Introduction to Synthetic Aperture

Radar: Concepts and Practice E. David

Jansing
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About the Author

E. David Jansing, Ph.D., is a chief engineer at the Johns Hopkins

University Applied Physics Laboratory and a lecturer in the Johns
Hopkins University Whiting School of Engineering’s Engineering for
Professionals program. He has been studying synthetic aperture
radar for more than 20 years and has been teaching a graduate-level
course on SAR for nearly 10 years. Dr. Jansing has more than 20
years’ experience in remote sensing, especially in imaging,
exploitation, analysis, and data collection/planning for SAR, hyper-
spectral imaging, and infrared imaging. Machine learning,
particularly deep learning, has been the focus of his exploitation
efforts and he has a patent for a novel maritime vessel detection
using synthetic aperture radar. A graduate of the University of
Louisville, Dr. Jansing has spent time working the research,
development, and operational sides of military, intelligence, and
commercial remote sensing. He currently lives in Cathedral City, CA.
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 Contents

Preface
Acknowledgments

1 Introduction to Synthetic Aperture Radar

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Origins of SAR
1.3 Examples of Synthetic Aperture Radar Systems
1.3.1 Magellan
1.3.2 TerraSAR-X
1.3.3 ImSAR
1.3.4 ICEYE
1.3.5 Capella Space Systems
1.4 Timing and Geometry
1.4.1 Imaging Modes
1.4.2 Geometry
1.4.3 Timing
1.5 The Synthetic Aperture

2 Ranging
2.1 Range via Echoing
2.2 The Linear Frequency-Modulated Chirp
2.3 Detecting the Received LFM Chirps
2.3.1 Quadrature Demodulation
2.3.2 Dechirping

3 Imaging
 3.1 Mathematical Model
3.1.1 The Doppler Effect
3.1.2 Pulse Repetition Frequency and Doppler Chirp Rate
3.1.3 Synthetic Aperture and Exposure Time
3.1.4 Azimuth Resolution
3.2 Simulated Point Scatterers Using Quadrature Demodulation
3.3 Simulated Point Scatterers Using Dechirp

4 Image Formation
4.1 The Image Formation Chain
4.2 Motion Compensation
4.3 Processing Tools
4.3.1 Fourier Transforms
4.3.2 Interpolation

5 Image Formation Algorithms for Quadrature

Demodulated Data
5.1 Range-Doppler Algorithm
5.1.1 Algorithm Overview
5.1.2 Raw Radar Data
5.1.3 Step 1: Range Compression
5.1.4 Step 2: Azimuth FFT
5.1.5 Step 3: Range Cell Migration Compensation
5.1.6 Step 4: Azimuth Compression
5.1.7 Step 5: Azimuth IFFT
5.2 Omega-K or Range Migration Algorithm
5.3 Quadrature Demodulation versus Dechirp

6 Image Formation Algorithms for Dechirped Data

6.1 Polar Formatting
6.1.1 Steps 1 and 2: Create Polar Grid and Project Polar-to-
Cartesian
6.1.2 Step 3: Define Inscribed or Circumscribed Grid
6.1.3 Steps 4 and 5: Interpolate and 2D FFT
 6.2 The Backprojection Algorithm
6.2.1 Computer-Aided Tomography
6.2.2 Synthetic Aperture Radar Tomographic Model
6.2.3 Reconstruction Using the Backprojection Algorithm

7 Autofocus
7.1 Sources of Phase Error
7.1.1 Phase Error within a Pulse
7.1.2 Phase Error across the Aperture
7.2 Map Drift
7.3 Phase Gradient Autofocus
7.3.1 Center Shift at Each Range Bin
7.3.2 Windowing
7.3.3 Fourier Transform to Range-Compressed Domain
7.3.4 Phase Error Estimation Using the Maximum Likelihood
Estimator
7.3.5 Removal of Phase Error

8 Image Quality
8.1 Speckle
8.2 Multilook
8.2.1 Subaperturing
8.2.2 Multilook for Speckle Reduction
8.3 Other Speckle Reduction Techniques
8.4 Aperture Weighting
8.5 Image Quality Metrics

9 Linear Frequency-Modulated Continuous Wave Systems

9.1 LFMCW Systems
9.2 LFMCW Transmitter-Receiver Model
9.3 LFMCW Mathematical Model
9.4 Motion Compensation for LFMCW

10 Remote Sensing with Synthetic Aperture Radar

 10.1 Polarimetry
10.2 Ocean Remote Sensing
10.2.1 Wakes
10.2.2 Ice Monitoring
10.2.3 Oil Spills
10.3 Deep Learning

11 Interferometry
11.1 The Basics
11.2 Terrain Estimation
11.3 Coherent Change Detection
11.4 Earthquakes

12 Moving Objects in Synthetic Aperture Radar

12.1 Mathematical Model
12.2 Challenges with Moving Object Estimation and Single-
Channel SAR
12.3 Other Types of Moving Objects

Acronyms

Variables

Glossary

Index
 Preface

If you are new to synthetic aperture radar (SAR), you should be

warned: SAR is just complicated. There is no other way to put it. A
friend of mine put it this way: “SAR theory is fractured.” And it is.
There is little to no standardization in vocabulary, variables, or
techniques.
There are so many different ways to look at SAR: systems
engineering, radar engineering, signal processing, algorithm
development, automatic target recognition, statistical processing. I
doubt there is a text that sufficiently covers all of these areas
simultaneously and certainly this book doesn’t try. This book
approaches SAR from a signal processing perspective, as many SAR
books do. However, this book is unique in the sense that it explicitly
commingles imaging geometries and breaks out the mathematical
models by demodulation type (quadrature demodulation versus
dechirp processing). It is the demodulation type that typically drives
image formation processing, with the image geometry (such as
stripmap versus spotlight) playing a secondary role (or no role at all,
in some cases). (A notable exception to this is wide-aperture SAR,
where the need to fully compensate range cell migration for image
formation is likely the driving factor.)
This book evolved from years of working in and teaching
synthetic aperture radar. There are several excellent texts that
examine SAR from a specific vantage point, often geometry or
system driven. When teaching, it’s difficult to ask students to
purchase multiple books for a single course. For the practitioner, it is
more convenient to have a single reference for an overview, rather
than have five or six SAR theory books on your shelf. This work pulls
together all of the materials needed for a graduate-level course in
synthetic aperture radar, and presents the material in a fashion that
will be useful for the seasoned practitioner as well.
The reader should come to this topic with a solid background in
digital signal processing. If terms such as Nyquist sampling rates,
Fast Fourier Transforms, and windowing are foreign to you, you
might consider building a foundation in signal processing first before
tackling this topic. The reader should also have at least a basic
understanding of radar before approaching this topic. While there is
some discussion of the radar range equation and antenna beam
patterns, this work idealizes most of the radar engineering portion of
SAR. It is assumed that the power levels, analog-to-digital
conversion, and local oscillators are perfect (or at least very well
behaved). There are plenty of sources of error, but for an
introductory text, it seemed like overkill to identify them all.
The reader should approach this book in the order it was written,
which is from foundation to application. For the novice, the first few
chapters that cover the geometric and signal models are essential
and cannot be skimmed. Full understanding of later chapters,
including image formation, SAR applications, and image quality
techniques, requires that mathematical foundation. Novices must
read and understand the first four chapters before moving to more
advanced topics. Practitioners looking for an easy reference to
advanced topics (autofocus, for example) are welcome to skip
ahead, realizing that the lack of standardization within the SAR
communities may cause some confusion. A variables list and
glossary are included at the end of the book for easy reference. A
conscious effort was made to standardize variables within the text
itself, so the variables presented here may not match the variables
as they were originally published in their respective journal or
conference articles, or as they appear in other texts.
Finally, there was a conscious decision made to not include full
blocks of code in this book. Programming languages evolve rapidly
and it isn’t clear to anyone what development language will be in
popular use in 10 years’ time. At the time of this writing, MATLAB
from MathWorks and open-source Python with data analysis
packages are two popular development and data analysis languages
in use among SAR practitioners. R, however, is gaining traction as a
well-rounded statistical and algorithm platform. Including all of these
choices in entire blocks of code is a daunting (and perhaps
impossible) task. So, if there is any code at all, it is small snippets of
code in MATLAB and Python that hint to implementation of specific
steps (such as the proper way to instantiate a Fast Fourier
Transform), not entire blocks of code that accomplish a specific
algorithmic task, such as the Polar Formatting Algorithm (PFA). It is
my considered opinion, having wrestled with SAR and taught SAR to
others for decades, that the best way to understand a specific
concept in SAR is to code it up yourself. There are open-source
toolboxes available for various development language flavors,
including MATLAB and Python. Notable contributions in this area are
the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency’s MATLAB SAR Toolbox1
and Python SAR Toolbox, SARPy,2 and RITSAR,3 a Python tool set
developed by a student from the Rochester Institute of Technology.
If algorithm development is not your strong suit, you might consider
one of these toolboxes for implementation and understanding of
various topics covered in this book.

