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Oxford Resources for IB
Diploma Programme
2 0 2 3 E D I T I O N
C H E M I S T RY
CO U R S E CO M PA N I O N
Sergey Bylikin
Gary Horner
Elisa Jimenez Grant
D avid Tarcy
Oxford Resources for IB
Diploma Programme
2 0 2 3 E D I T I O N
C H E M I ST RY
CO U R S E CO M PA N I O N
Sergey Bylikin
Gary Horner
Elisa Jimenez Grant
D avid Tarcy
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The authors have the following acknowledgements and thanks:
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teaching c areer, my sister Susan for her unwavering friendship, c are and profes-
permission from J. Chem. Educ. 2012, 89, 5, 675–677. Copyright 2012 Americ an Chemic al
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sional advice, my inspirational parents Myrtle and Dennis: I dedic ate this book in
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their loving memory.
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Contents
Structure 1. Models of the particulate nature of matter 2
Structure 1.1
Structure 1.2
Structure 1.3
Structure 1.4
Structure 1.5
Structure 2. Models of bonding and structure 94
Structure 2.1
Structure 2.2
Structure 2.3
Structure 2.4
Structure 3. Classic ation of matter 228
Structure 3.1
Structure 3.2
Tools for chemistry 308
Tool 1:
Tool 2:
Tool 3:
Reactivity 1. What drives chemic al reactions? 386
Reactivity 1.1
Reactivity 1.2
Reactivity 1.3
Reactivity 1.4
Reactivity 2. How much, how fast and how far? 460
Reactivity 2.1
Reactivity 2.2
Reactivity 2.3
Reactivity 3. What are the mechanisms of chemic al change? 536
Reactivity 3.1
Reactivity 3.2
Reactivity 3.3
Reactivity 3.4
Cross-topic exam-style questions 652
The inquiry process (authored by Maria Muñiz Valcárcel) 655
The internal assessment (IA) (authored by Maria Muñiz Valcárcel) 668
Index 686
Periodic Table 708
Answers: www.oxfordsecondary.com/ib-science-support
iii
Introduction
The diploma programme (DP) chemistry course is aimed at students in the 16
to 19 age group. The curriculum seeks to develop a conceptual understanding
of the nature of science, working knowledge of fundamental principles of
chemistry and practic al skills that c an be applied in familiar and unfamiliar
contexts. As with all the components of the DP, this course fosters the IB learner
prole attributes (see page viii) in the members of the school community.
Nature of science
Nature of science (NOS) is concerned with methods, • F alsication
purposes and outcomes that are specic to science. Hypotheses c an be proved false using other
NOS is a central theme that is present across the evidence, but they c annot be proved to be
entire course. You will nd suggested NOS features denitely true. This has led to paradigm shis in
throughout the book and are encouraged to come up science throughout history.
with further examples of your own as you work through
• Models
the programme.
Scientists construct models as simplied
NOS c an be organized into the following eleven explanations of their observations. Models oen
aspects: contain assumptions or unrealistic simplic ations,
but the aim of science is to increase the complexity
• Observations and experiments
of the model, and to reduce its limitations.
Sometimes the observations in experiments are
unexpected and lead to serendipitous results. • Theories
A theory is a broad explanation that takes observed
• Measurements
patterns and hypotheses and uses them to generate
Measurements c an be qualitative or quantitative,
predictions. These predictions may conrm a
but all data are prone to error. It is important to
theory (within observable limitations) or may falsify
know the limitations of your data.
it.
• Evidence
• Science as a shared activity
Scientists learn to be sceptic al about their
Scientic activities are oen c arried out in
observations and they require their knowledge to
collaboration, such as peer review of work before
be fully supported by evidence.
public ation or agreement on a convention for clear
• Patterns and trends
communic ation.
Recognition of a pattern or trend forms an
• Global impact of science
important part of the scientist’s work whatever the
Scientists are responsible to society for the
science.
consequences of their work, whether ethic al,
• Hypotheses
environmental, economic or social. Scientic
Patterns lead to a possible explanation. The
knowledge must be shared with the public clearly
hypothesis is this provisional view and it requires
and fairly.
further veric ation.
iv
Syllabus structure
Topics are organized into two main concepts: structure and reactivity. This is shown in the syllabus roadmap
below. The skills in the study of chemistry are overarching experimental, technologic al, mathematic al and inquiry
skills that are integrated into the course. Chemistry is a practic al subject, so these skills will be developed through
experimental work, inquiries and investigations.
Skills in the study of chemistry
Structure Reactivity
Structure refers to the nature of matter Reactivity refers to how and why
from simple to more complex forms chemic al reactions occur
Structure determines reactivity, which in turn transforms structure
Structure 1. Structure 1.1 — Introduction to Reactivity 1. Reactivity 1.1 — Measuring
Models of the the particulate nature of matter What drives enthalpy changes
particulate nature chemic al
Structure 1.2 — The nuclear atom Reactivity 1.2 — Energy cycles in
of matter reactions?
reactions
Structure 1.3 — Electron Reactivity 1.3 — Energy from fuels
congurations
Structure 1.4 — Counting Reactivity 1.4 — Entropy and
particles by mass: The mole spontaneity (Additional higher
level)
Structure 1.5 — Ideal gases
Structure 2. Structure 2.1 — The ionic model Reactivity 2. Reactivity 2.1 — How much? The
Models of How much, amount of chemic al change
bonding and how fast and
Structure 2.2 — The covalent Reactivity 2.2 — How fast? The
structure how far?
model rate of chemic al change
Structure 2.3 — The metallic Reactivity 2.3 — How far? The
model extent of chemic al change
Structure 2.4 — From models to
materials
Structure 3. Structure 3.1 — The periodic Reactivity 3. Reactivity 3.1 — Proton transfer
Classic ation of table: Classic ation of elements What are the reactions
matter mechanisms
Reactivity 3.2 — Electron transfer
of chemic al
reactions
change?
Structure 3.2 — Functional Reactivity 3.3 — Electron sharing
groups: Classic ation of organic reactions
compounds
Reactivity 3.4 — Electron-pair
sharing reactions
Chemistry concepts are thoroughly interlinked. For example, as shown in the
roadmap above, “Structure determines reactivity, which in turn transforms structure”.
You are therefore encouraged to continuously reect on the connections between
new and prior knowledge as you progress through the course. Linking questions will
help you explore those connections. In assessment tasks, you will be expected to
identify and apply the links between dierent topics. On page 652, there are three
examples of DP-style exam questions that link several dierent topics in the course.
v
How to use this book
The aim of this book is to develop conceptual understanding, aid in skills
development and provide opportunities to cement knowledge and
understanding through practice.
Feature boxes and sections throughout the book are designed to support these
aims, by signposting content relating to particular ideas and concepts, as well as
opportunities for practice. This is an overview of these features:
Developing conceptual understanding
These boxes in the
Guiding questions
margin will direct you
to other parts of the
Each topic begins with a guiding question to get you thinking. When you
book where a concept
start studying a topic, you might not be able to answer these questions
is explored further or in
condently or fully, but by studying that topic, you will be able to answer
a dierent context. They
them with increasing depth. Hence, you should consider these as you work
may also direct you to
through the topic and come back to them when you revise your
prior knowledge or a skill
understanding.
you will need, or give
a dierent way to think
Linking questions
about something.
Linking questions within each topic highlight the connections between
content discussed there and other parts of the course.
Nature of science
These illustrate NOS using issues from both modern science and science
history, and show how the ways of doing science have evolved over the
centuries. There is a detailed description of what is meant by NOS and the
dierent aspects of NOS on the previous page. The headings of NOS feature
boxes show which of the eleven aspects they highlight.
Theory of knowledge
This is an important part of the IB Diploma course. It focuses on critic al
thinking and understanding how we arrive at our knowledge of the world.
The TOK features in this book pose questions for you that highlight these
issues.
Parts of the book have a coloured bar on the edge of the page or next to a
LHA
question. This indic ates that the material is for students studying at DP
Chemistry Higher Level. AHL means “additional higher level”.
vi
Developing skills
ATL Approaches to learning Chemistry skills
These ATL features give examples of how famous These contain ways to develop your mathematic al,
scientists have demonstrated the ATL skills of experimental or inquiry skills, especially through
communic ation, self-management, research, experiments and practic al work. Some of these
thinking and social skills, and prompt you to think c an be used as springboards for your Internal
about how to develop your own strategies. Assessment.
To o l s for c h e m i s t r y, the inquiry p r o c e ss and internal a ss e ss m e n t
These three section of the book are full of reference material for all the essential mathematic al and
experimental tools required for DP Chemistry, details on data analysis and modelling chemistry, as
well as guidance on how to use the inquiry process in the study of the subject and to work through
your Internal Assessment. Flick to this section as your working through the rest of the book for
more information. Links in the margin throughout the book will direct you towards it too.
Practicing
Worked examples Practice questions
These are step-by-step examples of how to answer
These are designed to give you further practice at
questions or how to complete c alculations. You
using your chemistry knowledge and to allow you to
should review these examples c arefully, preferably
check your own understanding and progress.
aer attempting the question yourself.
Data-based questions Activity
Part of your nal assessment requires you to answer questions that are based These give you an
on the interpretation of data. Use these questions to prepare for this. They opportunity to apply
are also designed to make you aware of the possibilities for data acquisition your chemistry
and analysis for day-to-day experiments and for your IA. knowledge and skills,
oen in a practic al way.
End-of-topic questions
Use these questions at the end of each topic to draw together concepts from that topic and to practise
answering exam-style questions.
vii
Course book denition The IB Learner Prole
The IB Diploma Programme course books are resource The aim of all IB programmes to develop internationally
materials designed to support students throughout minded people who work to create a better and
their two-year Diploma Programme course of study more peaceful world. The aim of the programme is to
in a particular subject. They will help students gain an develop this person through ten learner attributes, as
understanding of what is expected from the study of described below.
an IB Diploma Programme subject while presenting
Inquirers: They develop their natural curiosity. They
content in a way that illustrates the purpose and aims
acquire the skills necessary to conduct inquiry and
of the IB. They reect the philosophy and approach of
research and snow independence in learning. They
the IB and encourage a deep understanding of each
actively enjoy learning and this love of learning will be
subject by making connections to wider issues and
sustained throughout their lives.
providing opportunities for critic al thinking.
Knowledgeable: They explore concepts, ideas and
The books mirror the IB philosophy of viewing the
issues that have loc al and global signic ance. In so
curriculum in terms of a whole-course approach;
doing, they acquire in-depth knowledge and develop
the use of a wide range of resources, international
understanding across a broad and balanced range of
mindedness, the IB learner prole and the IB Diploma
disciplines.
Programme core requirements, theory of knowledge,
the extended essay, and creativity, activity, service
Thinkers: They exercise initiative in applying thinking
(CAS).
skills critic ally and creatively to recognize and approach
complex problems, and to make reasoned, ethic al
E ach book c an be used in conjunction with other
decisions.
materials and, indeed, students of the IB are required
and encouraged to draw conclusions from a variety
Communic ators: They understand and express
of resources. Suggestions for additional and further
ideas and information condently and creatively in
reading are given in each book and suggestions for
more than one language and in a variety of modes of
how to extend research are provided.
communic ation. They work eectively and willingly in
collaboration with others.
In addition, the course companions provide advice
and guidance on the specic course assessment
Principled: They act with integrity and honesty, with
requirements and on ac ademic honesty protocol.
a strong sense of fairness, justice and respect for the
They are distinctive and authoritative without being
dignity of the individual, groups and communities.
prescriptive.
They take responsibility for their own action and the
consequences that accompany them.
Open-minded: They understand and appreciate their
IB mission statement
own cultures and personal histories, and are open
The International Bacc alaureate aims to develop
to the perspectives, values and traditions of other
inquiring, knowledgeable and c aring young people
individuals and communities. They are accustomed to
who help to create a better and more peaceful world
seeking and evaluating a range of points of view, and
through intercultural understanding and respect.
are willing to grow from the experience.
To this end, the organization works with schools,
C aring: They show empathy, compassion and respect
governments and international organizations to
towards the needs and feelings of others. They have
develop challenging programmes of international
a personal commitment to service, and to act to make
educ ation and rigorous assessment.
a positive dierence to the lives of others and to the
environment.
