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T HE S TATE SM A N ’S
Y E A RBOOK
2022
THE POLITICS, CULTURES AND
ECONOMIES OF THE WORLD

‘When countries are in the news or you have need to engage with a
country you don’t know well, The Statesman’s Yearbook can tell you
everything you need to know in well organised and clear detail.’
— Professor Richard Rose, Centre for the Study of Public Policy,
University of Strathclyde, Glasgow
The Statesman’s Yearbook 2022
The Statesman’s Yearbook
2022
The Politics, Cultures and Economies
of the World
Springer Nature Limited
Published annually since 1864

The Statesman’s Yearbook 2022

ISBN 978-1-349-96044-6 ISBN 978-1-349-96045-3 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-349-96045-3
© Springer Nature Limited 2022
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World Population Developments

1950
1. China 554,419,000
2. India 376,325,000
3. USSR 181,037,000
4. USA 158,804,000
5. Japan 82,802,000
6. Indonesia 69,543,000
7. Brazil 53,975,000
8. West Germany 50,958,000
9. UK 50,616,000
10. Italy 46,599,000

2019
1. China 1,433,784,000
2. India 1,366,418,000
3. USA 329,065,000
4. Indonesia 270,626,000
5. Pakistan 216,565,000
6. Brazil 211,050,000
7. Nigeria 200,964,000
8. Bangladesh 163,046,000
9. Russia 145,872,000
10. Mexico 127,576,000

2050
1. India 1,639,176,000
2. China 1,433,697,000
3. Nigeria 401,315,000
4. USA 379,419,000
5. Pakistan 338,013,000
6. Indonesia 330,905,000
7. Brazil 228,980,000
8. Ethiopia 205,411,000
9. Congo, Democratic Republic of the 194,489,000
10. Bangladesh 192,568,000

Source: United Nations World Population Prospects (2019 Revision)

v
Largest Urban Agglomerations

1950
1. New York-Newark, USA 12,338,000
2. Tokyo, Japan 11,275,000
3. London, United Kingdom 8,361,000
4. Osaka, Japan1 7,005,000
5. Paris, France 6,283,000
6. Moscow, USSR 5,356,000
7. Buenos Aires, Argentina 5,166,000
8. Chicago, USA 4,999,000
9. Calcutta, India 4,604,000
10. Shanghai, China 4,288,000

1
Plus major neighbouring cities, including Kobe and Kyoto.

2015
1. Tokyo, Japan 37,256,000
2. Delhi, India 25,866,000
3. Shanghai, China 23,482,000
4. Mexico City, Mexico 21,340,000
5. São Paulo, Brazil 20,883,000
6. Mumbai (Bombay), India 19,316,000
7. Osaka, Japan1 19,305,000
8. Cairo, Egypt 18,820,000
9. New York-Newark, USA 18,648,000
10. Beijing, China 18,421,000

1
Plus major neighbouring cities, including Kobe and Kyoto.

2025
1. Tokyo, Japan 37,036,000
2. Delhi, India 34,666,000
3. Shanghai, China 30,482,000
4. Dhaka, Bangladesh 24,653,000
5. Cairo, Egypt 23,074,000
6. São Paulo, Brazil 22,990,000
7. Mexico City, Mexico 22,752,000
8. Beijing, China 22,596,000
9. Mumbai (Bombay), India 22,089,000
10. New York-Newark, USA 19,154,000

Source: United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs/Population Division, World Urbanization Prospects
(2018 Revision)

vii
 Key
International border
The Political
150° 120° 90° 60° 30° 0°
Capital city
GREENLAND
(Denmark)
Arctic Circle
ALASKA ICELAND
(USA) NORWAY
Reykjavik
60° Oslo
C A N A D A DENMARK
UNITED
KINGDOM POLAND
Dublin
NETH. Berlin
REPUBLIC OFLondon
IRELAND GERMANY
BELG. Paris AUSTRIA
Ottawa
FRANCE
SPAIN ITALY
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA PORTUGAL Rome
Lisbon Madrid MALTA
Washington, DC Azores Algiers Tunis
(Port.) Rabat
TUNISIA
MOROCCO Tripoli
30°
El Aaiún ALGERIA
THE BAHAMAS
Tropic of Cancer Havana
ATLANTIC WESTERN
SAHARA
MEXICO CUBA (SADR)
Mexico City JAMAICA DOMINICAN REPUBLIC MAURITANIA MALI NIGER
Hawaii BELIZE HAITI Santo CABO Nouakchott N'Djaména
(USA)
GUATEMALA HONDURAS
Domingo DOMINICA
BARBADOS
OCEAN VERDE SENEGAL Niamey
EL SALVADOR NICARAGUA THE GAMBIABamako BURKINA
Caracas GUINEAGUINEA FASO NIGERIA

BENIN
TRINIDAD & TOBAGO

TOGO
COSTA RICA BISSAU

GHANA
PANAMA
VENEZUELA SIERRA LEONE CÔTE Abuja
GUYANA D'IVOIRE
Bogotá LIBERIA
PACIFIC OCEAN COLOMBIA
SURINAME
CAMEROON
R
French Guiana (Fr.) EQUATORIAL GUINEA
Equator Quito
0° SÃO TOMÉ GABON
Galapagos Is ECUADOR AND PRÍNCIPE
(Ecu.)
CONGO

PERU
BRAZIL Kinshasa
Luanda
Lima
La Paz
Brasília ANGOLA
BOLIVIA NAMIBIA
French Polynesia
(Fr.) Sucre
Tropic of Capricorn PARAGUAY
Asunción
CHILE
30°
Valparaíso A
Santiago URUGUAY
Buenos

Greenwich Meridian
Aires Montevideo

ARGENTINA

Falkland Is
(UK)
South Georgia
(UK)
60°

Antarctic Circle

West of East of
ANTARCTICA Greenwich Greenwich
150° 120° 90° 60° 30° 0°

© Springer Nature Limited 2022

 World W
N

E
30 60 90 120 150 180

Svalbard
(Nor.) S
Arctic Circle
SWEDEN FINLAND
Helsinki ESTONIA R U S S I A
60
Stockholm LATVIA
LITHUANIA Moscow
BELARUS

UKRAINE Nur-Sultan
KAZAKHSTAN Ulaanbaatar
HUNGARY MOLDOVA
ROMANIA MO N G OLIA
UZBEKISTAN
BULGARIA GEORGIA Tashkent NORTH KOREA
KYRGYZSTAN Beijing
ARMENIA AZERBAIJAN Pyongyang
GREECE TURKEY TURKMENISTAN TAJIKISTAN Seoul
CYPRUS SYRIA Kabul SOUTH Tokyo
LEBANON
IRAQ
Tehran
AFGHANISTAN
Islamabad CHINA KOREA JAPAN
ISRAEL IRAN
JORDAN 30
Cairo KUWAIT PAKISTAN NEPAL BHUTAN
LIBYA BAHRAIN UNITED ARAB New
EGYPT QATAR EMIRATES Delhi Taipei
Riyadh BANGLADESH Tropic of Cancer
Muscat Taiwan (China)
SAUDI MYANMAR
ARABIA OMAN INDIA Naypyidaw LAOS
Hanoi
CHAD SUDAN Yangon
ERITREA YEMEN THAILAND VIETNAM Manila
Khartoum Sana'a
Bangkok CAMBODIA
PACIFIC OCEAN
Addis DJIBOUTI MARSHALL
Ababa PHILIPPINES ISLANDS
SOMALIA Phnom Penh
CENTRAL SOUTH SRI LANKA PALAU
AFRICAN SUDAN ETHIOPIA Sri Jayawardenapura
MICRONESIA
REPUBLIC Juba Kotte BRUNEI KIRIBATI
MALDIVES Kuala Lumpur
UGANDA Mogadishu MALAYSIA
SINGAPORE Equator
KENYA 0
RWANDA NAURU
Nairobi
CONGO BURUNDI SEYCHELLES
INDONESIA
(DEM. REP.) Dodoma PAPUA SOLOMON ISLANDS
Jakarta
TANZANIA INDIAN TIMOR-LESTE
NEW GUINEA
TUVALU
Port
COMOROS Moresby
ˆ
ZAMBIA MALAWI SAMOA
MADAGASCAR VANUATU
Lusaka OCEAN
Harare Antananarivo FIJI TONGA
ZIMBABWE
BOTSWANA MOZAMBIQUE MAURITIUS
Gaborone Tropic of Capricorn
Maputo
Windhoek
AUSTRALIA
ESWATINI
SOUTH Pretoria 30
AFRICA LESOTHO
Canberra
Bloemfontein
Cape NEW
Town ZEALAND
Wellington

60

Antarctic Circle

ANTARCTICA

30 60 90 120 150 180

0 2000 miles
0 4000 km
 Afghanistan Barbados Cabo Verde Croatia Eswatini Guinea-Bissau Japan

Albania Belarus Cambodia Cuba Ethiopia Guyana Jordan

Algeria Belgium Cameroon Cyprus Fiji Haiti Kazakhstan

Andorra Belize Canada Czech Republic Finland Honduras Kenya

Angola Benin Central African Denmark France Hungary Kiribati

Republic

Antigua and Bhutan Chad Djibouti Gabon Iceland Korea, North

Barbuda

Argentina Bolivia Chile Dominica The Gambia India Korea, South

Armenia Bosnia and China Dominican Georgia Indonesia Kuwait

Herzegovina Republic

Australia Botswana Colombia Ecuador Germany Iran Kyrgyzstan

Austria Brazil Comoros Egypt Ghana Iraq Laos

Azerbaijan Brunei Congo, Democratic El Salvador Greece Ireland Latvia

Republic of the

The Bahamas Bulgaria Congo, Equatorial Grenada Israel Lebanon

Republic of the Guinea

Bahrain Burkina Faso Costa Rica Eritrea Guatemala Italy Lesotho

Bangladesh Burundi Côte d’lvoire Estonia Guinea Jamaica Liberia

[M] © GreenOptix /AdobeStock

 Libya Micronesia Niger Qatar Sierra Leone Syria United Arab
Emirates

Liechtenstein Moldova Nigeria Romania Singapore Tajikistan United

Kingdom

Lithuania Monaco North Russia Slovakia Tanzania United States

Macedonia of America

Luxembourg Mongolia Norway Rwanda Slovenia Thailand Uruguay

Madagascar Montenegro Oman St Kitts and Solomon Timor-Leste Uzbekistan

Nevis Islands

Malaŵi Morocco Pakistan St Lucia Somalia Togo Vanuatu

Malaysia Mozambique Palau St Vincent and South Africa Tonga Vatican City
the Grenadines State

Maldives Myanmar Panama Samoa South Sudan Trinidad and Venezuela

Tobago

Mali Namibia Papua New San Marino Spain Tunisia Vietnam

Guinea

Malta Nauru Paraguay São Tomé Sri Lanka Turkey Yemen

and Príncipe

Marshall Nepal Peru Saudi Arabia Sudan Turkmenistan Zambia

Islands

Mauritania Netherlands Philippines Senegal Suriname Tuvalu Zimbabwe

Mauritius New Zealand Poland Serbia Sweden Uganda

Mexico Nicaragua Portugal Seychelles Switzerland Ukraine

Key World Facts

World population in 2020 7,795 million (3,930 million males and 3,865 million
females)
World population under 30 in 2020 3,788 million
World population over 60 in 2020 1,050 million
World population over 100 in 2020 573,000
World median age (both sexes) 30
9
Number of births worldwide every day 382,000
Number of deaths worldwide every day 162,000
Number of women married before the age of 18 720 million
Number of women married before the age of 15 250 million
World economic growth rate in 2019 2
9% (3
6% in 2018)
Number of illiterate adults 773 million
Number of unemployed people 188 million
Average world life expectancy 74
9 years for females; 70
4 years for males
Annual world population increase 81
3 million people
Number of people living outside country of birth 258 million, or more than 3% of the world’s population
Fertility rate 2
4 births per woman
Urban population 55
7% of total population
World trade in 2018 US$39,266 billion
World defence expenditure in 2018 US$1,822 billion
Number of cigarettes smoked 5,700 billion a year
Number of internet users 4
6 billion
Number of emails sent per day 294 billion
Number of Facebook users 2
2 billion
Number of mobile phone subscriptions 7
9 billion
Percentage of women in national parliaments 25
0%
Percentage of senior management positions held by 29%
women
Number of people living in extreme poverty 736 million
Number of people living in slums 881 million
Number of undernourished people 822 million
Number of overweight adults 1
9 billion
Number of obese adults 672 million
Number of people lacking clean drinking water 785 million
Number of people lacking basic sanitation 2
0 billion
Number of people living with HIV/AIDS 37
9 million
Number of people suffering from depression 264 million
worldwide
Annual carbon dioxide emissions 33
3 billion tonnes

xiii
Chronology

March 2020–February 2021

Week beginning 1 March 2020
Cipriano Cassamá stood down as Guinea-Bissau’s interim president. The following day, prime minister Nuno Gomes
Nabiam announced his government including Sandji Fati as minister of defence, João Aladje Mamadu Fadia as minister
of finance, Suzi Carla Barbosa as minister of foreign affairs and Botche Candé as minister of the interior.
Muhammad Tawfiq Allawi withdrew from the race for Iraq’s premiership. Two weeks later, president Barham Salih
announced Adnan al-Zurfi as prime minister-designate.
Muhyiddin Yassin became Malaysia’s prime minister. The following week, he announced a cabinet with Ismail
Sabri Yaakob as defence minister, Tengku Abdul Aziz finance minister, Hishammuddin Hussein foreign affairs minister
and Hamzah Zainuddin home affairs minister.
In Tajikistan’s parliamentary elections the People’s Democratic Party of Tajikistan won 47 of 63 seats (50
4% of the
vote), the Agrarian Party 7 (16
5%), the Party of Economic Reforms 5 (16
6%), the Communist Party (CP) 2 (3
1%), the
Socialist Party 1 (5
2%) and the Democratic Party 1 (5
1%). Turnout was 86
1%.
Luis Lacalle Pou took office as Uruguay’s president.
In a snap election in Guyana, the People’s Progressive Party/Civic (PPP/C) won 33 of 65 seats, the Partnership for
National Unity and Alliance for Change (APNU+AFC) 31 and A New and United Guyana–Liberty and Justice Party–The
New Movement 1. Turnout was 72
6%. In the presidential election held on the same day, Irfaan Ali of the PPP/C
received 233,336 votes after a recount (50
7% of the vote) and incumbent president David Granger of APNU+AFC
received 217,920 (47
3%). However, the Elections Commission did not confirm the winner.
Joseph Joute became Haiti’s prime minister, with Jean Walnard Dorneval as defence minister, Michel Patrick
Boisvert as finance minister, Claude Joseph as foreign minister and Audain Fils Bernadel as interior minister.
Elections were held for Israel’s parliament (Knesset) in which Likud won 36 of 120 seats with 29
5% of votes cast,
the Blue and White Party 33 (26
6%), the Joint List 15 (12
7%), Shas 9 (7
7%), United Torah Judaism 7 (6
0%), Labor-
Gesher-Meretz 7 (5
8%), Yisrael Beiteinu 7 (5
7%) and Yamina 6 (5
2%). Turnout was 71
5%.
In France, the government of Édouard Philippe survived two no-confidence motions, which received 148 and 91
votes respectively (with 289 required).
Slovenia’s parliament confirmed Janez Janša as prime minister for a third time by 52 votes to 31. He named Matej
Tonin as defence minister, Andrej Šircelj finance minister, Anže Logar foreign affairs minister and Aleš Hojs interior
minister.
Oleksiy Honcharuk resigned as Ukraine’s prime minister, with Denys Shmyhal elected to succeed him. Andriy
Taran was named minister of defence, Ihor Umansky finance and Dmytro Kuleba foreign affairs. Arsen Avakov retained
the interior portfolio.
In Slovakia, Igor Matovič was invited by president Zuzana Caputová to form a government. Two weeks later,
Matovič named a cabinet including Jaroslav Nad’ as minister of defence, Eduard Heger finance and Roman Mikulec
interior. Richard Sulík was named acting foreign affairs minister with Ivan Korčok succeeding him on a permanent basis
in April.
Javier Pérez de Cuéllar, secretary-general of the United Nations from 1982–91 and prime minister of Peru from
2000-01, died.
Dean Barrow’s government survived a no-confidence vote in Belize by 18 votes to 11.
Janaina Tewaney Mencomo became Panama’s interior minister.

Week beginning 8 March 2020

Ashraf Ghani was sworn in as Afghanistan’s president. Abdullah Abdullah, who came second in the earlier election and
described it as ‘fraudulent’, proclaimed himself president in a separate, rival ceremony.
Luis Fernando López was sacked as Bolivia’s minister of defence after being censured by parliament. Having been
replaced by Jeanine Áñez in an interim capacity, he was reappointed defence minister the following day.
After prime minister-designate Florin Cîtu was unable to form a workable administration in Romania, incumbent
prime minister Ludovic Orban was tasked with forming a new government, which won parliamentary backing the
following day.
South Sudan’s president Salva Kiir appointed Angelina Teny as minister of defence, Beatrice Khamisa Wani-Noah
foreign affairs and Paul Mayom Akech interior, with Salvatore Garang Mabiordit retaining the finance portfolio.
Katerina Sakellaropoulou was sworn in as president of Greece.
Malaŵi’s president Peter Mutharika dissolved his cabinet, assuming all ministerial responsibilities for six days until
he appointed a new administration that included Joseph Mwanamvekha as finance minister and Kondwani Nankhumwa
as foreign minister. Mutharika retained the defence portfolio and Nicholas Dausi was retained as minister of homeland
security.

Week beginning 15 March 2020

Belgium’s king Philippe invited Sophie Wilmès to form a government, which was sworn in the following day with an
unchanged cabinet in key positions.
Following a cabinet reshuffle in Moldova, Alexandru Pînzari became minister of defence and Oleg Tulea minister of
foreign affairs.

xv
xvi Chronology

Kosovo's minister of the interior, Agim Veliu, was dismissed amid disagreement over whether a state of emergency
should be declared in the face of the Covid-19 epidemic. He was succeeded by Xhelal Svecla. The following week, the
government of Albin Kurti lost a parliamentary no-confidence vote by 82 votes to 32.
In Namibia, Saara Kuugongelwa-Amadhila was sworn in for a second term as prime minister. Her cabinet included
Peter Hafeni Vilho as defence minister and Iipumbu Shiimi as finance minister. Netumbo Nandi-Ndaitwah was retained
as deputy prime minister and minister of international relations and co-operation and Frans Kapofi as home affairs
minister.
Marcel Amon Tanoh resigned as Côte d'Ivoire’s foreign minister, with Ally Coulibaly succeeding him in an acting
capacity the following day and on a permanent basis eight weeks later.
In Vanuatu’s parliamentary elections, the Ground and Justice Party won 9 of 52 seats with 10
0% of the vote, the
Party of Our Land (Vanua’aku Pati) 7 (12
1%), the Reunification of Movements for Change 7 (11
3%), the Leaders
Party of Vanuatu 5 (12
5%), the Union of Moderate Parties 5 (7
7%) and the National United Party 4 (3
7%). A number
of smaller parties won the remaining seats. Turnout was 52
0%.
Šefik Džaferović became chairman of Bosnia and Herzegovina’s three-person presidency.
Luis Almagro of Uruguay was re-elected as secretary-general of the Organization of American States.

Week beginning 22 March 2020

In delayed polling in 11 parliamentary constituencies in Cameroon, the Cameroon People’s Democratic Movement won
all 13 available seats for an aggregate total of 152 out of 180 seats.
Parliamentary elections were held in Guinea in which president Alpha Condé’s Rally of the Guinean
People–Rainbow gained 79 out of 114 seats, Guinean Democratic Union 4, Guinean Popular Democratic Movement
3 and New Democratic Forces 3. A number of smaller parties each took two seats or fewer. The opposition boycotted the
election.
Sudan’s minister of defence, Lieut.-Gen. Jamal Omer, died of a heart attack.

Week beginning 29 March 2020

In Ukraine, Serhiy Marchenko’s appointment as finance minister was confirmed by parliament.
Abdul Hadi Arghandiwal became Afghanistan’s acting finance minister, with Mohammad Hanif Atmar appointed
acting foreign minister four days later.
Alessandro Mancini and Grazia Zafferani took office as San Marino’s captains-regent.
Mohammad Hanif Atmar became Afghanistan's acting foreign minister.

Week beginning 5 April 2020

Following a cabinet reshuffle in Angola, Ernesto dos Santos was sworn in as minister of defence and Tete António as
minister of foreign affairs.
Ivan Korčok became Slovakia’s foreign minister.
Taur Matan Ruak withdrew his resignation as Timor-Leste’s prime minister.
After Adnan al-Zurfi withdrew as Iraq’s prime minister-designate, president Barham Salih selected Mustafa al-
Kadhimi to take over the position.

Week beginning 12 April 2020

Turkey’s president Recep Tayyip Erdoğan rejected the resignation of interior minister Süleyman Soylu.
At elections to South Korea’s national assembly, the Democratic Party won 163 of 300 seats; the United Future Party
84; the Future Korea Party 19; the Together Citizens’ Party 17; and the Justice Party 6. Smaller parties and independents
took the remaining seats. Turnout was 66
2%.
In Fiji, prime minister Voreqe Bainimarama took responsibility for the foreign affairs portfolio following a cabinet
reshuffle.
After the second round of parliamentary elections in Mali (the first round having taken place at the end of the
previous month), the Rally for Mali won 51 of 147 seats, the Alliance for Democracy in Mali 24, the Union for the
Republic and Democracy 19, the Movement for Mali 10, the Democratic Alliance for Peace 6 and the Convergence for
the Development of Mali 5. The remaining seats went to smaller parties. Turnout was 35
6% in the first round and
35
3% in the second.
In Israel, Benny Gantz and incumbent prime minister Binyamin Netanyahu agreed to form a coalition after Gantz
was unable to form a government within a mandated period. Under the terms of their deal, Netanyahu was to remain as
prime minister for a further 18 months before Gantz assumed the role, also for 18 months.
Bob Loughman was elected prime minister by Vanuatu’s parliament with 31 votes, against 21 for Ralph Regenvanu.
He named a cabinet including Johnny Koanapo as finance minister, Mark Ati as foreign minister and Ishmael Kalsakau
as internal affairs minister.