E. David Jansing, Ph.D.

1 https://github.com/ngageoint/MATLAB_SAR
2 https://github.com/ngageoint/sarpy
3 https://github.com/dm6718/RITSAR
 Acknowledgments

It all started with a single image. While working on my dissertation

at the University of Louisville, my advisor and friend Dr. Darrell
Chenoweth handed me a single synthetic aperture radar to study.
That image and research led me to Naval Air Weapons Station, China
Lake (NAWS/China Lake), in Ridgecrest, CA, where I spent a
fascinating and educational summer in 1996 studying SAR and
various ways to use it. Mr. John Knecht served as my mentor there
and I’m extremely grateful to him and Dr. Chenoweth for my
introduction to the world of SAR.
My introduction to the elegant and challenging details of SAR
processing came from the late Dr. Stuart Melzer while I worked at
The Aerospace Corporation. Stu was a patient teacher who, despite
my struggles in understanding, took his time to show me the way.
His influence over me in this topic was powerful and I will be forever
in his debt. I’m also thankful for the interactions and technical
discussions I had with my Aerospace colleagues, particularly in my
development of short courses in SAR. The genesis of this material
started there.
My work in SAR was further refined when I moved to the Johns
Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory. It was there that I
was invited to produce a full-semester, graduate-level course in the
Johns Hopkins University Engineering for Professionals program,
which is part of the Whiting School of Engineering. I am eternally
grateful to Dr. Brian Jennison, the chair of the Electrical and
Computer Engineering Department where the SAR course lives, for
his gentle and patient encouragement in the development of the
course and this text. I’m thankful to the Janney 2.0 program within
the Applied Physics Laboratory, which partially funded the writing of
this book, giving me a good deal of freedom to work on this text
during my work day. Their financial contribution to this book cannot
be understated; without it, I fear that the text would never have
been written.
I am also extremely grateful to my APL colleagues Mr. Chad
Hawes, Mr. Howard Schoeberlein, Dr. Chung-Fu Chang, Dr. Mark
Baker, Mr. Chris Watkins, Dr. Rick Chapman, Dr. Steve Scorpio, Dr.
Greg Avicola, Dr. Michael Nord, Dr. Eric Ericson, Dr. David Porter, Mr.
Eric Larsen, Dr. Chris Gifford, Dr. Rich Gasparovich, Dr. Christopher
Boswell, and Dr. Bob Henrick for their time, patience, and
understanding in helping me refine my knowledge of SAR through
discussion and application. I’m the sort of person who relishes
discussion and conversation among a large number of folks. It is, in
essence, how I learn. It typically involves a whiteboard (in the office)
and sometimes a bourbon (outside the office). Thanks to all of you
for providing such a supportive and educational working
environment. And thanks to my previous and current supervisors,
Ms. Cyndi Utterback and Ms. Anna Slowikowski. Their
encouragement and support played a significant role in the creation
of this book.
And to my editor, Ms. Lara Zoble at McGraw Hill, thank you for
your patience through this process. Without your guidance and
support, this text would not be possible. I want to extend my thanks
to my students who helped edit the text before it was sent to the
publisher, as well as to my intern, Ms. Danielle Hardy, who provided
valuable comments during the writing phase of the book.
I am indebted to both Riley Hansen and Larry Moore at ImSAR.
They provided system specifications for their airborne SAR platforms,
called NanoSAR Pods (NSPs), as well as example imagery from those
pods that they kindly granted me permission to reprint. Their fine
imagery is displayed on the front cover of this book. I’ve had the
pleasure of working with Riley and Larry performing data collections
“in the field.” Their willingness to help, to advocate, and to provide
cannot be understated. I am also grateful for imagery and support
provided by ICEYE. Their beautiful imagery also adorns this text. I
would also like to thank Capella Space Systems for their
contributions of imagery and system specifications to this book.
They are new to the SAR world and their recent successes produce
marvelous, beautiful, and useful imagery.
I am compelled to thank my family for their patience, support,
encouragement, and drive. My parents, Barbara and Bob, planted
the idea in my head that I could do anything, if I just tried hard
enough. I have worked hard not to prove them wrong and I am
eternally in their debt for encouraging that philosophy. In 1981, they
purchased my first computer, a Commodore 64. It started a love
affair with computers and algorithm development that burns hot in
me to this day. My sister, Rebecca, is an educator of fine young
women and men in the sciences. Her undying devotion to her
students is a shining light and a source of enlightenment and
encouragement to me. I thank her and her husband, Andrew, who
suffered through engineering school with me at the University of
Louisville, he as a civil engineering student and I as an electrical and
computer engineering student. And to their adult children, Ian and
Elaine, thanks for letting me be the cool yet nerdy uncle. To the
Walters—Granny, Grumpy, Ed, Erin, Cassie, Patrick, Tyler, Ronan,
Kira, and Megan—thank you for all of the support, encouragement,
and shared meals where the deeply dangerous question was asked,
“So what is it that you do, exactly?”
To Larry and John, thank you from the bottom of my heart. Your
support and encouragement were sometimes the only things
keeping me going.
Finally, to my grandparents, Edna, Robert Sr., Angela, and
Michael, thank you. No words could fully describe the positive and
loving impact you had on my life and my work. May all of you rest in
peace. This work is fully dedicated to your memory.

E. D. J.
 CHAPTER 1

Introduction to Synthetic
Aperture Radar

In this chapter, the very basics of radar will be presented, along with
the advantages to radar imaging over passive optical imaging and
some examples of existing synthetic aperture radar (SAR) sensors.
Additionally, the basic geometry model will be presented, along with
some of the terminology that is unique to SAR. Finally, the term
“synthetic aperture” will be defined, as well as why it is needed to
produce high-resolution radar images.

1.1 Introduction
Synthetic aperture radar1—typically abbreviated SAR, which can
cause confusion with the acronym for “search and rescue”—is a
strange beast. Few understand it’s value. To most, it’s a poor
substitution for an optical image.
Figure 1.1 shows a comparison of an optical image, shown at the
top of the figure, with a SAR image, shown on the bottom of the
figure.2 The SAR image appears “grainy” or noisy as compared to
the optical image. The SAR image is from TerraSAR-X, a German SAR
satellite. Both images have a ground sample spacing of 1.25 meters.
The concept of resolution in SAR is somewhat different than that of
optical imaging; this will be covered later in the book.
FIGURE 1.1 A comparison between an optical image (top) and a SAR image
(bottom). [Image credit: Merkle, Luo, Auer, Müller, and Urtasun (2017). Reprinted
under CC BY-SA 3.0.]

This comparison is a bit misleading. Optical sensors measure

incoming radiation in either the solar or thermal regions, making
them passive. SAR sensors measure incoming radiation in the radio
wave region; the incoming radiation is provided by either the SAR
sensor or another (sometimes noncooperative) radiation source,
making SAR an active sensing modality. This makes SAR a “24/7”
technology, meaning, it can be used any time of the day or night. It
can also see through most types of weather, including clouds and
rain (this is wavelength dependent). NASA’s Magellan spacecraft is
an excellent example. Launched in 1989, it traveled to Venus with a
SAR and mapped 98% of Venus’ surface at resolution of about 100
to 150 meters, an impossibility using optical imagery with the
extremely cloudy atmosphere that shrouds Venus.3 Figure 1.2 shows
the SAR of Venus, as taken by Magellan.
FIGURE 1.2 A synthetic aperture radar image of Venus from NASA’s Magellan
spacecraft. (Image credit: NASA/JPL.)