These programmes encourage students across the
world to become active, compassionate and lifelong
learners who understand that other people, with their
dierences, c an also be right.
viii
Risk-takers: They approach unfamiliar situations and ‘Formal’ means that you should use one of the several
uncertainty with courage and forethought, and have accepted forms of presentation. This usually involves
the independence of spirit to explore new roles, separating the resources that you use into dierent
ideas and strategies. They are brave and articulate in c ategories (e.g. books, magazines, newspaper
defending their beliefs. articles, internet-based resources, and works of art)
and providing full information as to how a reader or
Balanced: They understand the importance of
viewer of your work c an nd the same information. A
intellectual, physic al and emotional ballance to achieve
bibliography is compulsory in the Extended Essay.
personal wellbeing for themselves and others.
What constitutes malpractice?
Reective: They give thoughtful consideration to their
M alpractice is behaviour that results in, or may result in,
own learning and experience. They are able to assess
you or any student gaining an unfair advantage in one
and understand their strengths and limitations in order
or more assessment component. M alpractice includes
to support their learning and personal development.
plagiarism and collusion.
Plagiarism is dened as the representation of the ideas
or work of another person as your own. The following
A note on ac ademic
are some of the ways to avoid plagiarism:
integrity
●
words and ideas of another person to support one’s
arguments must be acknowledged
It is of vital importance to acknowledge and
appropriately credit the owners of information when
●
passages that are quoted verbatim must
that information is used in your work. Aer all, owners
be enclosed within quotation marks and
of ideas (intellectual property) have property rights.
acknowledged
To have an authentic piece of work, it must be based
on your individual and original ideas with the work of
●
email messages, and any other electronic media
others fully acknowledged. Therefore, all assignments,
must be treated in the same way as books and
written or oral, completed for assessment must use your
journals
own language and expression. Where sources are used
●
the sources of all photographs, maps, illustrations,
or referred to, whether in the form of direct quotation
computer programs, data, graphs, audio-visual and
or paraphrase, such sources must be appropriately
similar material must be acknowledged if they are
acknowledged.
not your own work
●
when referring to works of art, whether music, lm
How do I acknowledge the work of
dance, theatre arts or visual arts and where the
others? creative use of a part of a work takes place, the
The way that you acknowledge that you have used the original artist must be acknowledged.
ideas of other people is through the use of footnotes
Collusion is dened as supporting malpractice by
and bibliographies.
another student. This includes:
Footnotes (placed at the bottom of a page) or endnotes
●
allowing your work to be copied or submitted for
(placed at the end of a document) are to be provided
assessment by another student
when you quote or paraphrase from another document
●
duplic ating work for dierent assessment
or closely summarize the information provided in
components and/or diploma requirements.
another document. You do not need to provide a
footnote for information that is part of a ‘body of
Other forms of malpractice include any action that gives
knowledge’. That is, denitions do not need to be
you an unfair advantage or aects the results of another
footnoted as they are part of the assumed knowledge.
student. Examples include, taking unauthorized
material into an examination room, misconduct during
Bibliographies should include a formal list of the
an examination and falsifying a CAS record.
resources that you used in your work.
ix
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xi
Structure 1
Models of the particulate
nature of m a tt e r
Structure 1.1 Introduction to the
particulate nature
of matter
How c an we model the particulate nature of matter?
The universally accepted idea that all matter is composed of
atoms came from experimental evidence that could only be
explained if matter were made of particles.
Early classical theory suggested that all matter was composed
of earth, air, re, and water. However, this theory lacked
predictive power and could not account for the great variety
of chemical compounds, so it was eventually abandoned.
The systematic study of chemical changes led to the
discovery of many chemical elements that could not be
broken down into simpler substances. The fact that these
elements could only combine with one another in xed
proportions suggested the existence of atoms. It was this
Figure 1 In 2021, scientists at Cornell University c aptured the
way of processing knowledge through observation and most detailed picture of atoms to date. What do models show us that
experimentation which led to the modern atomic theory microscope images c annot?
Understandings
Structure 1.1.1 — Elements are the primary constituents Structure 1.1.2 — The kinetic molecular theory is a model
of matter, which c annot be chemic ally broken down into to explain physic al properties of matter (solids, liquids,
simpler substances. and gases) and changes of state.
Compounds consist of atoms of dierent elements Structure 1.1.3 — Temperature (in K) is a measure of
chemic ally bonded together in a xed ratio. average kinetic energy (E ) of particles.
k
Mixtures contain more than one element or compound
in no xed ratio, which are not chemic ally bonded and
so c an be separated by physic al methods.
The composition of matter (Structure 1.1.1)
M atter and energy
C h e mi s t r y is th e study of matt e r and its c o mp o s i t i o n . M a tte r is e ve r y w he re.
We a re made up of ma tte r, we c o n s u me i t, it s u r ro u n ds us, and we c an see
and touch m a ny fo r m s of ma tt e r. Air is a fo r m of ma tte r th a t we kn ow is t he re,
th o u g h we c annot see i t. The u n i ve rs e is made of m a tt e r and c he mi s tr y seeks
to ex pa n d our u n de rs t a n di n g of ma tte r and its pro pe r t i e s . The characteristics
of matter are shown in gure 2.
In contrast, energy is anything that exists but does not have these properties.
M atter and energy are closely associated with each other, and energy is oen
considered as a property of matter, such as the ability to perform work or
produce heat.
3
Structure 1 Models of the particulate nature of matter
Although mass and energy c an be converted into one another (for example, in
Chemic al reactions are introduced
nuclear reactors or inside stars), chemistry studies only those transformations of
in Reactivity 1.1.
matter where both mass and energy are conserved. In chemic al reactions, the
products have the same mass as starting materials, and the energy is transformed
from one form to another rather than created or destroyed.
made up of
particles –
atoms,
molecules,
or ions
u Figure 2 The characteristics of matter
particles are occupies a
in constant MATTER volume in
motion space
has a mass
ATL Thinking skills
The famous Einstein equation, E = mc , shows that mass (m) and energy
(E) are interconvertible. However, the energy released or absorbed in
chemic al reactions is relatively small while the speed of light (c) is very large
8 –1
(3.00 × 10 m s ). As a result, the loss or gain in mass c aused by chemic al
changes is negligible.
This example demonstrates the importance of approximation in science: if
the eect of a certain factor is minor, it c an oen be ignored in c alculations
without compromising the nal result.
What other examples of negligible eects have you encountered
inchemistry?
4
Structure 1.1 Introduction to the particulate nature of matter
The atomic theory
The law of conservation of mass and the observation that certain substances
always combine in denite proportions led to the idea that matter was composed
of elements. It was theorized that elements combined to form other substances
but could not be broken down chemic ally. Hydrogen and oxygen c an react to
form water, and experiments showed that the mass of hydrogen and oxygen
consumed equalled the mass of water formed. Other experiments showed that
1.0 g of c arbon would react with 1.33 g of oxygen through combustion to form
c arbon monoxide, and with 2.66 g of oxygen to form c arbon dioxide.
It was proposed that elements, such as hydrogen, oxygen or carbon, are the
The internal structure and
primary constituents of matter, and they cannot be chemically broken down into
characteristics of atoms will be
simpler substances. The idea of denite proportions suggested that particles of one
discussed in Structure 1.2
element, called atoms, would combine with atoms of another element in a xed,
simple ratio, and that atoms of one element have a dierent mass than atoms of a
dierent element. This, and other experimental evidence, led to the atomic theory.
The atomic theory states that all matter is composed of atoms. These atoms
c annot be created or destroyed, but they are rearranged during chemic al
reactions. Physic al and chemic al properties of matter depend on the bonding
and arrangement of these atoms.
Evidence
Ancie nt atomists, among them the In dian s age
Uddāl ak a Ā runi and the Gre ek philos ophers
Democ ritus and Leuci ppus, re a sone d that matte r
w as made up of tiny, indi visible pa rticl es. They
postu late d that chan ges in the natu ra l wor ld are due to
interactions betwe en these parti cles.
In 8th century BCE, Āruni proposed that “particles too
small to be seen mass together into the substances and
objects of experience”. He c alled the particles “kana”.
Similarly, in 5th century BCE, Democritus is said to have
observed that one could successively snap a seashell
into increasingly smaller parts until producing powder
composed of indivisible units, known as “atomos”, “not
splittable”, that could not be broken any further.
The next stage in the development of atomic theory, over
2000 years later, is credited to John D alton. D alton drew
from mass conservation experiments to propose that
atoms could be classied into dierent types known as
“elements”, based on their masses.
Scientic knowledge must be supported by veriable
evidence. What evidence was used to develop these
atomic theories? What is evidence? Is evidence shaped
Figure 3 Top: Āruni lived in what is now modern day
by our perspective?
Northern India, by the Ganges river. Bottom: Democritus is
depicted in a Renaissance-era painting
5
Structure 1 Models of the particulate nature of matter
Chemic al symbols
In modern chemistry, atoms and elements are represented by the same symbols,
which consist of one or two letters and are derived from the element names. For
example, the chemic al symbol for hydrogen is H (the rst letter of hydrogen), and
the chemic al symbol for iron is Fe (the rst two letters of the L atin ferrum “iron”).
Symbol Name
Common chemic al elements and their symbols are listed in table1; the full list is
given in the data booklet and in the periodic table at the end of this book.
H hydrogen
C c arbon
Atoms are the smallest units of matter that still possess certain chemic al
properties. While atoms c an exist individually, they tend to combine together
O oxygen
and form chemic al substances. Elementary substances contain atoms of a single
Na sodium
element, while chemic al compounds contain atoms of two or more elements
Mg magnesium
bound together by chemic al forces. For example, magnesium metal is an
S sulfur
elementary substance, as it contains only one type of atom, Mg. Similarly, sulfur
(S) is another elementary substance composed of sulfur atoms only. In contrast,
Cl chlorine
magnesium sulde (MgS) is a chemic al compound, as it consists of two dierent,
Fe iron
chemic ally bound atomic species, Mg and S (gure4). MgS is the chemic al
Table 1 Common chemic al elements formula of magnesium sulde.
Figure 4 M agnesium (le), sulfur (middle) and magnesium sulde (right)
Pure substances and mixtures
M atter c an be classied as a pure substance or a mixture, depending on the type
of particle arrangement (gure 5).
matter – any substance that
occupies space and has mass
pure substance – has a definite and mixture – a combination of two or more pure
uniform chemical composition substances that retain their indiidual properties
element – compound – composed homogeneous – has
heterogeneous – has
composed of one of two or more kinds of uniform composition
nonuniform composition
kind of atoms, e.g., atoms in a fixed ratio, and properties
and arying properties,
magnesium (Mg), e.g., magnesium sulfide throughout, e.g., sea
e.g., paint, salad dressing
sulfur (S) (MgS), water (H ) water, metal alloy
Figure 5 How matter is classied according to the arrangement of particles
6
Structure 1.1 Introduction to the particulate nature of matter
Pure substances cannot be separated into individual constituents without a chemical
reaction, which alters their physical properties. In contrast, mixtures can be separated
into individual components that retain their respective physical properties.
Data-based questions
A student had two pure substances, A and B. They were heated in separate crucibles and some qualitative and
quantitative observations were made and recorded in table 2.
Substance B
Substance A
Appearance aer heating each of the two substances
M ass of crucible
M ass of crucible Change in Observations aer
Observations
and contents aer
Substance
and substance / g mass / g heating
before heating
heating / g
A Red colour 26.12 ± 0.02 26.62 ± 0.02 Black colour
B Green colour 27.05 ± 0.02 25.76 ± 0.02 Black colour
Table 2 Results from heating substances A and B
1. C alculate the change in mass for substances A and B.
2. State a qualitative observation from the experiment performed on A and B.
3. Melting ice is a physic al change while rusting iron is a chemic al change. Explain, using the observations, whether
the changes to substances A and B represented a physic al change or a chemic al change.
4. A and B were both pure substances, not mixtures. Discuss whether the experiment shows that A and B are
elements.
5. Both A and B turned black on heating. C an it be concluded that the heating of these two substances produced the
same substance?