Week beginning 19 April 2020

Laisenia Qarase, twice prime minister of Fiji between 2000 and 2006, died.
The second round of parliamentary elections in Kiribati (held a week after the first round) resulted in Boutokaan
Kiribati Moa Party winning 22 seats and the Tobwaan Kiribati Party also 22.
Carlos Morán resigned as Peru’s interior minister and was succeeded by Gastón Rodríguez.
Rwanda’s president Paul Kagame dismissed the minister of internal security, Patrick Nyamvumba.

Week beginning 26 April 2020

Avdullah Hoti was named Kosovo's prime minister-designate by president Hashim Thaçi.
In Slovakia, Igor Matovič’s government won a parliamentary confidence vote by 93 votes to 48.
Boris Johnson returned to work after being hospitalised with Covid-19.
Chronology xvii

In Libya, General Khalifa Haftar was accused by prime minister Fayez al-Sarraj of carrying out a coup d'état after he
put parts of the country under direct military rule.
Brazil’s president Jair Bolsonaro appointed key allies André Mendonça and Alexandre Ramagem to head the justice
ministry and federal police respectively.

Week beginning 3 May 2020

Protesters in Slovenia accuse prime minister Janez Jansa of using the coronavirus pandemic as a means of restricting
freedom and increasing police powers.
Venezuelan Armed Forces and Navy halted Operation Gideon, an unsuccessful attempt to bring down the
government of Nicolás Maduro, launched by Venezuelan deserter rebels.

Week beginning 10 May 2020

The Polish presidential election was postponed until June.
In a cabinet reshuffle in Côte d'Ivoire, Ally Coulibaly was appointed foreign minister.
The prime minister of Timor-Leste, Taur Matan Ruak, restructured his government. The move involved the
appointment of Fernando Hanjam as finance minister.
In Sierra Leone, parliament approved David Panda-Noah as interior minister.
Premier Su Tseng-chang of Taiwan announced the resignation of all cabinet members ahead of the inauguration of
president Tsai Ing-wen for her second term.
The Director-General of the World Trade Organization (WTO), Roberto Carvalho de Azevêdo, announced his
resignation, effective the end of August.

Week beginning 17 May 2020

President Ashraf Ghani of Afghanistan and rival Abdullah Abdullah signed a power-sharing agreement, which ended
Abdullah's claim to the presidency.
Yerulan Zhamaubayev was given the finance portfolio in the Kazakhstan cabinet.
Presidential and parliamentary elections were held in Burundi. Évariste Ndayishimiye (National Council for the
Defense of Democracy–Forces for the Defense of Democracy/CNDD-FDD) won the presidency with 71
5% of the vote
and the ruling CNDD–FDD took 86 of 123 seats.
The New Zealand National Party leadership election took place. It was won by Todd Muller and Nikki Kaye.
Araik Arutyunyan was sworn in as president of Artsakh (The Nagorno-Karabakh Republic).

Week beginning 24 May 2020

In parliamentary elections in Suriname the Progressive Reform Party won 20 of the available 51 seats, the National
Democratic Party won 16, the General Liberation and Development Party 8, the National Party of Suriname 3,
Brotherhood and Unity in Politics 2, and Pertjajah Luhur 2.
Costa Rican finance minister Rodrigo Chaves resigned.

Week beginning 31 May 2020

Marches took place around the word against police brutality and the killing of African-American George Floyd.
The security minister of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Fahrudin Radoncic, resigned.
Yassin Ibrahim was given the defence portfolio in the Sudan.

Week beginning 7 June 2020

Burundian president Pierre Nkurunziza died. Following his death, seven national days of mourning were announced.
The Portuguese finance minister, Mário Centeno, resigned and was replaced by João Leão.
The cabinet in Mali resigned.
In Papua New Guinea, foreign minister Patrick Pruaitch was suspended from office.
Syrian president Bashar al-Assad dismissed prime minister Imad Khamis and named Hussein Arnous as acting
prime minister in his place.

Week beginning 14 June 2020

In Ireland, Fianna Fáil, Fine Gael, and the Green Party come to the agreement that Micheál Martin would be prime
minister until Dec. 2022, and then be succeeded by Leo Varadkar. In Martin’s cabinet, foreign minister Simon Coveney
also took on the defence portfolio.
Prime minister Mukhammetkaly Abulgaziyev of Kyrgyzstan resigned. The ruling coalition nominated first deputy
prime minister Boronov to be prime minister until parliamentary elections in Oct. 2020.

Week beginning 21 June 2020

Parliamentary elections in Serbia were held. The coalition led by the SNS won 188 seats; the Socialist Party of
Serbia–United Serbia coalition, 32; the Serbian Patriotic Alliance, 11; Straight Ahead, 4; the Albanian Democratic
Alternative, 3; the Party of Democratic Action of Sandžak, 3. Turnout was 48
9%.
Taneti Maamau was re-elected president of Kiribati with 59
3% of the vote, defeating Banuera Berina who took
40
7%.
A cabinet reshuffle in Algeria resulted in Ayman Benabderrahmane becoming finance minister.
At the Malawian presidential elections, Lazarus Chakwera of the Malaŵi Congress Party (MCP) won with 59
3% of
the vote, ahead of incumbent Peter Mutharika of the Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) with 39
9%.
In Cyprus, Charalampos Petridis was appointed defence minister during a cabinet reshuffle.
At the Mongolian parliamentary elections, the Mongolian People’s Party (known as the Mongolian People’s
Revolutionary Party from 1924–2010) won 62 of the 76 available seats, the Democratic Party 11, Our Coalition 1,
the Right Person Electorate Coalition 1 and ind. 1. Turnout was 73
6%.
xviii Chronology

In the Icelandic presidential elections, incumbent Guðni Jóhannesson won 92
2% of the vote against Gudmundur
Franklin Jónsson with 7
8%. Turnout was 66
9%.

Week beginning 28 June 2020

Polish presidential elections were held in two rounds, the first on 28 June and the second on 12 July 2020. In the first
round Andrzej Duda (ind.) gained 43
5% of votes cast, Rafał Trzaskowski of Civic Platform (PO) 30
5%.
President Umaro Sissoco Embaló of Guinea-Bissau dismissed five cabinet ministers, but later reinstates them.
Niger interior minister Mohamed Bazoum resigned. He was replaced by Alkache Alhada.
The interior minister of Slovenia, Ales Hojs, resigned.
Uruguayan foreign minister Ernesto Talvi resigned and was replaced by Francisco Bustillo.
A new cabinet was named in Kiribati, with Boutu Bateriki taking on the internal affairs portfolio and Teuea Toatu
remaining finance minister.
Parliament reelected Ukhnaa Khürelsükh as prime minister of Mongolia. Khürelsükh presented his cabinet,
including Nyamtseren Enkhtaivan as foreign minister, Gursed Saikhanbayar as defence minister and Khishgeegiyn
Nyambaatar as internal affairs minister.
The French prime minister Édouard Philippe resigned. President Emmanuel Macron named Jean Castex as prime
minister.
In Turkmenistan, Mukhammetgeldi Serdarov was appointed finance minister.

Week beginning 5 July 2020

After the Russian constitutional referendum on 1 July, president Vladimir Putin was granted sweeping powers that allow
him to run again for two more six-year presidential terms until 2036. The amendment also enshrined conservative
values, patriotic education and places the constitution above international law.
Parliamentary elections were held in Croatia. A coalition led by the HDZ won 66 seats (37
3% of the vote in the
domestic electoral districts), the Restart Coalition led by the Social Democratic Party of Croatia (SDP) 41 (24
9%) and
the Homeland Movement 16 (10
9%).
General elections were held in the Dominican Republic on 5 July 2020. Luis Abinader of the Modern Revolutionary
Party (PRM) was elected as president with 52
5% of the votes against Gonzalo Castillo of the Dominican Liberation
Party (PLD) with 37
5%. At the parliamentary elections held on the same day, the PRM won 86 seats in the Chamber of
Deputies with 40
8% of the vote, ahead of the PLD’s 75, the Socialist Christian Reformist Party (PRSC) with 6 and the
Dominican Revolutionary Party (PRD) with 4. In the Senate elections the PRM won 17 seats, the PLD 6, the PRSC 6,
Dominicans for Change 1, FB 1 and the Social Democratic Institutional Bloc 1.
The new French cabinet was named, including Gérald Darmanin as interior minister and Jean-Yves Le Drian as
foreign minister.
In parliamentary elections held in Singapore the ruling People’s Action Party (PAP) won 83 of 95 seats, the
Workers’ Party took 10 seats and the Progress Singapore Party took 2. Turnout was 95
8%.
Thousands of protesters marched to demand the resignation of Serbian President Aleksandar Vučić after he re-
imposed a curfew designed to stop the spread of Covid-19.
In Bolivia, Óscar Ortiz took office as finance minister following the resignation of José Luis Parada.
Ecuadorian vice president Otto Sonnenholzner resigned.
Ecuadorian foreign minister José Valencia resigned and was replaced by Luis Gallegos.
The prime minister of Côte d'Ivoire, Amadou Gon Coulibaly, died.
The full Malawian cabinet was named, including Eisenhower Mkaka as foreign minister.
Several ministers were removed in the Sudan and replaced by acting ministers.

Week beginning 12 July 2020

500,000 voters participated in primary elections for pro-democracy candidates in Hong Kong.
Thousands of protesters marched in the Democratic Republic of the Congo against the selection of a new election
chief with links to former president Joseph Kabila.
Chandrikapersad Santokhi was elected president of Suriname by the National Assembly. Since he stood unopposed,
there was no need for a formal vote.
In the second round run-off in Poland Andrzej Duda was re-elected president with 51
0% of the vote against 49
0%
for Rafał Trzaskowski.
A cabinet reshuffle in Chad results in Amine Abba Sidick being given the foreign affairs portfolio.
Parliamentary elections were held in North Macedonia. The We Can coalition (led by the Social Democratic Union
of Macedonia/SDSM) won 46 of 120 seats; the Renewal coalition (led by the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary
Organization-Democratic Party for Macedonian National Unity/VMRO-DPMNE) took 44; the Democratic Union for
Integration 15; the Alliance for Albanians–Alternative coalition 12; The Left 2 and the Democratic Party of Albanians 1.
Turnout was 52
0%.
A new government was sworn in in Peru. Pedro Cateriano was sworn in as prime minister, Mario López Chávarri
was sworn in as foreign minister and Jorge Montoya is sworn in as interior minister.
The Tunisian prime minister Elyes Fakhfakh resigned.
In Azerbaijan, president Ilham Aliyev dismissed foreign minister Elmar Mammadyarov. Jeyhun Bayramov was
appointed in their place.
María Alejandra Muñoz was elected to the post of Ecuadorian vice president.
The president of Gabon, Ali Bongo Ondimba, named Rose Christiane Ossouka Raponda as prime minister.
Thailand’s finance minister, Uttama Savanayana, resigned.

Week beginning 19 July 2020

In the parliamentary election held in Syria, the Ba`th Party and allies won 177 of 250 seats. Turnout is 33.2%.
The governor of Indian state Madhya Pradesh, Lalji Tandon, died. The governor of Uttar Pradesh, Anandiben Patel,
was subsequently given additional charge of Madhya Pradesh.
Chronology xix

In a cabinet reshuffle, Wilfred Abrahams became home affairs minister in Barbados.

The Somalian parliament voted to remove Hassan Ali Kheyre from the post of prime minister. Mahdi Mohamed
Guled was named as acting prime minister.
In Tunisia, the president confirmed interior minister Hichem Mechichi as the new prime minister.

Week beginning 26 July 2020

Liberian foreign Minister Gbehzohngar Findley resigned and Boimah Fahnbulleh became acting foreign minister.
During a cabinet reshuffle in Chile, Andrés Allamand was given the foreign affairs portfolio, Mario Desbordes the
defence portfolio and Víctor Pérez the interior portfolio.
The finance minister of El Salvador, Nelson Fuentes, resigned. Alejandro Zelaya was sworn in to replace him.
After serving as acting prime minister of Côte d'Ivoire, Hamed Bakayoko is named prime minister.

Week beginning 2 Aug. 2020

A large amount of ammonium nitrate stored in a container at a port exploded in Beirut, Lebanon. The Lebanese
Government subsequently declared a two-week State of Emergency.
Following a recount in May, the Elections Commission in Guyana declared Irfaan Ali president-elect and winner of
the March election.
Peruvian prime minister Pedro Cateriano lost a vote of confidence in Congress and resigned. Later in the week
Walter Martos is nominated and sworn in as prime minister.
Parliamentary elections were held on in Sri Lanka. The Sri Lanka Podujana Peramuna gained 145 seats; the Samagi
Jana Balawegaya 54; the Tamil National Alliance 10; and Jathika Jana Balawegaya 3. 11 other parties won the
remaining seats. Turnout was 75
9%.
Mahinda Rajapakse was sworn in after being re-elected as prime minister of Sri Lanka.
The government of Mauritanian prime minister Ismail Ould Bedda Ould Cheikh Sidiya resigned. Mohamed Ould
Bilal was subsequently appointed as prime minister.
Predee Daochai was nominated as finance minister in a cabinet reshuffle in Thailand.

Week beginning 9 Aug. 2020

The 2020 Belarusian presidential election led to violent protests and allegations of electoral fraud after incumbent
President Alexander Lukashenko claims a landslide victory over Sviatlana Tsikhanouskaya. Several nations rejected the
outcome of the election and Tsikhanouskaya went into exile after receiving death threats.
In Trinidad and Tobago, the ruling People’s National Movement (PNM) won 22 of 41 seats at parliamentary
elections, against the 19 seats won by the United National Congress. Turnout was 58
0%.
Lebanese prime minister Hassan Diab and his cabinet resigned. As of Feb. 2021 there was no Lebanese cabinet.
The United Arab Emirates and Israel agreed to reestablish diplomatic relations, according to former president
Donald Trump.
A new cabinet was announced in Sri Lanka. President Gotabaya Rajapakse took the defence portfolio and the prime
minister retained the finance portfolio.
Kim Tok Hun was appointed as premier in North Korea.
In Equatorial Guinea, the government of prime minister Francisco Pascual Obama Asue resigned.

Week beginning 16 Aug. 2020

Obama Asue was reappointed as prime minister in Equatorial Guinea. A new government was announced, which
included Victoriano Bibang Nsue Okomo as defence minister.
Luis Abinader was sworn in as president of the Dominican Republic.
Bart De Wever and Paul Magnette resigned as préformateurs in Belgium. The King appointed Egbert Lachaert to the
role.
In Canada, finance minister Bill Morneau resigned and was replaced by Chrystia Freeland.
Kenea Yadeta was named defence minister during a cabinet reshuffle in Ethiopia.
A military coup in Mali forced the resignation of the president, Ibrahim Boubacar Keita, and the dissolution of the
government of prime minister Boubou Cissé.
In Oman, Badr ibn Hamad ibn Hamoud Al Busaidi was appointed foreign minister and Sultan ibn Salem ibn Saeed
al-Habsi was appointed finance minister during a cabinet reshuffle.
President of North Macedonia Stevo Pendarovski asked Zoran Zaev to form a new government. Zaev's proposed
government included Bujar Osmani as foreign minister, Oliver Spasovski as interior minister and Fatmir Besimi as
finance minister.
Despite widespread protests against electoral fraud, president Alexander Lukashenko rejects calls for new elections
in Belarus.
Lebanese president Michel Aoun refused to follow his prime minister in resignation following the Beirut container
explosion.
Protests erupted in Khabarovsk Krai, Russia, against the Moscow government. They protested both against the
arrest of Governor Sergei Furgal and in support of Kremlin critic Alexei Navalny.
Kremlin critic Alexei Navalny was taken to a German hospital after a suspected poisoning.
In Honduras, Rocío Tábora resigned as finance minister and was replaced by Marco Antonio Midence Milla.
Polish foreign minister Jacek Czaputowicz resigned and was replaced by Zbigniew Rau.

Week beginning 23 Aug. 2020

Tunisian prime minister-designate Hichem Mechichi announced his government line-up with Othman Jerandi as foreign
minister, Ibrahim Bartagi as defence minister and Taoufik Charfeddine as interior minister.
Acting prime minister Hussein Arnous was charged with forming a new government in Syria.
xx Chronology

United States president Donald Trump nominated Chad Wolf (the acting secretary) as secretary of homeland
security.
Assimi Goita was proclaimed head of state in Mali.
Foreign minister Unity Dow was dismissed and replaced by Lemogang Kwape in a minor government
reorganisation in Botswana.
Japanese prime minister Shinzo Abe announced his resignation. He had been the longest serving prime minister in
Japanese history.
General Suh Wook was nominated as the South Korean defence minister.
Libyan prime minister Fayez al-Sarraj suspended interior minister Fathi Bashagha. Khalid Ahmad Mazen replaced
them in an acting capacity.

Week beginning 30 Aug. 2020

In Montenegrin parliamentary elections the Democratic Party of Socialists of Montenegro won 30 of 81 seats (with
35
1% of votes cast), the coalition For the Future of Montenegro 27 (32
6%), the coalition Peace is our Nation 10
(12
5%) and United Reform Action 4 (5
5%). Five smaller parties and coalitions or alliances won three seats or fewer.
Turnout was 76
6%.
Kosovo established diplomatic relations with Israel and opened an embassy in Jerusalem.
Serbia and Kosovo normalised diplomatic relations.
Pierre Dartout became the minister of state in Monaco.
Thai finance minister Predee Daochai submitted his resignation.
In parliamentary elections in Jamaica the ruling Jamaica Labour Party took (JLP) 49 of the 63 seats with 57
1% of
votes cast (up from 32 in 2016) and the People’s National Party (PNP) 14 with 42
8% (down from 31 in 2016). Turnout
was 37
9%.
Dee-Maxwell Saah Kemayah, Sr. was nominated as foreign minister in Liberia.
In Libya, the suspended interior minister Fathi Bashagha was restored to his post.
Egbert Lachaert and Conner Rousseau were named préformateurs in Belgium.
Nepalese finance minister Yubaraj Khatiwada resigned and the portfolio was taken over by prime minister K.P.
Sharma Oli.

Week beginning 6 Sept. 2020

Hong Kong police arrested 290 people in protests.
Representatives of the Taliban and the Afghan government met to begin peace talks.
Peruvian interior minister Jorge Montoya submitted his resignation. César Gentille took over the portfolio.

Week beginning 13 Sept. 2020

Yoshihide Suga was elected as president of the Liberal-Democratic Party in Japan and sworn in as prime minister. The
cabinet included Nobuo Kishi as defence minister and Ryota Takeda as internal affairs minister.
In Libya prime minister Fayez al-Sarraj announced his intention to step down by the end of Oct. 2020.
Athian Diing Athian is named to replace Salvatore Garang Mabiordit as finance minister in the South Sudan cabinet.
Somalian president Mohamed Abdullahi Mohamed appointed Mohamed Hussein Roble as prime minister.
The Chamber of Representatives in Belgium voted to extend the mandate of the government of prime minister
Sophie Wilmès to the start of Oct. 2020.
In a cabinet reshuffle in São Tomé and Príncipe, Edite Ten Juá was given the foreign affairs portfolio.

Week beginning 20 Sept. 2020

Bah N'Daw was appointed transitional president in Mali, with Assimi Goita as vice president.
In Ethiopia, Kenea Yadeta was sworn in as defence minister.
In Togo, the government of prime minister Komi Selom Klassou resigned.

Week beginning 27 Sept. 2020

Moctar Ouane was appointed interim prime minister in Mali.
In Bolivia, Branko Marinkovic took on the finance portfolio.
The president of Togo, Faure Gnassingbé, appointed Victoire Tomegah Dogbé as prime minister.
A new cabinet was unveiled in Comoros. This included Dhoihir Dhoulkamal as foreign minister.
In Spain, the Supreme Court disqualified the president of the Generalitat of Catalonia, Quim Torra, from his office
for 18 months. The regional parliament rejected the decision but Torra's deputy Pere Aragonès nevertheless assumed the
role of acting president.
The emir of Kuwait, Sheikh Sabah Al Ahmad Al Jabir Al Sabah, died. The crown prince, Sheikh Nawaf Al Ahmad
Al Jabir Al Sabah, was sworn in as emir.
The 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war broke out between Azerbaijan and Armemia. A ceasefire was not signed until 10
Nov. 2020.
The government of Sudan and ten rebel groups sign a peace agreement. This ends almost two decades of war.
The government of newly designated prime minister Alexander De Croo was sworn in in Belgium. Sophie Wilmès
was appointed foreign minister, Ludivine Dedonder was appointed defence minister and Annelies Verlinden was
appointed interior minister.
In San Marino, Alessandro Cardelli and Mirko Dolcini took office as captains-regent.
The new government of the prime minister of Togo, Victoire Tomegah Dogbé, was named.
King Abdullah II of Jordan accepts the resignation of prime minister Omar al-Razzaz.
Chronology xxi

Week beginning 4 October 2020

In parliamentary elections in Kyrgyzstan 46 of 120 seats were won by Birimdik (Unity) with 24
9% of the vote, 45 by
My Homeland Kyrgyzstan with 24
3% of the vote, 16 by the Kyrgyzstan Party and 13 by United Kyrgyzstan. Turnout
was 56
5%. Following a series of protests, the results were annulled two days later.

Week beginning 11 October 2020

The presidential election in Tajikistan resulted in the re-election of Emomali Rahmon of the People’s Democratic Party
(in office since 1992) against Agrarian Party’s candidate Rustam Latifzoda.
In India, the government and farmers’ unions meet to discuss the 2020 Agriculture Act (also known as the Farm
Bills) that farmers across the country have opposed with strikes and demonstrations since its approval by Parliament in
Sept. 2020.