Optical sensors are typically used to measure an object’s

reflectivity or emissivity.4 These are the qualities that give way to
“color” in the visible light region of the electromagnetic spectrum.
SAR, on the other hand, is used to measure radar cross-section.5
Cross-section is analogous to reflectivity or emissivity, in that it acts
as a multiplier to the return signal’s amplitude. In the case of SAR,
however, this is a complex multiplier, not a scalar one as it is for
optical imaging.
SAR is a coherent imaging modality. That is, phase is preserved
in the imaging process. Optical imaging, on the other hand, is
typically incoherent (there are some notable exceptions, like optical
holography). As we will see much later in the book, this coherency
leads us to several extremely useful by-products, like interferometry,
tomography, moving object detection, and coherent change
detection.6 Complex numbers describe the world of coherency; it
may be useful to review the mathematics of complex numbers.
To understand the history of SAR, it’s important to understand
why SAR is needed. Radar is first and foremost a ranging device. An
object’s distance can be determined by measuring the round-trip
delay time it takes for a transmitted waveform to get from the
antenna to the object and back. We call that object a scatterer or a
target (with a nod to radar’s military history7). Since the travel time
is directly proportional to the speed in which the wave traveled,
which is at the speed of light, the distance is easily calculable. See,
for example, Figure 1.3, which shows five targets in a hypothesized
patch on the ground. Range refers to the direction away from the
radar antenna (sometimes mistakenly called the “cross-track”
direction, but it is only truly cross-track when the antenna is pointed
broadside or at an angle perpendicular from the flight track).
Azimuth refers to direction perpendicular to range. Again, when the
antenna is pointed broadside, azimuth is “along-track” and range is
“cross-track.” In the figure, the gray dotted lines represent lines of
constant range (also called iso-range lines). The star-shaped
scatterer, which is closest to the radar, is on the left, the circle-
shaped scatterers are along an iso-range near the center of the
scene, and the diamond-shaped target is on the right. A non-
imaging radar would be able to distinguish the star-shaped scatterer
and the diamond-shaped scatterer with no difficulty as their return
times will be different; the star-shaped scatterer would return before
the diamond-shaped scatterer. The radar would also be able to
distinguish that there is at least one target near the center of the
scene. These idealized returns are shown in the plot below the
image scene. Since the three circle-shaped scatterers are all on the
same iso-range line, there is no way for the radar to separate them.
Imaging radars seek to distinguish targets distributed on a patch of
ground within some resolution cell. In early SAR systems, the
resolution cell was large, on the order of hundreds of meters to
kilometers. But as systems became more sophisticated and as digital
technology became readily available, the resolution cell shrank to
sub-meter levels. As Cumming and Wong write in their 2005 book,8
“There is no need to explain the virtues of digital technology here. It
is fair to say that a large proportion of innovations in radar systems
in the last 30 years has arisen from the use of digital technology in
radar systems design, especially in data processing.”
FIGURE 1.3 Several point scatterers placed on iso-range lines in image scene.

1.2 Origins of SAR

Both Curlander and McDonough9 and Carrara, Goodman, and
Majewski10 have excellent histories on the origin of radar and SAR.
These histories will be highlighted here.
Since the early part of the twentieth century, radar had been
used by the military to protect assets and to seek out targets of
interest. Hulsmeyer demonstrated in 1903 that a radar could be used
for ship collision avoidance; he later patented the idea.11 In the
1940s, the proximity fuse was developed in England,12,13 and refined
by the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory.14 The
refinements included miniaturizing the small, short range, Doppler
radar. The small radar sensed the proximity of the target and
detonated, rather than relying on a direct hit, which was much more
difficult with the highly maneuverable aircraft of World War II.
While there were several organizations investigating the use of a
“synthetic” aperture for distinguishing targets in both azimuth and
range, Carl Wiley of Goodyear Aircraft Corporation is generally
credited with the creation of SAR.15 Wiley noted that two different
fixed targets could be resolved separately using Fourier or frequency
analysis. The angular separation relative to the motion of the aircraft
provides the means for a sort of Doppler that could be measured to
some fidelity, that fidelity being dependent on the radar bandwidth
(in range) and the angle between the start and end of the
illumination period, often called the dwell. Wiley called his technique
Doppler beam sharpening. The Goodyear group built the first SAR
airborne system in 1953 and flew it on a DC-3.16 The system
operated in L-band at 930 MHz and achieved a synthetic beamwidth
of approximately 1°. This equated to an azimuth resolution of about
10 meters. However, it is unclear when the first focused SAR image
was actually taken. Curlander and McDonough claim that Goodyear
built the first SAR airborne system, while Carrara, Goodman, and
Majewski state that the first successfully focused airborne SAR image
was taken at Willow Run airport in August 1957.17 These confusions
and contradictions may stem from the covert nature under which
SAR was developed; details of these secret systems may not have
been revealed until many years or decades later. This image is
shown in Figure 1.4.
FIGURE 1.4 The Willow Run stripmap synthetic aperture radar image, taken in
August 1957. (Image credit: Willow Run Laboratory, University of Michigan.
Reprinted under CC BY-SA 3.0.)

Another group at the University of Illinois also experimented with

SAR. This group was able to image a seven-mile-long stretch of Key
West in Florida in 1953.18 The signal processing technique used by
the team was only able to produce an image well-focused in azimuth
over a small range interval.
The pioneers of SAR in the 1950s and 1960s paved the way for
SAR systems that could take high-resolution images from both
aircraft and spacecraft, over Earth and planets beyond. Here are
some notable, but nowhere near exhaustive, examples of
operational SAR systems.

1.3 Examples of Synthetic Aperture Radar

Systems
There are several dozen SAR systems, past, present, and planned,
that could be outlined here. This section will focus on five Magellan,
TerraSAR-X, Capella Space Systems, ICEYE, and ImSAR.

1.3.1 Magellan
The concept of mapping the surface of Venus using radar was
conceived by NASA scientists in the late 1970s.19 That first mission
was to be called the Venus Orbiting Imaging Radar (VOIR), but the
program was cancelled in 1982.
A new mission was proposed in 1983 as the Venus Radar
Mapper, which was a simplified radar mission, composed of four
main objectives: (1) Collect radar images of the surface of Venus
with a 1.0-kilometer resolution, (2) create a topographic map with
50 kilometers spatial and 100 meters vertical resolutions, (3) collect
gravity field data with a resolution of 700 kilometers and an accuracy
of 2 to 3 milligals, and (4) derive an understanding of the geological
structure of Venus.
The radar system was ultimately named RDRS. The spacecraft,
shown in Figure 1.5, arrived at Venus on August 10, 1990 and
mapped 98% of the planet in mapping missions that lasted until
September 14, 1992.20 The satellite was decommissioned on
October 11, 1994 when it was commanded to plunge into the
planet’s dense atmosphere. The purpose of this maneuver was to
understand the planet’s atmosphere and characterize the
performance of the craft as it descended.
FIGURE 1.5 An artist’s depiction of the Magellan spacecraft. (Image credit:
Wikipedia/Wikicommons. Reprinted under CC BY-SA 3.0.)

The key radar characteristics include a SAR that operated at

2.385 GHz (S-band), a peak power of 325 watts, a pulse length of
26.5 μs, a pulse repetition frequency (PRF) of 4.4 to 5.8 kHz, a
swath width of 25 kilometers, a data acquisition rate of 806 kbps,
and a downlink quantization of 2 bits. This is worth noting that with
only 2 bits per sample, NASA was able to create high-resolution,
high-contrast images of the Venusian surface. This is because SAR
maps each unique point in a scene to a two-dimensional (2D)
sinusoid corresponding to that point. This will be explained in more
detail in the next chapters. Thus, the important information is the
frequency and phase of the sinusoids for each point in the scene,
which is fundamentally different than optical imagery, where the
sampling of illumination in a chosen color space dictates the fidelity
and contrast of a given aerial or satellite image.

1.3.2 TerraSAR-X
Launched on June 15, 2007, TerraSAR-X was Germany’s first
operational radar satellite.21 A joint venture between the German
Aerospace Center (DLR) and EADS Astrium GmbH (since acquired by
Airbus), TerraSAR-X is a high-resolution SAR satellite that provides
high-quality radar data commercially. Additionally, along with its
sister satellite TanDEM-X, the two satellites are able to use bistatic
radar and interferometry to create high-resolution digital elevation
map (DEM) products.22,23
The system is capable of collecting high-spatial and radiometric
resolutions. TerraSAR-X can collect single, dual, and quad
polarizations, as well as multitemporal imaging data. Interferometric
products, including repeat-pass and along-track interferometry, are
also available.
TerraSAR-X was considered such a technological success that, in
2010, an entire issue of IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and
Remote Sensing was dedicated to the system (IEEE Transactions on
Geoscience and Remote Sensing, Vol 48, No. 2, January 2010). Both
TerraSAR-X and TanDEM-X were designed for a five-year life span. As
of 2019, both satellites were still on orbit (more than 10 years in
operation) and were expected to continue their mission lives for at
least another four years. The radar specifications for TerraSAR-X
include24:

Operational life 5 years, for both satellites (TerraSAR-X and

TanDEM-X), an extended lifetime of that least
another 5 years (beyond 2018) is expected by the
operator DLR (Status: April 2014)
Orbit Sun-synchronous repeat orbit
Repeat period 11 days
Equatorial 18:00 h ascending pass (±0.25 h) 06:00 h
crossing time descending pass (±0.25 h)
(GMT)
Inclination 97.44°
Altitude at the 514 km (319.8 miles)
equator
Antenna type Active phases array antenna, electronically
separable
Antenna size 4.78 m × 0.7 m (15.7 feet × 2.3 feet)
Centre 9.65 GHz (X-band)
frequency
Chirp 150 MHz/300 MHz
bandwidth
Nominal Right side
acquisition
direction
Polarization Single, dual—depending on imaging mode
quadruple is available as advanced polarization
mode for dedicated acquisition campaigns

1.3.3 ImSAR
ImSAR,25 out of Utah in the United States, specializes in lightweight
SAR for medium-to-large-sized aircraft. Operating in the Ku band,
the ImSAR NanoSAR Pod (NSP) provides a multitude of coherent and
incoherent SAR products. These include standard NITF images,
compressed image formats such as JPG, PNG, and BMP, coherent
and incoherent change detection, maritime surveillance, and moving
target indication (MTI) tracks. The SAR is capable of spotlight and
stripmap modes, as well as a wide-area search mode, which can
monitor an area using a gridded imaging technique. The SAR can be
operated in either 0.3-meter or 1.0-meter resolutions, weighs
approximately 24 pounds, and uses about 275 watts of power; the
NSP-7 can be operated at up to 23,000 feet above ground level
(AGL). Figure 1.6 shows an excellent image of the Las Vegas, NV
area, taken with the ICEYE-X2 satellite on January 6, 2019. The
airport and the strip are clearly visible in the top center of the
image.