7
Structure 1 Models of the particulate nature of matter
Melting point determination
Melting point data c an be used to a ss e ss the Method
purity of a s u b s t a n c e. Pure substances h av e sharp (Your teacher will provide specic instructions, depending
melting points, which me ans they melt at a specific on the identity of the solids being analysed.)
t e m p e ra t u r e that closely matches the the oretic al
1. Obtain samples of two organic solids (A and B) for
v a l u e. The presence of impurities in a substance
analysis.
l ow e rs its melting point and c auses melting to occur
2. Prepare samples of each solid in two separate
over a t e m p e ra t u r e ra n g e.
c apillary tubes.
3. Following your teacher ’s instructions, mix small
Relevant skills
amounts of the two solids together.
• Tool 1: Melting point determination
4. Prepare, in a third c apillary tube, a small sample of the
• Inquiry 2: Identify and record relevant qualitative
mixture of the two solids.
observations and sucient relevant quantitative data
5. Determine the melting point of your three samples
Materials
(A, B and the mixture).
• Melting point apparatus
Questions
• C apillary tubes
1. Record relevant qualitative and quantitative data in an
• S amples of two known organic solids, for example,
appropriate format.
aspirin and salol (phenyl 2-hydroxybenzoate)
2. Comment on the results, comparing the melting
S afety points of pure substances with impure substances.
• Wear eye protection. 3. Research the structural formulas of A and B and use
• Note that the melting point apparatus gets very hot. this information to explain the dierence in their
• You teacher will give you further safety prec autions, melting points.
depending on the identity of the solids being 4. To what extent could melting point data be used to
analysed (for example, salol and aspirin are irritants analyse the success of an organic synthesis?
and environmentally hazardous).
Mixtures contain more than one element or compound in no xed ratio, which
Methods for determining the
are not chemic ally bonded and so c an be separated by physic al methods.
melting point of a substance are
Mixtures c an be homogeneous, in which the particles are evenly distributed.
discussed in the Tools for chemistry
Air is a mixture of nitrogen, oxygen, and small amounts of other gases. Air is a
chapter.
homogeneous mixture, and its composition of roughly 80% nitrogen and 20%
oxygen is consistent regardless of where air is sampled.
If the particles are not evenly distributed, such as in a mixture of two solids, then
the mixture is referred to as heterogeneous. Natural milk will have the cream rise
to the top, which reveals that milk is a heterogeneous mixture.
E ach component of a mixture maintains its physic al and chemic al properties. For
The most common homogeneous
example, hydrogen, H , is explosive, and oxygen, O , supports combustion.
2 2
mixtures, aqueous solutions, will
When these substances are present in a mixture, their properties stay the same.
be discussed in Reactivity 3.1, and
In contrast, water, H O, is not a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen but a chemic al
2
the properties of metal alloys in
compound formed by bonding two hydrogen atoms with one oxygen atom.
Structure 2.4.
The new substance has none of the properties of hydrogen or oxygen. It is not a
gas, is not explosive, and it does not support combustion. It is a pure substance
with its own properties and the hydrogen and oxygen c annot be separated from
water without a chemic al reaction, which creates new substances.
8
Structure 1.1 Introduction to the particulate nature of matter
Separating mixtures
Mixtures c an be separated by physic al means bec ause each component of the
mixture has unique properties. A mixture of iron and sulfur powders c an be
separated using a magnet. Iron is magnetic while sulfur is not. This dierence
in property is used to separate them. The compound iron(II) sulde, FeS, is not
magnetic and does not have a sulfurous smell. It maintains none of the properties
of the components as it is a new, individual pure substance.
Two solids c an usually be separated if we understand their intermolecular forces.
S and c an be separated from sugar bec ause sugar will dissolve in water, due to
the intermolecular attractions between sugar and water.
Th e solid m i x tu re of sand and s u ga r is placed in water and t he s u ga r
Intermolecular forces are discussed
di ss o l ve s . T he solution c an th e n be po u re d t h ro u g h fi l t e r paper placed i n s i de
in Structure 2.2
a funnel, a p ro c e ss c alled fil t ra t i on (fi gu re 6 ). T he l a rg e sand p a r ti c l e s will
not p a ss th ro u gh and re m a i n on th e fi l t e r p a p e r, w h e re a s the sugar d i ss o l ve d
in th e w a te r will p a ss t h ro u gh t he f i l te r p a p e r. Th e wet sand is dried, and th e
w a te r e v a p o ra te s l e av i n g behind th e pu re sand. Th e s u ga r c an be o bt a i n e d
by e v a p o ra t i n g th e w a te r f ro m the fil tra t e — the solution which pa ss e d
th ro u gh t he f i l te r pa p e r. S u ga r c r ys ta l s will fo r m in t hi s c r yst al li za t i on pro c e ss
(fi gu re 7 ).
filter paper
filter funnel
residue
(We define
a residue
as a substance
that remains
aer evaporation,
distillation,
filtration or any
similar process)
filtrate
Figure 6 Filtration apparatus
evaporating sugar solution
basin
solution from
evaporating basin
leave for a few days
cold tile
t Figure 7 The crystallization
heat
for sugar to crystallize
process
9
Structure 1 Models of the particulate nature of matter
Distillation can be used to separate miscible liquids with dierent boiling points,
such as ethanol and water. Ethanol has a lower boiling point and will evaporate rst.
Once the vapours rise up a cooling column, they can be condensed to a liquid. As
shown in gure 8, cold water surrounds the condenser and allows the vapours to
condense to liquid ethanol. The water remains mostly in the distillation ask.
thermometer
distillation
water out
u Figure 8 Distillation apparatus
flask
condenser
ethanol
water in
and water
distillate
heat (mostly ethanol)
Paper chromatography can be used to separate substances such as components
Paper chromatography will
in inks. A piece of chromatography paper is spotted with the mixture. The bottom
be discussed in more detail in
of the paper, below the spot, is placed in a suitable solvent as in gure 9(a).
Structure 2.2
The substances in the mixture have dierent anities for the solvent (the mobile
phase) and the paper (the stationary phase). The anity depends on the
intermolecular forces of attraction between the pure substances in the mixture
and the solvent or the paper. Figure 9(c) shows a mixture that was composed of
ve pure substances.
u Figure 9 The stages in 2D paper
(a) (b) (c)
chromatography
paper
some
some
hours
hours
later
later
drop of turn paper 90° clockwise
solvent
mixture and use a different solvent
Data-based questions
Look at gure 9.
1. Which colour dot had the strongest anity for both solvent 1 and solvent 2?
2. Which colour dots had a stronger anity for solvent 1 than solvent 2?
3. Which had a stronger anity for solvent 2 than solvent 1?
10
Structure 1.1 Introduction to the particulate nature of matter
Table 3 shows a summary of the separation techniques discussed.
Components
Technique Description
removed le
mixture is poured
ltration through a paper lter or liquid(s) solid(s)
other porous material
dissolution mixture is added to water soluble insoluble
(solvation) or an organic solvent substance(s) substance(s)
mixture is dissolved in
Activity
hot water or an organic
solvent, the solution more soluble less soluble
Suggest a suitable method for
crystallization
cools down, and the substance(s) substance(s)
separating each of the following
crystals formed are
mixtures:
isolated by ltration
a. salt and pepper
mixture is heated up solid(s) and/
b. several water-soluble dyes
evaporation or volatile
until one or more of its or non-volatile
c. sugar and water
distillation liquid(s)
components vaporize(s) liquid(s)
d. iron and copper lings
mixture is placed on For each mixture, describe the
less soluble
a piece of paper; one separation technique and outline
more soluble component(s)
paper side of the paper is how each component is isolated.
component(s) move(s) slower
chromatography submerged in water or
move(s) faster or stay(s) in
a solvent; components
place
move along the paper
Ta b l e 3 Summary of separation techniques
Figure 10 An advanced ltration technique c alled reverse osmosis extracts salt from seawater, providing fresh
water for millions of people. However, this process requires vast amounts of energy, most of which is currently
provided by fossil fuels. Why might it be important to consider alternative energy sources?
11
Structure 1 Models of the particulate nature of matter
Planning experiments and risk assessments
Relevant skills
• Tool 1: Separation of mixtures
• Tool 1: Addressing safety of self, others and the environment
Instructions
1. Using the ideas in this chapter, devise a method that would allow you
to separate a mixture containing sand, salt, iron lings and powdered
c alcium c arbonate. In doing so, you must consider the physic al and
chemic al properties of each of these four substances.
2. Once you have decided on a method, identify the hazards and complete
a risk assessment protocol in which you:
• Identify the hazards
• Assess the level of risk
• Determine relevant control measures
• Identify suitable disposal methods aligned with your school’s health
and safety policies.
3. If you have time, try it out! Remember that your teacher should validate
your methodology and risk assessment beforehand.
Extension
You could evaluate the eectiveness of your method by comparing the mass
of each component (sand, salt, iron lings, and c alcium c arbonate) before and
aer the separation. Measure the mass of each component prior to mixing
them together. Then mix them together, c arry out your separation, make sure
the components are all dry, and measure the mass of each again. Compare
the masses before and aer to c alculate the percentage recovery of each
component.
Linking questions
What factors are considered in choosing a method to separate the
components of a mixture? (Tool 1)
How c an the products of a reaction be purified? (Tool 1)
How do intermolecular forces influence the type of mixture that forms
between two substances? (Structure 2.2)
Why are alloys generally considered to be mixtures, even though they often
contain metallic bonding? (Structure 2.3 and Structure 2.4)
12
Structure 1.1 Introduction to the particulate nature of matter
States of matter (Structure 1.1.2)
Solids, liquids and gases
Matter is composed of particles. The types of interactions between these particles
determine the state of matter of a substance: solid, liquid or gas. All substances
can exist in these three states, depending on the temperature and pressure.
The states of matter of substances are shown by letters in brackets aer the
formula: (s) for solid, (l) for liquid and (g) for gas. For example:
• Water is a solid below 0 °C: H O(s)
2
• Water is a liquid between 0 and 100 °C: H O(l)
2
• Water is a gas above 100 °C: H O(g).
2
A special symbol, (aq), is used for molecules or other species in aqueous solutions.
For example, the expression “NaCl(aq)” tells us that sodium chloride is dissolved
in water while “NaCl(s)” refers to the pure compound (solid sodium chloride). The
properties of the three states of matter are summarized in gure 11.
solid liquid gas
• fixed volume • fixed volume • no fixed volume
• fixed shape • no fixed shape • no fixed shape
• c annot be • c annot be • c an be
compressed compressed compressed
• attractive forces • attractive forces • attractive forces
between particles between particles between particles
are strong are weaker than are negligible
• particles vibrate in those in solids • particles vibrate,
fixed positions but • particles vibrate, rotate, and move
do not move around rotate, and around faster than
move around in a liquid
Figure 11 Steam, liquid water and ice are the three states of water
Changes of state
Substances change their states of matter as they absorb or release energy. Solid
ice will absorb energy as it is heated. The particles continue to vibrate in xed
positions, but more violently, until a temperature known as the melting point
is reached. At this point, the ice melts (changes its state from solid to liquid).
A further increase in temperature accelerates the movement of particles, and
eventually the water vaporizes and becomes a gas. The decrease in temperature
reverses these changes of state.
Under certain conditions, solid substances c an turn into gases directly, without
melting. This change of state, known as sublimation, is typic al for dry ice (solid
c arbon dioxide, CO (s), gure12), which is commonly used for refrigerating ice
2
cream and biologic al samples. Figure 12 Sublimation of dry ice
13
Structure 1 Models of the particulate nature of matter
The process opposite to sublimation is c alled deposition. At low temperatures,
water vapour in the air solidies and forms snowakes of various shapes and sizes
(gure13).
When a substance changes from a more condensed state to a less condensed
state, energy is absorbed by the particles from the surroundings. This happens
when a solid becomes a liquid or a gas, and when a liquid becomes a gas. These
are endothermic processes.
When a substance changes from a less condensed state to a more condensed
state, the particles lose energy to the surroundings and, for a molecular
substance, the intermolecular forces become stronger. This happens when a gas
becomes a liquid or a solid, and when a liquid becomes a solid. The process of
releasing energy to the surroundings is an exothermic process.