Week beginning 18 October 2020

General elections were held in Bolivia. Luis Arce of the Movement Towards Socialism won 55
1% of votes cast against
28
8% for Carlos Mesa (Civic Community), 14
0% for Luis Fernando Camacho (Creemos), 1
5% for Chi Hyun Chung
(Front for Victory) and 0
5% for Feliciano Mamami (National Action Party of Bolivia). Turnout was 88
4%. In the
elections to the Chamber of Deputies the Movement Towards Socialism won 75 of 130 seats.
Alpha Condé was re-elected president of Guinea with 59
5% of the vote against Cellou Dalein Diallo with 33
5%.
In the Turkish Republic of Northrn Cyprus, Ersin Tatar of the National Unity Party won the run-off presidential
elections with 51
7% of the vote against incumbent Mustafa Akıncı with 48
3%.
In presidential election in the Seychelles, Wavel Ramkalawan (Linyon Demokratik Seselwa) won 54
9% of the vote
against incumbent Danny Faure (United Seychelles) with 43
5% and Alain St Ange (One Seychelles) with 1
6%.
Turnout was 88
5%.

Week beginning 25 October 2020

The second round of parliamentary elections in Lithuania resulted in Homeland Union winning 50 of 141 seats, Farmers
and Greens, 32; Social Democrats and Liberal Movement, 13 each; Freedom, 11; Labour, 10; AWPL and LSDDP, 3
each; LT and the Green Party, 1 each. Four seats went to independent candidates.
The presidential elections in Tanzania resulted in the re-election of John Magufuli of the Revolutionary State Party
with 84
4% of votes cast against Tundu Lissu of Chadema/Party for Democracy and Progress with 13
0%. There were
13 other candidates. Turnout was 50
7%.
In a national plebiscite in Chile, 78
3% of the votes approved that a new constitution should be drafted.
Presidential elections were held in Côte d’Ivoire. Alassane Ouattara was re-elected with 95
3% of the vote against
Kouadio Konan Bertin with 2
0%, Henri Konan Bédié with 1
7% and Pascal Affi N’Guessan with 1
0%. Turnout was
53
9%. Violence broke out around polling stations and Ouattara’s two main opponents boycotted the election.
Parliamentary elections were held in Georgia. The Georgian Dream coalition won 90 of the 150 seats (with 48
2% of
the party list vote). The United National Movement won 36 seats (27
2% of the party list vote); the Movement for
Liberty-European Georgia won 5 seats (3
8%); Lelo for Georgia (3
2%), Strategy Aghmashenebeli (3
2%), Alliance of
Patriots of Georgia (3
1%) and New Political Center—Girchi (2
9%) won 4 seats each; Citizens, 2 (1
3%); the Georgian
Labour Party, 1 (1
0%). Turnout was 56
1%. The opposition rejected the result and there were widespread protests.

Week beginning 1 November 2020

The presidential elections in the United States resulted in the election of Joseph Biden (Democrat). He won 306 electoral
college votes and incumbent Donald Trump (Republican) won 232. Following the elections of 3 Nov. 2020 the 117th
Congress (2021–23) is constituted as follows: Senate—50 Republicans, 48 Democrats and 2 independent candidates
who caucus with the Democrats; House of Representatives—222 Democrats and 213 Republicans.
Elections to the House of Assembly were held in St Vincent and Grenadines the ruling Unity Labour Party (ULP,
social democratic) won 9 of the 15 elected seats with 49
6% of the vote, against 6 (but 50
3% of the vote) for the New
Democratic Party (NDP, conservative).

Week beginning 8 November 2020

In elections to the House of Representatives of Myanmar, the National League for Democracy (NLD), led by Aung San
Suu Kyi, won 258 of 330 elected seats. The Union Solidarity and Development Party (USDP) won 26 seats, the Shan
Nationalities League for Democracy (SNLD) 13 and the Arakan National Party (ANP) 4. A further 14 seats went to
eight smaller parties, with 15 vacant owing to insurgent activity. 110 seats are automatically reserved for the military. In
elections on the same day to the House of Nationalities the NLD took 138 seats, the USDP 7, the ANP 4, the Mon Unity
Party 3 and the Kayah State Democratic Party 3. A further six seats went to four smaller parties, with seven vacant
owing to insurgent activity. 56 seats are automatically reserved for the military.
Elections to the House of Representatives were held in Egypt. 124 of 596 seats went to independent candidates. In
addition, the Nation’s Future Party won 316 seats, the Republican People’s Party 50, the New Wafd Party 26, the
Protectors of the Homeland Party 23, the Modern Egypt Party 11, the Reform and Development Party 9, the al-Nour
Party, the Conference Party, the Freedom Party, the Social Democratic Party 7 seats each, Tagammu 6, the Justice Party
2 and the Eradet Geel Party 1. In elections to the Senate, the Nation’s Future Party won 149 seats; the Republican
People’s Party, 17; the Homeland Defenders Party, 11; the New Wafd Party, 10; the National Progressive Unionist Party,
5; the Modern Egypt Party, 4. Nine smaller parties took three seats or fewer and 88 seats went to independents.
With the mediation of Russia, Armenia and Azerbaijan signed a ceasefire agreement in the conflict over disputed
enclave of Nagorno-Karabakh.
In Peru, in the midst of the Covid-19 pandemic, president Martina Vizcarra came under pressure from opposition
was one of the worst affected countries in the pandemic. Congress impeached him and Vizcarra was removed from
office. Manual Merino, succeeded him but resigned after five days amid widespread protests.
xxii Chronology

In elections to the House of Representatives in Belize, the opposition People’s United Party won 26 of 31 seats with
59
6% of votes cast and the United Democratic Party 5 with 38
8%. Turnout was 81
9%.
Bahrain's Prime Minister, Prince Khalifa bin Salman al-Khalifa, who had served since Bahrain’s independence in
1971, died aged 84. Crown Prince Sheikh Salman bin Hamad Al Khalifa replaced him.

Week beginning 15 November 2020

Fifteen countries of the Asia-Pacific region signed the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership.
In Peru, after the resignation of Manual Merino, Francisco Sagasto was sworn president to conclude the 2016–21
term.
The second round of the presidential elections resulted in the election of Maia Sandu (with 57
7% of votes cast)
against Igor Dodon (with 42
3%). Turnout in the second round was 55
1%.
The second round of UN-sponsored peace talks in Lybia ends. The participants agree to organise elections in Dec.
2021.
The 2020 G-20 summit was due to be held in Riyadh, but was hosted virtually owing to the Covid-19 pandemic.

Week beginning 22 November 2020

The presidential elections in Burkina Faso resulted in the re-election Roch Marc Christian Kaboré (with 57
9% of votes
cast) against Eddie Komboïgo (15
5%), Zéphirin Diabré (12
5%) and ten other candidates. Turnout was 50
8%.
In the second round of the presidential elections in Romania, incumbent Klaus Iohannis was re-elected (ind.; with
66
1% of the vote) against Viorica Dăncilă (Social Democratic Party; 33
9%).

Week beginning 29 November 2020

Parliamentary elections were held in Kuwait. Opposition candidates won 24 of 50 seats in the National Assembly.
Turnout was around 70%.

Week beginning 6 December 2020

Parliamentary elections were held in Romania. The PSD took 110 seats in the lower house and 47 in the Senate, the
National Liberal Party (PNL) 93 seats and 41, the USR-Plus 55 seats and 25, the the Alliance for the Unity of
Romanians 33 and 14, and the Democratic Union of Hungarians in Romania 21 and 9. 19 smaller parties won one
seat each in the lower house. Turnout was approximately 32%.
Elections to the Congress were held in Venezuela. All 277 seats were contested. With most opposition parties
boycotting the elections, the Great Patriotic Pole won 253 seats (of which the United Socialist Party of Venezuela, 219),
the Democratic Alliance, 18 (of which Democratic Action, 11), Total United Venezuela, two and the Communist Party
of Venezuela, one. Three seats reserved for indigenous peoples. Turnout was 30
5%.
General elections were help in Ghana. The presidential elections resulted in the re-election of incumbent Nana
Akufo-Addo of the New Patriotic Party (NPP; with 51
3% of the vote) against John Dramani Mahama of the National
Democratic Congress (NDC; 47
4%). There were ten other candidates. Turnout was 78
9%. In parliamentary elections
held simultaneously the NPP and the NDC won 137 seats each. One seat went to an independent candidate.
The National Liberal Party (PNL) having lost the parliamentary election, Ludovic Orban resigns as prime minister of
Romania. Nicolae Cuică replaced him in an acting capacity.

Week beginning 13 December 2020

In the United States, the Electoral College meet. The Joseph Biden-Kamala Harris (Dem.) wins 306 votes and the
Donald Trump-Mike Pence (Rep.), 232.

Week beginning 20 December 2020

After a fraught year of negotiations, the United Kingdom reached a trade deal with the European Union one week before
the ‘Brexit’ transition period was due to end.
Abd-Rabbu Mansour Hadi becomes President of Yemen and forms a government as per the 2019 Riyadh
Agreement.

Week beginning 27 December 2020

The United Kingdom ended this transition period and new rules governing the relationship between the United
Kingdom and the European Union formally took effect.
Presidential elections were held in the Central African Republic. Incumbent Faustin-ArchangeTouadéra Anicet-
Georges Dologuélé won 53
9% of the vote against former prime minister Anicet-Georges Dologuélé with 21
0% and
Martin Ziguélé (another former prime minister) with 7
5%. A further 14 candidates took part in the poll. Turnout was
76
3%.
In general elections in Nigeria, Muhammadu Buhari, the incumbent president and candidate for All Progressives
Congress (APC) party was re-elected with 55
6% of votes cast. He defeated Atiku Abubakar of the People’s Democratic
Party (PDP), who took 41
2%. There were a further 71 candidates. Turnout was 34
7%. In elections to the House of
Representatives, the APC won 216 seats, PDP 114 and others 20. Ten seats remained vacant. In Senate elections, 64
seats went to the APC and 41 to the PDP. The Young Progressive Party won one seat and three seats were yet to be
declared.
Argentina becomes the fourth country in Latin America (along with Cuba, Uruguay and Guyana) to legalises
abortion up to the fourteenth week of pregnancy.
The African Continental Free Trade Area comes into effect.

Week beginning 3 January 2021

In the United States, the Capitol building, seat of the Congress, was assaulted by protesters.
Chronology xxiii

Week beginning 10 January 2021

Kin Jong-un is appointed General Secretary of the ruling Workers’ Party of Korea.
In the Netherlands, prime minister Mark Rutte presented the resignation of the cabinet over the mishandling of
childcare subsidies.

Week beginning 17 January 2021

Joseph Biden was inaugurated as the 46th president of the United States.
The United Nations’ Treaty on Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons of the UN comes into force.
In India, the farmers’ unions reject the government’s proposal to postpone the application of the Farms Bills for
eighteen months.

Week beginning 24 January 2021

At the presidential elections in Portugal, Marcelo Rebelo de Sousa (Social Democratic Party) was re-elected with 60
7%
of the vote, against Ana Gomes (Socialist Party) 13
0%, André Ventura (Chega) 12
9%, João Ferreira (Communist
Party/The Greens) 4
3%, Marisa Matias (Left Bloc) 4
0%, Thiago Mayan Gonçalves (ind.) 3
2% and Vitorino Silva
(React, Include, Recycle) 3
0%. Turnout was 39
3%.

Week beginning 31 January 2021

In Myanmar, in reaction to the victory of ruling party National League for Democracy, led by Aung San Suu Kyi, at the
Nov. 2020 parliamentary elections, the Tatmadaw (‘Armed Forces’) declared a state of emergency. They removed Win
Myint’s government and transferred the power to Gen. Min Aung Hlaing.
Despite growing tensions over the 2020 Indian Agriculture Act, the government decides to maintain its implemen-
tation of the bill.

Week beginning 7 February 2021

A World Trade Organization-led investigation in China concluded that Covid-19 virus is unlikely to have come from a
Wuhan laboratory.

Week beginning 14 February 2021

The United States re-joins the international treaty on climate change known as the Paris Agreement.

Week beginning 21 February 2021

Armenia’s prime minister Nikol Pashinyan claimed that the army, led by the Chief of the General Staff of the Armenian
Forces, attempted to remove him from power, in response to the signature of a ceasefire in the conflict with Azerbaijan
over disputed enclave of Nagorno-Karabakh.

Week beginning 28 February 2021

Nicolas Sarkozy, president of France in 2007–2012 was found guilty of corruption and traffic of influence and was
sentenced to three years of imprisonment, with two years suspended. Sarkozy filed an appeal against the decision, hence
suspending its application.
Contents

Part I International Organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Key Global Organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
United Nations (UN) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Member States of the UN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Universal Declaration of Human Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
United Nations System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Specialized Agencies of the UN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Other Organs Related to the UN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
UN Conventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
European Union (EU) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
EU Institutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Other EU Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Main EU Agencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Black Sea Economic Cooperation (BSEC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Central European Initiative (CEI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Cern – The European Organization for Nuclear Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Council of Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Council of the Baltic Sea States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Danube Commission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
European Broadcasting Union (EBU) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
European Free Trade Association (EFTA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
European Space Agency (ESA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
European Trade Union Confederation (ETUC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Nordic Council . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Nordic Development Fund (NDF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Nordic Investment Bank (NIB) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Other Organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Alliance of Small Island States (AOSIS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Amnesty International (AI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Bank for International Settlements (BIS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Commonwealth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Eurasian Economic Union (EEU) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
International Air Transport Association (IATA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
International Criminal Court (ICC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance (IDEA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
International Mobile Satellite Organization (IMSO) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
International Olympic Committee (IOC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
International Organisation of La Francophonie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
International Road Federation (IRF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
International Seabed Authority (ISA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
International Telecommunications Satellite Organization (ITSO) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
International Trade Union Confederation (ITUC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (ITLOS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
INTERPOL (International Criminal Police Organization) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Islamic Development Bank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Médecins Sans Frontières/Doctors Without Borders (MSF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Nobel Prizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Union for International Cancer Control (UICC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

xxv
xxvi Contents

Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization (UNPO) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

World Council of Churches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
World Customs Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
World Federation of Trade Unions (WFTU) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
African Development Bank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
African Export–Import Bank (Afreximbank) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
African Union (AU) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Bank of Central African States (BEAC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Central Bank of West African States (BCEAO) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
East African Community (EAC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
East African Development Bank (EADB) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Economic Community of Central African States (CEEAC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Intergovernmental Authority on Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Lake Chad Basin Commission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Niger Basin Authority . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Southern African Customs Union (SACU) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Southern African Development Community (SADC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Tripartite Free Trade Area (TFTA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
West African Development Bank (BOAD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
West African Economic and Monetary Union (UEMOA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Americas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . 59
Agency for the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons in Latin America and the Caribbean (OPANAL) . . . . 59
Andean Community . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . 59
Association of Caribbean States (ACS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . 59
Caribbean Community (CARICOM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . 59
Caribbean Development Bank (CDB) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . 60
Central American Bank for Economic Integration (CABEI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . 60
Central American Integration System (SICA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . 60
Eastern Caribbean Central Bank (ECCB) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . 60
Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . 61
Latin American Economic System (SELA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . 61
Latin American Integration Association (ALADI/LAIA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . 61
Latin American Reserve Fund . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . 61
Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . 61
Organization of American States (OAS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . 61
Pacific Alliance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . 62
Secretariat for Central American Economic Integration (SIECA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . 62
Southern Common Market (MERCOSUR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . 62
Union of South American Nations (UNASUR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . 63
Asia/Pacific . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Asian Development Bank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Asia-Pacific Economic Co-operation (APEC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Colombo Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Cooperation Council of Turkic-Speaking States (Turkic Council) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Economic Co-operation Organization (ECO) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Pacific Islands Forum (PIF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
South Asian Association for Regional Co-operation (SAARC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Middle East . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Arab Fund for Economic and Social Development (AFESD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Arab Monetary Fund (AMF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Arab Organization for Agricultural Development (AOAD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Gulf Co-operation Council (GCC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
League of Arab States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries (OAPEC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Environmental Organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Friends of the Earth International . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Global Environment Facility (GEF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Greenpeace International . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Contents xxvii

Treaties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Antarctic Treaty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Leading Think Tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
African Centre for the Constructive Resolution of Disputes (ACCORD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
American Enterprise Institute (for Public Policy Research) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Asian Development Bank Institute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Atlantic Council . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Barcelona Centre for International Affairs (CIDOB) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Brookings Institution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Bruegel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Carnegie Endowment for International Peace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Carnegie Middle East Center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Carnegie Moscow Center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Cato Institute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Center for American Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Center for Strategic and International Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Centre for Economic Policy Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Centre for European Policy Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Centre for International Governance Innovation (CIGI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Centre for Social and Economic Research (CASE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Chatham House (Royal Institute of International Affairs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
China Institutes of Contemporary International Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Chinese Academy of Social Sciences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Consejo Argentino para las Relaciones Internacionales (CARI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Council on Foreign Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Danish Institute for International Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
European Council on Foreign Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Fraser Institute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
French Institute of International Relations (IFRI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Friedrich Ebert Foundation (Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung; FES) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Fundação Getulio Vargas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
German Development Institute (DIE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
German Institute for International and Security Affairs (Stiftung Wissenschaft und Politik; SWP) . . . . 75
Heritage Foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Human Rights Watch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses (IDSA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Institute of Development Studies (IDS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Institute of World Economy and International Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
International Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Japan Institute of International Affairs (JIIA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Konrad Adenauer Foundation (Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Korea Development Institute (KDI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Korea Institute for International Economic Policy (KIEP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Netherlands Institute of International Relations ‘Clingendael’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Observer Research Foundation (ORF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Peterson Institute for International Economics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
RAND Corporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Razumkov Centre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Transparency International . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Urban Institute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

Part II Countries of the World A–Z . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

Afghanistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Albania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Algeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Andorra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Angola . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Antigua and Barbuda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Argentina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Armenia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
xxviii Contents

Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Australian Territories and States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Australian Capital Territory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Northern Territory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
New South Wales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Queensland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
South Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Tasmania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Victoria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Western Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Australian External Territories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Ashmore and Cartier Islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Australian Antarctic Territory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Christmas Island . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Cocos (Keeling) Islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Coral Sea Islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Heard and Mcdonald Islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Norfolk Island . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Austria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Azerbaijan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
The Bahamas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Bahrain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Bangladesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Barbados . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Belarus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Belgium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Belize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Benin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Bhutan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
Bolivia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
Bosnia and Herzegovina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Botswana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Brazil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Brunei . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Bulgaria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Burkina Faso . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Burundi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Cabo Verde . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
Cambodia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Cameroon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Canadian Provinces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Alberta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
British Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
Manitoba . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
New Brunswick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Newfoundland And Labrador . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Nova Scotia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
Ontario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Prince Edward Island . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
Quebec—Québec . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
Saskatchewan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
The Northwest Territories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Nunavut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
Yukon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Central African Republic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
Chad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
Contents xxix

Chile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
Hong Kong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
Macao . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
Taiwan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
Colombia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
Comoros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
Congo, Democratic Republic of The . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Congo, Republic of the . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
Costa Rica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
Côte d’Ivoire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
Croatia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
Cuba . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
Cyprus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
‘Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC)’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
Czech Republic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
Denmark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
The Faroe Islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
Greenland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
Djibouti . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
Dominica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
Dominican Republic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
Ecuador . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
El Salvador . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
Equatorial Guinea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
Eritrea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
Estonia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
Eswatini . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
Ethiopia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
Fiji . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
Finland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
Departments and Collectivities Overseas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
French Guiana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
Guadeloupe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
Martinique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
Mayotte . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
Réunion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
Overseas Departments and Regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
French Polynesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
St Barthélemy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
St Martin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
St Pierre and Miquelon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
Wallis and Futuna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
Sui Generis Collectivities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
New Caledonia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
Southern and Antarctic Territories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
Minor Territories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
Gabon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
The Gambia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
xxx Contents

Georgia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
Abkhazia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
Adjara . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
South Ossetia-Alania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
The Bundesländer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
Bavaria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
Berlin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498
Brandenburg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499
Bremen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499
Hamburg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500
Hessen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
Lower Saxony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502
Mecklenburg-West Pomerania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
North Rhine-Westphalia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504
Rhineland-Palatinate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
Saarland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506
Saxony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
Saxony-Anhalt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
Schleswig-Holstein . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
Thuringia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
Ghana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
Greece . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518
Grenada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
Guatemala . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528
Guinea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
Guinea-Bissau . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537
Guyana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
Haiti . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
Honduras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
Hungary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553
Iceland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568
States and Territories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583
Andhra Pradesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583
Arunachal Pradesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583
Assam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583
Bihar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583
Chhattisgarh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584
Goa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584
Gujarat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584
Haryana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584
Himachal Pradesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585
Jharkhand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585
Karnataka . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585
Kerala . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585
Madhya Pradesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586
Maharashtra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586
Manipur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586
Meghalaya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586
Mizoram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587
Nagaland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587
Odisha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587
Punjab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587
Rajasthan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587
Sikkim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 588
Tamil Nadu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 588
Telangana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 588
Tripura . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 588
Uttar Pradesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589
Uttarakhand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589
West Bengal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589
Union Territories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589
Contents xxxi

Indonesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592
Iran . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 598
Iraq . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606
Kurdistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612
Ireland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613
Israel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 625
Palestinian Territories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 632
Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 635
Jamaica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647
Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651
Jordan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 661
Kazakhstan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 666
Kenya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 671
Kiribati . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 676
Korea, North . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 679
Korea, South . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 686
Kuwait . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 694
Kyrgyzstan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 698
Laos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 702
Latvia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 706
Lebanon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 712
Lesotho . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 717
Liberia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 721
Libya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 725
Liechtenstein . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 730
Lithuania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 733
Luxembourg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 739
Madagascar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 744
Malawi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 748
Malaysia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 752
Maldives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 759
Mali . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 762
Malta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 766
Marshall Islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 771
Mauritania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 774
Mauritius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 778
Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 782
Micronesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 789
Moldova . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 792
Monaco . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 796
Mongolia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 799
Montenegro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 803
Morocco . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 807
Mozambique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 812
xxxii Contents