FIGURE 1.6 ICEYE-X2 image of Las Vegas, NV, taken on January 6, 2019. This is a
single-channel, HH polarization image. (Image credit: ICEYE. Used with
permission.)
1.3.4 ICEYE
ICEYE26 is a Polish and Finnish company focused on small satellite
design, launch, and operation. It is the first organization in the world
to launch a space-based radar under 100 kg and the first Finnish
commercial satellite. Its overarching goal is to produce a
constellation of small sats that could image the entire planet once a
day, everyday. The first payload, called ICEYE-X1, was launched on
January 12, 2018. The X1 payload has a radar bandwidth of 60 MHz,
giving it a nominal ground resolution of 10 meters. The polarization
for the system is a single channel VV (where transmit polarization is
vertical, and the receive polarization is also vertical). X1 was capable
only of stripmap imaging and was considered a pathfinder satellite.
ICEYE-X2 was launched on December 3, 2018. While slightly
larger in size and weight than X1, it delivers a good deal more
capability, including the ability to image in stripmap, spotlight, and
scan, three different resolution modes (3-meter in stripmap, 20-
meter in scan, and 1-meter spotlight). The radar bandwidth is 300
MHz, which supports the spotlight resolution of 1-meter.

1.3.5 Capella Space Systems

The first U.S. commercial space-based SAR venture was created by
Capella Space Systems, which was founded in 2016. The company
launched its first smallsat SAR, part of its Sequoia constellation in
August 2020. The Capella Sequoia constellation, which will consist of
36 satellites, is made up of an X-band, single-frequency radar.27 The
payload can image in spotlight, sliding spotlight (sometimes called
ScanSAR), and stripmap modes. The spotlight mode covers an area
of 5 km × 5 km, the stripmap mode covers a strip of 5 km × 20 km,
and the sliding spotlight mode (called “Site” in the Capella Products
Guide28) covers an area of 5 km × 10 km.
The radar has a center frequency of around 9.5 GHz and
transmits with an average power level of 600 watts. It provides
single transmit and receive polarizations in horizontal (HH). The
satellites can maneuver quickly with a rotation of 1.5° per second,
allowing the sensor to image on either the left or right sides of the
orbit ground track. The company delivers either single-look complex
(SLC) data or geocoded (GEO) data. The resolution for the ground-
projected GEO product for spotlight imaging is 0.5 meters, while the
sliding spotlight delivers a 1.0-meter resolution, and stripmap
imaging gives a 1.7-meter resolution. The system is capable of
imaging with look angles of 25° to 40° degrees. This is the angle
that is measured from the normal to the ground plane and the slant
plane. This is the complement to grazing angle, which is created by
the slant and ground planes. The geometry of SAR is discussed in
the next section.
Figure 1.7 shows one of the first Capella images of Palm
Jumeirah in Dubai. Taken in stripmap mode, the image has a
resolution of about 2.0 meters and shows exquisite detail,
particularly in the wave features in the Arabian Gulf around the
Palm.

FIGURE 1.7 One of the first Capella images, released on October 6, 2020. The
image is of Palm Jumeirah in Dubai and exhibits significantly high dynamic
contrast, particularly in the maritime areas around the Palm. (Image credit:
Capella Space. Used with permission.)

1.4 Timing and Geometry

Arguably, the most important aspect of SAR is geometry and timing.
Without careful accounting of the timing, the coherency of the
waves that are transmitted and received cannot be maintained.
Likewise, precise knowledge of the geometry is needed for focusing
the SAR image. Throughout this book, focusing will refer to a series
of algorithms that will be used to take the transmitted waveform and
extract a radar reflectivity map of the entire scene. This series of
algorithmic steps is typically called image formation or image
formation processing. How precise the geometry and timing need to
be depends highly on the resolution of the system, the imaging
mode, the imaging geometry, and the desired quality of the final
image. Another term that is frequently used for focusing is called
compression.

1.4.1 Imaging Modes

Generally, there are three different imaging modes that are
employed in SAR. These are illustrated in Figure 1.8. The first, called
stripmap, fixes the antenna to the side of the aircraft or spacecraft
and drags the beam across the ground. This limits the maximum
azimuth resolution to the beamwidth associated with the antenna.
The first SAR systems used stripmap mode.

FIGURE 1.8 The three imaging modes of synthetic aperture radar: stripmap,
spotlight, and scan.
 The next mode is called spotlight. As the name implies, the beam
is fixed to a certain spot on the ground and the antenna is slewed,
either mechanically or electronically, so as to keep the beam in that
spot. This increases the maximum azimuth resolution, limiting it only
by the total change in look angle (called squint angle). Theoretically,
if it could view all of the angles around a scene, a spotlight system
could achieve an azimuth resolution on the order of a fraction of the
radar wavelength. The disadvantage is that the area a spotlight
system can cover is limited by the spot on the ground, which is
determined by the antenna beamwidth.
Finally, the last mode is called scan and is a hybrid between
stripmap and spotlight modes. In scan mode, the beam is both
dragged and slewed to perform at higher resolutions than can be
achieved with stripmap, but cover more area than what can be
achieved with spotlight mode.

1.4.2 Geometry
Stripmap imaging mode will be used first to describe the geometric
model for SAR. Figure 1.9 shows the overhead geometric model for
stripmap, where the independent axis represents range or fast time,
and the dependent axis represents azimuth or slow time. The closest
range to the radar in the beam pattern is called the near edge and
the furthest range to the radar is called the far edge. These edges
are defined by the illumination pattern of the antenna onto the
ground and make up the extents of the swath or scene. The center
of the swath is called the ground reference line (GRL). The center of
the swath can also be arbitrary defined as the ground reference
point (GRP) and is mathematically defined here as (0, 0, 0). The
ground reference line intersects the ground reference point. The
center of the antenna, which corresponds to the aircraft or
spacecraft’s location, is defined as the antenna reference point (ARP)
and is defined mathematically as (xa, ya, za).
FIGURE 1.9 Stripmap mode with relevant ranges and angles highlighted.

If the antenna is not looking perpendicular to the flight track and

is, instead, looking either forward or backward, this is called
“squinting.” The angle between the range vector to the center of the
beam and the vector perpendicular to the flight track is called the
squint angle. For stripmap, this angle is fixed. The vector
perpendicular to the flight track is also called the zero-Doppler
vector.
For spotlight mode, as mentioned earlier, the antenna is slewed,
either electronically or mechanically, to keep the beam centered on
the GRP. The geometric model for spotlight is shown in Figure 1.10.
Again, the angle created from the center of the beam to broadside is
the squint angle. Unlike stripmap, the squint angle in spotlight
changes over the course of the entire dwell.
FIGURE 1.10 Spotlight mode with relevant ranges and angles highlighted.

Figure 1.11 illustrates the imaging geometry as seen from a side

view. The x-axis shows range along the ground and the z-axis is
altitude or elevation above the ground. The scene is the patch of
ground between the near edge and the far edge, as shown in the
figure. The GRP is naturally in the middle. The angle created
between the range vector at the GRP and the ground plane is called
the grazing angle and is denoted by the variable ψ. The grazing
angle is typically measured at the GRP for spotlight or the GRL for
stripmap. The angle created between the near edge range vector
and the far edge range vector is called the antenna beamwidth. The
beamwidth is also sometimes described by width of the beam on the
ground in either range or azimuth.
FIGURE 1.11 Side view of imaging geometry.

Example 1.1 Consider an aircraft flying at 20,000 feet AGL. The

sensor is known to have a fixed grazing angle of 55° (measured
from the ground up) at the ground reference point. The distance
from the ground track (i.e., the flight track projected onto the
ground plane) to the center point is, using the trigonometric
functions of a right triangle,

HINT: It may be useful to examine Figure 1.11 for help in

visualizing the geometry.
1.4.3 Timing
There are two different timing dimensions: fast time and slow time.
These dimensions colloquially describe the timing that happens
along a pulse and along a collection of pulses, respectively. That is,
fast time is the period of time that is needed to sample the returned
signal, which is typically the period of time that it takes the round-
trip signal to travel across the scene and return to the radar. In a
pulsed radar system, this occurs between transmitted pulses, as
shown in Figure 1.12. Conversely, slow time is the collection of
returns after each transmitted pulse. Notationally, fast time is
represented here by the variable t and slow time is represented by
the variable η.