Figure 13 A snowake, the product of
The changes of state occurring in these transformations are shown in gure 14.
deposition of water
Non-Newtonian uids
Some substances, known as non-Newtonian uids, 2. Slowly add water to the maize starch and mix.
do not behave like typic al liquids. The viscosity of non- Continue adding water until the mixture achieves
Newtonian uids varies depending on the force applied a thick consistency. Adjust by adding more maize
to them. You will make a non-Newtonian uid commonly starch or more water, as needed.
known as maize starch slime or “oobleck”, and explore its 3. Spend some time exploring the properties of
properties. your mixture. It should harden if tapped, and ow
smoothly if stirred slowly.
Relevant skills
Questions
• Inquiry 1: Identify dependent and independent
1. Describe the properties and identify the state of
variables
matter of each of the following:
• Inquiry 2: Identify and record relevant qualitative
• powdered maize starch
observations
• water
S afety
• the maize starch–water mixture.
Wear eye protection.
2. Suppose you were asked to develop a research
question relating to a maize starch–water mixture.
Materials
Consider possible independent and dependent
• Spoon or large spatula
3 variables.
• 250 cm beaker
3. Research non-Newtonian uids and identify other
• Powdered maize starch
examples of these substances.
• Water
4. How has this experience changed the way you think
Method
about states of matter and their properties? Reect on
1. Ad d t h re e or fo u r h e a pe d spoons of ma i z e
this, completing the following sentence starters:
s ta rc h to t he b e a ke r. N o te i ts a pp e a ra n c e and
• I used to think...
c o n s i s t e n c y.
• Now, I think...
Linking questions
Why are some substances solid while others are fluid under standard
conditions? (Structure 2.4)
Why are some changes of state endothermic and some exothermic?
(Structure 2, Reactivity 1.2)
14
Structure 1.1 Introduction to the particulate nature of matter
gas (g)
freezing
melting
solid (s) liquid (l)
Figure 15 Orange growers spray their fruit with water on cold nights.
Figure 14 Endothermic and exothermic
Freezing of water is an exothermic process that releases energy (in the form of
changes of state
heat) to the fruit, protecting it against cold
Kelvin temperature sc ale (Structure 1.1.3)
As temperature rises, the energies of particles increase. Temperature is a
measure of the average kinetic energy of particles. As substances absorb energy,
particles of a solid vibrate in the lattice more, particles in a liquid vibrate more and
move faster, while in a gas they move faster.
When water is heated, there is no temperature change during the periods when
a solid changes to a liquid and when a liquid changes to a gas (gure 16). The
added energy is used to disrupt the solid lattice and overcome the intermolecular
forces between molecules in the liquid.
vaporization
steam
100
kg
C°
condensation
d
m
c
/
water + steam
erutarepmet
water
om
ice + water
melting
K
A
freezing
Figure 17 The seven base SI units
ice
are kilogram (kg) for mass, meter (m) for
energy input length, second (s) for time, ampere (A) for
electric current, kelvin (K) for temperature,
Figure 16 Graph of the heating curve for water
mole (mol) for amount of substance, and
c andela (cd) for luminous intensity. All units
There were many attempts to measure relative temperature, but the rst widely
of measurement c an be derived from these
accepted temperature sc ale was introduced by the Polish-born Dutch physicist
seven base units
D aniel Gabriel F ahrenheit.
You will learn more about the mole
The kelvin is the base unit of temperature measurement in the International
in Structure 1.4.
System of Units (SI). There are seven base units, and all other units of
measurements c an be derived from these (gure 17).
15
Structure 1 Models of the particulate nature of matter
Measurement
3 –3
M aking, recording, and communic ating measurements volume (m ), density (kg m ), energy ( joule, J, where 1 J
2 –2
greatly benets from agreed upon sc ales. The = 1 kg m s ) and so on, are derived from the seven base
International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM, units.
from the French Bureau international des poids et
The base units are dened according to seven constants,
mesures), established in the late 19th century, is an
including several that you will recognize, such as the
international organisation which seeks to set up and
Boltzmann constant, k; speed of light, c; the Avogadro
continuously rene measurement standards.
constant, N ; and the Plank constant, h
A
The International System of Units (SI, from the French
The use of universal and precisely dened units is very
Système international d’unités) is the most commonly
important, as it allows scientists from dierent countries
used system of measurement. Its building blocks are the
to understand one another and share the results of their
seven base units: length (metre, m), mass (kilogram, kg),
studies. What other advantages are there to internationally
time (second, s), electric current (ampere, A), temperature
shared and continuously updated measurement systems in
(kelvin, K), amount of substance (mole, mol) and luminous
the natural sciences? You might want to look up the Mars
intensity (c andela, cd). All other units, such as those of
Climate Orbiter.
ATL Thinking skills
Throughout history, several universal temperature sc ales have been
developed, each with dierent reference points. Some of these are
summarized in table 4.
Sc ale D ate Reference points
Newton 1700s H O freezing point = 0°
2
Human body temperature = 12°
F ahrenheit 1700s H O freezing point = 32°
2
H O boiling point = 212°
2
Delisle 1700s H O freezing point = 150°
2
H O boiling point = 0°
2
Celsius 1700s H O freezing point = 0°
2
H O boiling point = 100°
2
Kelvin 1800s Absolute zero = 0
CGPM 1950s Triple point of water = 273.16 K
BIPM 2018 Kelvin dened in terms of the Boltzmann
constant, k.
Table 4 Examples of v arious t e m p e ra t u r e sc ales
Temperature is related to thermal energy and as such it could be expressed
in the unit for energy, joules ( J), which are in turn dened in terms of the base
units kg, m and s. It has been decided to keep kelvin as an SI base unit “for
Figure 18 A platinum–iridium cylinder historic al and practic al reasons”. What do you think some of these historic al
in the US was used to dene a kilogram of and practic al reasons could be?
mass. This standard bec ame obsolete in
Look c arefully at table 4 above. Identify one thing you see, one thing it makes
2019, when the kilogram and all other SI
you think about, and one thing it makes you wonder. Share your ideas with
units were redened as exact quantities
your class.
based on physic al constants
16
Structure 1.1 Introduction to the particulate nature of matter
Kelvin temperature is proportional to the average kinetic energy of particles and
is considered an absolute sc ale.
Absolute zero (0 K) implies that at this temperature the particles c annot transfer
any kinetic energy on collisions. M atter at absolute zero c annot lose heat and
hence c annot get any colder. An increase in temperature of 1 kelvin is equivalent
to an increase in temperature of 1 degree Celsius. 0 °C is equal to 273.15 K.
Under normal pressure, water boils at 100 °C, so that makes the boiling point of
water 373.15 K. Absolute zero on the Celsius sc ale is –273.15 °C.
t Figure 19 The Celsius and Kelvin
sc ales for temperature (all values are
rounded to whole numbers)
400 K
water
100 °C
373 K
boils
350 K
50 °C
300 K
water
0 °C 273 K
freezes
40 °C
250 K
50 °C
You will learn more about the
200 K
dry ice
kinetic energy of particles in
78 °C
195 K
solid CO
2
Reactivity 2.2.
100 °C
150 K
150 °C
100 K
liquid
191 °C
82 K
air
200 °C
50 K
250 °C
absolute
273 °C 0 K
zero
Celsius Kelvin
Linking questions
What is the graphic al distribution of kinetic energy values of particles in a
sample at a fixed temperature? (Reactivity2.2)
What must happen to particles for a chemical reaction to occur? (Reactivity 2.2)
17
Structure 1 Models of the particulate nature of matter
End-of-topic questions
5. Which changes of state are opposite to each other?
Topic review
A. melting and condensation
1. Using your knowledge from the Structure 1.1 topic,
B. vaporization and deposition
answer the guiding question as fully as possible:
C. deposition and sublimation
How can we model the particulate nature of matter?
D. sublimation and freezing
6. Which of the following statements is incorrect?
Exam-style questions
A. solids and liquids are almost incompressible
Multiple-choice questions
B. particles in both solids and liquids are mobile
2. Which of the following are examples of homogeneous
C. liquids and gases have no xed shape
mixtures?
D. particles in solids, liquids and gases c an vibrate
I. Air
7. Which elements c an be separated from each other by
II. Steel
physic al methods?
III. Aqueous potassium manganate(VII),
A. oxygen and nitrogen in air
KMnO (aq).
4
B. hydrogen and oxygen in water
A. II only
C. c arbon and oxygen in dry ice
B. III only
D. magnesium and sulfur in magnesium sulde
C. I and II only
8. Which change in temperature on the Celsius sc ale is
D. I, II and III equivalent to the increase in temperature by 20 K?
A. decrease by 20 °C
3. What correctly describes the sublimation of dry ice
B. increase by 20 °C
(c arbon dioxide)?
C. decrease by 293.15 °C
Exothermic or Equation describing the
D. increase by 293.15 °C
endothermic? process
A exothermic CO (s) → CO (g) Extended-response questions
2 2
B exothermic CO (s) → C(g) + O (g) 9. Explain why the Kelvin temperature is directly
2 2
proportional to average kinetic energy but the
C endothermic CO (s) → CO (g)
2 2
Celsius temperature is not, even though a 1-degree
D endothermic CO (s) → C(g) + O (g)
2 2 temperature increment is the same in each sc ale? [2]
4. Which of the following methods could be used to
10. Ionic salts c an be broken down in electrolysis. The
obtain solid sodium chloride from a solution of sodium
unbalanced ionic equation for the electrolysis of molten
chloride in water?
lead(II) bromide is:
I. evaporation
2+
Pb + Br → Pb + X
II. ltration
a. One of the products is lead, Pb. State the
III. distillation
formula of product X. [1]
A. I only
b. Balance the equation. [1]
B. I and II only
c. The electrolysis of molten lead(II) bromide is
C. I and III only
c arriedout at 380 °C. With reference to melting
D. I, II and III point and boiling point data, deduce the state of
matter of each of the species in the equation at this
temperature. Write state symbols in the balanced
equation you gave in (b). [2]
18
Structure 1.1 Introduction to the particulate nature of matter
11. The kinetic energy of particles is equal to half of their c. Once the excess copper(II) oxide had been
mass × the square of the velocity of the particles: removed, the student needed to gure out how
1 to obtain pure crystals of copper(II) sulfate from
2
E = mv . Determine how much the speed of
k
2 the solution. Describe a method the student
molecules in a pure gaseous substance will increase
couldfollow to obtain pure, dry copper(II)
when the Kelvin temperature is doubled. [2]
sulfatecrystals. [3]
12. Pure c aeine is a white powder with melting point
14. Study the gure below.
235 °C.
vaporization
a. State the melting point of c aeine in kelvin. [1]
100
C°
b. A chemist is investigating the ec acy of three
condensation
/
c aeine extraction methods. The theoretic al
erutarepmet
water + steam
yield in all three c ases is 0.960 g. She uses each
water
method once and collects the following data for the
ice + water
yield and melting point of the product:
melting
Method 1 Method 2 Method 3
freezing
ice
Mass of c aeine
0.229 0.094 0.380
energy input
obtained / g
Melting point of
190–220 229–233 188–201
caeine product / °C
a. Explain why, in spite of the increasing energy
input,the temperature of the sample remains
i. C alculate the mean and range of the mass
constant at 0 °C for a period of time. [2]
of c aeine obtained. [2]
ii. C alculate the percentage yield of Method 1.
A solution of 5.00 g of sodium chloride in 100.0 g of
Give your answer to an appropriate number
pure water (at standard atmospheric temperature and
of signic ant gures. [2]
pressure) has the following properties:
iii. Determine, giving a reason, which method
melting point: –3 °C
gave the purest c aeine product. [1]
boiling point: 101 °C
c. Suggest one way to minimize the random
b. Sketch a graph similar to the one in gure 16
error in this experiment. [1]
to show the heating curve for a sample of this
13. A student prepares a copper(II) sulfate solution by
sodiumchloride solution. [2]
reacting dilute sulfuric acid with excess copper(II) oxide.
15. Elemental iodine exists as diatomic molecules, I . At
2
Copper(II) oxide is insoluble in water.
room temperature and pressure, it is a lustrous purple-
black solid that readily forms violet fumes when heated
The word equation for this reaction is as follows:
gently. When cooled, gaseous iodine deposits on
sulfuric acid + copper(II) oxide → copper(II) sulfate + water
cold surfaces without condensing. Under increased
pressure, solid iodine melts at 114 °C to form a deep-
a. Write a balanced chemic al equation, including
violet liquid.
state symbols, for this reaction. [2]
a. Formulate equations that represent all changes of
b. The acid was heated, then copper(II) oxide
state mentioned above. [3]
powder was added until it was in excess and
b. State the melting point of iodine in kelvin. [1]
could be observed suspended in the solution,
quickly sinking to the bottom of the beaker. Suggest, c. Suggest how liquid iodine c an be obtained from
giving a reason, a method the student could gaseous iodine. [1]
use to remove the excess copper(II) oxide. [2]
19
Structure 1.2 The nuclear atom
Understandings
How do nuclei of atoms dier?