Myanmar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 816
Namibia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 821
Nauru . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 825
Nepal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 828
Netherlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 833
Overseas Countries and Territories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 842
Autonomous Countries Within the Kingdom of the Netherlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 842
Autonomous Special Municipalities of the Netherlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 842
New Zealand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 844
Territories Overseas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 852
Self-Governing Territories Overseas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 852
Nicaragua . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 854
Niger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 858
Nigeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 862
North Macedonia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 869
Norway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 873
Svalbard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 880
Jan Mayen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 880
Bouvet Island . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 880
Peter I Island . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 880
Queen Maud Land . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 880
Oman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 881
Pakistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 885
Palau . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 893
Panama . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895
Papua New Guinea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 900
Bougainville . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 903
Paraguay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 905
Peru . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 909
Philippines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 915
Poland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 921
Portugal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 930
Qatar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 938
Romania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 942
Russia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 949
The Republics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 960
Adygeya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 960
Altai . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 960
Bashkortostan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 960
Buryatia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 961
Chechnya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 961
Chuvashia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 961
Dagestan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 961
Ingushetia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 962
Kabardino-Balkaria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 962
Kalmykia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 962
Karachai-Cherkessia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 962
Karelia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 962
Khakassia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 963
Komi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 963
Mari-El . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 963
Mordovia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 963
North Ossetia-Alania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 963
Sakha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 963
Tatarstan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 963
Tuva . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 964
Udmurtia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 964
Autonomous Districts and Provinces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 964
Contents xxxiii

Rwanda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 966
St Kitts and Nevis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 971
St Lucia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 974
St Vincent and the Grenadines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 977
Samoa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 980
San Marino . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 983
São Tomé and Príncipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 986
Saudi Arabia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 989
Senegal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 996
Serbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1001
Kosovo and Metohija . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1005
Vojvodina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1007
Seychelles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1008
Sierra Leone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1011
Singapore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1015
Slovakia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1021
Slovenia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1027
Solomon Islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1033
Somalia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1037
South Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1041
South African Provinces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1049
Eastern Cape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1049
Free State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1049
Gauteng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1050
Kwazulu-Natal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1050
Limpopo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1050
Mpumalanga . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1050
Northern Cape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1050
North-West . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1051
Western Cape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1051
South Sudan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1052
Spain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1055
Sri Lanka . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1065
Sudan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1071
Suriname . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1077
Sweden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1081
Switzerland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1090
Syria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1098
Tajikistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1104
Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1107
Tanzania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1108
Thailand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1113
Timor-Leste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1119
Togo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1123
Tonga . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1127
Trinidad and Tobago . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1130
Tunisia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1134
Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1139
Turkmenistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1147
xxxiv Contents

Tuvalu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1151
Uganda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1154
Ukraine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1160
Crimea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1165
United Arab Emirates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1167
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1172
England . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1202
Scotland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1207
Wales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1212
Northern Ireland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1214
Isle Of Man . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1219
Channel Islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1219
Jersey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1219
Guernsey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1220
Alderney . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1220
Sark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1220
United Kingdom Overseas Territories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1220
Anguilla . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1221
Bermuda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1221
British Antarctic Territory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1221
British Indian Ocean Territory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1221
British Virgin Islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1222
Cayman Islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1222
Falkland Islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1222
Gibraltar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1223
Montserrat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1223
Pitcairn Island . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1223
St Helena, Ascension and Tristan Da Cunha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1223
South Georgia and The South Sandwich Islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1224
Sovereign Base Areas Of Akrotiri and Dhekelia In Cyprus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1224
The Turks and Caicos Islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1224
United States of America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1227
States and Territories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1258
Alabama . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1258
Alaska . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1260
Arizona . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1261
Arkansas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1263
California . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1264
Colorado . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1267
Connecticut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1269
Delaware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1270
District of Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1272
Florida . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1273
Georgia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1275
Hawaii . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1276
Idaho . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1278
Illinois . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1279
Indiana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1281
Iowa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1283
Kansas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1284
Kentucky . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1286
Louisiana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1287
Maine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1289
Maryland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1290
Massachusetts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1292
Michigan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1294
Minnesota . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1295
Mississippi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1297
Missouri . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1298
Montana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1300
Nebraska . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1301
Nevada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1303
New Hampshire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1304
New Jersey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1306
New Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1308
New York State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1309
North Carolina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1312
North Dakota . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1313
Ohio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1315
Contents xxxv

Oklahoma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1316
Oregon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1317
Pennsylvania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1320
Rhode Island . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1322
South Carolina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1323
South Dakota . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1325
Tennessee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1326
Texas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1328
Utah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1330
Vermont . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1332
Virginia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1333
Washington State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1335
West Virginia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1336
Wisconsin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1338
Wyoming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1340
Outlying Territories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1341
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1341
Commonwealth of Puerto Rico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1342
American Samoa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1342
Guam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1343
Virgin Islands of the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1343
Other Unincorporated Territories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1343
Incorporated Territories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1344
Uruguay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1348
Uzbekistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1353
Vanuatu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1358
Vatican City State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1361
Venezuela . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1364
Vietnam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1370
Yemen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1376
Zambia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1381
Zimbabwe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1385
Statesman’s Yearbook Select Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1391
Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1393
Current Leaders Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1395
Place and International Organizations Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1399
 Part I
International Organizations
Key Global Organizations
United Nations (UN)
Origin and Aims The United Nations is an association of states, or inter-
governmental organizations, pledged to maintain international peace and
security and to co-operate in solving international political, economic, social,
cultural and humanitarian problems. The name ‘United Nations’ was devised
by US President Franklin D. Roosevelt and was first used in the Declaration
by United Nations of 1 Jan. 1942, during the Second World War, when
26 nations pledged to continue fighting the Axis Powers.
The United Nations Charter was drawn up by the representatives of
50 countries at the United Nations Conference on International Organization,
which met in San Francisco from 25 April to 26 June 1945. Delegates started
with proposals worked out by the representatives of China, the Soviet Union,
the United Kingdom and the United States at Dumbarton Oaks (Washington,
D.C.) from 21 Aug. to 28 Sept. 1944. The Charter was signed on 26 June
1945 by the representatives of the 50 countries. Poland, which was not
represented at the Conference, signed later and became one of the original
51 member states. The United Nations came into existence officially on
24 Oct. 1945, with the deposit of the requisite number of ratifications of
the Charter with the US Department of State. United Nations Day is cele-
brated on 24 Oct.
In recent years, most of the UN’s work has been devoted to helping
developing countries. Major goals include the protection of human rights;
saving children from starvation and disease; providing relief assistance to
refugees and disaster victims; countering global crime, drugs and disease;
and assisting countries devastated by war and the long-term threat of
landmines.
Members New member states are admitted by the General Assembly on the
recommendation of the Security Council. The Charter provides for the
suspension or expulsion of a member for violation of its principles, but no
such action has ever been taken. The UN has 193 member states, comprising
every internationally recognized sovereign state, with the exception of the
Holy See. (For a list of these, see below.)
Finance Contributions from member states constitute the main source of
funds. These are in accordance with a scale specified by the Assembly, and
determined primarily by the country’s share of the world economy and ability
to pay, in the range 0·001%–22·000%. The Organization is prohibited by law
from borrowing from commercial institutions.
A Working Group on the Financial Situation of the United Nations was
established in 1994 to address the long-standing financial crisis caused by
non-payment of assessed dues by many member states. Unpaid assessed
contributions stood at US$1·6bn. as of 30 April 2018.
Official languages: Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian and Spanish.
Structure The UN has five principal organs established by the founding
Charter (formerly six). All have their headquarters in New York except the
International Court of Justice, which has its seat in The Hague. These core
bodies work through dozens of related agencies, operational programmes and
funds, and through special agreements with separate, autonomous, intergov-
ernmental agencies, known as Specialized Agencies, to provide a programme
of action in the fields of peace and security, justice and human rights,
humanitarian assistance, and social and economic development. The five
principal UN organs are:
1. The General Assembly
The General Assembly, composed of all members, with each member having
one vote. Meeting once a year, proceedings begin on the Tuesday of the third
week of Sept. The 75th Session opened on 15 Sept. 2020.
At least three months before the start of each session, the Assembly elects
a new President, 21 Vice-Presidents and the chairs of its six main committees,
listed below. To ensure equitable geographical representation, the presidency
© Springer Nature Limited 2022
Palgrave Macmillan (ed.), The Statesman’s Yearbook 2022,
https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-349-96045-3_1
of the Assembly rotates each year among the five geographical groups of
states: Africa, Asia, Eastern Europe, Latin America and the Caribbean, and
Western Europe and other States. Special sessions may be convoked by the
Secretary-General if requested by the Security Council, by a majority of
members, or by one member if the majority of the members concur. Emer-
gency sessions may be called within 24 hours at the request of the Security
Council on the vote of any nine Council members, or a majority of United
Nations members, or one member if the majority of members concur. Deci-
sions on important questions, such as peace and security, new membership
and budgetary matters, require a two-thirds majority; other questions require
a simple majority of members present and voting.
The work of the General Assembly is divided between six Main
Committees, on which every member state is represented: the Disarmament
and International Security Committee (First Committee); the Economic and
Financial Committee (Second Committee); the Social, Humanitarian and
Cultural Committee (Third Committee); the Special Political and Decoloni-
zation Committee (Fourth Committee); the Administrative and Budgetary
Committee (Fifth Committee); and the Legal Committee (Sixth Committee).
There is also a General Committee charged with the task of co-ordinating
the proceedings of the Assembly and its Committees, and a Credentials
Committee, which examines the credentials of representatives of Member
States. The General Committee consists of 28 members: the President and
21 Vice-Presidents of the General Assembly and the chairs of the six main
committees. The Credentials Committee consists of nine members appointed
by the Assembly on the proposal of the President at each session. In addition,
the Assembly has a number of subsidiary organs, divided into Boards
(of which there were 7 in Jan. 2019), Commissions (7), Committees (31),
Assemblies and Councils (4) and Working Groups, etc. (16).
The General Assembly has the right to discuss any matters within the
scope of the Charter and, with the exception of any situation or dispute on the
agenda of the Security Council, may make recommendations accordingly.
Occupying a central position in the UN, the Assembly receives reports from
other organs, admits new members, directs activities for development, sets
policies and determines programmes for the Secretariat and approves the UN
budget. The Assembly appoints the Secretary-General, who reports annually
to it on the work of the Organization.
Under the ‘Uniting For Peace’ resolution (377) adopted by the General
Assembly in Nov. 1950, the Assembly is also empowered to take action if the
Security Council, because of a lack of unanimity of its permanent members,
fails to exercise its primary responsibility for the maintenance of international
peace and security in any case where there appears to be a threat to the peace,
breach of the peace or act of aggression. In this event, the General Assembly
may consider the matter immediately with a view to making appropriate
recommendations to members for collective measures, including, in the case
of a breach of the peace or act of aggression, the use of armed force to
maintain or restore international peace and security.
The first Emergency Special Session of the Assembly was called in
1956 during the Suez Crisis by Yugoslavia, which cited Resolution 377;
demands were made for the withdrawal of British, French and Israeli troops
from Egypt. On the Assembly’s recommendations, the United Nations Emer-
gency Force (UNEF I) was formed as the UN’s first armed peacekeeping force.
Over the years a number of programmes and funds have been established
to address particular humanitarian and development concerns. These bodies
usually report to the General Assembly. They include: the United Nations
Children’s Fund (UNICEF); Office of the United Nations High Commis-
sioner for Refugees (UNHCR); United Nations Conference on Trade and
Development (UNCTAD); United Nations Development Programme
(UNDP) and Population Fund (UNFPA); United Nations Environment Pro-
gramme (UNEP); United Nations World Food Programme (WFP); United
Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC).
Website: http://www.un.org/ga
President: Volkan Bozkır (Turkey) was elected President for the 75th Session
in 2020.
3
4 Key Global Organizations
2. The Security Council
The Security Council has primary responsibility for the maintenance of
international peace and security. Under the Charter, the Security Council
alone has the power to take decisions that member states are obligated to
carry out. A representative of each of its members must be present at all times
at UN Headquarters, but it may meet elsewhere as best facilitates its work.
The Presidency of the Council rotates monthly, according to the English
alphabetical order of members’ names. The Council consists of 15 members:
five permanent and ten non-permanent elected for a two-year term by a
two-thirds majority of the General Assembly. Each member has one vote.
Retiring members are not eligible for immediate re-election. Any other
member of the United Nations may participate without a vote in the discus-
sion of questions specially affecting its interests.
Decisions on procedural questions are made by an affirmative vote of at
least nine members. On all other matters, the affirmative vote of nine
members must include the concurring votes of all permanent members
(subject to the provision that when the Council is considering methods for
the peaceful settlement of a dispute, parties to the dispute abstain from
voting). Consequently, a negative vote from a permanent member has the
power of veto. If a permanent member does not support a decision but does
not wish to veto it, it may abstain. From 1945–91 the USSR employed its
veto 119 times, the USA 69 times, the UK 32 times, France 18 times and
China three times (including once before the People’s Republic of China took
over Taiwan’s seat at the UN in 1971). From 1992–Aug. 2020 the Russian
Federation vetoed 27 resolutions, the USA 17 and China 15; France and the
UK did not veto any resolutions.
According to Article 29 of the United Nations Charter, the Security
Council can establish subsidiary bodies as needed for the performance of
its functions. All existing committees and working groups consist of the
15 members of the Council. The mandate of subsidiary organs, whether they
are committees or working groups, can cover procedural matters or substan-
tive issues.
Committees include a Counter-Terrorism Committee established in the
wake of the Sept. 2001 attacks in the USA, a Non-Proliferation Committee
and a Military Staff Committee. There are also sanctions committees, standing
committees and ad hoc bodies. In addition the Security Council has responsi-
bility for peacekeeping operations and political missions, as well as interna-
tional courts and tribunals. The Peacebuilding Commission, acting as an
advisory body, supports peace efforts in countries emerging from conflict.
The Council also makes recommendations to the Assembly on the
appointment of the Secretary-General and, with the Assembly, elects the
judges of the International Court of Justice.
Peacekeeping The Charter contains no explicit provisions for peacekeeping
operations (PKOs), yet they have the highest profile of all the UN’s opera-
tions. PKOs are associated with humanitarian intervention though their
emergence was primarily a result of the failure of the Charter’s collective
security system during the Cold War and the absence of a UN Force. The end
of the Cold War and the rise of intra-state conflict led to a proliferation of
PKOs from the late 1980s and a greater proportion of armed missions.
However, notable failures in the early and mid-1990s, such as the missions
to Somalia in 1993 and to Rwanda in 1994, account for a drop in PKOs and
shorter mandates. In 1992 then Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali
presented the ‘Agenda for Peace’, which laid out four phases to prevent or
end conflict: preventative diplomacy; peacemaking with civilian and military
means; peacekeeping, in its traditional sense of operations in the field; and
post-conflict peace-building, an area seen as comparatively neglected in
previous missions. The then Secretary-General Kofi Annan presented a
report aimed at conflict prevention in July 2001 emphasizing inter-agency
co-operation and long-term strategies to prevent regional instability. There
have been 72 peacekeeping operations in total since 1948. The first mis-
sion—consisting of unarmed observers—was to monitor the ceasefire during
the First Arab–Israeli War.
Recent History In Nov. 2002 the Security Council held Iraq in ‘material
breach’ of disarmament obligations. Weapons inspectors, led by Hans Blix
(Sweden), returned to Iraq four years after their last inspections. Amid
suspicion that Iraq was failing to comply, the USA, the UK and Spain
reserved the right to disarm Iraq without a further Security Council resolu-
tion. Other Council members, notably China, France, Germany and Russia,
opposed such action. In April 2003 US forces, supported by the UK, brought
an end to Saddam Hussein’s rule. In June 2004 the UN recognized the
transfer of sovereignty to the interim government of Iraq. In 2005 the Council
referred cases to the International Criminal Court (ICC) for the first time,
asking the court to investigate the situation in Darfur, Sudan. Instability in
Sudan saw the establishment of peacekeeping missions in Darfur (2007), the
disputed Abyei region and newly independent South Sudan (both 2011).
Other peacekeeping missions established in recent years have included
Liberia (2003), Côte d’Ivoire (2004), Haiti (2004), Timor-Leste (2006),
Democratic Republic of the Congo (2010), Libya (2011), Mali (2013), the
Central African Republic (2014) and, again, Haiti (2017). In April 2012 the
Security Council established a mission in Syria to monitor the cessation of
armed violence and to oversee a UN–League of Arab States six-point peace
plan. However, with continuing violence obstructing implementation of the
mandate, the mission was ended in Aug. 2012. While UN sanctions have
been tightened against North Korea in response to weapons tests carried out
by Pyongyang, those against Iran were lifted in Jan. 2016 following imple-
mentation of the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action limiting Iran’s nuclear
development activities. In 2015 the UN launched the Sustainable Develop-
ment Goals agenda, comprising 17 specific targets to be achieved over
15 years, designed as a successor programme to the Millennium Develop-
ment Goals. In Jan. 2017 António Guterres took office as the UN’s Secretary-
General. In Nov. that year the UN imposed its strongest sanctions to date on
North Korea in response to Pyongyang’s continued nuclear testing pro-
gramme. A month later the UN General Assembly supported a non-binding
resolution effectively rejecting the USA’s recognition of Jerusalem as the
capital of Israel. In Aug. 2018 the UN issued a report on military atrocities
against Myanmar’s Muslim Rohingya minority in 2017 that called for the
investigation and prosecution of the country’s senior generals for genocide.
Reform The composition of the Security Council, with its five permanent
members having qualified as the principal Second World War victors, has
been subject to intense debate in recent years. The lack of permanent
representation from Latin America and the Caribbean or from Africa and
the Islamic World is frequently cited to demonstrate that the Council is
unrepresentative. However, reform is in the hands of the permanent members
and a unanimous agreement has proved elusive. In Sept. 2004 Brazil,
Germany, India and Japan (the G4) launched a joint bid for permanent
membership, along with a seat for an African state. In March 2005 then
Secretary-General Annan proposed either six new permanent members and
three new non-permanent members or the election of a new type of member,
eight of which would be elected for a four-year period. The World Summit in
Sept. 2005 failed to agree on Security Council reform but pledged to continue
negotiations.
Permanent Members China, France, Russian Federation, UK, USA
(Russian Federation took over the seat of the former USSR in Dec. 1991).
Non-Permanent Members Belgium, Dominican Republic, Germany, Indo-
nesia and South Africa (until 31 Dec. 2020); Estonia, Niger, St Vincent and
the Grenadines, Tunisia and Vietnam (until 31 Dec. 2021).
Finance The budget for UN peacekeeping operations in 2018–19 was
US$6·7bn.
3. The Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)
The Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) is responsible under the
General Assembly for co-ordinating international economic, social, cultural,
educational, health and related matters.
The Council consists of 54 member states elected by a two-thirds major-
ity of the General Assembly for a three-year term. Members are elected
according to the following geographic distribution: Africa, 14 members;
Asia, 11; Eastern Europe, 6; Latin America and Caribbean, 10; Western
Europe and other States, 13. A third of the members retire each year. Retiring
members are eligible for immediate re-election. Each member has one vote.
Decisions are made by a majority of the members present and voting.
The Council holds one five-week substantive session a year, alternating
between New York and Geneva, and one organizational session in New York.
The substantive session includes a high-level meeting attended by Ministers,
to discuss economic and social issues. Special sessions may be held if
required. The President is elected for one year and is eligible for immediate
re-election.
The subsidiary machinery of ECOSOC includes:
Eight Functional Commissions Statistical Commission; Commission on
Population and Development; Commission for Social Development;
Key Global Organizations
Commission on the Status of Women; Commission on Narcotic Drugs (and
Subcommission on Illicit Drug Traffic and Related Matters in the Near and
Middle East); Commission on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice; Com-
mission on Science and Technology for Development; United Nations Forum
on Forests.
Five Regional Economic Commissions ECA (Economic Commission for
Africa, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia); ESCAP (Economic and Social Commission
for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok, Thailand); ECE (Economic Commission
for Europe, Geneva, Switzerland); ECLAC (Economic Commission for Latin
America and the Caribbean, Santiago, Chile); ESCWA (Economic Commis-
sion for Western Asia, Beirut, Lebanon).
Three Standing Committees Committee for Programme and Co-ordination;
Commission on Non-Governmental Organizations; Committee on Negotia-
tions with Intergovernmental Agencies.
In addition, the Council may consult international non-governmental orga-
nizations (NGOs) and, after consultation with the member concerned, with
national organizations. Over 3,000 organizations have consultative status.
NGOs may send observers to ECOSOC’s public meetings and those of its
subsidiary bodies, and may submit written statements relevant to its work.
They may also consult with the UN Secretariat on matters of mutual concern.
The term of office of the members listed below expires on 31 Dec. of each year.
Members Angola (2021), Argentina (2023), Armenia (2021), Australia
(2022), Austria (2023), Bangladesh (2022), Benin (2022), Bolivia (2023),
Botswana (2022), Brazil (2021), Bulgaria (2023), Canada (2021), China
(2022), Colombia (2022), Republic of the Congo (2022), Egypt (2021),
Ethiopia (2021), Finland (2022), France (2023), Gabon (2022), Germany
(2023), Guatemala (2023), Indonesia (2023), Iran (2021), Jamaica (2021),
Japan (2023), Kenya (2021), South Korea (2022), Latvia (2022), Liberia
(2023), Libya (2023), Luxembourg (2021), Madagascar (2023), Mali (2021),
Mexico (2023), Montenegro (2022), Netherlands (2021), Nicaragua (2022),
Nigeria (2023), Norway (2022), Pakistan (2021), Panama (2022), Paraguay
(2021), Portugal (2023), Russian Federation (2022), Saudi Arabia (2021),
Solomon Islands (2023), Switzerland (2022), Thailand (2022), Turkmenistan
(2021), Ukraine (2021), UK (2023), USA (2021), Zimbabwe (2023).
4. The International Court of Justice (ICJ)
The International Court of Justice (ICJ) is the principal judicial organ of the
UN. It has a dual role: to settle in accordance with international law the legal
disputes submitted to it by States; and to give opinions on legal questions
referred to it by authorized international organs and agencies. Also known as
the ‘World Court’, it is the only court of a universal character with general
jurisdiction.
The Court operates under a Statute of the United Nations Charter. Only
States may apply to and appear before the court. The Court is composed of
15 judges, each of a different nationality, elected by an absolute majority by
the General Assembly and the Security Council to nine-year terms of office.
The composition of the Court must reflect the main forms of civilization and
principal legal systems of the world. For a number of years the composition
of the Court has maintained the following geographical balance: five seats on
the bench are occupied by judges from Western Europe and other western
states, three seats are occupied by African judges, three by Asian judges, two
by judges from Eastern Europe and two by judges from Latin America.
Elections are held every three years for one-third of the seats; retiring judges
may be re-elected. Judges do not represent their respective governments but
sit as independent magistrates. They must have the qualifications required in
their respective countries for appointment to the highest judicial offices, or be
jurists of recognized competence in international law. Candidates are nomi-
nated by the national panels of jurists in the Permanent Court of Arbitration
(PCA) established by The Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907. The Court
elects its own President and Vice-President for a three-year term, and is
permanently in session.
Decisions are taken by a majority of judges present, subject to a quorum
of nine members, with the President having a casting vote. Judgment is final
and without appeal, but a revision may be applied for within ten years from
the date of the judgment on the ground of new decisive evidence. When the
Court does not include a judge of the nationality of a State party to a case, that
State has the right to appoint a judge ad hoc for that case. While the Court
normally sits in plenary session, it can form chambers of three or more judges
to deal with specific matters. Judgments by chambers are considered as
rendered by the full Court.
5
Judges The nine-year terms of office of the judges currently serving end on
5 Feb. of each year indicated: Abdulqawi A. Yusuf, President (Somalia,
2027); Xue Hanqin, Vice-President (China, 2021); Ronny Abraham (France,
2027); Mohamed Bennouna (Morocco, 2024); Dalveer Bhandari (India,
2027); Antônio Augusto Cançado Trindade (Brazil, 2027); James Crawford
(Australia, 2024); Joan E. Donoghue (USA, 2024); Giorgio Gaja (Italy,
2021); Kirill Gevorgian (Russia, 2024); Yuji Iwasawa (Japan, 2021); Patrick
L. Robinson (Jamaica, 2024); Nawaf Salam (Lebanon, 2027); Julia
Sebutinde (Uganda, 2021); Peter Tomka (Slovakia, 2021).
Competence and Jurisdiction In contentious cases, only States may apply to
or appear before the Court. The conditions under which the Court will be
open to non-member states are laid down by the Security Council. The
jurisdiction of the Court covers all matters that parties refer to it and all
matters provided for in the Charter or in treaties and conventions in force.
Disputes concerning the jurisdiction of the Court are settled by the Court’s
own decision. The Court may apply in its decision:
(a) international conventions;
(b) international custom;
(c) the general principles of law recognized by civilized nations;
(d) as subsidiary means for the determination of the rules of law, judicial
decisions and the teachings of highly qualified publicists. If the parties
agree, the Court may decide a case ex aequo et bono.
Since 1946 the Court has delivered 163 judgments on disputes
concerning inter alia land frontiers and maritime boundaries, territorial
sovereignty, the use of force, interference in the internal affairs of States,
diplomatic relations, hostage-taking, the right of asylum, nationality, guard-
ianship, rights of passage and economic rights.
The Court may also give advisory opinions on legal questions referred to
it by the General Assembly, the Security Council, other duly authorized UN
organs and agencies of the UN system.
Since 1946 the Court has given 27 advisory opinions, concerning inter
alia admission to United Nations membership, reparation for injuries suf-
fered in the service of the United Nations, the territorial status of South-West
Africa (Namibia) and Western Sahara, expenses of certain United Nations
operations, the status of human rights informers, the threat or use of nuclear
weapons and legal consequences of the construction of a wall in the Occu-
pied Palestinian Territory.
Finance Parties before the Court are not required to pay fees or adminis-
trative or linguistic costs, since these are borne by the UN. The only
expenses incurred by States parties to cases before the ICJ are the fees of
their counsel and advocates. States that would, however, experience finan-
cial difficulties may apply to the Trust Fund set up in 1989 by the Secretary-
General of the UN. The Court’s budget for the biennium 2016–17 was
US$45·8m.
Official languages: French and English.
Headquarters: Peace Palace, Carnegieplein 2, 2517 KJ The Hague,
Netherlands.
Website: http://www.icj-cij.org
Registrar: Philippe Couvreur (Belgium).
5. The Secretariat
The Secretariat services the other four organs of the UN, carrying out their
programmes, providing administrative support and information. It has a staff
of 6,400 at the UN Headquarters in New York and a further 33,700 at other
duty stations around the world. At its head is the Secretary-General,
appointed by the General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security
Council for a five-year, renewable term. The Secretary-General acts as chief
administrative officer in all meetings of the General Assembly, Security
Council and Economic and Social Council. An Office of Internal Oversight,
established in 1994 under the tenure of former Secretary-General Boutros
Boutros-Ghali (Egypt), pursues a cost-saving mandate to investigate and
eliminate waste, fraud and mismanagement within the system. The
Secretary-General is assisted by Under-Secretaries-General and Assistant
Secretaries-General. A new position of Deputy Secretary-General was agreed
by the General Assembly in Dec. 1997 to assist in the running of the
Secretariat and to raise the economic, social and development profile of the
UN. Peacekeeping operations (PKOs) are chiefly run by Secretariat officials,
who present a report to, and are authorized by, the Security Council.
6 Key Global Organizations