FIGURE 1.12 A notional depiction of fast and slow times.

 Figure 1.13 shows the grid of stacked fast time samples. Each
fast time vector is stacked consecutively in slow time. The duration
of fast time samples is on the order of microseconds or milliseconds,
depending on the round-trip delay times. The duration of slow time
is on the order of seconds or tenths of a second, depending on the
amount of time needed to form the synthetic aperture (more on this
in the next section).

FIGURE 1.13 The grid of stacked fast time samples along slow time.

Consider the geometry shown in Figure 1.14. This geometry

illustrates a sensor traveling at a constant velocity va along a straight
and level flight path. The sensor is shown at two different points in
slow time. The angle that is made between any given range and the
ground is called the grazing angle. This angle is typically reported
from the scene center and the center of the dwell for spotlight SAR.
It is constant over the dwell for stripmap SAR. The plane that is
created between the flight track and the ground for a set of range is
called the slant plane. The plane that is created from the intersection
of the nadir line, the zero-Doppler vector, and the slant plane is
called the zero-Doppler plane. Euclidean distance is typically used to
calculate the range between the sensor and any given point in the
scene. Recall that Euclidean distance, in three dimensions, is defined
as
FIGURE 1.14 A 3D view of the sensor, traveling at some constant velocity, at two
different points in slow time. The ranges are in reference to a hypothetical target
in the scene, as well as to the zero-Doppler vector.
where (x1, y1, z1) and (x2, y2, z2) are the reference points between
which distance R(x, y, z) is measured.

Example 1.2 Figure 1.15 shows an example of the range

between a hypothetical target at (10, 10, 0) meters from the
scene center and the range between the sensor and the scene
center (also known as the ground reference point). The aircraft is
traveling at a constant 80 meters per second, while flying straight
and level at an altitude of 3000 meters above ground level (AGL).

FIGURE 1.15 Range to a target at (10, 10, 0) meters from scene center for a
sensor onboard a hypothetical aircraft going 80 meters per second at an
altitude of 3000 meters.

The range between the sensor and the GRP is crucial to the
formation of the SAR image, as all of the ranges in the scene are
typically referenced to it. The stars in the curves indicate the
closest approach between either the sensor and the target or the
sensor and the scene center. The term “closest approach” refers
to the closest distance between the sensor and any arbitrary
target in the scene, which includes the GRP. Knowledge of the
closest approach may be crucial for some image formation
algorithms.

Example 1.3 Refer to Figure 1.16 to consider a SAR system that

has a known 3-dB azimuth beamwidth of 12.5°. The distance
from the sensor to the ground reference point is 5 kilometers.
The width of the beam at the ground reference point is

FIGURE 1.16 Geometry for considering antenna beamwidth in azimuth

direction.
1.5 The Synthetic Aperture
A natural question that may be asked is, “What is the synthetic
aperture and why is it important?” To answer this, it is necessary to
discuss real aperture radar (RAR).
As shown in Figure 1.3, targets along the same iso-range line
cannot be distinguished from one another. However, consider the
possibility of shrinking the width of the antenna beam pattern on the
ground so that it only covers the width of the desired resolution.
Then the beam could be scanned across the ground and each pulse
would contain the information of each individual target, provided the
pulses were spaced so that there were no gaps and not a significant
amount of overlap. This is called real aperture radar.
Figure 1.17 shows the concept of RAR. The cross-range
beamwidth is decreased so that the width proportional with the
desired cross-range resolution. The scene width is designated as D,
while the azimuth beamwidth is designated as Wa. The azimuth
beamwidth is defined mathematically as
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 —Kaik! doar loopt ’n klodder maide, hullie aige d’r
stain-dood.… ikke konsteteer van da je op dâ terain
mit die brand-beweging [341]d’r nie deurhakt! wai binne
te loat! merkeer de paa’s. Hee Dirk! Hee Rink je mag
d’r toekaike!

’t Stoetje stond gestremd te blazen en te zuchten in de

smoor-drukkende zomeravondbenauwing. Duizenden
kijkers dromden vóór hen in hellen vuurschijn,
makaber roodoranjigen gloed, vulkanisch
neerduivelend op al soorten koppen.

Stemmen-alliteratie woelde rond na den eersten

schrik, en helscher orkaande de jankjubel van orgels,
roffels, toeters en pauken, luguber door den stillen
schuifel der be-vuurschijnde massa.—

—’n Rot pakhuis mi-sonder ’n koantje woarde..

schreeuwde Limmer, nou die doen stiekem s’n
skietgebedje, kaik! vlak-an de afslag!

—Daa’t is d’r mit ’n half uur dààn, hoonde ’n meid

belust op emotie.

—’n Rooie hoan van lik-main-fessie! een mi-sonder

kam! spotte ’n vent, met gril-gloed op z’n gelige
apentronie, en woest-vurig geflakker van z’n wilde
bevlamde oogen.

Burgervader omschermd van agentenkring,

glimmerige helmen in ’t vuur, en hellebardierig
geschaard om brandkar met z’n kleine slurfspuitjes,
deftigde gewichtig tegen plaatsvervangend
kommandant, officiëelde hoogelijk.—
—De kommedant is d’r nie!.… woar sit die pikbroek?
schorde weer ’n vent.

—Lait in ’t gangetje.… s’n tantje is d’r joarig! gierde ’n

ander!

—Kaik de heule brandwair is d’r ’n kait! Se kenne nie

op d’r poote stoan.

—Gooi de jonker mi s’n test in de vlamme—is die uit

s’n laie, kabbeloebelaap! Hee mermot! Bunsum! hee!
’n rot pakhuis!

—Hai weut d’r sellefers van!

—Sel ’t nooit-nie wair doene!

’t Verkrijschte in hoon en nijd rondom, de spottende

menschenstemmen.

—Nou ikke seg, daa’t sonde is veur de tait, lachte Dirk

di [342]Geert had opgebeurd bij d’r dijën, dat ze beter
boven den gloeddrom kon uitkijken.

Maar Willem Hassel, jaloersch dat Dirk ’r zoo stevig

vast had, trok ’r weer neer bij d’r beenen.

—Daa’s net, da kreng ken d’r bestig s’n aige redde.. ’t

is ’n rot soake van die Hassebas Beemster.. ’t ding is
d’r vast gain spuit woater woard!.…

—Moàr hoe dat nou ankomt hee? bleef zeuren ’n ouë

kerel, met ’n scheel-gedrochtelijk oog, waaromheen, in
weerkaats van vuurgloed, groene schemer trilde.—
—Ze hewwe d’r danst mit de fakkels! dá’ loat ’t ansien
hee?

De Grintjes en Marie verveelden zich met ’t

opgedrongen staan. Menschenzee vóór hen, al valer
bevuurschijnd deinde langzaam van Baanwijk naar
Haven terug, langs de spullen. Telkens verklonk gegier
om ’t peuterig gewurm van de waggelende
brandweergasten, die elkaar de slangetjes uit de hand
stootten, en flauwe waterstraaltjes rondspoten; op de
slangen trapten en verkeerd koppelden.—’t
Brandkarretje kreunde als ’n verroest
modderbaggertje bij elken schuif en stoot naar voren
en naar achter.

De schrik-emotie sloeg over in hoon van de woeste

kermisgasten, en daverend holden heele stoeten weg
in trappeling; verhosten weer tusschen de goud-roode
en oranjige dampsfeer van avondhallige tentlanen en
spullen.

Dirk, Marie en Geert hielden hun plan vast voor ’t

Café-chantant.

—Nou wai goin d’r nog wa bij Dies.

—Juistig, bai Dies.. prêchtige tingeltangel.. doar hai je

da waif in ’t rood! die sangster.… doarhain gaste! in de
„Son” is ’t daàn noà twoalf!

—Hee kaik d’r Rink, je bloed d’r àn je snuifert!

Rink veegde z’n neus met z’n naakte handen.…

—Daa’t is d’r nog.. nog van die smak uit de droaimole,
stamelde ie wezenloos.—

Als ’n duistere horde stormde de stoet voort. De brand

was [343]rookerig en smoezelig aan ’t versmeulen.
Niemand keek er meer naar om.

—Eerst de kleine tingel-tangel in, kê je ook lol hebbe!

enne dan Moandag erais noà de Skouwburg mit de
deftighaid.

Zoo zeurde Willem tegen Geert. Heete Trijn, en de

andere meiden stemden in, slobberden maar mee,
doorschroeid van drankpassie. Frank en licht stapten
ze voort op de orgeldeunen die ze beheksten, hun
bloed vervuurden in d’r lijven.