Structure 1.2.1 — Atoms contain a positively charged, dense
The answer to this question was obtained by over
nucleus composed of protons and neutrons (nucleons). Negatively
100 years of brilliant research. Sometimes, the
charged electrons occupy the space outside the nucleus
question of how we know is more fascinating than
Structure 1.2.2 — Isotopes are atoms of the same element with
the question of what is known
dierent numbers of neutrons.
In the late 1800s, the idea that matter was
LHA
composed of atoms that were indivisible and
Structure 1.2.3 — M ass spectra are used to determine
rearranged in chemic al reactions (known as
the relative atomic masses of elements from their isotopic
the atomic theory) was gaining popularity. The
composition.
discovery of electricity and radioactivity allowed
scientists to study the structure of the atom itself.
The structure of the atom (Structure 1.2.1)
An atom contains a positively charged nucleus, which itself contains protons
and neutrons (collectively known as nucleons). Atoms also contain electrons,
which occupy the vast region outside of the nucleus. The protons, neutrons and
electrons are known as subatomic particles.
The key factors of the nucleus are:
1. It is very small in comparison to the atom itself.
2. It is a highly dense structure containing virtually all the mass of the atom.
3. It has a positive charge.
In an experiment designed by Ernest Rutherford in 1911, positively charged
radioactive alpha particles were red toward a sheet of gold foil. The main
observations made are given in gure 1.
movable
beam of
Rutherford’s explanation
detector
alpha particles
+
Most alpha
+
alpha source particles are
undeflected
atom
gold Some alpha
vacuum
foil particles are
+
deflected
slightly
A few alpha
undeflected
particles
+
large slight
bounce
+
deflection deflection
off nucleus
Figure 1 Rutherford’s gold foil experiment
20
Structure 1.2 The nuclear atom
F alsic ation
The gold foil experiment falsied the atomic model Scientic claims are falsiable. This means that they are
that preceded it, namely the “plum-pudding model”. vulnerable to evidence that contradicts them. A scientic
The plum-pudding model suggested that the atom was claim that stands up to severe testing is strong but c an
an amorphous positively charged blob with electrons never be proven true with absolute certainty. Scientic
present throughout. If this were the c ase, all alpha knowledge is therefore always accompanied by a
particles red at the gold foil would have gone through its degree of uncertainty. The provisional nature of scientic
atoms undeected. Rutherford’s results contradicted the knowledge means that further evidence c an steer it in
existing model, paving the way for the development of a new directions.
new model of the atom.
C an a single counterexample falsify a claim?
Activity
The lists below show the observations in the gold foil experiment and the
properties of the nucleus. Determine which observation is explained by
which property.
Observation Property
Nearly all the alpha particles went The nucleus has a positive charge.
straight through the gold foil.
Occ asionally, some of the alpha The nucleus is very small in
particles bounced straight back. comparison to the size of the atom.
The alpha particles are repelled The nucleus is very dense, containing
when closely approaching the virtually all the mass of the atom.
nucleus.
In 1911, Rutherford summarized the results of his experiments by proposing the
planetary model of the atom, also known as the Rutherford model (gure2).
In this model, negatively charged electrons orbit the positively charged atomic
nucleus in the same way as planets orbit the Sun. Just as the Sun contains 99.8%
of the solar system’s mass, the atomic nucleus contains over 99.9% of the mass of
the entire atom. However, instead of by gravity, the electrons are held around the
nucleus by electrostatic attraction.
– electron
+
– proton
– neutron
– nucleus
Figure 2 The Rutherford model of the atom
21
Structure 1 Models of the particulate nature of matter
Models
Scientists use models to represent natural phenomena. All Atoms themselves are extremely small. The diameter of
–10 –10
models have limitations, which should be identied and most atoms is in the range 1 × 10 to 5 × 10 m. The
understood. Consider the depiction of the atom in gure unit used to describe the dimensions of atoms is the
2. The size of the nucleus is exaggerated but it serves as a picometre, pm:
–12
useful model of the nuclear atom.
1 pm = 10 m
The vast space in the atom compared to the tiny size of
In X-ray crystallography a commonly used unit for atomic
the nucleus is hard to fully appreciate. Rutherford’s native
dimensions is the angstrom, symbol Å:
New Zealand is a great rugby-playing nation. Imagine –10
1 Å = 10 m
being at Eden Park stadium (gure 3) and looking down at
For example, the atomic radius of the uorine atom is
the centre of the pitch from the top row of seats. If a golf
–12
60 × 10 m (60 pm). To convert this toÅ we c an use
ball were placed at the centre of the eld, the distance
dimensional analysis, using the conversion factors
between you and the golf ball would represent the
given above:
distance between the electron and the nucleus.
–12
10 m 1 Å
–1
The relative volume of open space in the atom is vast, and 60 pm × × = 0.60 Å = 6.0 × 10 Å
–10
1 pm 10 m
our simple representation of Rutherford’s atomic model
In spite of its limitations, Rutherford’s work has formed the
in gure 2 is obviously unrealistic. The nucleus occupies
basis of much of our thinking on the structure of the atom.
a tiny volume of the atom and the diameter of an atom is
Rutherford is rumoured to have said to his students:
approximately 100 000 times the diameter of the nucleus.
All science is either physics or stamp collecting!
Figure 3 Eden Park, Auckland, New Zealand. If the atom were the size of the stadium, the nucleus would look like a golf ball in the centre
of the eld
22
Structure 1.2 The nuclear atom
TOK
All the models we have discussed assume that atoms are real. However, it
could be argued that objects are only “real” when they c an be seen. In 1981
two physicists, Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer, working at IBM in Zurich,
Switzerland invented the sc anning tunnelling microscope (STM), an electron
microscope that generates three-dimensional images of surfaces at the atomic
level. This gave scientists the ability to observe individual atoms directly. The
Nobel Prize in Physics in 1986 was awarded to Binnig and Rohrer for their
groundbreaking work.
You c an nd an atomic sc ale lm created by IBM c alled A Boy and his Atom on
the internet.
Figure 4 A still from A Boy and his Atom
Has technology extended human’s c apacity to make observations of the
natural world?
How important are material tools in the production or acquisition of
knowledge?
Other experiments have shown that the nucleus also contains a neutral subatomic
particle, the neutron, with nearly the same mass as the proton. The relative
masses and charges of the subatomic particles are shown in table 1.
t Table 1 Relative masses and charges for
Particle Relative mass Relative charge Loc ation
the proton, neutron and electron
proton 1 +1
nucleus
neutron 1 0
electron negligible –1 outside nucleus
The electric charge c arried by a single electron is known as the elementary
The actual masses and charges of
–19
charge (e) and it has a value of approximately 1.602 × 10 C. The charges of
these particles c an be found in the
subatomic particles are commonly expressed in elementary charge units. For
data booklet.
example, the charge of an electron c an be represented as –e, and the charge
of a proton as +e. The symbol e is oen omitted, so it is customary to say that
electrons and protons have charges of –1 and +1, respectively.
23
Structure 1 Models of the particulate nature of matter
How small is small?
Relevant skills
• Tool 3: Apply and use SI prexes and units
• Tool 3: Use and interpret scientic notation
Instructions
1. A variety of small lengths are shown in table 2. Without looking at their
lengths, but rather based on what you know about each item, list these
objects in order of size, from smallest to largest.
Item Length
proton, charge radius 0.84 fm
sheet of paper, thickness 0.10 mm
onion cell, diameter 250 µm
iodine-iodine bond, length 267 pm
printed full stop, diameter 0.30 mm
c arbon atom, diameter 150 pm
C fullerene, diameter 0.71 nm
60
Table 2 Lengths of various small items
2. Convert the length values into metres and state them in standard form to
two signicant gures. Refer to the following conversion factors:
–3
• milli, m: 10
–6
• micro, µ: 10
–9
• nano, n: 10
–12
• pico, p: 10
–15
• femto, f: 10
3. List the length values in table 2 in order of increasing size. Was the list you
gave for question 1 correct?
4. Conduct a web search to nd three more values to add to the list: one
smaller than the values given in table 2, one larger, and one intermediate.
5. Provide the full reference for your information sources in question 4,
ATL
following your school’s citing and referencing system.
Atomic number and the nuclear symbol
As of 2023, there are 118 known elements, given atomic numbers 1 to 118. The atomic
number of an element is also the number of protons in the nucleus of that atom. Gold,
atomic number 79, has 79 protons, while carbon, atomic number 6, has 6 protons. As
all the relative mass is in the nucleus, the dierence between the atomic number and
mass number is the number of neutrons in the element. Gold has atomic number 79 and
mass number 197. Therefore, it has 197 – 79 = 118 neutrons. Each element is neutral,
with no charge, so the number of electrons in a neutral atom must equal the number
ofprotons.
24
Structure 1.2 The nuclear atom
Activity
Determine the missing values from the table.
Atomic symbol Atomic number M ass number Protons Neutrons Electrons
O 8
13 27
85 37
80 35
27 32
120 80
Pb 207
69 100
Chemists frequently use nuclear symbol notation, X, to denote the number of
neutrons, protons and electrons in an atom. A represents the mass number of the
isotope, Z is the atomic number, and X is the chemic al symbol (gure 5). Gold,
for example, with mass number 197 and atomic number 79, would have a nuclear
197
symbol notation of Au.
79
mass number chemic al symbol
A = Z + N where for the element
N = number of neutrons
X
Z
atomic number =
number of protons
Figure 5 The nuclear symbol notation
Atoms form compounds by sharing or transferring electrons. As a result, these
atoms sometimes are no longer neutral, having more or fewer electrons than
protons. For example, magnesium atoms react with oxygen atoms to produce
the ionic compound magnesium oxide. M agnesium loses two electrons to form
a magnesium ion with a 2+ charge, as the number of positively charged protons
in the nucleus (12) is two greater than the number of negatively charged electrons
remaining (10).
The resulting charge is also displayed in the nuclear symbol notation below:
+
mass number: 24 charge: 2+
24 2
(12 protons + 12 electrons) (12 protons – 10 electrons)
Mg
atomic number: 12
12 chemic al element: Mg
(12 protons) (magnesium)
The oxygen atom gains the two electrons lost by magnesium to produce an oxide
16
2–
ion with a 2– negative charge. The nuclear symbol for the oxide ion is O .
25
Structure 1 Models of the particulate nature of matter
The overall chemical equation for the reaction between magnesium and oxygen is
1
2+ 2–
Mg + O → Mg + O
2
Ionic bonding is discussed further
2
in Structure 2.1 2+ 2–
Mg + O is more commonly written as MgO, as the opposite charges on the
two ions result in a force of attraction between them known as an ionic bond.
Ionic bonds hold the ions together to form solid magnesium oxide.
Activity
Linking questions
Deduce the nuclear symbol
What determines the different chemical properties of atoms? (Structure 1.3)
notation for an ion with 24
protons, 21 electrons, and 28
How does the atomic number relate to the position of an element in the
neutrons.
periodic table? (Structure 3.1)
Isotopes (Structure 1.2.2)
Isotopes are dierent atoms of the same element with a dierent number of neutrons.
As a result, they have dierent mass numbers, A, but the same atomic number, Z.
35
Chlorine, for example, has two isotopes: one with mass number 35, Cl, and one
17
37
with mass number 37, Cl. They have similar chemical properties, as they are both
17
chlorine atoms with the same number of electrons, but dierent physical properties,
such as density, because atoms of one isotope are heavier than atoms of the other.
Naturally occurring hydrogen consists of two stable isotopes, hydrogen-1
(protium) and hydrogen-2 (deuterium). The third isotope of hydrogen, tritium
(gure6), is radioactive, so it does not occur in nature in signic ant quantities.
Activity
Copy the table below and complete it by deducing the nuclear symbols and/
or composition of these isotopes.
