage

Strain gauges are widely used in experimental stress analysis and diagnosis on machines and failure analysis.
They are basically used for multi-axial stress fatigue testing, residual stress and vibration measurement, torque
measurement, bending and deflection measurement, compression and tension measurement and strain
measurement

Mechatronics Engineering – Sensors and Actuators 41 © Ha Le Nhu Ngoc Thanh, Ph.D.

 STRAIN GAGE (GAUGE)*
Applications:
4. Application of strain gauge to test failure

In civil engineering application, strain gauges are used to install on structural components in a bridge or
building to measure stress and compare them to analytical models and stress calculations and check failure

Mechatronics Engineering – Sensors and Actuators 42 © Ha Le Nhu Ngoc Thanh, Ph.D.

 STRAIN GAGE (GAUGE)*
Applications:
5. heavy stress when heavy trains pass over them at high speeds. 6. stresses of crashing through waves

It’s not just the train that must be checked, but the rail Boat and ship require testing as well to ensure that they
tracks themselves because they are subjected to heavy can handle the stresses of crashing through waves.
stress when heavy trains pass over them at high Propellers are also tested stress, strain, and torque on drive
speeds. shafts and other rotating parts in the propulsion system.

Mechatronics Engineering – Sensors and Actuators 43 © Ha Le Nhu Ngoc Thanh, Ph.D.

 RESISTIVE TEMPERATURE DETECTORS (RTDs)*
Definitions
- An RTD (resistance temperature detector) is a temperature detector based upon a variation in
electric resistance.
- The commonest metal is platinum material, we called sensor is Platinum Resistance Thermometer
(PRT).

Mechatronics Engineering – Sensors and Actuators 44 © Ha Le Nhu Ngoc Thanh, Ph.D.

 RESISTIVE TEMPERATURE DETECTORS (RTDs)*
Definitions

Mechatronics Engineering – Sensors and Actuators 45 © Ha Le Nhu Ngoc Thanh, Ph.D.

 RESISTIVE TEMPERATURE DETECTORS (RTDs)*
Definitions

The relationship between resistance R and temperature T

can be expressed by a polynomial equation:

RT R0 1 A(T T0 )
where R 0 is resistance at T0 (usually either 0oC, 20oC, 25oC)
A is positive temperature coefficients (material-dependent)

Mechatronics Engineering – Sensors and Actuators 46 © Ha Le Nhu Ngoc Thanh, Ph.D.

 RESISTIVE TEMPERATURE DETECTORS (RTDs)*
Definitions
The temperature coefficient for all pure
metals is of the order of 0.003–0.007 Ω⋅Ω-
1⋅°C-1. Temperature coefficients A for
common metals are listed in Table 2.2 .

Mechatronics Engineering – Sensors and Actuators 47 © Ha Le Nhu Ngoc Thanh, Ph.D.

 RESISTIVE TEMPERATURE DETECTORS (RTDs)*
RTD with platinum material

at T0 0oC , R0 100
at T0 100oC , R0 138.5
From equation : RT R0 1 T T0
138.5 100
0.003851
100 100
platinum RTD equation : RT R0 1 T , 0.003851, R0 100

Mechatronics Engineering – Sensors and Actuators 48 © Ha Le Nhu Ngoc Thanh, Ph.D.

 RESISTIVE TEMPERATURE DETECTORS (RTDs)*
Example of RTD sensors
A PT100 RTD Sensor measures 100Ω at 0[°C] and 139.1Ω at 100[°C]. Calculate its temperature coefficient,
Calculate the resistance at 40[°C], and find the temperature when the resistance is 116Ω,
Solve:

Mechatronics Engineering – Sensors and Actuators 49 © Ha Le Nhu Ngoc Thanh, Ph.D.

 RESISTIVE TEMPERATURE DETECTORS (RTDs)
Example 2 of RTD sensors

Mechatronics Engineering – Sensors and Actuators 50 © Ha Le Nhu Ngoc Thanh, Ph.D.