—De kerels moste moar doene wa se wouë.… d’r

waa’s tug moar krek één kair kermis in ’t joar.…
hinnekte in schater Marie Pijler, tegen Rink
aangeplakt. Mooie Geert, met ’r rumoer-lichtende
oogen, de vurige Trijn en blonde Cor met ’r
poppensnuit, belolden elkaar, en de twee meiden
Spaandermast, die zich bij ’t stoetje hadden
aangesloten, gierden mee.

Alleen hinderde ’t de Grintjes dat ze Guurt in den hos

naar den brand waren kwijtgeraakt. Stekelig
vermopperden ze wat tegen Piet en Dirk.—

Piet die straal was, waggelde en boerde, vatte niet

goed wie Geert eigenlijk bedoelde.—
 —Jesus, je meroakelse sus maàn! dat trosse krèng!
mit d’r vraier van de sèkreterie! kaik m’erais in main
fieselemie!

—Die is d’r van deur, giftte mee Trijn.

—Die muurpeek, jaloerschte Geert weer, en Dirk werd

nijdig toen ie zag dat ze uit wraakgierigheid den arm
van Willem vaster greep, zich uit zìjn knel kregelig
loswoelde.

—Guurt? Guurt? Wie wou je maine.… gof’r dikkie.…

Oapram Prik … Prikkie! die hept d’r aige te snurreke
lait! in de sekreterie!

—Doar hep se ’t koeltjes hee!.… aa’s hier.… in de

raige hee?

—En Jan Grint dan.. da is d’r ’n vraier van spikeloas!

Skuiere mò-je-moar.. skuiere mô-je-moar! zong schor
Rink met Piet mee die in kallende idioterigheid
kankaneerde in waggel voor hen uit, dat de meiden
weer in lach schoten.

—Kok-kok-kok! kok-kok-kok.. moeder se lait ’n ai!

weut je ’t noù.… hoeke ’t weuse mot! Gùùrt! Gùùrt.
snaiboon! [344]krijschte Geert in Piet’s oor. Piet
waggelde op zij, jeukte z’n oor uit waar de meid in
geschreeuwd had.—

—Soo! soo! snurkert, snaiboon! lummelde Willem

mee, die in dronken ronk als wezenloos wegzonk, en
alleen opleefde in vlaag van heftige jaloezie op Dirk.
 De meiden gierden en toeterden met hun allen Piet
den naam van z’n zus, scheepsroeperig oorholte in,
dat ie z’n dronken kop machteloos hangen liet op z’n
borst, en als ’n pasloopende drenkeling slap
heenwaggelde tusschen de vrijsters in.

Toch, onder dien jool, zat haat tegen Guurt, gekrenkt

gevoel om ’r sluw wegsluipen van hun stoet.—

Regen bleef zacht spatteren, en heete nachthemel,

besmoezelde ze nattig de tronies en handen. Bij hoek-
omslaan van Beekerweg kregen ze, in lampschijn,
gloeiend café-chantant van Dies in de gaten, waar hun
rauw gezang uit tegemoet waaide.

In woeste passie, hossend en tamboereerend met de

knuisten op elkaars lijf, sliertten ze de laag-
doorsmookte kroeg in, stank-walmend van jenever en
ziedend van stemmenraas, lichtkokend in geel-rookig
damp, vochtig van gloeiingen als ’n reuzige
brouwketel.

Plebspubliek krijschte ze welkom toe. Over zwarte

banken, vol vuil, smeer en dranknattigheid, sprongen
ze naar plaatsen, waggelden, wat niet meer op de
banken kon, op stoel en kruk, uit ’n hok, achter ’t
buffetje, aangesleept.

De meiden smakten zich neer, naast elkaar op de

banken. Geert plakte òp tegen ’n stomdronken
onderofficier die ’n fletse wit-harige meid zat te zuig-
zoenen, zonder dat ’n spier van ’r gezicht vertrok.—Na
iedere slobberige zoenbui, veegde ze strak,
vlakhandig ’r wang schoon, koelde ’r steenharde blik
 voor zich uit. Vóór Geert drong ’n ouë kerel òp die
schorrig stoethaspelde, en al maar wees op ’n man in
den hoek, waar de onderofficier zich voor moest
wachten. Tartend teemde z’n dronken mond:

—Sien ie! Sien ie! daa’t is.… is.… nou main soon!..
die.… die knakt.… jou.… en en.… en.… en.… en.. de
heule wai … aireld aa’s worst! hee?… aa’s die d’r
goàr … [345]wil!.… en.… en.… en.… de heule mikmak
hee?.…

—Hou jou.. snater ouë sloddervos! blùf!.. blùf, driftte

de sergeant, z’n paarsroode gezwollen kop
woestnijdig naar der ouden teemer toedraaiend, klaar
om z’n bierglas ’m op de hersens tot scherven te
stampen.

Maar de ouë dronkenlap bleef doorzeuren.—Half

ingebogen waggelde ie bij Geert, z’n stinkenden mond
vlak voor de meidentronies, z’n handen en armen in
kind-sukkelend onvast gebaar, verzwaaiend door den
rookmist. Vlak vóór Geert bleef ie strompelen, z’n
smerige klauwen onder ’r scherpsnibbig neusje, dat
trilde van angst. Bang zochten ’r oogen Dirk, Dirk nog
meer dan Willem. Dirk sleurde ’n meid van
Spaandermast uit de bank en plakte zich naast Geert.
—

Hij lachte om den blufferigen ouen schooier.

—Gut maid!.. ma-ïn soon doar! doar.. in de hoek.. is

tog soo’n poal.. poal.. hee? hardstikke sterk! ellendig..
tuikig! da.. aa’s tie … de de.. de.. de serreggant.. ’n lel
gaift!.… lait.. heul.… Wiere.. re.. loànd veur … veur de
waireld hee? die.. hep d’r puur.… klaufe! vàn.… vàn ’n
olieërsfant hee?..

Dóór zeurde z’n stem voor ’t mooie verschrikte kopje

van Geert, al maar over z’n ijzerbrekenden zoon, die
zèlf lodderig en geradbraakt in ’n hoek zat te
knikkebollen, soms starend als ’n bewustelooze met
gebroken oogen, op den rug van ’n vuilbruine piano.—

Dirk zoende Geert, lebberde ’r de wangen vol. Willem

had zich door ’n rij stoelen heengewerkt met ’n dierlijk
instinkt, in de richting van Geert.

Nou zat ie ingekneld tusschen ’n paar meidendijën

half op ’r schoot, kneep ’r in de beenen en zinlijkte,
met opgeblazen rooien kop, in ronkend-stillen wellust.
Onderofficier zoende z’n steendooie fletse meid niet
meer, maar keek met begeer-heete glinsteroogen
guitig naar Geert en Trijn, lekte z’n baard en aaide
zich-zelf zacht over de gezwollen paarse wangen.

Trijn leunde tegen Piet òp, die zich ook tusschen ’t

meidenvolkje [346]gedrongen had, en Cor, de stille Cor,
lag half in zwijm in de armen van ’n rossig besnorden
vent, zonder dat ze recht wist, hoe ze aan ’m kwam en
wie hij was.

Henk en Hazewind joolden en Rink zat met de blonde

furie Marie op z’n schoot. In hun handen beefden
jeneverglaasjes, die bij elken woestbrullenden krijsch
van Rink, weer gevuld in de vingers teruggekneld
werden. Met ’r beenen, zat de blonde furie tegen ’n
bankrand geduwd, ’r onderlijf naakt gewoeld.
 Koortsig wellustig opgehitst in den ziedenden
stemmenkook en rookstank om ’r heen, schuurde ze
zich tegen Rink’s borst, haar kop op zijn mond
vastgezogen, haar gouden haardos losgekarteld in z’n
gulzige knelarmen. Half tusschen z’n beenen
uitgezakt, in kanaljeuzen zit, drukte ie Marie
achterover, zoende ’r woest in den blanken wellustkuil
van dampenden hals, omfonkeld van kraaltjes en
praaltjes. Haar beenen slapten al hooger den
bankrand òp in zinlijken tuimel van d’r bovenlijf. Uit
haar rokken zwoelde ’n heete walm van kermislucht,
’n anjelierige gemeen-zoete patjoulie, en ’n trillende
hysterische zwijmgeursel steeg uit ’r halfnaakten
boezem.

Haar halskraag had Rink losgescheurd en bevend

vampyrig z’n gulzigende smakkende lippen in
boersche passie er op vastgezogen.

Ze snikte naar ademhaal en ’r heete borst hijgde of ze

sterven ging.

Hun passie doorvlamde ’t goudroode walmende

zanghol in ’n zwijmelende erotiek, ’n beestige
bronstigheid, en woest de paren omhelsden elkaar, bij
’t gierende toejuichen van Rink’s en Marie’s dierlijke
vrijage.—

Door den geel-rooden rookmist verklonken de zoenen

als zuigend geslobber.—

Achter ’n deurtje uit, kwam plots ’n gala-meneer op ’n

paar waggelende plankjes staan, vóór de piano. ’n
 Kerel roffelde ’n preludiëerenden deun met pieperig
kermende tusschenklankjes.—

Chanteur viel in, zang-sprak ’n dubbelzinnige mop met

krijschend refrein: [347]

Schuiere mot je maar.… Schuiere mot je maar

Van je heeloà.. heeloà hophophop sasa!