Isotope Nuclear symbol Z N A
hydrogen-1 (protium)
H
1
hydrogen-2 (deuterium) 1
hydrogen-3 (tritium) 3
Atomic numbers of isotopes are oen omitted in nuclear symbol notation. For
37
example, the isotope of chlorine with mass number 37 c an be written as Cl.
‘Cl’ tells you the isotope is chlorine and therefore must have an atomic number of
17, so including the atomic number is not necessary. These isotopes c an also be
written with a hyphen, such as chlorine-37, or Cl-37. The relative atomic mass,
A , listed for each element on the periodic table is not a whole number bec ause it
r
is the weighted average of all isotopes of that element.
Natural abundance (NA) of an isotope is the percentage of its atoms among
Figure 6 A portable tritium light source.
all atoms of the given element found on our planet. If we know the natural
The radioactive dec ay of tritium produces
abundances for all isotopes of an element, we c an c alculate the average A of that
high-energy electrons (beta particles).
r
These electrons hit a uorescent material element. The opposite task (c alculation of natural abundances from A ) is possible
r
and make it glow in the dark
only if the element is composed of two known isotopes.
26
Structure 1.2 The nuclear atom
Worked example 1
C alculate the A for iron using the values in the following table.
r
Isotope N atural abundance (NA)/ %
54
Fe 5.845
56
Fe 91.754
57
Fe 2.119
58
Fe 0.282
Solution
We know A = average of the natural abundance of each isotope multiplied by their mass numbers.
r
The natural abundance values add up to 100% so we divide by 100 to obtain the average.
Therefore:
54 × 5.845 + 56 × 91.754 + 57 × 2.119 + 58 × 0.282
A = = 55.91
r
100
Worked example 2
There are two stable isotopes of chlorine: Cl-35 and Cl-37. C alculate the natural
abundance (NA) of each isotope given that A for chlorine is 35.45.
r
Solution
(A of isotope 1 × NA of isotope 1) + (A of isotope 2 × NA of isotope 2)
A =
100
Therefore:
(35 × NA of Cl-35) + (37 × NA of Cl-37)
= 35.45
100
Let x = NA of Cl-35, then 100 x = NA of Cl-37.
Substituting in the above equation gives:
35x + 37(100 x)
= 35.45
100
Expanding the brackets and resolving the x terms gives:
3700 2x
= 35.45
100
Then rearrange in terms of x:
3700 3545
x =
x = 77.5 and 100 x = 22.5. Therefore, the natural abundance of Cl-35 is 77.5% and Cl-37 22.5%.
35 37
The actual natural abundances of Cl and Cl are 75.8 and 24.2%, respectively.
Average A values for all elements
r
The results of our calculations are slightly dierent because we used mass numbers,
are given in the data booklet and in
35 37
which are rounded values for the actual masses of the Cl and Cl atoms.
the periodic table at the end of this
book.
27
Structure 1 Models of the particulate nature of matter
Density at Melting Boiling
Compound
–3
4 °C / g cm point / °C point / °C
H O 1.000 0.00 100.0
2
H O 1.106 3.82 101.4
2
Table 3 Physic al properties of normal and heavy water
235 238
Naturally occurring uranium consists of two main isotopes, U and U. The
dierences in physic al properties of these isotopes are used for the enrichment
Figure 7 A pellet of enriched uranium
235 238
(increase in the proportion of U over U) of nuclear fuel (gure7), as most
used as fuel in nuclear reactors
235
nuclear reactors require uranium with at least 3% of U, while natural uranium
contains only 0.72% of this isotope.
Enriching one type of isotope in a particular substance c an also make it possible
to track the mechanisms and progress of reactions. This is oen referred to as
isotope labelling.
Global impact of science
Developments in science and their applic ations may have ethic al,
environmental, politic al, social, cultural and economic consequences.
Nuclear ssion, which involves splitting up the nuclei of large atoms releasing
colossal amounts of energy, is one such development. It has led tothe
development of nuclear energy, as well as the atomic bomb.
Element 109, meitnerium (Mt), is named aer Lise Meitner, the second
woman in history to receive a physics doctorate from the University of Vienna
(gure8). Her work with Otto Frisch led to the discovery of nuclear ssion,
published in Nature in 1939. In later years, Meitner was invited to work on
atomic bomb technology being developed in the US. She declined, famously
stating “I will have nothing to do with a bomb!”
C an you think of other scientic developments that have had important
Figure 8 Austrian-Swedish physicist
ethic alimplic ations?
Lise Meitner in 1906
28
Structure 1.2 The nuclear atom
LHA
Practice questions
Linking question
1. State the nuclear symbols for potassium-39 and copper-65. Deduce the
How c an isotope tracers
numbers of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of each isotope.
provide evidence for a reaction
2. Naturally occurring sulfur has four isotopes with the following natural
mechanism? (Reactivity 3.4)
32 33 34 36
abundances: S(95.02%), S(0.75%), S(4.21%) and S(0.02%).
C alculate the average A value for sulfur.
r
3. The actual A value of sulfur is 32.07. Suggest why your answer to the
r
previous question diers from this value.
M ass spectrometry (Structure 1.2.3)
The mass spectrometer (gure 9) is an instrument used to detect the relative
abundance of isotopes in a sample.
detector
(stage 5)
lightest particles
positive ions are
(deflected most)
accelerated in the electric
field (stage 3)
heating filament to vaporize
magnet (stage 4)
sample (stage 1)
inlet to inject heaviest particles
sample (deflected least)
electron beam to
ionize sample (stage 2)
Figure 9 Schematic diagram of a mass spectrometer
The sample is injected into the instrument and vaporized (stage 1). The atoms
within the sample are then bombarded with high-energy electrons (stage 2). As
a result, the atoms lose some of their electrons to form positively charged ions,
known as c ations. For example, copper atoms c an be ionized as follows:
Cu(g) + e → Cu (g) + 2e
The resulting ions are then accelerated by an electric eld (stage 3) and deected by
a magnetic eld (stage 4). The degree of deection depends on the mass to charge
ratio (m/z ratio). Particles with no charge are not aected by the magnetic eld and
therefore never reach the detector. The species with the lowest m and highest z will
be deected the most. When ions hit the detector (stage 5), their m/z values are
determined and passed to a computer. The computer generates the mass spectrum
of the sample, in which relative abundances of all detected ions are plotted against
their m/z ratios(gure 10).
29
Structure 1 Models of the particulate nature of matter
u Figure 10 M ass spectrum of a
LHA
sample of copper
100
80
ytisnetni
60
evitaler
40
20
0 60 62 64 66 68
m/z
The operational details of the mass spectrometer will not be assessed in
examination papers.
Worked example 3
Figure 11 shows a mass spectrum from a sample of boron. C alculate the relative atomic mass,
A , of boron from this mass spectrum.
r
100
80.1
ytisnetni
evitaler
50
19.9
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
m/z
Figure 11 M ass spectrum of boron
Solution
First, we need to derive the information from graph. The peak at m/z = 10 represents an isotope with a mass
number of 10, which has a relative abundance of 19.9%. The peak at m/z = 11 represents an isotope with a
mass number of 11, which has a relative abundance of 80.1%.
We c an then c alculate A by finding the sum of the relative abundance of each isotope multiplied by its mass
r
number. The relative abundance values add up to 100%, so we divide the result by 100 to obtain the average.
11 × 80.1 + 10 × 19.9
= 10.8
100
30
Structure 1.2 The nuclear atom
LHA
Data-based questions
1. Estimate the relative abundance of each isotope from gure 12. Use your estimates to c alculate the relative
atomic mass, A , for this element and identify the element.
r
t Figure 12 M ass spectrum
of unknown element
ytisnetni
4
evitaler
203 204 205 206 207 208 209
m/z
2. M ass spectrometry is used for discovering the presence of specic elements in geologic al samples,
including those of cosmic origin. For example, cobalt and nickel are common components of iron meteorites
(gure14).
Cobalt and nickel have similar properties and nearly identic al relative atomic masses. However, the isotopic
compositions of these two metals are very dierent, so they c an easily be distinguished by mass spectrometry
(gure13).
100 100
80
80
ytisnetni evitaler
ytisnetni evitaler
cobalt
nickel
60
60
40
40
20
20
0
0
0 58 60 62
0 58 60 62
m/z
m/z
Figure 13 M ass spectra of cobalt (le) and nickel (right)
Estimate the relative abundance of each isotope for nickel. Use your estimates to c alculate its
relative atomic mass, A and hence deduce whether cobalt or nickel has the larger A
r r
3. The actual A value for nickel is 58.69. Suggest why your result in question 2 is dierent.
r
31
Structure 1 Models of the particulate nature of matter
LHA
Figure 14 Tamentit iron meteorite, found in 1864 in the S ahara Desert
Mass spectra
M ass spectra c an be found in various databases on the internet, giving you
a chance to practice c alculating average atomic mass values from authentic
data.
Relevant skills
• Tool 2: Identify and extract data from databases
• Tool 3: Percentages
Instructions
1. Using a database of your choice, search for the mass spectra of three
dierent elements.
2. From the mass spectra, c alculate the relative atomic mass of each
element.
3. Compare your c alculated relative atomic mass to that stated in the data
booklet. Comment on any dierences you observe.
Linking question
How does the fragmentation pattern of a compound in the mass spectrometer
help in the determination of its structure? (Structure 3.2)
32
Structure 1.2 The nuclear atom
End-of-topic questions
5. Which of the following statements are correct?
Topic review
I. Nearly all mass of the atom is contained within
1. Using your knowledge from the Structure 1.2 topic,
its nucleus.
answer the guiding question as fully as possible:
II. The mass number shows the number of
How do nuclei of atoms dier?
protons in an atomic nucleus
III. Isotopes of the same element have equal
Exam-style questions
numbers of protons.
Multiple-choice questions
A. I and II only
63
2+ B. I and III only
2. What is correct for Cu ?
29
C. II and III only
Protons Neutrons Electrons
D. I, II and III
A 29 34 27
6. Which of the following species contain equal numbers
B 29 34 31
of neutrons in their nuclei?
C 34 63 31
A. cobalt-58 and nickel-58
D 34 29 27
B. cobalt-58 and nickel-59
1 2
C. cobalt-59 and nickel-58
3. Which values are the same for both H and H ?
2 2
D. cobalt-58 and cobalt-59
I. boiling point
II. ∆H of combustion Extended-response questions
III. number of protons
7. The gold foil experiment involved ring alpha particles
IV. density at gold foil. This experiment is depicted in gure 1 on
page 20.
A. I and III only
a. An alpha particle is a helium nucleus. State the
B. I and IV only
nuclear symbol for an alpha particle. [1]
C. II and III only
b. Suggest the results of the gold foil experiment
D. I, II and III
that would have been observed in each of the
4. The naturally occurring isotopes of lithium are Li and following alternative scenarios:
Li. Which shows the correct approximate percentage
i. Atoms are instead hard, dense, solid balls
abundances for lithium?
of positive charge. [1]
Percentage Percentage
ii. Atomic nuclei are instead negatively
6 7
abundance of Li abundance of Li
charged. [1]
A 75 25
LHA
39
8. There are two stable isotopes of potassium: K and
B 50 50
41
K. The A of potassium is 39.10. Use this information
r
C 35 65
to determine the relative abundances of the two
D 10 90 isotopes and sketch the mass spectrum of potassium
metal. [3]
9. “Dutch metal” is an alloy composed of 86% copper and
14% zinc. This alloy closely resembles gold, so it is
oen used for making costume jewellery. Explain how
Dutch metal c an be distinguished from gold using
mass spectrometry. [2]
33
Structure 1.3 Electron congurations
How c an we model the energy states of electrons in atoms?
This question is complex with many layers. What are electrons? How do we know they exist in energy states? What various
models about these energy states are there?
According to modern views, electrons are quantum objects that behave as both particles and waves. Although such
behaviour has no analogues in our everyday life, we c an visualize electrons in atoms as fuzzy clouds. The shapes and
sizes of these clouds depend on the energies of electrons, which c an have only certain, predened v alues.