Finance The financial year coincides with the calendar year. The budget for budgetary policy to prepare Portugal for adoption of the European single
the two-year period 2018–19 was US$5·40bn. currency. In his first term, investment increased, public services and transport
were improved and unemployment fell to 5%. Portugal adopted the single
Headquarters: United Nations Plaza, New York, NY 10017, USA. currency in 1999.
Website: http://www.un.org In Oct. 1999 Guterres was re-elected prime minister with 44·1% of votes
Secretary-General: António Guterres (in office since 1 Jan. 2017, Portugal). while the PS’s parliamentary representation increased from 112 to 115 seats,
Deputy Secretary-General: Amina J. Mohammed (in office since 1 Jan. although still short of an absolute majority. The following month he was also
2017, Nigeria). elected chairman of the Socialist International, having previously served a
seven-year term as the organization’s vice president.
In 2000 a 10% increase in international oil prices and concerns over
Secretaries-General since 1945 rising crime levels led to public discontent and the opposition mounted an
unsuccessful no-confidence vote in parliament. Portugal had meanwhile
taken over the EU presidency in the first half of the year. Guterres promoted
1945–46 UK Gladwyn Jebb (acting) a policy of encouraging greater labour mobility within the Union and in 2001
1946–52 Norway Trygve Halvdan Lie he called for more power for the European Commission and the European
1953–61 Sweden Dag Hammarskjöld Parliament. Domestically, increased public spending caused economic prob-
1961–71 Burma Sithu U Thant lems and opposition politicians criticized the €400m. to be spent on hosting
1972–81 Austria Kurt Waldheim the Euro 2004 football tournament. In Dec. 2001 Guterres resigned as prime
minister and called early elections.
1982–91 Peru Javier Pérez de Cuéllar In 2002 the PSD leader, José Manuel Durão Barroso, replaced him as
1992–96 Egypt Boutros Boutros-Ghali prime minister. Guterres continued in his role as president of the Socialist
1997–2006 Ghana Kofi Atta Annan International until 2006, while in June 2005 he became High Commissioner
2007–16 South Korea Ban Ki-moon for Refugees at the United Nations. His ten years as head of that agency
coincided with a series of refugee crises, including in Syria, Iraq and
2017– Portugal António Guterres
Afghanistan, and he was outspoken in his calls for Western countries to
offer greater assistance to migrants. In Feb. 2016 he submitted his nomina-
The Trusteeship Council was one of the principal organs, but has been tion as Portugal’s candidate for the role of UN Secretary-General. After a
inactive since 1994. It was established to ensure that governments responsi- strong performance in public hearings at the General Assembly, he was
ble for administering Trust Territories take adequate steps to prepare them for elected to the position in Oct. 2016 and took office on 1 Jan. 2017.
self-government or independence. It consisted of the five permanent mem-
bers of the Security Council. The task of decolonization was completed in Career in Office
1994, when the Security Council terminated the Trusteeship Agreement for Guterres was elected despite expectations that the UN would appoint its first
the last of the original UN Trusteeships (Palau), administered by the USA. female Secretary-General. Against that backdrop, he nominated Amina
All Trust Territories attained self-government or independence either as J. Mohammed of Nigeria as deputy Secretary-General and she assumed
separate States or by joining neighbouring independent countries. The Coun- office on the same day. On taking office Guterres appealed for 2017 to be a
cil formally suspended operations on 1 Nov. 1994 following Palau’s inde- year for peace. However, in a depressing appraisal at the end of the year he
pendence. By a resolution adopted on 25 May 1994 the Council amended its warned that ‘unfortunately, in fundamental ways, the world has gone in
rules of procedure to drop the obligation to meet annually and agreed to meet reverse. . . conflicts have deepened and new dangers have emerged’. Allud-
as occasion required. ing to the crisis over North Korea’s nuclear and missile tests, he said that
The proposal from then Secretary-General Kofi Annan, in the second part global anxieties about nuclear weapons were the highest since the Cold War,
of his reform programme, in July 1997, was that it should be used as a forum while adding that climate change was accelerating, inequalities were growing
to exercise their ‘trusteeship’ for the global commons, environment and and that there had been horrific violations of human rights. He concluded:
resource systems. However, in his 2005 report, In Larger Freedom, Annan ‘As we begin 2018, I call for unity. . . We can settle conflicts, overcome
called for the deletion of the Council from the UN Charter. hatred and defend shared values. But we can only do that together.’
One year on, while acknowledging some reasons for optimism such as a
Current Leaders rapprochement between Ethiopia and Eritrea and tentative peace talks in the
António Guterres conflicts in Yemen and South Sudan, Guterres again issued a gloomy global
assessment: ‘Last New Year, I issued a red alert, and the dangers I mentioned
Position still persist... Climate change is running faster than we are. Geopolitical
Secretary-General divisions are deepening... and record numbers of people are moving in search
of safety and protection. Inequality is growing. And people are questioning a
Introduction world in which a handful of people hold the same wealth as half of humanity.᾿
António Manuel de Oliveira Guterres took office as Secretary-General of the He nevertheless maintained that the United Nations would ‘resolve to confront
United Nations on 1 Jan. 2017. Having served as Portugal’s prime minister threats, defend human dignity and build a better future—together’.
from 1995–2002, his UN appointment marked the first time that the position At the end of 2019, as the UN prepared to celebrate its 75th anniversary
had been taken by a former head of government. amid continuing uncertainty and insecurity, Guterres stressed that young
people were the world’s greatest source of hope. ‘We are launching a decade
Early Life of Action for the Sustainable Development Goals—our blueprint for a fair
Guterres was born on 30 April 1949 in Lisbon. Between 1966 and 1972 he globalization—for the success of which young people’s help is needed...
studied electronic engineering at the capital’s Instituto Superior Técnico. A From climate action to gender inequality to social justice and human rights,
Catholic activist in the Juventude Universitária Católica (1968–72), he joined [young people] are on the frontlines and in the headlines... and rightly
the Socialist Party (Partido Socialista; PS) during the 1974 revolution. He demanding a role in shaping the future’. He also criticized the failure of
was a participant in post-revolution provisional governments and elected to national delegates to the UN conference in Madrid, Spain, in Dec. 2019 to
the National Assembly in 1976, serving in the ministry of economics and meaningfully address the climate change emergency. ‘The point of no return
finance until 1979. A member of the committee on European integration, is no longer over the horizon.’ Also in Dec. 2019 Guterres visited Pope
which negotiated Portugal’s entry into the European Union in 1986, he Francis in the Vatican where they discussed the process of implementing the
returned to domestic politics the following year. Aiming to strengthen the Sustainable Development Goals and also the crisis of multilateralism evident
PS in opposition, he promoted centrist policies and in 1992 he succeeded in the difficulties in tackling problems such as migration and human traffick-
President Jorge Sampaio as party leader. ing, climate change and disarmament.
In the 1995 elections Guterres was elected prime minister with 43·9% of In 2020 Guterres welcomed a peace agreement that normalized relations
votes, ending ten years of rule by the centre-right Social Democrats (Partido between Israel and the United Arab Emirates, as well as an agreement
Social Democrata; PSD). Winning with a centrist manifesto, he pledged to between the government and rebel forces in Sudan. In Oct., however, he
concentrate on social welfare, education and crime. He also planned a strict voiced concern at the declining relationship between Armenia and
Key Global Organizations 7

Azerbaijan over the disputed Nagorno-Karabakh region. In his speech to the % contribution Year of admission
75th session of the General Assembly in Sept. he warned that the world's
common future was threatened not only by what he called the ‘four horse- Czech Republic6 0·311 1993
men’ (‘First, the highest global geo-strategic tensions in years. Second, an Denmark1 0·554 1945
existential climate crisis. Third, deep and growing global mistrust. And Djibouti 0·001 1977
fourth, the dark side of the digital world.’) but now a fifth, Covid-19, that Dominica 0·001 1978
had ‘laid bare the world’s fragilities. Rising inequalities. Climate catastrophe. Dominican Republic1 0·053 1945
Widening societal divisions. Rampant corruption.’ In response, he called for
greater international co-operation and a global ceasefire within a Ecuador1 0·080 1945
hundred days. Egypt1, 7 0·186 1945
El Salvador1 0·012 1945
Equatorial Guinea 0·016 1968
Member States of the UN
Eritrea 0·001 1993
The 193 member states, with percentage scale of contributions to the Regular Estonia 0·039 1991
Budget in 2019 and year of admission:
Eswatini 0·002 1968
Ethiopia1 0·010 1945
% contribution Year of admission
Fiji 0·003 1970
Afghanistan 0·007 1946
Finland 0·421 1955
Albania 0·008 1955
France1 4·427 1945
Algeria 0·138 1962
Gabon 0·015 1960
Andorra 0·005 1993
The Gambia 0·001 1965
Angola 0·010 1976
Georgia 0·008 1992
Antigua and Barbuda 0·002 1981
Germany8 6·090 1973
Argentina1 0·915 1945
Ghana 0·015 1957
Armenia 0·007 1992
Greece1 0·366 1945
Australia1 2·210 1945
Grenada 0·001 1974
Austria 0·677 1955
Guatemala1 0·036 1945
Azerbaijan 0·049 1992
Guinea 0·003 1958
The Bahamas 0·018 1973
Guinea-Bissau 0·001 1974
Bahrain 0·050 1971
Guyana 0·002 1966
Bangladesh 0·010 1974
Haiti1 0·003 1945
Barbados 0·007 1966
Honduras1 0·009 1945
Belarus1, 2 0·049 1945
Hungary 0·206 1955
Belgium1 0·821 1945
Iceland 0·028 1946
Belize 0·001 1981
India1 0·834 1945
Benin 0·003 1960
Indonesia9 0·543 1950
Bhutan 0·001 1971
Iran1 0·398 1945
Bolivia1 0·016 1945
Iraq1 0·129 1945
Bosnia and Herzegovina3 0·012 1992
Ireland, Rep. of 0·371 1955
Botswana 0·014 1966
Israel 0·490 1949
Brazil1 2·948 1945
Italy 3·307 1955
Brunei 0·025 1984
Jamaica 0·008 1962
Bulgaria 0·046 1955
Japan 8·564 1956
Burkina Faso 0·003 1960
Jordan 0·021 1955
Burundi 0·001 1962
Kazakhstan 0·178 1992
Cabo Verde 0·001 1975
Kenya 0·024 1963
Cambodia 0·006 1955
Kiribati 0·001 1999
Cameroon 0·013 1960
Korea, North 0·006 1991
Canada1 2·734 1945
Korea, South 2·267 1991
Central African Rep. 0·001 1960
Kuwait 0·252 1963
Chad 0·004 1960
Kyrgyzstan 0·002 1992
Chile1 0·407 1945
Laos 0·005 1955
China1 12·005 1945
Latvia 0·047 1991
Colombia1 0·288 1945
Lebanon1 0·047 1945
Comoros 0·001 1975
Lesotho 0·001 1966
Congo, Dem. Rep. of the4 0·010 1960
Liberia1 0·001 1945
Congo, Rep. of the 0·006 1960
Libya 0·030 1955
Costa Rica1 0·062 1945
Liechtenstein 0·009 1990
Côte d’Ivoire 0·013 1960
Lithuania 0·071 1991
Croatia5 0·077 1992
Luxembourg1 0·067 1945
Cuba1 0·080 1945
Madagascar 0·004 1960
Cyprus 0·036 1960
(continued)
(continued)
8 Key Global Organizations