Monden wijd open als muilen, bewegend-vreemde

holten waarin ’t geelroode licht groef en roode tongen
woelden, krijschten ze den zang mèe, in rauw-
beestigen bral. Met de glaasjes in de hand, fonkel-
kelkjes als roode en gele prisma’s, waarin
prachtlichten brandende amber en gouden
champagnegloed, zwierden en kankaneerden ze in ’t
rond, harkerig en botsend in ’t enge holletje;
trampelden kerels en stampten meiden, dat één dreun
daverde en raasde door ’t smookhol; walmende
brouwketel in tooverigen dampgloei en grillige tinten,
diep-sferig omgoocheld in demonische pracht. De
gala-chanteur zang-sprak méé, schor; liet refrein over
zich heengolven als ’n kolk vlammende lusten, waarin
z’n ironie grijnzend voetplaste; zette dan langzaam,
hoog-komiekerig gebarend weer in, ’n nieuw kouplet.
—

Er door hèèn rauwden al meer stemmen, klodderige

geluiden; geluiden van jankende zebras en huil van
wilde ezels; stemmen van moe-gemartelde
venterskelen; rochelende, halfbezwijmde en dol-
vroolijke; hinnikende en nijdige, huilend en zingend
om zuipsel.—
Uit eng-morsig buffetje schoten telkens menschen toe,
om sneller te helpen. Weer stormde in raas en vaart,
verfomfaaide hoed-verdeukte kerels- en meidenstoet
in, trampelig neersmakkend op bankpunten, of in
valzwaai schietend op schoot van vreemde kerels en
wijven.

Hazewind had bij ’t losrukken van stoelen uit ’n hok, ’n

chokolade-automaatneger zien liggen, leeg en
ongebruikt. Een krulharig grinneker was ’t; alleen romp
en kop, in roodbelakt wambuis, waarboven
wandrochtelijke tronie grijnsde.

In één ruk had ie den automaat bij z’n rooden romp

opgevischt, stormde hij er mee in den meidenstoet
van Grintjes en vreempjes. Als ’n wijf had ie den
halven neger zinnelijk-potserig in den arm gekneld.
Z’n eigen neus had ie met ’n bonk biljartkrijt piassig
verwit, en woest danste ie ’n negerklownigen [348]wals,
klapperend met z’n zolen op den houten vloer,
stampend en patsend, dat ’t grauw-zandig wolkte om
’m heen. De meiden kuchend in den stofdamp,
gierden en half-verstikten van pret om den grappigen
Hazewind, met z’n witbepoeierden neus, z’n
schokkende vrijage op ’t negergedrocht.

—Skuiere mot je moar! skuiere mot je moar!

gier-zangde rondom. Eindelijk onderbrak ie z’n

zwierigen wals.

Dwaas en menschelijk liet ie den zwarten grinneker

buigen, wierp ie, àchter z’n gedrochtelijken kroeskop,
 gemeenheidjes naar de meiden, met ’n vermaakte
hikstem, tenorig alsof ’t uit den rooden romp kwam.—

Soms trok ie ’m kittelend aan de kruk bij de

chocolade-gleuf, deed dan in dolle grimassen en
dronken opwinding of de roodbebuisde nikker, in
grijns-woesten proets ’t uitschaterde om z’n jeukende
kriebelarijtjes. Rochelend, stikkend geschater en
gehoest barstten uit om de piaskuren van Klaas
Koome, die in boerigen humor, sentimenteelig-
nagemaakt, teederlijk den dóór-grinnekenden
kroeskop tegen z’n boezem bleef koesteren en
streelen.—

—Die kerel, hep d’r gain broek an, gilde plots Marie
Pijler uit, schaterend haar beenen in kramplach de
lucht insmakkend, dat ze bijna achterover viel van
Rink’s schoot.

—Nou, op dà terain.. doen jai d’r ’n broek àn aa’s je

gain baine hep! lolde Hazewind, fijn walsend en
streelend z’n nikker,.… ikke konste.… teer.. van da tie
sain bainbeweging inskote hep.. in de Transvoal.…
enne.… op.. op sain aigeste romp sain smairt hep!

Met ’n smak plots in woesten schater zwaaide ie den

nikker-romp tegen den vloer, die beefde van
trampelgerucht.

Stom en klaagloos bonsde de nikker vooròver, met z’n

zwarten gedrochtensnuit in ’n pot bier van den
sergeant, die z’n glas vóór zich op den grond had
gezet. Onderofficier proestte van lol dat de snuit met
z’n neus er in was gesmakt.
—Nee nikker.… eerst mot vader drinke, dan ’t juffertje
[349]hee? schaterde ie, den neger bij z’n rooden romp
opsleurend, en z’n minachtend-helschen snuit
beschuimend met bier.

Ze stikten, de meiden, van al opwindender lol. De

kerels kramp-schokten er van, tapten liederlijke
moppen; trokken aan z’n buik; wrongen hun handen in
de chocoladegleuf, hoonden den nikker, spogen hem
in z’n wandrochtelijke grinniktronie, kwakten ’m
bierslokken tegen de witte tanden; mepten in op de
vuurroode menielippen, op de stuiters-oogen, op den
bronzen buik en rug, dat ie rammelde, kreunde en
rochelde, en ijzeren pijnsnikken van jammer
verklonken. ’t Was of bij elken bof van kerels en meid-
furies z’n grinnekende kroeskop in sarlach schoot; dat,
al hàd ie pijn, z’n lach nooit kòn worden
weggeranseld. Heen en weer gesleurd kwam dàn z’n
grinniktronie boven, dàn z’n roode rug.—

Lag ie op z’n buik dan was ’t soms of ie stil, met z’n

zwarten muil tegen den modderigen vloer, smart
versnikte, z’n eeuwige grijns en grinnik dáár
verkrampte tot woesten ingehouden huil. Maar telkens
verder in den kring getrapt van razend beukende
meiden, làchte de kop weer in grinnikenden sar.

Ze voelden den nikker als ’n lèvend wezen, ’n

beenloozen stakker dien ze haatten om z’n
verachtelijk grijnzen, z’n vuurroode droge lippen, z’n
zwarte kroes en bewegingloos star-lachende stuiter-
oogen.
De streelende vrijage van Hazewind sloeg over bij de
meiden in ranseling en drift. Marie Pijler was van
Rink’s schoot gesprongen, holde over banken, ruggen
en koppen heen, tilde ’r rokkenboel òp en kwakte zich
met gespreide beenen over de grinniktronie.—Ze
vloekte, ranselde, beet ’m, schuurde ’r lijf in
waanzinhaat over z’n roode romp, met verachting hem
mokerend op z’n neus, z’n borst, z’n oogen. Drifthaat
vlamde in ’r dronken kijkers. Ze schold ’m al erger uit,
dat ie geen kerel was, en met ’n laatsten hakkentrap,
in uitbraak van helsche vloeken, vol venijnigende
verachting, smakte ze’m onder d’r wèg. Toen ze zag
dat ie van verre, met misvormden kop, tòch bleef
grinneken, barstte ze in grien uit, en viel razend van
drift terug op den schoot van Rink. [350]

In rondgierenden waanzin, haat en verminkzucht,

wilde nu iedere meid den nikker beuken.

Met strakke wreedheid stortten ze zich op de tronie.

Trijn Grint wou Marie Pijler nadoen, stootte zich met
de vuist de rokken tusschen de beenen en sprong op
’m af. Maar Piet hield d’r tegen en de sergeant, in
woedewoel opgehitst, begrabbelde meid voor meid.

Plots holde de kroeghouder midden in den furiënden

meidenstoet, greep in woesten sleur den nikker bij den
romp, en smakte ’m in hooge worp, achter ’t buffet,
waar de gemartelde kroeskop, met geknauwde tronie,
half gewurgd, diepe wondscheuren in grinnik-wangen
en gehavend roode plunje, op ’n vatenstapel
neerkreunde. Z’n gebeukte tronie lag weer bòven, en
sarrend gedrochtelijk grijnslachte de kop, door de
 wangscheuren en oogwonden heen, z’n laatsten
triomf uit.

’n Zangeres was achter gala-chanteur naar voren

gekropen. Leelijke zwarte meid, in kanaljeus decolleté,
kortrokkig, vuurrood satijn, snibde en koketteerde ze
sneuïg met ’r dikke pruillippen; pupilden aanhalig
lonkend ’r donkere oogen. Haar roetig aangeverfde
brauwen, boogden harig-vergroeid in één, en ’r
magere naakte armen pagaaiden voor verblufte
dronken boerenkoppen.