Understandings
Structure 1.3.1 — Emission spectra are produced by Structure 1.3.5 — E ach orbital has a dened energy
atoms emitting photons when electrons in excited states state for a given electron conguration and chemic al
return to lower energy levels. environment, and c an hold two electrons of opposite
spin. Sublevels contain a xed number of orbitals, regions
Structure 1.3.2 — The line emission spectrum of
of space where there is a high probability of nding an
hydrogen provides evidence for the existence of
electron.
electrons in discrete energy levels, which converge at
LHA
higher energies.
Structure 1.3.6 — In an emission spectrum, the limit
Structure 1.3.3 — The main energy level is given an of convergence at higher frequency corresponds to
integer number, n, and c an hold a maximum of 2n ionization.
electrons.
Structure 1.3.7 — Successive ionization energy data
Structure 1.3.4 — A more detailed model of the atom
for an element give information about its electron
describes the division of the main energy level into s, p, d
conguration.
and f sublevels of successively higher energies.
Emission spectra (Structure 1.3.1)
Much of our understanding of electron congurations in atoms has come from
studies involving interaction with light. In the 1600s, Sir Isaac Newton showed
that sunlight c an be broken down into dierent coloured components using a
prism. This generates a continuous spectrum (gure 1a). This type of spectrum
contains light of all wavelengths, and appears as a continuous series of colours,
in which each colour merges into the next, and no gaps are visible. The classic
example of a continuous spectrum is the rainbow. The wavelength of visible light
ranges from 400 nm to 700 nm.
A pure gaseous element subjected to a high voltage under reduced pressure
will glow — in other words, it will emit light. When this light passes through a
prism, it produces a series of lines against a dark background. This is known
as an emission spectrum (gure 1b) In contrast, when a cold gas is placed
between the prism and a source of visible light of all wavelengths, a series of dark
lines within a continuous spectrum will appear. This is known as an absorption
spectrum (gure 1c)
34
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
The Project Gutenberg eBook of Even Stephen
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and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
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you are located before using this eBook.
Title: Even Stephen
Author: Charles A. Stearns
Illustrator: Ed Emshwiller
Release date: September 20, 2023 [eBook #71694]
Language: English
Original publication: New York, NY: Royal Publications, Inc, 1957
Credits: Greg Weeks, Mary Meehan and the Online Distributed
Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EVEN
STEPHEN ***
EVEN STEPHEN
By CHARLES A. STEARNS
Illustrated by EMSH
It only takes one man to destroy a pacifist
Utopia—if he has a gun, and will use it!
[Transcriber's Note: This etext was produced from
Infinity July 1957.
Extensive research did not uncover any evidence that
the U.S. copyright on this publication was renewed.]
The henna-haired young man with the vermilion cape boarded
Stephen's vehicle on the thirty-third air level, less than two whoops
and a holler from a stationary police float, by the simple expedient of
grappling them together with his right arm, climbing over into the seat
beside Stephen, and allowing his own skimmercar to whisk off at a
thousand miles an hour with no more control than its traffic-dodging
mechanism afforded.
The peregrinator was barbarically splendid, and his curls showed the
effect of a habitual use of some good hair undulant. More to the point,
he had a gun. It was one of those wicked moisture rifles which can
steam the flesh off a man's bones at three hundred paces. Quite
illegal.
He smiled at Stephen. His dentures were good. They were stainless
steel, but in this day and time that was to be expected. Most of his
generation, in embryo during the last Blow-down, had been born
without teeth of their own.
"Sorry to inconvenience you, Citizen," he said, "but the police were
right on my brush that time. Please turn right at the next air corridor
and head out to sea."
And when Stephen, entranced, showed no inclination to obey, he
prodded him with the weapon. Prodded him in a most sensitive part
of his anatomy. "I have already killed once today," he said, "and it is
not yet eleven o'clock."
"I see," Stephen said stiffly, and changed course.
He might simply have exceeded the speed limit in the slow traffic
stream and gotten them arrested, but he sensed that this would not
do. A half-memory, playing around in his cranium, cried out for
recognition. Somewhere he had seen this deadly young man before,
and with him there was associated a more than vague
unpleasantness.
Soon the blue Pacific was under them. They were streaming
southwest by south at an altitude of eighty miles. Stephen was not
terrified at being kidnapped, for he had never heard of such a thing,
but there was one thing that did worry him. "I shall be late for work,"
he said.
"Work," the young man said, "is a bore."
Stephen was shocked. Work had always been the sacred principle of
his life; a rare and elevating sweetness to be cultivated and savored
whenever it might be offered. He, himself, had long been allotted
alternate Thursday afternoons as biological technician at Mnemonic
Manufactures, Plant No. 103, by the Works Administration, and he
had not missed a day for many years. This happened to be one of his
Thursdays, and if he did not arrive soon he would be late for the four-
hour shift. Certainly no one else could be expected to relinquish a
part of his shift to accommodate a laggard.
"Work is for prats," the young man said again. "It encourages
steatopygia. My last work date was nine years ago, and I am glad
that I never went back."
Stephen now felt a surge of fear at last. Such unregenerates as this
man were said to exist, but he had never met one before. They were
the shadowy Unemployed, who, barred from government
dispensation, must live by their wits alone. Whimsical nihilists, they,
who were apt to requisition human life, as well as property, at a
breath's notice.
Small lightning sheeted in front of their bow. A voice crackled in the
communications disk. "Attention! This is an official air barricade.
Proceed to Level Twelve to be cleared."
"Pretend to comply," the young man said. "Then, when you are six or
eight levels below these patrol skimmers following us, make a run for
it toward that cloud bank on the horizon."
"Very well," Stephen said. He had quickly weighed the gloomy
possibilities, and decided that his best chance for survival lay in
instant compliance with this madman's wishes, however outrageous
they might seem.
He nosed down, silently flitting past brightly painted fueling blimp
platforms and directional floats with their winking beacons. To the
east, the City lay, with its waffle-like subdivisions, its height-
foreshortened skyscrapers, and its vast Port, where space rockets
winked upward every few minutes.
"If you were only on one of those!" Stephen said feelingly.
His abductor smiled—a rather malicious smile. "Who wants to go to
Mars?" he said. "Earth is such a fascinating place—why leave it?
After all, only here, upon this exquisitely green, clean sphere of ours
can the full richness of man's endeavors be enjoyed. And you would
have me abandon it all!"
"I was only thinking aloud," Stephen said.
The smile withered. "Mind your altitude," the young man said. "And
try no tricks."
Twenty seconds had passed. Thirty-five....
"Now."
Tight-lipped, Stephen nodded, leveled off, and energized the plates
with their full, formidable power. They shot past the police stationary,
and into the great, azure curve of the horizon at a pace which would
have left Stephen breathless at any other time. There came a splutter
of ether-borne voices.
The henna-haired young man turned off the receiver.
In an instant there were skimmers in hot pursuit, but the cloud bank
loomed close, towering and opaque. Now the wisps of white were
about them, and a curious, acrid smell filtered in through the aerating
system. The odor of ozone. The skimmer began to shudder violently,
tossing them about in their seats.
"I have never experienced such turbulence," Stephen exclaimed. "I
believe this is no ordinary cloud!"
"You are right," the henna-haired young man said. "This is sanctuary."
"Who are you?" Stephen said. "Why are you running from the
police?"
"Apparently you don't read the newspapers."
"I keep abreast of the advances in technology and philosophy."
"I meant the tabloid news. There is such a page, you know, in the
back of every newspaper. No, no; I perceive that you never would
allow yourself to become interested in such plebeian goings-on.
Therefore, let me introduce myself. I am called Turpan."
"The Bedchamber Assassin! I knew that I'd seen your face
somewhere."
"So you do sneak and read the scandals, like most of your
mechanics' caste. Tch, tch! To think that you secretly admire us, who
live upon the brink and savor life while it lasts."
"I could hardly admire you. You are credited with killing twelve
women." Stephen shuddered.
Turpan inclined his handsome head sardonically. "Such is the artistic
license of the press. Actually there were only nine—until this morning,
I regret to say. And one of those died in the ecstacy of awakening to
find me hovering over her virginal bed. I suppose she had a weak
heart. I kill only when it is unavoidable. But so long as my lady will
wear jewels and keep them on her boudoir dressing table—" He
shrugged. "Naturally, I am sometimes interrupted."
"And then you murder them."
"Let us say that I make them a sporting proposition. I am not bad to
look upon—I think you will admit that fact. Unless they happen to be
hysterical to begin with, I can invariably dominate them. Face the
facts, my stodgy technician. Murder is a term for equals. A woman is
a lesser, though a fascinating, creature. The law of humane grace
does not apply equally to her. It must be a humiliating thing to be a
woman, and yet it is necessary that a supply of them be provided.
Must we who are fortunate in our male superiority deny our natures to
keep from trampling them occasionally? No indeed. 'Sensualists are
they; a trouble and a terror is the hero to them. Thus spake
Zarathustra'."
"That is a quotation from an ancient provincial who was said to be as
mad as you are," Stephen said, rallying slightly, but revising his
opinion of the uncouthness of his captor.
"I have studied the old books," Turpan said. "They are mostly pap, but
once I thought that the answers might be discovered there. You may
set down now."
"But we must be miles from any land."
"Take a look," Turpan said.
And Stephen looked down through the clearing mists and beheld an
island.
"It happens to be a very special island," Turpan said. "The jurisdiction
of no policeman extends here."
"Fantastic! What is it called?"
"I should imagine that they will call it 'Utopia Fourteen', or 'New
Valhalla'. Idealists seldom possess one iota of originality. This is the
same sort of experiment that has been attempted without success
from times immemorial. A group of visionaries get together, wangle a
charter from some indulgent government and found a sovereign
colony in splendid isolation—and invariably based upon impossible
ideas of anarchism."
The skimmercar shook itself like a wet terrier, dropped three hundred
feet in a downdraft, recovered and glided in to a landing as gently as
a nesting seabird. They were upon a verdant meadow.
Stephen looked around. "One could hardly call this splendid
isolation," he remarked. "We are less than five minutes from the City,
and I am sure that you will be reasonable enough to release me, now
that I've brought you here, and allow me to return. I promise not to
report this episode."
"Magnanimous of you," Turpan said, "but I'm afraid that what you ask
is impossible."
"Then you refuse to let me go?"
"No, no. I merely point out that the cloud through which we arrived at
this island was not, as you noted, a natural one. It had the ominous
look of a Molein Field in the making. In other words, a space
distortion barrier the size of which Earth has never seen."
And Stephen, looking around them, saw that the cloud had, indeed
dispersed; and that in its place a vast curtain of shifting, rippling light
had arisen, extending upward beyond sight and imagination, to the
left and to the right, all around the circle of the horizon, shutting them
in, shutting the rest of the universe out. Impenetrable. Indestructible.
"You knew of this," Stephen accused. "That's why you brought me
here."
"I admit that there were rumors that such a project might be
attempted today. The underworld has ears," Turpan said. "That we
arrived just in time, however, was merely a circumstance. And even
you, my stolid friend, must admit the beauty of the aurora of a Molein
Field."
"We are lost," Stephen said, feeling stricken. "A distortion barrier
endures forever."
"Fah!" the Bedchamber Assassin replied. "We have a green island for
ourselves, which is much better, you'll agree, than being executed.
And let me tell you, there are many security officials who ache to
pump my twitching body full of the official, but deadly, muscarine.
Besides, there is a colony here. Men and women. I intend to thrive."
But what of me! Stephen wanted to cry out. I have committed no
crime, and I shall be lost away from my books and my work!
However, he pulled himself together, and noted pedantically that the
generation of a Molein Field was a capital offense, anyway. (This
afforded little comfort, in that once a group of people have
surrounded themselves with a Molein Field they are quite
independent, as Turpan had observed, of the law.)
When they had withdrawn a few yards from the skimmercar, Turpan
sighted upon it with the moisture rifle and the plastic hull melted and
ran down in a mass of smoking lava. "The past is past," Turpan said,
"and better done with. Come, let us seek out our new friends."
There were men and there were women, clamorously cheerful at their
work, unloading an ancient and rickety ferrycopter in the surprise
valley below the cliffs upon which Stephen and Turpan stood.
Stephen, perspiring for the first time in his life, was almost caught up
in their enthusiasm as he watched that fairy village of plasti-tents
unfold, shining and shimmering in the reflected hues of the Molein
aurora.