% contribution Year of admission % contribution Year of admission

Malaŵi 0·002 1964 South Sudan 0·006 2011
Malaysia10 0·341 1957 Spain 2·146 1955
Maldives 0·004 1965 Sri Lanka 0·044 1955
Mali 0·004 1960 Sudan 0·010 1956
Malta 0·017 1964 Suriname 0·005 1975
Marshall Islands 0·001 1991 Sweden 0·906 1946
Mauritania 0·002 1961 Switzerland 1·151 2002
Mauritius 0·011 1968 Syria1, 17 0·011 1945
Mexico1 1·292 1945 Tajikistan 0·004 1992
Micronesia 0·001 1991 Tanzania18 0·010 1961
Moldova 0·003 1992 Thailand 0·307 1946
Monaco 0·011 1993 Timor-Leste 0·002 2002
Mongolia 0·005 1961 Togo 0·002 1960
Montenegro11 0·004 2006 Tonga 0·001 1999
Morocco 0·055 1956 Trinidad and Tobago 0·040 1962
Mozambique 0·004 1975 Tunisia 0·025 1956
Myanmar12 0·010 1948 Turkey1 1·371 1945
Namibia 0·009 1990 Turkmenistan 0·033 1992
Nauru 0·001 1999 Tuvalu 0·001 2000
Nepal 0·007 1955 Uganda 0·008 1962
Netherlands1 1·356 1945 Ukraine1 0·057 1945
New Zealand1 0·291 1945 United Arab Emirates 0·616 1971
Nicaragua1 0·005 1945 UK1 4·567 1945
Niger 0·002 1960 USA1 22·000 1945
Nigeria 0·250 1960 Uruguay1 0·087 1945
North Macedonia5 0·007 1993 Uzbekistan 0·032 1992
Norway1 0·754 1945 Vanuatu 0·001 1981
Oman 0·115 1971 Venezuela1 0·728 1945
Pakistan 0·115 1947 Vietnam 0·077 1977
Palau 0·001 1994 Yemen19 0·010 1947
Panama1 0·045 1945 Zambia 0·009 1964
Papua New Guinea 0·010 1975 Zimbabwe 0·005 1980
Paraguay1 0·016 1945 1
Original member.
2
Peru1 0·152 1945 As Byelorussia, 1945–91.
3
Philippines1 0·205 1945 Pre-independence (1992) as part of Yugoslavia, which was an original
member.
Poland1 0·802 1945 4
As Zaïre, 1960–97.
Portugal 0·350 1955 5
Pre-independence (1991) as part of Yugoslavia, which was an original
Qatar 0·282 1971 member.
6
Romania 0·198 1955 Pre-partition Czechoslovakia (1945–92) was an original member.
7
Russia1, 13 2·405 1945 As United Arab Republic, 1958–71, following union with Syria (1958–61).
8
Pre-unification (1990) as two states: the Federal Republic of Germany and
Rwanda 0·003 1962
the German Democratic Republic.
St Kitts and Nevis 0·001 1983 9
Withdrew temporarily, 1965–66.
St Lucia 0·001 1979 10
As the Federation of Malaya till 1963, when the new federation of Malaysia
St Vincent and the Grenadines 0·001 1980 (including Singapore, Sarawak and Sabah) was formed.
11
Samoa 0·001 1976 Pre-independence (2006) as part of Yugoslavia, which was an original
member, from 1945–2003 and Serbia and Montenegro from 2003–06.
San Marino 0·002 1992 12
As Burma, 1948–89.
São Tomé and Príncipe 0·001 1975 13
As USSR, 1945–91.
Saudi Arabia1 1·172 1945 14
As Yugoslavia, 1945–2003, and Serbia and Montenegro, 2003–06.
15
Senegal 0·007 1960 Excluded from the General Assembly in 1992; readmitted in Nov. 2000.
16
Serbia1, 14, 15 0·028 1945 As part of Malaysia, 1963–65.
17
As United Arab Republic, by union with Egypt, 1958–61.
Seychelles 0·002 1976 18
As two states: Tanganyika, 1961–64, and Zanzibar, 1963–64, prior to union
Sierra Leone 0·001 1961 as one republic under new name.
Singapore16 0·485 1965 19
As Yemen, 1947–90, and Democratic Yemen, 1967–90, prior to merger of
Slovakia6 0·153 1993 the two.
Slovenia5 0·076 1992
Solomon Islands 0·001 1978 The USA is the leading contributor to the Peacekeeping Operations
Somalia 0·001 1960 Budget, with 27·8912% of the total in 2019, followed by China
(15·2197%), Japan (8·5640%), Germany (6·0900%), UK (5·7900%), France
South Africa1 0·272 1945 (5·6125%), Italy (3·3070%) and Russia (3·0490%). All other countries
(continued) contribute less than 3%.
Key Global Organizations
Publications Yearbook of the United Nations. New York, 1947 ff.—UN
Chronicle (quarterly).—Monthly Bulletin of Statistics.—Resolutions and
Decisions Adopted by the General Assembly (annual; in three volumes).—
Report of the Secretary-General of the United Nations on the Work of the
Organization. 1946 ff.—Charter of the United Nations and Statute of the
International Court of Justice.—Security Council: Index to Proceedings;
Resolutions and Decisions; Report.—Economic and Social Council: Index
to Proceedings; Resolutions and Decisions; Report.—Demographic Year-
book. New York, 1948 ff.—The United Nations Today. New York, 2008.—
Statistical Yearbook. New York, 1947 ff. (regional versions for: Africa; Asia
and the Pacific; Latin America and the Caribbean).—World Economic and
Social Survey. New York, 1947 ff.—Economic and Social Survey of Asia
and the Pacific. New York, 1946 ff.—Economic Survey of Latin America and
the Caribbean. New York, 1948 ff.—Economic Survey of Europe.
New York, 1948 ff.—Economic Development in Africa Report. Geneva,
2000 ff.—International Trade Statistics Yearbook (annual; in two volumes).
1992 ff.—World Economic Situation and Prospects. 1999 ff.—Energy Sta-
tistics Yearbook. 1956 ff.—The United Nations Disarmament Yearbook.
1976 ff.—Review of Maritime Transport. 1968 ff.—World Statistics Pocket-
book. 1976 ff.—World Youth Report (biennial), 2003 ff.—United Nations
Reference Guide in the Field of Human Rights. UN Centre for Human
Rights, 1993.
Universal Declaration of Human Rights
On 10 Dec. 1948 the General Assembly of the United Nations adopted and
proclaimed the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
Preamble
Whereas recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable
rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom,
justice and peace in the world,
Whereas disregard and contempt for human rights have resulted in
barbarous acts which have outraged the conscience of mankind, and the
advent of a world in which human beings shall enjoy freedom of speech
and belief and freedom from fear and want has been proclaimed as the
highest aspiration of the common people,
Whereas it is essential, if man is not to be compelled to have recourse, as
a last resort, to rebellion against tyranny and oppression, that human rights
should be protected by the rule of law,
Whereas it is essential to promote the development of friendly relations
between nations,
Whereas the peoples of the United Nations have in the Charter reaffirmed
their faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of the
human person and in the equal rights of men and women and have deter-
mined to promote social progress and better standards of life in larger
freedom,
Whereas Member States have pledged themselves to achieve, in
co-operation with the United Nations, the promotion of universal respect
for and observance of human rights and fundamental freedoms,
Whereas a common understanding of these rights and freedoms is of the
greatest importance for the full realization of this pledge,
Now, Therefore THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY proclaims THIS UNI-
VERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS as a common standard
of achievement for all peoples and all nations, to the end that every individual
and every organ of society, keeping this Declaration constantly in mind, shall
strive by teaching and education to promote respect for these rights and
freedoms and by progressive measures, national and international, to secure
their universal and effective recognition and observance, both among the
peoples of Member States themselves and among the peoples of territories
under their jurisdiction.
Article 1
All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are
endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a
spirit of brotherhood.
Article 2
Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declara-
tion, without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language,
religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or
other status. Furthermore, no distinction shall be made on the basis of the
9
political, jurisdictional or international status of the country or territory to
which a person belongs, whether it be independent, trust, non-self-governing
or under any other limitation of sovereignty.
Article 3
Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person.
Article 4
No one shall be held in slavery or servitude; slavery and the slave trade shall
be prohibited in all their forms.
Article 5
No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading
treatment or punishment.
Article 6
Everyone has the right to recognition everywhere as a person before the law.
Article 7
All are equal before the law and are entitled without any discrimination to
equal protection of the law. All are entitled to equal protection against any
discrimination in violation of this Declaration and against any incitement to
such discrimination.
Article 8
Everyone has the right to an effective remedy by the competent national
tribunals for acts violating the fundamental rights granted him by the consti-
tution or by law.
Article 9
No one shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest, detention or exile.
Article 10
Everyone is entitled in full equality to a fair and public hearing by an
independent and impartial tribunal, in the determination of his rights and
obligations and of any criminal charge against him.
Article 11
(1) Everyone charged with a penal offence has the right to be presumed
innocent until proved guilty according to law in a public trial at which he
has had all the guarantees necessary for his defence.
(2) No one shall be held guilty of any penal offence on account of any act or
omission which did not constitute a penal offence, under national or
international law, at the time when it was committed. Nor shall a heavier
penalty be imposed than the one that was applicable at the time the penal
offence was committed.
Article 12
No one shall be subjected to arbitrary interference with his privacy, family,
home or correspondence, nor to attacks upon his honour and reputation.
Everyone has the right to the protection of the law against such interference
or attacks.
Article 13
(1) Everyone has the right to freedom of movement and residence within the
borders of each state.
(2) Everyone has the right to leave any country, including his own, and to
return to his country.
Article 14
(1) Everyone has the right to seek and enjoy in other countries asylum from
persecution.
(2) This right may not be invoked in the case of prosecutions genuinely
arising from non-political crimes or from acts contrary to the purposes
and principles of the United Nations.
Article 15
(1) Everyone has the right to a nationality.
(2) No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his nationality nor denied the right
to change his nationality.
10
Article 16
(1) Men and women of full age, without any limitation due to race, nationality
or religion, have the right to marry and to found a family. They are entitled
to equal rights as to marriage, during marriage and at its dissolution.
(2) Marriage shall be entered into only with the free and full consent of the
intending spouses.
(3) The family is the natural and fundamental group unit of society and is
entitled to protection by society and the State.
Article 17
(1) Everyone has the right to own property alone as well as in association
with others.
(2) No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his property.
Article 18
Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; this
right includes freedom to change his religion or belief, and freedom, either
alone or in community with others and in public or private, to manifest his
religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship and observance.
Article 19
Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes
freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart
information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers.
Article 20
(1) Everyone has the right to freedom of peaceful assembly and association.
(2) No one may be compelled to belong to an association.
Article 21
(1) Everyone has the right to take part in the government of his country,
directly or through freely chosen representatives.
(2) Everyone has the right of equal access to public service in his country.
(3) The will of the people shall be the basis of the authority of government;
this will shall be expressed in periodic and genuine elections which shall
be by universal and equal suffrage and shall be held by secret vote or by
equivalent free voting procedures.
Article 22
Everyone, as a member of society, has the right to social security and is
entitled to realization, through national effort and international co-operation
and in accordance with the organization and resources of the State, of the
economic, social and cultural rights indispensable for his dignity and the free
development of his personality.
Article 23
(1) Everyone has the right to work, to free choice of employment, to just and
favourable conditions of work and to protection against unemployment.
(2) Everyone, without any discrimination, has the right to equal pay for
equal work.
(3) Everyone who works has the right to just and favourable remuneration
ensuring for himself and his family an existence worthy of human
dignity, and supplemented, if necessary, by other means of social
protection.
(4) Everyone has the right to form and to join trade unions for the protection
of his interests.
Article 24
Everyone has the right to rest and leisure, including reasonable limitation of
working hours and periodic holidays with pay.
Article 25
(1) Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and
well-being of himself and his family, including food, clothing, housing
and medical care and necessary social services, and the right to security
in the event of unemployment, sickness, disability, widowhood, old age
or other lack of livelihood in circumstances beyond his control.
(2) Motherhood and childhood are entitled to special care and assistance. All
children, whether born in or out of wedlock, shall enjoy the same social
protection.
Article 26
(1) Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at least in
the elementary and fundamental stages. Elementary education shall be
Key Global Organizations
compulsory. Technical and professional education shall be made gener-
ally available and higher education shall be equally accessible to all on
the basis of merit.
(2) Education shall be directed to the full development of the human per-
sonality and to the strengthening of respect for human rights and funda-
mental freedoms. It shall promote understanding, tolerance and
friendship among all nations, racial or religious groups, and shall further
the activities of the United Nations for the maintenance of peace.
(3) Parents have a prior right to choose the kind of education that shall be
given to their children.
Article 27
(1) Everyone has the right freely to participate in the cultural life of the
community, to enjoy the arts and to share in scientific advancement and
its benefits.
(2) Everyone has the right to the protection of the moral and material
interests resulting from any scientific, literary or artistic production of
which he is the author.
Article 28
Everyone is entitled to a social and international order in which the rights and
freedoms set forth in this Declaration can be fully realized.
Article 29
(1) Everyone has duties to the community in which alone the free and full
development of his personality is possible.
(2) In the exercise of his rights and freedoms, everyone shall be subject only
to such limitations as are determined by law solely for the purpose of
securing due recognition and respect for the rights and freedoms of
others and of meeting the just requirements of morality, public order
and the general welfare in a democratic society.
(3) These rights and freedoms may in no case be exercised contrary to the
purposes and principles of the United Nations.
Article 30
Nothing in this Declaration may be interpreted as implying for any State,
group or person any right to engage in any activity or to perform any act
aimed at the destruction of any of the rights and freedoms set forth herein.
United Nations System
Programmes and Funds
Social and economic development, aimed at achieving a better life for people
everywhere, is a major part of the UN system of organizations. At the
forefront of efforts to bring about such progress is the United Nations
Development Programme (UNDP), the UN’s global development network.
UNDP works with people at all levels of society to help build nations that can
withstand crisis, and drive and sustain the kind of growth that improves the
quality of life for everyone. In 2014 UNDP programmes helped: empower
people and build more resilient communities in 161 countries; create nearly
1m. jobs, 41% of them for women; strengthen livelihoods in low-income
communities, benefitting 11·2m. people; combat climate change and mitigate
its impacts in 140 countries; register 18m. new voters, including nearly 4m.
in Afghanistan; train 2m. health workers to fight HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis and
malaria; improve energy access for 1·3m. people.
UNDP assistance is provided only at the request of governments and in
response to their priority needs, integrated into overall national and regional
plans. Its activities are funded entirely through voluntary contributions out-
side the regular UN budget. 80% of UNDP’s core programme resources go to
low-income countries and Least Developed Countries (LDCs), with more
than 50% of UNDP’s core programme resources going to Africa.
Headquartered in New York, the UNDP is governed by a 36-member Exec-
utive Board, representing both developing and developed countries.
In addition to its regular programmes, UNDP administers various special-
purpose funds, such as the UN Capital Development Fund (UNCDF), which
offers a unique combination of investment capital, capacity building and
technical advisory services to promote microfinance and local development
in the LDCs and the United Nations Volunteers (UNV), which is the UN focal
point for promoting and harnessing volunteerism for effective development.
Together with the World Bank and the United Nations Environment Pro-
gramme (UNEP), UNDP is one of the three implementing agencies of the
Global Environment Facility (GEF), the world’s largest fund for protecting
the environment.
Key Global Organizations
UNDP works with governments and local communities on their own
solutions to global and national development challenges. In each country
office, the UNDP Resident Representative normally also serves as the Res-
ident Coordinator of development activities for the UN system as a whole.
Administrator: Achim Steiner (Brazil/Germany).
United Nations development and humanitarian agencies include the
United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF). It was established in 1946 by
the United Nations General Assembly as the United Nations International
Children’s Emergency Fund, to meet the emergency needs of children of
post-war Europe. In 1953 the organization became a permanent part of the
UN and its mandate was expanded to carry out long-term programmes to
benefit children worldwide. Guided by the Convention on the Rights of the
Child and its Optional Protocols and the Convention on the Elimination of
All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, UNICEF supports pro-
grammes to improve the wellbeing of children and women in more than
150 countries and territories. UNICEF also provides relief and rehabilitation
assistance in emergencies.
UNICEF’s strategic plan for 2018–21 is rooted in the aim of realizing the
rights of every child, especially the most disadvantaged. UNICEF’s strategy
to achieve this incorporates several strands, including:
(a) Every child survives and thrives
(b) Every child learns
(c) Every child is protected from violence and exploitation
(d) Every child lives in a safe and clean environment
(e) Every child has an equitable chance in life
UNICEF’s work in recent years has contributed to progress towards
several Millennium Development Goals, including the steady decline of
under-five mortality; a reduction in the number of primary-age out-of-school
children; a decrease in the number of underweight children aged under five;
an increase in birth registration; sustainable access to safe drinking water; and
prevention of mother-to-child transmission and new infections among young
people of HIV.
Executive Director: Henrietta H. Fore (USA).
The United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) became operational in
1969 and is the leading provider of United Nations assistance in the field of
population. Its mandate is to build the knowledge and the capacity to respond
to needs in population and family planning; to promote awareness in both
developed and developing countries of population problems and possible
strategies to deal with these problems; to assist their population problems in
the forms and means best suited to the individual countries’ needs; to assume
a leading role in the United Nations system in promoting population pro-
grammes, and to co-ordinate projects supported by the Fund.
UNFPA’s mission is to ensure that every pregnancy is wanted, every
childbirth is safe and every young person’s potential is fulfilled. Since
UNFPA started working in 1969 the number of women dying from compli-
cations of pregnancy or childbirth has been halved. It works in more than
150 countries and territories that are home to the vast majority of the world’s
people. In 2015 UNFPA total gross contribution revenue was US$979∙5m.
Main programme expenses by focus area are: maternal and new-born health,
26∙2%; family planning, 24∙6%; programme co-ordination and assistance,
10∙4%. UNFPA’s The State of World Population report is published annually.
Executive Director: Dr Natalia Kanem (Panama).
The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), established in
1972, works to encourage sustainable development through sound environ-
mental practices everywhere. UNEP has its headquarters in Nairobi, Kenya
and regional offices in Bangkok, Geneva, Manama, Panama City and
Washington, D.C. Its activities cover a wide range of issues, from atmosphere
and terrestrial ecosystems, to the promotion of environmental science and
information, to an early warning and emergency response capacity to deal
with environmental disasters and emergencies. UNEP’s present priorities
include: environmental information, assessment and research; enhanced
co-ordination of environmental conventions and development of policy
instruments; fresh water; technology transfer and industry; and support to
Africa. Information networks and monitoring systems established by the
UNEP include: the Global Environment Information Exchange Network
(INFOTERRA); Global Resource Information Database (GRID); the
11
International Register of Potentially Toxic Chemicals (IRPTC); and the
recent UNEP.net, a web-based interactive catalogue and multifaceted portal
that offers access to environmentally relevant geographic, textual and picto-
rial information. In June 2000 the World Conservation and Monitoring
Centre (WCMC) based in Cambridge, UK became UNEP’s key biodiversity
assessment centre. UNEP’s latest state-of-the-environment report is Frontiers
2018/19: Emerging Issues of Environmental Concern.
Executive Director: Erik Solheim (Norway).
Other UN programmes working for development include: the UN Con-
ference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), which promotes interna-
tional trade, particularly by developing countries, in an attempt to increase
their participation in the global economy; and the World Food Programme
(WFP), the world’s largest international food aid organization, which is
dedicated to both emergency relief and development programmes.
The United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-Habitat),
which assists over 600m. people living in health-threatening housing condi-
tions, was established in 1978. The 58-member Governing Council, Habitat’s
governing body, meets every two years. The Centre serves as the focal point
for human settlements action and the co-ordination of activities within the
UN system.
The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) educates the
world about the dangers of drug abuse; strengthens international action
against drug production, trafficking and drug related crime; promotes efforts
to reduce drug abuse, particularly among the young and vulnerable; builds
local, national and international partnerships to address drug issues; provides
information, analysis and expertise on the drug issue; promotes international
co-operation in crime prevention and control; supports the development of
criminal justice systems; and assists member states in addressing the chal-
lenges and threats posed by the changing nature of transnational organized
crime.
Executive Director: Yury Fedotov (Russia).
The UN work in crime prevention and criminal justice aims to lessen the
human and material costs of crime and its impact on socio-economic devel-
opment. The UN Congress on the Prevention of Crime and Treatment of
Offenders has convened every five years since 1955 and provides a forum for
the presentation of policies and progress. The Thirteenth Crime Congress
(Doha, 2015) had as its theme ‘Integrating crime prevention and criminal