Ze krijschte zorgelijk, vermoeid, en ’r verflenst gezicht,

lachte, lachte mee met ’r vuile liedjes, lachte zuur,
vuns.—

Goor sloeg de rookstank warmte en zweetlucht op ’r

bloote borst en kokettig wou ze cirkelen d’r vuurrood
satijn rokje om haar slappe kuiten, in gracieuse
plooiïng. D’r zwarte lokkenkroes om ’r smalle platte
beenderige schouders, vlamde donker tegen ’t
satijnvuur, en vergapen deden de kerels zich aan de
zangeres met ’r oudewijvenkop.

Ze werkte met opera-trillers en heesche koloratuur, en

’r lijk-groen vermoeid gezicht lachte en lonkte door,
knipoogde al gemeener en sluwzinlijker tegen de
nederige drinkebroers.

Zoetelijk streelde ze ’r eigen besatijnd lijf, met

naïevelijk gebaar van onnoozel maagdelijn en bruids-
angstige preutschheid.
 Maar heet-getemperd sneed in ’r groen-gele
bedampte tronie [351]’n schriklijke lach, ’n voluptueuze
hoon, lonkend en lokkend, ophitsend de kerels in den
schroei van hun brandende zinnen.

In ’t roodgelig en goud-dampig doorsmookte hol,

benauwden al meer menschen. ’n Lucht van slachterij,
waar zoete bloed-stank en warme vleeschreuk
doorheen zuigen, verwolkte, en de zweetige zoetheid
der uitwasemende paren klefferde broeiig langs de
stinkende wanden.—

Geert wou wèg. De lonkende leelijke zangeres

hinderde haar.

Gruwelijk gemeen vond ze telkens dat optillen van ’r

satijnen rokje, dat vrijen met ’r eigen lijf. ’t Maakte ’r
valsch, jaloersch.

Met lawaai stonden de Grintjes op en Marie tumultte

mee. In hos en hiha’s kannibaalden ze dronkener en
verhitter met zwartigrood verbrande tronies,
doorzwollen en onkenbaar gerammeid van driften, de
Baanwijk op.

Bij akrobatentroep bleven ze even uithijgend staan.

Heet geloer was daar op nekknauwende toeren van
straatkunstenmaaksters, meiden in triko’s,
rugstrengloos achteroverbuigend in zwel van dijen en
buik.

Maar de Grintjes wouen verder. Dan hier, dan daar

moesten ze heen, in hurriënde hitte, dwars door
slingerrijen, meesleurend vechtenden en vloekenden.
Willem en Dirk waren sàmen bij ’n waarzegster, die ze
gelokt had, met vleistem van ’r mooie dochter. Sàmen
waren ze ingestrompeld, omdat de een den ander niet
alléén vertrouwde bij Geert. Tooneelig-geheimzinnig
pronkte tentje van somnambule. Weeke mysterie-stem
van ’n wondermooi meisje lokte.

Maar Trijn had den dood voor de waarzegsterswijven

zèlf. Ze durfde niet, en de andere meiden ook niet.

—Puur nie! daa’s tug soo ellendig an ’t uitkomme hee?

wa soo’n meroakel je sait! die hep d’r puur je laife in
d’r hand!

—Poeh! tog aldegoar.. poppe.… poppe.… kast, blufte

Piet.… nou dan koop ìkke je fratte veur drie sint.… bi
je hullie t’met kwait!

Marie gaf Trijn gelijk. Geert begon te weifelen, Cor en

Annie twijfelden mee, en de Spaandermastjes gierden
van zenuwachtigheid.[352]—Ze drentelden en
draaiden, tot Dirk en Willem er uit wankelden.—

—Doàr mot jai hain Gairt, schreeuwde Dirk van achter

’t gordijntje.… ikke kraig ’n swartje!

—Da lieg je gaip! ikke!

—Roggemegochel, se hep ’t main sait! ikke trouw d’r

’n swartje..

—Daa’s puur ’n klodder leuge.. ikke, ikke!.. gilde

Willem.
 Toen barstte Dirk woest uit in ’n scheldwoorden-
mokering, en meteen drong ie ’r op aan, dat Willem
nou maar eens overmoest doen, dan zou hij met
Geert in „De Druif” wachten. Willem schrok er van.
Liever z’n pink er af, dan Dirk alleen met Geert.

Hij stamelde wat, maar Dirk woù ruzie. ’t Brandde en

gistte al lang in ’m. Hij wou vechten, bloedneuzen
slaan, met ’t mes aan riemen snijên.…

Piet snuffelde naar bloed.… Rink óók. ’t Moest ’r maar

van kommen.—

Versmoorde haat giftte weer áán, tegen Hazewind,

tegen Willem, Henk en Jan Hassel. Dirk bleef dronken
stotterend razen en vloeken, spoog ’n pruim tegen
Willems broekspijpen aan, in minachtend krakeel.

Maar Geert, dronken-week, angstigde weer bij; zei

huilerig dat ze met den eersten den besten kerel ’r
vandoor zou stappen als de gasten bakkeleien gingen.
Dat hielp. Dirk schrok, ontnuchterde. Willem greep ’t
zwartje weer bij den linker, en Dirk bij ’r rechterarm, en
voort ging ’t in brallenden hos.

Hazewind kneep z’n meid telkens zoo hevig in de

dijen dat ze gilde, trapte en schold van pijn.

—Jou kreng, jou f’nainbaist, huilde ze half.—

Z’n buldoggenkop grinnikte van genot in even fijntjes

oogengesluit. Heimelijk zinneziek, loerde hij op ’n
nieuw plekje op ’r lijf dat ie nog niet venijnigjes
tusschen z’n tang-vingers geknepen had.
Plots met hun allen hosten ze ’n donkeren zijweg òp,
bij Spoorbaan naar den polderweg.— [353]

Naar ’t uitgestorven polderduister, weilandennacht in

donkeren rustadem, verwaaiden vage zangkreten en
verzwakte hurrie van afgedwaalde kermisgangers.—

Dronken kerels, lamgebeukt en uitgebraakt, lagen bij

bruggetjes, dammen en aan slootkanten, dwars in ’t
duister te ronken of te grommen, te spartelen of
eenzaam in de eindloosheid te razen.—Enkelen
hingen half ingezakt over schering en prikkeldraad,
kallend tegen den nacht, godlasterend en vloekend,
de beenen gewond, en de handen gescheurd in ’t
piekende ijzer, duistere geradbraakte en lamgebeukte
verschoppelingen, in delirium-angst of stomme
onmacht.—

Van den stil-starenden donk’ren polder àf leek de laat-

nachtelijke kermis ’n krochtendrom: een in vlammen
neergestort brok hel op aarde, hellekrochten en
mijngangen, fantastisch-woest doorzwaaid van goud-
gele en rood-oranje walmende flambouwen. Heel ’t
karnaval lag daar als vuurbrakende holen, waar zwart-
roode, paars-rossige en groen-gele schimmen op
trillende, achteruitdansende en weer naar vòren
kruipende achtergronden van vlammen en vuur
kaprioolden, in ren en kannibaligen woest en hos.

Van den weipolder àf, gebouwden heel vèr, de hel-

beblakerde tenten, en bevlamde spullen, de zwarte
ruggen verneveld in rood-paarsen nacht. In
woestkleurige pracht lag de krochtenstad daar
neergebrokkeld, verzonken half in vuurzee, omlikt,
 omkraterd van licht en gloed; dobberde en deinde
daar van vèr de infernale woel van voorthollende
waanzin-blinde amokmakers in al wisselender hel van
schijnsels.

Orgeldreun en roffel waaide vertemperd den weinacht

in, verklankte vaag in roezemoezigen warrel van
valsch geschetter.—

De hooge toortsen van Jutskoppen en ommegangers,

de lampenflikker goudhel, van molens en spullen,
vervlamden demonische orgie de polderstilte rond.

Als één adem steeg òp zwijmel en brandende passie

van duizenden, boven de lichtene krochtenstad; als
één adem vervloeide de zwavelig groen en goudrood
doorgloeide nevel. In [354]één hos ging om, de helsche
menschenren trampelend ten dans, dans van kleurige
schimmen, donk’re en bevlamde rompen.

Adem van àl de lampetten, al de flambouwen, adem

van àl ’t licht; ’t gouden, ’t rood-woeste, ’t ros-
gloeiende, ’t wond’re gele, ’t fakkel-bronzige, ’t
elektrisch paarse, ’t vuur-oranjige en doorsmookte van
vlammenovens,—steeg daar uit, als ’n helsche
demonische hijg, bòven de kermishaven. En door ’t
licht-woeste fantastische geweld, scheurde de
hinnekende jool van waanzinnige zangers, verbeefde
de hossende trampeling, groeide de massadreun der
stoeten tot muiterij en opstanding van gedrochten,
vluchtend uit ’t hellevuur, omkronkeld van weerlichten,
jankend van pijn en gemartel.—