 THERMISTOR (Thermoresistive semiconductor)*
Thermistor is resistive temperature sensor based on semiconductor
• The main advantage of thermistors: high sensitivity.

(NTC) (PTC)
Mechatronics Engineering – Sensors and Actuators 55 © Ha Le Nhu Ngoc Thanh, Ph.D.
 THERMISTOR*
NTC is more popular than PTC, its computation
Thermistor = thermal + resistor.
Relationship between R and T:
1 1
T T25
Resistance of thermistor: RT R25e
RT : resistance at T[0K] temperature (in Kelvin)
R25 : resistance at 250C temperature (or R25 R0 )
T25 273.15 25 298 0K (or T0 )
is characteristic temperature coefficient of the material

Relative sensitivity:
T2

Mechatronics Engineering – Sensors and Actuators 56 © Ha Le Nhu Ngoc Thanh, Ph.D.

 THERMISTOR*
Example:

1 1
T T0
From equation: RT R0e , where T0 25C , R0 100k
1 T 1 T0 T
R0e Ae
1 T 1 T0
R0e 1 T 1 T0 T T0
A T
R0e R0e
e
T0
A R0e

Mechatronics Engineering – Sensors and Actuators 57 © Ha Le Nhu Ngoc Thanh, Ph.D.

 THERMISTOR
Compute 𝜷:

1 1
T T0
ln RT R0
From : RT R0e , R0 R25o C
1 1
T T0

Mechatronics Engineering – Sensors and Actuators 58 © Ha Le Nhu Ngoc Thanh, Ph.D.

 THERMISTOR
Using the thermistors
The NTC thermistor can be modeled by two parameters and the
equation:
1T 1 T0 1T 1 T0
RT R0e R0 f (T ), where f (T ) e
where the temperature are in kelvins. Find V0 ?

R Vr
v0 Vr
RT R 1 RT R
RT R0 R0
f (T ) sf (T ), where s
R R R How to get a linear value of v0 ?
Vr
v0 (T ) v0 (T ) Vr .F (T ), If the expectation of v0 (T ) is linear
1 sf (T )
F (T ) should be linear
1
where F (T ) But F (T ) is depends on particular metarial
1 sf (T )
and on s
Mechatronics Engineering – Sensors and Actuators 60 © Ha Le Nhu Ngoc Thanh, Ph.D.
 THERMISTOR
Using the thermistors
For example: the material whose curves
are shown in Figure.
+ from 100C - 500C: the best linearity is
obtained for s=1.5.

+ from 900C - 1000C: the best linearity is

obtained for s=20.

Mechatronics Engineering – Sensors and Actuators 61 © Ha Le Nhu Ngoc Thanh, Ph.D.

 DIFFERENCE MEASUREMENT AND COMPENSATION*
Problem:
Using strain/temperature sensor to measure a difference value
(sensor.1) (sensor.4)
(or temperature 1) (or temperature sensor.1)

(or temperature sensor.2)

(sensor.2) (sensor.3)

Vr Vr Vr

Mechatronics Engineering – Sensors and Actuators 62 © Ha Le Nhu Ngoc Thanh, Ph.D.

 DIFFERENCE MEASUREMENT AND COMPENSATION*
Problem:
• We can use a compensating gauge that experiences resistance change caused only by the
temperature variation the same as that of the specimen.

2 methods for establish an electrical circuit

Mechatronics Engineering – Sensors and Actuators 63 © Ha Le Nhu Ngoc Thanh, Ph.D.

 HCMUTE Univ. - FME
https://fme.hcmute.edu.vn/

Lecture notes info

Sensors and Signal Processing
Fall Semester, 2023
------------------------------------------------

Copy right © Ha Le Nhu Ngoc Thanh, Ph.D.

Email: thanh.hlnn@hcmute.edu.vn
Sites: https://sites.google.com/view/halenhungocthanh/courses?authuser=0

Mechatronics Engineering – Sensors and Actuators 84 © Ha Le Nhu Ngoc Thanh, Ph.D.