justice into the wider United Nations agenda to address social and economic
challenges and to promote the rule of law at the national and international
levels, and public participation’. The Commission on Crime Prevention and
Criminal Justice, a functional body of ECOSOC, established in 1992, seeks
to strengthen UN activities in the field, and meets annually in Vienna. The
interregional research and training arm of the UN crime and criminal justice
programme is the United Nations Interregional Crime and Justice Research
Institute (UNICRI) in Rome.
Humanitarian assistance to refugees and victims of natural and
man-made disasters is also an important function of the UN system. The
main refugee organizations within the system are the Office of the United
Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and the United Nations
Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA).
UNHCR was created in 1951 to resettle 1·2m. European refugees left
homeless in the aftermath of the Second World War. It was initially
envisioned as a temporary office with a projected lifespan of three years.
However, in 2003, in a move to strengthen UNHCR’s capacity to carry out its
work more effectively, the General Assembly removed the time limitation on
the organization’s mandate and extended it indefinitely, until ‘the refugee
problem is solved’. Today, with some 58·0m. persons of concern across the
globe, UNHCR has become one of the world’s principal humanitarian
agencies. Its Executive Committee currently comprises 98 member states.
With its Headquarters in Geneva, UNHCR has a national and international
staff of 11,000 working in 130 countries. The organization has twice been
awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. UNHCR is a subsidiary organ of the United
Nations General Assembly.
The work of UNHCR is humanitarian and non-political. International
protection is its primary function. Its main objective is to promote and
safeguard the rights and interests of refugees. In so doing UNHCR devotes
special attention to promoting access to asylum and seeks to improve the
legal, material and physical safety of refugees in their country of residence.
Crucial to this status is the principle of non-refoulement, which prohibits the
expulsion from or forcible return of refugees to a country where they may
12
have reason to fear persecution. UNHCR pursues its objectives in the field of
protection by encouraging the conclusion of intergovernmental legal instru-
ments in favour of refugees, by supervising the implementation of their
provisions and by encouraging governments to adopt legislation and admin-
istrative procedures for the benefit of refugees. UNHCR is often called upon
to provide material assistance (e.g. the provision of food, shelter, medical
care and essential supplies) while durable solutions are being sought. Durable
solutions generally take one of three forms: voluntary repatriation, local
integration or resettlement in another country.
UNHCR co-operates both multilaterally and bilaterally with a wide
range of partners in order to fulfil its mandate for refugees and other people
of concern to the Office. Partners include UN co-ordination bodies,
other UN agencies and departments, intergovernmental organizations,
non-governmental organizations (NGOs), universities and research insti-
tutes, regional organizations, foundations and corporate entities from the
private sector, as well as governments, host communities and refugee and
other displaced population representatives. In response to calls by the
international community to improve the global humanitarian response
capacity, today UNHCR is playing an active role in the inter-agency
‘cluster leadership approach’ with respect to protecting and assisting inter-
nally displaced persons. UNHCR’s involvement is focused on conflict-
generated situations of internal displacement, where it leads the protection
‘cluster’, the camp co-ordination and camp management ‘cluster’ and the
emergency shelter ‘cluster’. At present, UNHCR is funded almost entirely
by voluntary contributions. In 2016 UNHCR’s expenditure amounted to
US$3·96bn.
High Commissioner: Filippo Grandi (Italy).
UNRWA was created by the General Assembly in 1949 as a temporary,
non-political agency to provide relief to the nearly 750,000 people who
became refugees as a result of the disturbances during and after the creation
of the State of Israel in the former British Mandate territory of Palestine.
‘Palestine refugees’, as defined by UNRWA’s mandate, are persons or
descendants of persons whose normal residence was Palestine for at least
two years prior to the 1948 conflict and who, as a result of the conflict, lost
their homes and means of livelihood. UNRWA has also been called upon to
help persons displaced by renewed hostilities in the Middle East in 1967. The
situation of Palestine refugees in south Lebanon, affected in the aftermath of
the 1982 Israeli invasion of Lebanon, was of special concern to the Agency in
1984. UNRWA provides education, health, relief and social services to
eligible refugees among the 4·8m. registered Palestine refugees in its five
fields of operation: Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, the West Bank and the Gaza
Strip. Its mandate is renewed at intervals by the UN General Assembly, and
in Dec. 2019 was extended until 30 June 2023. The regular budget for 2015
amounted to US$743∙8m.
Commissioner-General: Pierre Krähenbühl (Switzerland).
The Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR)
represents the world’s commitment to universal ideals of human dignity.
The UN’s activities in the field of human rights are the primary responsibility
of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, a post established in 1993
under the direction and authority of the Secretary-General. The High Com-
missioner is nominated by the Secretary-General for a four-year term, renew-
able once. The principal co-ordinating human rights organ of the UN was
until mid-2006 the 53-member Commission on Human Rights, set up by
ECOSOC in 1946. On 15 March 2006 the UN General Assembly voted
overwhelmingly to abolish the Commission after it was criticized for having
member countries with poor human rights records. A 47-member Human
Rights Council was established as its successor and held its first session in
June 2006. In June 2018 the USA withdrew from the Council, accusing the
organization of political bias.
High Commissioner: Michelle Bachelet (Chile).
Research and Training Institutes
There are six research and training institutes within the UN, all of them
autonomous.
United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research (UNIDIR) Established
in 1980 to undertake research on disarmament and security with the aim of
assisting the international community in their disarmament thinking,
Key Global Organizations
decisions and efforts. Through its research projects, publications, small
meetings and expert networks, UNIDIR promotes creative thinking and
dialogue on both current and future security issues, through examination of
topics as varied as tactical nuclear weapons, refugee security, computer
warfare, regional confidence-building measures and small arms.
Address: Palais des Nations, 1211 Geneva 10, Switzerland.
Website: http://www.unidir.org
United Nations Institute for Training and Research (UNITAR) Founded in
1965, UNITAR is the leading UN institute offering training on global and
strategic challenges. As an autonomous body within the UN system,
UNITAR is led by an Executive Director, governed by a Board of Trustees
and is supported by voluntary contributions from governments, intergovern-
mental organizations, foundations and the private sector. With nearly 40,000
beneficiaries in 2015 the Institute provides short executive training to
national and local government officials of UN member states and civil
society representatives around the world. UNITAR aims to meet the growing
demand, especially from the least developed countries, for capacity devel-
opment in the fields of environment, peace, security and diplomacy, and
governance.
Address: Palais des Nations, 1211 Geneva 10, Switzerland.
Website: http://www.unitar.org
United Nations Interregional Crime and Justice Research Institute
(UNICRI) Established in 1967 to support countries worldwide in crime
prevention and criminal justice, UNICRI offers technical co-operation,
research and training at various levels for governments and the international
community as a whole. The institute particularly focuses on security and
counter-terrorism, counter-trafficking and preventing money laundering.
Address: 10 Viale Maestri del Lavoro, 10127 Turin, Italy.
Website: http://www.unicri.it
United Nations Research Institute for Social Development (UNRISD)
Established in 1963 to conduct multidisciplinary research into the social
dimensions of contemporary problems affecting development, it aims to
provide governments, development agencies, grassroots organizations and
scholars with a better understanding of how development policies and pro-
cesses of economic, social and environmental change affect different social
groups.
Address: Palais des Nations, CH-1211 Geneva 10, Switzerland.
Website: http://www.unrisd.org
United Nations System Staff College (UNSSC) Established in 2002 as the
pre-eminent learning arm of the UN, the College develops, co-ordinates and
provides cross-organization training programmes with a view to strengthening
collaboration within the UN system and increasing operational effectiveness.
The UNSCC reaches an average of 7,000 beneficiaries worldwide every year.
Address: Viale Maestri del Lavoro 10, 10127 Turin, Italy.
Website: http://www.unssc.org/home
United Nations University (UNU) Sponsored jointly by the UN and
UNESCO, UNU is guaranteed academic freedom by a charter approved
by the General Assembly in 1973. It is governed by the UNU Council,
composed of 13 appointed members who serve six-year terms (in an indi-
vidual capacity, not as representatives of their countries), three ex officio
members (the UN Secretary-General, the UNESCO Director-General and
the UNITAR Executive Director) and the UNU Rector. Unlike a traditional
university with a campus, students and faculty, it works through networks
of collaborating institutions and individuals to undertake multidisciplinary
research on problems of human survival, development and welfare; and to
strengthen research and training capabilities in developing countries. It also
provides postgraduate fellowships and PhD internships to scholars and
scientists from developing countries. The University focuses its work
within two programme areas: peace and governance, and environment
and development.
Address: 5–53–70 Jingumae, Shibuya-ku, Tokyo 150-8925, Japan.
Website: http://www.unu.edu
Key Global Organizations
Other UN Entities
In addition to the operational programmes and funds and the research and
training institutes there are several other entities that fall within the UN
system.
International Computing Centre (ICC) The Centre was established in 1971
as a common service, providing a wide range of Information and Communi-
cation Technology Services, on a cost recovery basis, to its users worldwide.
More than 25 organizations, funds and programmes of the UN system
currently use its services and participate in its governance.
Address: Palais des Nations, CH-1211 Geneva 10, Switzerland.
Website: http://www.unicc.org
Joint UN Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) In 1996 the Assembly
reviewed implementation of the global strategy for the prevention and control
of AIDS, and progress of the Joint UN Programme on HIV/AIDS
(UNAIDS), which became operational in 1996. The impact of the HIV/AIDS
epidemic was seen to be expanding and intensifying, particularly in devel-
oping countries, and new resource mobilization mechanisms were called for
to support countries in combating HIV/AIDS. UNAIDS brings together the
HIV/AIDS responses of 11 co-sponsor UN agencies, providing an overall
framework for action and ensuring better co-ordination between its members.
The co-sponsor agencies are: International Labour Organization (ILO),
Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR),
United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), United Nations Development
Programme (UNDP), United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO), United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the
Empowerment of Women (UN Women), United Nations Office on Drugs and
Crime (UNODC), United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), World Bank,
World Food Programme (WFP) and World Health Organization (WHO). The
proposed budget for 2016–17 amounted to US$484·8m.
Address: 20 avenue Appia, 1211 CH-Geneva 27, Switzerland.
Website: http://www.unaids.org
UN Office for Project Services (UNOPS) Established in 1995, the self-
funding unit provides a range of services for other organizations in the UN
system, the private sector, NGOs and academic institutions. Services offered
include procurement, recruitment and human resources, and loan supervision.
Address: Marmorvej 51, PO Box 2695, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark.
Website: http://www.unops.org
United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women
(UN Women) Established in July 2010, UN Women supports international
political negotiations to formulate globally agreed standards for gender
equality and helps UN member states to implement those standards by
providing expertise and financial support. It merges and builds on the work
of four previously distinct parts of the UN system: the Division for the
Advancement of Women (DAW), the International Research and Training
Institute for the Advancement of Women (INSTRAW), the Office of the
Special Adviser on Gender Issues and Advancement of Women (OSAGI)
and the United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM).
Address: 220 East 42nd St., New York, NY 10017, USA.
Website: http://www.unwomen.org
United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR) Established in
1999 after the UN General Assembly adopted an international strategy for
disaster reduction, UNISDR is the focal point in the UN system for the
co-ordination of disaster risk reduction (DRR) and the implementation of
the international blueprint for DRR. Its core areas of work include ensuring
DRR is applied to climate change adaptation, increasing investments for
DRR, building disaster-resilient cities, schools and hospitals, and strength-
ening the international system for DRR.
Address: 9–11 rue de Varembé, CH-1202 Geneva, Switzerland.
Website: http://www.unisdr.org
Information
The UN Statistics Division in New York provides a wide range of statistical
outputs and services for producers and users of statistics worldwide,
13
facilitating national and international policy formulation, implementation
and monitoring. It produces printed publications of statistics and statistical
methods in the fields of international merchandise trade, national accounts,
demography and population, gender, industry, energy, environment, human
settlements and disability, as well as general statistics compendiums includ-
ing the Statistical Yearbook and World Statistics Pocketbook.
Website: http://unstats.un.org
UN Visitor Centre. Department of Public Information, United Nations Head-
quarters, Room GA-1B-31, New York, NY 10017.
Website: http://visit.un.org
UN Information Centres. UN information centres are located in 63 countries
around the world.
Website: https://unic.un.org
Specialized Agencies of the UN
The intergovernmental agencies related to the UN by special agreements are
separate autonomous organizations which work with the UN and each other
through the co-ordinating machinery of the Economic and Social Council. Of
these, 17 are ‘Specialized Agencies’ within the terms of the UN Charter, and
report annually to ECOSOC.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)
Origin In 1943 the International Conference on Food and Agriculture, at Hot
Springs, Virginia, set up an Interim Commission, based in Washington, with a
remit to establish an organization. Its Constitution was signed on 16 Oct. 1945
in Quebec City. Today, membership totals 194 countries plus one member
organization and two associate members. The European Union was made a
member as a ‘regional economic integration organization’ in 1991.
Aims and Activities The aims of FAO are to raise levels of nutrition and
standards of living; to improve the production and distribution of all food and
agricultural products from farms, forests and fisheries; to improve the living
conditions of rural populations; and, by these means, to eliminate hunger.
Its priority objectives are to encourage sustainable agriculture and rural develop-
ment as part of a long-term strategy for the conservation and management of
natural resources; and to ensure the availability of adequate food supplies, by
maximizing stability in the flow of supplies and securing access to food by
the poor.
In carrying out these aims, FAO promotes investment in agriculture,
better soil and water management, improved yields of crops and livestock,
agricultural research and the transfer of technology to developing countries;
and encourages the conservation of natural resources and rational use of
fertilizers and pesticides; the development and sustainable utilization of
marine and inland fisheries; the sustainable management of forest resources
and the combating of animal disease. Technical assistance is provided in all
of these fields, and in nutrition, agricultural engineering, agrarian reform,
development communications, remote sensing for climate and vegetation,
and the prevention of post-harvest food losses. In addition, FAO works to
maintain global biodiversity with the emphasis on the genetic diversity of
crop plants and domesticated animals; and plays a major role in the collec-
tion, analysis and dissemination of information on agricultural production
and commodities. Finally, FAO acts as a neutral forum for the discussion of
issues, and advises governments on policy, through international conferences
like the World Food Summit in 1996, the World Food Summit: five years later
in 2002 and the World Summit on Food Security in 2009, all held in Rome.
Special FAO programmes help countries prepare for, and provide relief in
the event of, emergency food situations, in particular through the rehabilita-
tion of agriculture after disasters. The Special Programme for Food Security,
launched in 1994, is designed to assist target countries to increase food
production and productivity as rapidly as possible, primarily through the
widespread adoption by farmers of available improved production technol-
ogies, with the emphasis on high-potential areas. FAO provides support for
the global co-ordination of the programme and helps attract funds. The
Emergency Prevention System for Transboundary Animal and Plant Pests
and Diseases (EMPRES), established in 1994, strengthens FAO’s existing
contribution to the prevention, control and eradication of diseases and pests
before they compromise food security, with locusts and rinderpest among its
priorities. The Global Information and Early Warning System (GIEWS) pro-
vides current information on the world food situation and identifies countries
threatened by shortages to guide potential donors. The interagency Food
Insecurity and Vulnerability Information and Mapping System initiative
14
(FIVIMS) was established in 1997, with FAO as its Secretariat. Together with
the UN, FAO sponsors the World Food Programme (WFP).
Finance The FAO regular budget for the 2018–19 biennium was
US$1,005·6m. FAO’s overall programme of work is funded by assessed
and voluntary contributions. Member countries’ assessed contributions com-
prise the regular budget, set at the biennial FAO Conference.
The total FAO Budget planned for 2018–19 was US$2·6bn. Of this
amount 39% was to come from assessed contributions paid by member
countries, with 61% mobilized through voluntary contributions from mem-
bers and other partners.
The voluntary contributions provided by members and other partners
support technical and emergency (including rehabilitation) assistance to
governments for clearly defined purposes linked to the results framework,
as well as direct support to FAO’s core work. The voluntary contributions
were expected to reach approximately US$1·6bn. in 2018–19.
In 2014–15, 304 projects totalling US$98·7m. were approved for devel-
opment support.
Organization The FAO Conference, composed of all members, meets every
other year to determine policy and approve the FAO’s budget and pro-
gramme. The 49-member Council, elected by the Conference, serves as
FAO’s governing body between conference sessions. Much of its work is
carried out by dozens of regional or specialist commissions, such as the Asia-
Pacific Fishery Commission, the European Commission on Agriculture and
the Commission on Plant Genetic Resources. The Director-General is elected
for a renewable six-year term.
Headquarters: Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00153 Rome, Italy.
Website: http://www.fao.org
Director-General: Qu Dongyu (China).
Publications Unasylva, 1947 ff.—The State of Food and Agriculture, 1947
ff.—FAO Statistical Yearbook: World Food and Agriculture, 2004 ff.
(regional versions for: Africa; Asia and the Pacific; Europe and Central
Asia; Latin America and the Caribbean; Near East and North Africa).—
Commodity Market Review (biennial), 1961 ff.—FAO Yearbook of Forest
Products, 1947 ff.—FAO Yearbook. Fishery and Aquaculture Statistics.—
The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture (biennial).—The State of Food
Insecurity in the World, 1999 ff.—The State of the World’s Forests, 1995
ff.—World Watch List: for Domestic Animal Diversity. 3rd ed. 2000.—Food
and Nutrition in Numbers (online only). 2014.
International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) —
The World Bank
Origin Conceived at the UN Monetary and Financial Conference at Bretton
Woods (New Hampshire, USA) in July 1944, the IBRD, frequently called the
World Bank, began operations in June 1946, its purpose being to provide
funds, policy guidance and technical assistance to facilitate economic devel-
opment in its poorer member countries. The Group comprises four other
organizations: the International Development Association (IDA), which pro-
vides interest-free loans and grants to governments of the poorest countries;
the International Finance Corporation (IFC), which provides loans, equity
and technical assistance to stimulate private sector investment in developing
countries; the Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA), which
provides guarantees against losses caused by non-commercial risks to inves-
tors in developing countries; and the International Centre for Settlement of
Investment Disputes (ICSID), which provides international facilities for
conciliation and arbitration of investment disputes.
Members Afghanistan, Albania, Algeria, Angola, Antigua and Barbuda,
Argentina, Armenia, Australia, Austria, Azerbaijan, The Bahamas, Bahrain,
Bangladesh, Barbados, Belarus, Belgium, Belize, Benin, Bhutan, Bolivia,
Bosnia and Herzegovina, Botswana, Brazil, Brunei, Bulgaria, Burkina Faso,
Burundi, Cabo Verde, Cambodia, Cameroon, Canada, Central African
Republic, Chad, Chile, China, Colombia, Comoros, Democratic Republic
of the Congo, Republic of the Congo, Costa Rica, Côte d’Ivoire, Croatia,
Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Djibouti, Dominica, Dominican Repub-
lic, Ecuador, Egypt, El Salvador, Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, Estonia,
Eswatini, Ethiopia, Fiji, Finland, France, Gabon, The Gambia, Georgia,
Germany, Ghana, Greece, Grenada, Guatemala, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau,
Guyana, Haiti, Honduras, Hungary, Iceland, India, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq,
Ireland, Israel, Italy, Jamaica, Japan, Jordan, Kazakhstan, Kenya, Kiribati,
Key Global Organizations
South Korea, Kosovo, Kuwait, Kyrgyzstan, Laos, Latvia, Lebanon, Lesotho,
Liberia, Libya, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Madagascar, Malaŵi, Malaysia,
Maldives, Mali, Malta, Marshall Islands, Mauritania, Mauritius, Mexico,
Micronesia, Moldova, Mongolia, Montenegro, Morocco, Mozambique,
Myanmar, Namibia, Nauru, Nepal, Netherlands, New Zealand, Nicaragua,
Niger, Nigeria, North Macedonia, Norway, Oman, Pakistan, Palau, Panama,
Papua New Guinea, Paraguay, Peru, Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Qatar,
Romania, Russia, Rwanda, St Kitts and Nevis, St Lucia, St Vincent and the
Grenadines, Samoa, San Marino, São Tomé and Príncipe, Saudi Arabia,
Senegal, Serbia, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, Singapore, Slovakia, Slovenia,
Solomon Islands, Somalia, South Africa, South Sudan, Spain, Sri Lanka,
Sudan, Suriname, Sweden, Switzerland, Syria, Tajikistan, Tanzania,