When Turpan had satisfied himself that there was no danger, they
descended, scrambling down over rough, shaly and precipitous
outcroppings that presented no problem for Stephen, but to which
Turpan, oddly enough, clung with the desperation of an acrophobe as
he lowered himself gingerly from crag to crag—this slightly-built
young man who had seemed nerveless in the sky. Turpan was out of
his métier.
A man looked up and saw them. He shouted and waved his arms in
welcome. Turpan laughed, thinking, perhaps, that the welcome would
have been less warm had his identity been known here.
The man climbed part way up the slope to meet them. He was
youthful in appearance, with dark hair and quick, penetrating eyes.
"I'm the Planner of Flight One," he said. "Are you from Three?"
"We are not," Turpan said.
"Flight Two, then."
Turpan, smiling like a basilisk, affected to move his head from side to
side.
And the Planner looked alarmed. "Then you must be the police," he
said, "for we are only three groups. But you are too late to stop our
secession, sir. The Molein barrier exists—let the Technocracy
legislate against us until it is blue in the face. And there are three
hundred and twelve of us here—against the two of you."
"Sporting odds," Turpan said. "However, we are merely humble
heretics, like yourselves, seeking asylum. Yes indeed. Quite by
accident my friend and I wandered into your little ovum universe as it
was forming, and here we are, trapped as it would seem."
The crass, brazen liar.
The Planner was silent for a moment. "It is unlikely that you would
happen upon us by chance at such a time," he said at last. "However,
you shall have asylum. We could destroy you, but our charter
expressly forbids it. We hold human life—even of the basest sort—to
be sacred."
"Oh, sacred, quite!" Turpan said.
"There is only one condition of your freedom here. There are one
hundred and fifty-six males among us in our three encampments, and
exactly the same number of females. The system of numerical pairing
was planned for the obvious reason of physical need, and to avoid
trouble later on."
"A veritable idyl."
"It might have been. We are all young, after all, and unmarried. Each
of us is a theoretical scientist in his or her own right, with a high
hereditary intelligence factor. We hope to propagate a superior race
of limited numbers for our purpose—ultimate knowledge. Naturally a
freedom in the choice of a mate will be allowed, whenever possible,
but both of you, as outsiders, must agree to live out the rest of your
natural lives—as celibates."
Turpan turned to Stephen with a glint of humor in his spectacular
eyes. "Celibacy has a tasteless ring to it," he said. "Don't you think
so?"
"I can only speak for myself," Stephen replied coldly. "We have
nothing in common. But for you I should still be in my world.
Considering that we are intruders, however, the offer seems
generous enough. Perhaps I shall be given some kind of work. That
is enough to live for."
"What is your field?" the Planner asked Stephen.
"I am—or was—a biological technician."
"That is unfortunate," the Planner said, with a sudden chill in his
voice. "You see, we came here to get away from the technicians.
"I," said Turpan haughtily, "was a burglar. However, I think I see the
shape of my new vocation forming at this instant. I see no weapons
among your colonists."
"They are forbidden here," the Planner said. "I observe that you have
a moisture rifle. You will be required to turn it over to us, to be
destroyed."
Turpan chuckled. "Now you are being silly," he said. "If you have no
weapons, it must have occurred to you that you cannot effectively
forbid me mine."
"You cannot stand alone against three hundred."
"Of course I can," Turpan said. "You know quite well that if you try to
overpower me, scores of you will die. What would happen to your
vaunted sexual balance then? No indeed, I think you will admit to the
only practical solution, which is that I take over the government of the
island."
The officiousness and the élan seemed to go out of the Planner at
once, like the air out of a pricked balloon. He was suddenly an old
young man. Stephen saw, with a sinking feeling, that the audacity of
Turpan had triumphed again.
"You have the advantage of me at the moment," the Planner said. "I
relinquish my authority to you in order to avoid bloodshed. Henceforth
you will be our Planner. Time will judge my action—and yours."
"Not your Planner," Turpan said. "Your dictator."
There could be but one end to it, of course. One of the first official
actions of Dictator Turpan, from the eminence of his lofty, translucent
tent with its red and yellow flag on top, was to decree a social festival,
to which the other two settlements were invited for eating, drinking
and fraternization unrestrained. How unrestrained no one (unless
Turpan) could have predicted until late that evening, when the aspect
of it began to be Bacchanalian, with the mores and the inhibitions of
these intellectuals stripped off, one by one, like the garments of
civilization.
Stephen was shocked. Secretly he had approved, at least, of the
ideals of these rebels. But what hope could there be if they could so
easily fall under the domination of Turpan?
Still, there was something insidiously compelling about the man.
As for Stephen, he had been allotted his position in this new life, and
he was not flattered.
"You shall be my body servant," Turpan had said. "I can more nearly
trust you than anyone else, since your life, as well as mine, hangs in
the balance of my ascendance."
"I would betray you at the earliest opportunity."
Turpan laughed. "I am sure that you would. But you value your life,
and you will be careful. Here with me you are safer from intrigue.
Later I shall find confidants and kindred spirits here, no doubt, who
will help me to consolidate my power."
"They will rise and destroy you before that time. You must eventually
sleep."
"I sleep as lightly as a cat. Besides, so long as they are inflamed, as
they are tonight, with one another, they are not apt to become
inflamed against me. For every male there is a female. Not all of them
will pair tonight—nor even in a week. And by the time this obsession
fails to claim their attention I shall be firmly seated upon my throne.
There will be no women left for you or me, of course, but you will
have your work, as you noted—and it will consist of keeping my boots
shined and my clothing pressed."
"And you?" Stephen said bitterly.
"Ah, yes. What of the dictator? I have a confession to make to you,
my familiar. I prefer it this way. If I should simply choose a woman,
there would be no zest to it. Therefore I shall wait until they are all
taken, and then I shall steal one—each week. Now go out and enjoy
yourself."
Stephen, steeped in gloom, left the tent. No one paid any attention to
him. There was a good deal of screaming and laughing. Too much
screaming.
He walked along the avenue of tents. Beyond the temporary
floodlights of the atomic generators it was quite dark. Yet around the
horizon played the flickering lights of the aurora, higher now that the
sun was beyond the sea. A thousand years from now it would be
there, visible each night, as common to that distant generation as
starlight.
From the shadow of the valley's rim he emerged upon a low
promontory above the village. Directly below where he stood, a
woman, shrieking, ran into the blackness of a grove of small trees.
She was pursued by a man. And then she was pursued no more.
He turned away, toward the seashore. It lay half a mile beyond the
settlement of Flight One.
Presently he came upon a sandy beach. The sea was dark and calm;
there was never any wind here. Aloft the barrier arose more plainly
than before, touching the ocean perhaps half a mile from shore, but
invisible at sea-level. And beyond it—he stared.
There were the lights of a great city, shining across the water. The
lights twinkled like jewels, beckoning nostalgically to him. But then he
remembered that a Molein Field, jealously allowing only the passage
of photonic energy, was said to have a prismatic effect—and yet
another, a nameless and inexplicable impress, upon light itself. The
lights were a mirage. Perhaps they existed a thousand miles away;
perhaps not at all. He shivered.
And then he saw the object in the water, bobbing out there a hundred
yards from the beach. Something white—an arm upraised. It was a
human being, swimming toward him, and helplessly arm-weary by the
looks of that desperate motion! It disappeared, appeared again,
struggling more weakly.
Stephen plunged into the water, waded as far as he could, and swam
the last fifty feet with a clumsy, unpracticed stroke, just in time to
grasp the swimmer's hair.
And then he saw that the swimmer, going down for the last time, was
a girl.
They rested upon the warm, white sand until she had recovered from
her ordeal. Stephen prudently refrained from asking questions. He
knew that she belonged to Flight Two or Flight Three, for he had seen
her once or twice before this evening at the festival. Her short,
platinum curls made her stand out in a crowd. She was not beautiful,
and yet there was an essence of her being that appealed strongly to
him; perhaps it was the lingering impression of her soft-tanned body
in his arms as he had carried her to shore.
"You must have guessed that I was running away," she said presently.
"Running away? But how—where—"
"I know. But I had panicked, you see. I was already dreadfully
homesick, and then came this horrid festival. I couldn't bear seeing us
make such—such fools of ourselves. The women—well, it was as if
we had reverted to animals. One of the men—I think he was a
conjectural physicist by the name of Hesson—made advances to me.
I'm no formalist, but I ran. Can you understand that?"
"I also disapprove of debauchery," Stephen said.
"I ran and ran until I came, at last, to this beach. I saw the lights of a
city across the water. I am a strong swimmer and I struck out without
stopping to reconsider. It was a horrible experience."
"You found nothing."
"Nothing—and worse than nothing. There is a place out there where
heaven and hell, as well as the earth and the sky, are suspended. I
suddenly found myself in a halfworld where all directions seemed to
lead straight down. I felt myself slipping, sliding, flowing downward.
And once I thought I saw a face—an impossible face. Then I was
expelled and found myself back in normal waters. I started to swim
back here."
"You were very brave to survive such an ordeal," he said. "Would that
I had been half so courageous when I first set eyes upon that devil,
Turpan! I might have spared all of you this humiliation."
"Then—you are the technician who came with Turpan?"
He nodded. "I was—and am—his prisoner. I have more cause to hate
him than any of you."
"In that case I shall tell you a secret. The capitulation of our camps to
Turpan's tyranny was planned. If you had counted us, you would
have found that many of the men stayed away from the festival
tonight. They are preparing a surprise attack upon Turpan from
behind the village when the celebration reaches its height and he will
expect it least. I heard them making plans for a coup this afternoon."
"It is ill-advised. Many of your men will die—and perhaps for nothing.
Turpan is too cunning to be caught napping."
"You could be of help to them," she said.
He shrugged. "I am only a technician, remember? The hated ruling
class of the Technocracy that you left. A supernumerary, even as
Turpan. I cannot help myself to a place in your exclusive society by
helping you. Come along. We had better be getting back."
"Where are we going?"
"Straight to Turpan," he said.
"I cannot believe that you would tell me this," Turpan said, striding
back and forth, lion-like, before the door of his tent. "Why have you?"
"Because, as you observed, my fate is bound with yours," Stephen
said. "Besides, I do not care to be a party to a massacre."
"It will give me great pleasure to massacre them."
"Nevertheless, their clubs and stones will eventually find their marks.
Our minutes are numbered unless you yield."
Turpan's eyes glowed with the fires of his inner excitement. "I will
never do that," he said. "I think I like this feeling of urgency. What a
pity that you cannot learn to savor these supreme moments."
"Then at least let this woman go. She has no part in it."
Turpan allowed his eyes to run over the figure of the girl, standing like
a petulant naiad, with lowered eyes and trembling lip, and found that
figure, in its damp and scanty attire, gratifying.
"What is your name?"
"Ellen," she said.
"You will do," Turpan said. "Yes, you will do very well for a hostage."
"You forget that these men are true idealists," Stephen said.
"Yesterday they may have believed in the sanctity of human life.
Today they believe that they will be sanctified by spilling their own
blood—and they are not particular whether that blood is male or
female. If you would survive, it will be necessary for us to retrench."
"What is your suggestion, technician?"
"I know a place where we can defend ourselves against any attack.
There is an elevation not far from here where, if you recall, we stood
that first time and spied upon the valley. It is sheer on all sides. We
could remain there until daylight, or until you have discouraged this
rebellion. It would be impossible for anyone, ascending in that loose
shale, to approach us with stealth."
"It is a sound plan," Turpan said. "Gather a few packages of
concentrates and sufficient water."
"I already have them."
"Then take this woman and lead the way. I will follow. And keep in
mind that in the event of trouble both of you will be the first to lose the
flesh off your bones from this moisture rifle."
Stephen went over and took Ellen by the hand. "Courage," he
whispered.
"I wish that both of us had drowned," she said.
But she came with them docilely enough, and Stephen drew a sigh of
relief when they were out of the illuminated area without being
discovered.
"Walk briskly now," Turpan said, "but do not run. That is something
that I have learned in years of skirmishing with the police."
At the foot of the cliff Stephen stopped and removed his shoes.
"What are you doing?" Turpan demanded suspiciously.
"A precaution against falling," Stephen said.
"I prefer to remain fully dressed," Turpan said. "Lead on."
Stephen now found that, though the pain was excruciating, his bare
feet had rendered him as sure-footed as a goat, while Turpan
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