Thailand, Timor-Leste, Togo, Tonga, Trinidad and Tobago, Tunisia, Turkey,
Turkmenistan, Tuvalu, Uganda, Ukraine, United Arab Emirates, UK, USA,
Uruguay, Uzbekistan, Vanuatu, Venezuela, Vietnam, Yemen, Zambia,
Zimbabwe.
Activities The Bank obtains its funds from the following sources: capital
paid in by member countries; sales of its own securities; sales of parts of its
loans; repayments; and net earnings. A resolution of the Board of Governors
of 27 April 1988 provides that the paid-in portion of the shares authorized to
be subscribed under it will be 3%.
The Bank is self-supporting, raising most of its money on the world’s
financial markets. In the fiscal year ending 30 June 2015 allocable income
totalled US$686m., compared to US$769m. for the year ending
30 June 2014.
In the fiscal year 2015 the Bank lent US$23∙5bn. for 112 new operations.
Cumulative lending had totalled US$629bn. by June 2015.
The Consultative Group to Assist the Poor (CGAP) works toward a world
in which everyone has access to the financial services they need to improve
their lives. Established in 1995 and housed at the World Bank, CGAP
combines a pragmatic approach to market development with an evidence-
based advocacy platform to advance poor people’s access to finance. Its
global network of members includes over 30 development agencies, private
foundations and national governments that share a common vision of
improving the lives of poor people with better access to finance.
For the purposes of its analytical and operational work, in 2019 the IBRD
characterized economies as follows: low income (average annual per capita
gross national income of $1,025 or less); lower middle income (between
$1,026 and $3,995); upper middle income (between $3,996 and $12,375);
and high income ($12,376 or more).
A wide variety of technical assistance is at the core of IBRD’s activities. It
acts as executing agency for a number of pre-investment surveys financed by
the UN Development Programme. There are more than 100 offices in
countries throughout the world. The Bank maintains a staff college, the
World Bank Institute in Washington, D.C., for senior officials of member
countries.
Access to Information Effective 1 July 2010, the World Bank Policy on
Access to Information marked a pivotal shift in the World Bank’s approach to
making information available to the public. Now the public can obtain more
information about projects under preparation, projects under implementation,
analytic and advisory activities, and Board proceedings. The policy also
includes a clear process for making information publicly available and a
right to appeal if information seekers believe they were improperly or
unreasonably denied access to information or there is a public interest case
to override an exception that restricts certain information.
Organization As of Feb. 2019 the Bank had 189 members, each with voting
power in the institution, based on shareholding which in turn is based on a
country’s economic growth. The president is selected by the Bank’s Board of
Executive Directors. The initial term is five years, with a second of five years
or less.
Current Leaders
David Malpass
Position
President
Introduction
David Malpass became president of the World Bank Group in April 2019
following the unexpected resignation of Jim Yong Kim. The US-born
Key Global Organizations
economist and civil servant was President Trump’s favoured candidate for
the role, which has traditionally been filled by a US citizen.
Early Life
David Robert Malpass was born on 8 March 1956 in Petoskey, Michigan,
USA. He studied physics at Colorado College and later received a master’s
degree in business administration from the University of Denver. He then
studied international economics at Georgetown University’s School of For-
eign Service. Between 1977 and 1983 he worked as an analyst at Arthur
Anderson and the ESCO Corporation in Portland, Oregon.
Malpass joined the US government’s Senate budget committee in 1984,
serving for two years as a senior analyst for taxes and trade before taking a
managerial position at the US Treasury department. In 1990, under the
Presidency of George H. W. Bush, he became the deputy assistant secretary
of state for Latin American economic affairs, supporting the Enterprise for
the America’s Initiative and Brady bonds to address the Latin American debt
crisis.
In 1993 Malpass joined Bear Stearns, a New York-based international
investment bank. He was promoted to chief economist in 2002, remaining
until 2008 when the firm collapsed owing to its exposure to subprime
mortgage-backed assets. It was bought by J. P. Morgan Chase for a fraction of
its pre-crisis share price. Later in 2008, Malpass founded Encima Global, a New
York-based company providing international political and economic analysis.
In March 2017 Malpass was nominated to serve in the Trump adminis-
tration as undersecretary of the Treasury for international affairs. Early in
2019, following Jim Yong Kim’s unexpected resignation from the helm of
the World Bank, Malpass was appointed to serve a five-year term as presi-
dent, taking over from interim leader Kristalina Georgieva, on 9 April.
Career in Office
Malpass is expected to spearhead the organization’s work to end extreme
poverty by 2030, reduce inequality and boost shared prosperity around the
world. Sceptical of multilateralism, he is likely to follow a narrower vision
for the World Bank, concentrating on providing assistance to the poorest
countries. Critics are concerned about a potential reduction in support for
broader issues including climate change and healthcare. In 2020 he faced
guiding the organization as it sought to address the strains exerted upon the
global financial system by the Covid-19 pandemic.
European office: 66 avenue d’Iéna, 75116 Paris, France. London office:
Milbank Tower, 12th Floor, 21–24 Milbank, London, SW1P 4QP, England.
Tokyo office: 10th Floor, Fukoku Seimei Building, 2-2-2 Uchisaiwai-cho,
Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 100-0011 Japan.
Headquarters: 1818 H St., NW, Washington, D.C., 20433, USA.
Website: http://www.worldbank.org
President: David Malpass (USA).
Publications World Bank Annual Report.—Publications and e-Products
e-Catalog (biannual).—World Development Report (annual).—Environment
Matters at the World Bank (annual).—World Bank Research Digest (quar-
terly).—World Development Indicators (annual).—World Bank Research
E-Newsletter (monthly).—Handbook on Impact Evaluation: Quantitative
Methods and Practices (online only). 2010.—The New Microfinance Hand-
book: A Financial Market System Perspective (online only). 2013.
International Development Association (IDA)
A lending agency established in 1960 and administered by the IBRD to
provide assistance on concessional terms to the poorest developing countries.
Its resources consist of subscriptions and general replenishments from its
more industrialized and developed members, special contributions and trans-
fers from the net earnings of IBRD. Officers and staff of the IBRD serve
concurrently as officers and staff of the IDA at the World Bank headquarters
(see above). In fiscal year 2015 IDA commitments totalled US$19bn.; new
commitments totalled 191 new operations. Since 1960 IDA has lent
US$312bn. to 112 countries.
Headquarters: 1818 H St., NW, Washington, D.C., 20433, USA.
Website: http://ida.worldbank.org
President: David Malpass (USA).
International Finance Corporation (IFC)
Established in 1956 to help strengthen the private sector in developing
countries, through the provision of long-term loans, equity investments,
quasi-equity instruments, standby financing, and structured finance and risk
15
management products. It helps to finance new ventures and assist established
enterprises as they expand, upgrade or diversify. In partnership with other
donors, it provides a variety of technical assistance and advisory services to
public and private sector clients. To be eligible for financing, projects must be
profitable for investors, must benefit the economy of the country concerned,
and must comply with IFC’s environmental and social guidelines.
The majority of its funds are borrowed from the international financial
markets through public bond issues or private placements. Total capital at
30 June 2018 was US$26·1bn. In fiscal year 2018 IFC’s long-term invest-
ment commitments totalled US$23·3bn., including US$11·7bn. mobilized
from investment partners. It has 184 members.
Headquarters: 2121 Pennsylvania Ave., NW, Washington, D.C.,
20433, USA.
Website: http://www.ifc.org
President: David Malpass (USA).
Chief Executive Officer: Philippe Le Houérou (France).
Publications Annual Report (online only), 1995 ff.—Sustain (online
only).—Doing Business (online only), 2004 ff.
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)
Origin The Convention providing for the establishment of the ICAO was
drawn up by the International Civil Aviation Conference held in Chicago in
1944. A Provisional International Civil Aviation Organization (PICAO)
operated for 20 months until the formal establishment of ICAO on 4 April
1947. The Convention on International Civil Aviation superseded the pro-
visions of the Paris Convention of 1919 and the Pan American Convention
on Air Navigation of 1928.
Functions It assists international civil aviation by establishing technical
standards for safety and efficiency of air navigation and promoting simpler
procedures at borders; develops regional plans for ground facilities and
services needed for international flying; disseminates air-transport statistics
and prepares studies on aviation economics; fosters the development of air
law conventions and provides technical assistance to states in developing
civil aviation programmes.
Organization The principal organs of ICAO are an Assembly, consisting
of all members of the Organization, and a Council, which is composed of
36 states elected by the Assembly for three years, which meets in virtually
continuous session. In electing these states, the Assembly must give ade-
quate representation to: (1) states of major importance in air transport;
(2) states which make the largest contribution to the provision of facilities
for the international civil air navigation; and (3) those states not otherwise
included whose election would ensure that all major geographical
areas of the world were represented. The budget approved for 2016 was
$99·0m. CDN.
Headquarters: 999 Robert-Bourassa Blvd, Montreal, Quebec, Canada H3C
5H7.
Website: http://www.icao.int
President of the Council: Dr Olumuyiwa Benard Aliu (Nigeria).
Secretary-General: Fang Lui (China).
Publications Annual Report of the Council.—ICAO Journal (quarterly).—
ICAO Training Report (biannual).—ICAO Regional Report.
International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD)
The idea for an International Fund for Agricultural Development arose at the
1974 World Food Conference. An agreement to establish IFAD entered into
force on 30 Nov. 1977, and the agency began its operations the following
month. IFAD is an international financial institution and a United Nations
specialized agency dedicated to eradicating rural poverty in developing
countries. It mobilizes resources from its 176 member countries to provide
low-interest loans and grants to help middle and low-income member coun-
tries fight poverty in their poor rural communities. IFAD works with national
partners to design and implement innovative initiatives that fit within national
policies and systems. These enable poor rural people to access the assets,
services, knowledge, skills and opportunities they need to overcome poverty.
Since starting operations in 1978, IFAD has invested more than US$17bn. in
around 1,000 projects and programmes that have reached some 500m.
people.
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 [522] Bunting, 59, 62, 43, 51, 52, and 61, respectively; also first
volume of records for each meeting.
[523] See map.
[524] Bunting, 49.
[525] Min. Kennett Mo. Mtg., 11-7-1715, 28.
[526] Min. Kennett Mo. Mtg., 12-3-1727, 188.
[527] Futhey & Cope, Hist. Chester Co., 302f.; Jordan, Hist.
Del. Co., II, 423ff.
[528] See page 42, Philadelphia 107, Abington 154, Darby.
[529] Min. Kennett Mo. Mtg., 12-11-1777, 625.
[530] Ibid., 1-15-1778, 626.
[531] Ibid., 1-14-1779, 658.
[532] Min. Kennett Mo. Mtg., 2-15-1781, 730.
[533] Ibid., 7-12-1781, 741.
[534] Ibid., 10-11-1781, 746.
[535] Ibid., 9-11-1783, 787.
[536] Ibid., 5-13-1783, 795.
[537] Ibid., 5-12-1785, 814.
[538] Min. Kennett Mo. Mtg., 8-11-1785, 820.
[539] Ibid., 2-14-1788, 874.
[540] Ibid., 1-14-1790, 914.
[541] Min. Kennett Mo. Mtg., 1-12-1792, 14.
[542] Horsham School Com. Minutes, 1-27-1783.
[543] Min. Kennett Mo. Mtg., 7-12-1792, 25.
[544] Ibid., 3-14-1793, 39.
[545] Ibid., 2-12-1795, 83.
[546] Min. Kennett Mo. Mtg., 4-16-1795, 88.
[547] Ibid., 5-14-1795, 91.
[548] Futhey & Cope, Hist. Chester Co., 302.
[549] Min. Kennett Mo. Mtg., 12-15-1796, 146.
[550] Ibid., 8-16-1798, 199.
 [551] Min. New Garden Mo. Mtg., 3-6-1773, 174.
[552] Min. Kennett Mo. Mtg., 6-6-1778, 388.
[553] Ibid., 5-1-1779, 22.
[554] Ibid., 8-7-1779, 34.
[555] Ibid., 3-5-1785, 234.
[556] Ibid., 8-6-1785, 256.
[557] Ibid., 1-7-1786, 275.
[558] Ibid., 4-1-1786, 290.
[559] Ibid., 8-5-1786, 312.
[560] Min. Kennett Mo. Mtg., 8-4-1787, 355.
[561] Deed No. 88, Chester Co. (the deed is deposited in a
fireproof at Orthodox Meeting House, custody of Edgar Haines,
West Grove, Pa.).
[562] Min. Horsham Sch. Com., 1-27-1783.
[563] Min. Chester Q. Mtg., 12-2-1701.
[564] Ibid., 9-1-1703.
[565] Ibid., 12-2-1707.
[566] See page 122.
[567] See first book of Goshen Mo. Mtg. Records.
[568] Advices of the Yr. Mtg., 250.
[569] Min. Goshen Mo. Mtg., 1-8-1779.
 [570] Ibid., 6-11-1779.
[571] Futhey and Cope mention a school at Birmingham as
early as 1753, Hist. Chester Co., 302.
[572] Min. Goshen Mo. Mtg., 6-11-1779.
[573] Ibid.
[574] Ibid., 1-11-1782.
[575] Min. Goshen Mo. Mtg., 3-8-1782.
[576] Ibid., 1-9-1784.
[577] Ibid.
[578] Ibid., 8-6-1784.
[579] Ibid., 8-5-1785.
[580] Min. Goshen Mo. Mtg., 8-11-1786.
[581] Ibid., 8-10-1787.
[582] Ibid., 7-6-1792.
[583] See page 132.
[584] Min. Goshen Mo. Mtg., 4-10-1795.
[585] Ibid., 8-5-1796.
[586] See page 132.
[587] Min. Goshen Mo. Mtg., 8-11-1797.
[588] Ibid.
[589] Ibid., 8-10-1798.
[590] See page 131.
[591] See page 73f.
[592] Min. Goshen Mo. Mtg., 1-6-1797.
[593] Min. Chester Q. Mtg., 9-9-1719.
[594] Ibid., 3-10-1725.
[595] See page 122; also Bunting, 51.
[596] Min. Bradford Mo. Mtg., 6-18-1762.
[597] Ibid.
[598] Ibid., 12-13-1765.
[599] Ibid., 4-7-1767.
[600] Ibid., 8-14-1767.
[601] Min. Bradford Mo. Mtg., 12-15-1778.
[602] Ibid., 2-12-1779.
[603] See page 133f.
[604] Min. Bradford Mo. Mtg., 5-12-1780.
[605] Min. Bradford Mo. Mtg., 2-16-1781.
[606] Ibid., 6-16-1781.
[607] Ibid., 2-16-1781.
[608] Ibid., 6-16-1781.
[609] Ibid., 9-14-1781.
[610] Ibid., 2-15-1782.
[611] Ibid., 8-15-1783.
[612] Ibid., 2-13-1784.
[613] Min. Bradford Mo. Mtg., 9-14-1792.
[614] Min. Uwchlan Mo. Mtg., 8-3-1763, 22.
[615] Ibid., 3-1-1765, 66.
[616] Ibid., 11-7-1782, 132.
[617] Ibid., 12-5-1782, 106.
[618] Min. Uwchlan Mo. Mtg., 12-4-1783, 158.
[619] Ibid., 2-5-1784, 162.
[620] Ibid., 2-10-1785, 184.
[621] Min. Bradford Mo. Mtg., 8-9-1787, 235.
[622] Min. London Grove Mtg., 12-3-1794, 56.
[623] Ibid., 3-4-1795, 62.
[624] Ibid., 7-1-1795, 73.
[625] Min. London Grove Mtg., 11-4-1795, 78.
[626] Futhey and Cope, Hist. Chester Co., 239.
[627] Min. Sadsbury Mo. Mtg., 3-6-1739, 7.
[628] Ibid., 6-21-1769, 180.
 [629] Ibid., 1-20-1779, 297.
[630] Ibid., 2-20-1779, 298.
[631] Min. Sadsbury Mo. Mtg., 6-19-1782, 337.
[632] Ibid.
[633] Ibid., 3-21-1787, 39f.
[634] Ibid., 6-17-1789, 70.
[635] Ibid.
[636] Futhey and Cope, Hist. Chester Co., 239.
[637] Min. Sadsbury Mo. Mtg., 2-22-1792, 106.
[638] Min. Sadsbury Mo. Mtg., 3-21-1792, 107.
[639] Ibid., 5-23-1792, 109.
[640] Ibid., 7-10-1792, 112.
[641] Min. Sadsbury Mo. Mtg., 4-17-1793. 120.
[642] Ibid., 5-13-1793, 121.
[643] Ibid., 9-18-1793, 125.
[644] Ibid., 12-10-1793, 128.
[645] Ibid., 1-7-1798, 175.
[646] Min. Sadsbury Mo. Mtg., 7-19-1797, 168.
[647] Ibid., 4-24-1799, 187.
[648] Bunting, 40, 39, 19 and 42, respectively; also first vols. of
each respective meeting’s records.
[649] Smith, Hist. Del. Co., 138; see also page 41, chapter on
Philadelphia.
[650] Ibid., 139.
[651] Clarkson’s Penn, I, 259; Hazard’s Annals, 695.
[652] Rec. Upland Court, 121; Smith, Hist. Del. Co., 121;
Hazard, Annals, 462.
[653] Would not likely take the case to court.
[654] It appears from a record of sale that the court house was
sold to Robert Wade, 1686. (Record of sale quoted in Jordan,
Hist. Del. Co., I, 112.)
[655] Jordan, Hist. Del. Co., I, 104; Smith, Hist. Del. Co., 137.
[656] Smith, Hist. Del. Co., 166.
[657] Rec. of Chester Mo. Mtg., 1687, I.; Smith, 166.
[658] Smith, 188.
[659] Jordan, II, 441.
[660] Jordan, II, 441.
[661] Ibid.
[662] Ibid.
[663] Min. Chester Mo. Mtg., 1-27-1800.
[664] Jordan, II, 43-45.
[665] Ibid.
[666] The absence of any mention of it in the meeting records.
[667] The writer was unable to find a record of this deed.
[668] No committee reports were noted before that date.
[669] See chapter on Negroes, page 228.
[670] Min. Chester Mo. Mtg., 1-28-1782, 87.
[671] Ibid.
[672] Ibid.
[673] Ibid., 4-29-1782.
[674] Ibid.
[675] Ibid., 7-28-1783, 130.
[676] Ibid.
[677] Min. Chester Mo. Mtg., 4-30-1792, 347.
[678] Ibid., 12-26-1796, 447.
[679] Ibid., 1-27-1800, 508.
[680] Ibid., 5-30-1791, 319.
[681] Min. Chester Mo. Mtg.
[682] Ibid., 9-23-1785, 177.
[683] Min. Chester Q. Meeting, 12-3-1689, 7.
[684] Min. Chester Q. Mtg., 6-14-1732, 128.
[685] Ibid., 9-13-1732, 129.
 [686] Ibid., 6-13-1739, 154.
[687] Advices, 250.
[688] Min. Chester Q. Mtg., 5-13-1754, 218.
[689] Smith, Hist. of Del. Co., 166.
[690] Ibid.
[691] Ibid.
[692] Min. Darby Mo. Mtg., 7-7-1692, 54.
[693] Ibid., 9-20-1693, 56.
[694] See Falls p. 87f.; Abington, p. 105ff.; and Buckingham, p.
96f.
[695] Min. Darby Mo. Mtg. 7-5-1758, 441; 7-5-1750, 322.
[696] Ibid., 12-3-1778, 263.
[697] Min. Darby Mo. Mtg.
[698] Ibid.
[699] Ibid., 2-25-1779, 259.
[700] See page 154.
[701] Ibid., 3-1-1781, 319.
[702] Ibid., 3-29-1781, 320.
[703] Ibid., 1-1-1784, 10.
[704] Ibid., 7-29-1784, 22.
[705] Min. Darby Mo. Mtg., 3-29-1787, 68.
[706] Ibid., 11-1-1787, 79.
[707] Ibid., 4-2-1789, 99f.
[708] Min. Darby Mo. Mtg., 1-28-1790, 114. (For entire report
see page 23).
[709] Ibid., 8-2-1792, 157.
[710] Ibid., 11-29-1792, 160.
[711] Ibid., 3-28-1793, 165.
[712] Ibid., 5-2-1793, 166.
[713] Ibid.
[714] Ibid., 7-26-1796, 207.
 [715] Min. Darby Mo. Mtg., 8-2-1798, 243.
[716] Jordan, II, 432.
[717] Min. Darby Mo. Mtg. 1739, 258; 7-5-1750, 322.
[718] Ibid., 8-3-1797, 226.
[719] Ibid., 8-2-1798, 243.
[720] Min. Darby Mo. Mtg., 1739, 258. (Other bequests were
made by Blunston and ... the value of which in 1791, amounted to
£97 15/6; the committee reporting thereon, add: “we are united in
opinion it will be best to lay out the money in a building on the
meeting lot and in order thereto have had an estimate made for a
house 16 ft. by 26 ft. from out to out, two stories high with a cellar
under the whole, which amounts to £160 or thereabouts.” A
Committee was appointed to see whether this would be according
to the wish of the donor, Darby Minutes 12-29-1791, 145. In 1792
the committee reported it would be best to build the house for the
master’s accommodation with the money of the legacies, and use
the rents arising therefrom for the schooling of poor children,
Darby Minutes, 2-2-1792, 147.)
[721] Smith, Hist. of Del. County, 347.
[722] Min. Radnor Mo. Mtg., 1-11-1731, 189.
[723] Ibid., 1-11-1757, 300.
[724] Min. Radnor Mo. Mtg., see also page 228, chapter on
Negro education.
[725] Min. Radnor Mo. Mtg., 4-10-1759, 28.
[726] Ibid., 12-8-1768, 220.
[727] Ibid., 1-7-1759, 18.
[728] Advices, 250.
[729] Min. Radnor Mo. Mtg., 8-14-1778, 133.
[730] Min. Radnor Mo. Mtg., 10-13-1778, 139.
[731] Ibid., 7-13-1779, 169.
[732] Ibid., 7-10-1781, 233.
[733] Min. Phila. Q. Mtg., 8-6-1781, 235.
[734] Min. Radnor Mo. Mtg., 9-7-1782, 260.
[735] Ibid., 7-11-1786, 4.
 [736] Ibid., 7-13-1790, 8.
[737] Min. Radnor Mo. Mtg., 7-12-1791, 24.
[738] Jordan, II, 429.
[739] Min. Concord Mo. Mtg., 8-4-1779, 94.
[740] Jordan, II, 430.
[741] Min. Concord Mo. Mtg., 8-4-1779, 94.
[742] Ibid., 12-5-1781, 193.
[743] Ibid.
[744] Ibid., 3-3-1784, 275.
[745] Ibid., 8-4-1779, 94.
[746] Ibid., 8-9-1786, 370.
[747] Min. Concord Mo. Mtg., 8-8-1787, 397.
[748] Ibid., 6-5-1782, 213.
[749] Ibid., 8-9-1786, 370; see page 164.
[750] For example, the plan suggested in 1746 and elaborated
in the years following.
[751] Advices, 250.
[752] Advices, 250.
[753] Min. Concord Q. Mtg., 8-12-1754, 218.
[754] Ibid., 8-10-1778, 358.
[755] Ibid., 8-9-1784, 413.
[756] Ibid., 8-12-1793, 477; Min. Warrington and Fairfax Q.
Mtg., 9-20-1784, 175ff.
[757] Phila. Q. Mtg. in the earliest years transacted
considerable detail business, which, years later, it did not touch.
[758] Several definite references are: Min. Middletown Mo.
Mtg., 6-6-1778, 409 and 12-4-1783, 562; Min. Horsham Mo. Mtg.,
II, 12-28-1796.
[759] Min. London Grove Mo. Mtg., 11-4-1795, 78; Min. Darby
Mo. Mtg., 2-3-1791, 133.
[760] To turn to the text of a plan of subscription, see “school
support” in index.
 [761] See page 168.
[762] Min. Kennett Mo. Mtg., 12-15-1796, 146.
[763] Ibid., 8-16-1798, 199.
[764] Min. London Grove Mo. Mtg., 11-4-1795, 78.
[765] Min. Darby Mo. Mtg., 2-3-1791, 133.
[766] Min. Sadsbury Mo. Mtg., 12-10-1793, 128.
[767] Min. Buckingham Mo. Mtg., 4-1-1793, 302.
[768] Min. Kennett Mo. Mtg., 12-15-1796, 146.
[769] Min. Phila. Mo. Mtg., 10-26-1701, 316.
[770] To find the text of legacies granted, turn to legacies, in the
index.
[771] Min. Uwchlan Mo. Mtg., 8-3-1763, 22.
[772] Attention is called to the fact that during the years
mentioned in the following table currency greatly depreciated.
This depreciation was most marked in 1779, when, in January,
the ratio was 8 to 1; and in November of the same year 38½ to 1.
See Dewey, D. R., Financial History of U. S., 39; also page 212.
[773] Min. Penn Charter School Overseers, I, 301.
[774] Buckingham Mo. Mtg., 12-7-1778, 194.
[775] Ibid., 4-1-1793, 302.
[776] Min. Wrightstown Mo. Mtg., 12-7-1790, 60.
[777] Min. Falls Mo. Mtg., 11-6-1799, 288.
[778] Min. Uwchlan Mo. Mtg., 2-5-1784, 162.
[779] Min. Horsham School Committee, 3-18-1793.
[780] See page 14ff.
[781] Min. London Yr. Mtg., 3-16-1692, 68.
[782] The yearly meetings also established schools; such was
the case in London Yearly, and Philadelphia followed in 1799 with
the establishment of Westtown Boarding School in Chester
County. Justice cannot be done to that institution in this work. The
reader is referred to Dewes, A History of Westtown Boarding
School.
[783] Min. London Yr. Mtg., 3-17 to 24-1703, 114; 5-26 to 31-
1760, 339.
 [784] Min. London Yr. Mtg., 3-16 to 19-1692, 68.
[785] Ibid., 4-2 to 7-1745, 268.
[786] Ibid., 4-9 to 11-1690, 52; 4-1 to 4-1691, 60.
[787] Ibid., 3-13 to 17-1695, 89.
[788] Ibid.
[789] Ibid., 4-2 to 10-1718, 160.
[790] Ibid., 5-31 to 6-5-1773, 399.
[791] Ibid., 3-29 to 4-3-1732, 210; 4-9 to 11-1690, 52.
[792] Min. Phila. Yr. Mtg., 7-16 and 17-1694, 39.
[793] Advices from Burlington and Philadelphia Yr. Mtg., 1746,
1750, 1753, 1755, 1777, and so forth, page 250ff. Also the yearly
meeting minutes records for those years, deposited at 304 Arch
Street, Phila. (The first reference is the more accessible.)
[794] The reader is referred to the account of establishing
schools in Bucks, Montgomery, Delaware Counties, etc.
[795] These references are, respectively, to the five points
stated below:
a. Min. Westland Mo. Mtg., 11-11-1786, 12; 3-10-1787, 19.
b. Min. Horsham Mo. Mtg., 4-28-1784.
c. Min. Phila. Mo. Mtg., 11-29-1719, 57.
d. Min. Kennett Mo. Mtg., 12-15-1796, 146.
e. Min. Chester Mo. Mtg., 1-27-1800, 508; Min. Concord Mo.
Mtg., 8-9-1786, 370.
[796] See the Advices, 250; or the Book of Discipline which
has, under the head of schools, a statement of the various
recommendations of the yearly meetings. See also Yearly
Meeting Minute Books at 4th and Arch Streets, Phila., for years
1746, 1753, 1755, 1777, and 1778.
[797] Min. Phila. Mo. Mtg., 2-29-1698, 229; P. C. S. M., I, 13.
[798] Deed No. 33, mentioned in P. C. S. M., I, 13.
[799] Ibid., 40.
[800] Ibid., 147.
[801] Friends’ Intelligencer, 8-15-1896, 539; Min. Abington Mo.
Mtg., 1-26-1722, 124.
 [802] Min. Warrington and Fairfax Q. Mtg., 9-20-1779, 73.
[803] Ibid., 77; Warrington Mo. Mtg., 8-7-1779, 46.
[804] Deed No. 88 New Garden Township, Chester County.
(The original is in Orthodox Friends Meeting House, West Grove,
Pa.)
[805] Min. New Garden Mo. Mtg., 8-6-1785, 256.
[806] Min. Kennett Mo. Mtg., 1-12-1792, 14.
[807] Min. Goshen Mo. Mtg., 4-10-1795.
[808] Ibid., 3-8-1782.
[809] Min. Darby Mo. Mtg., 3-28-1793, 165.
[810] Min. Buckingham Mo. Mtg., 4-10-1794, 314.
[811] Jenkins, Historical Col. of Gwynedd, 396.
[812] Ibid.
[813] Min. Middletown Mo. Mtg., 12-1-1693-4, 64.
[814] Ibid., 1-1-1699, 114.
[815] Min. Phila. Mo. Mtg., 5-25-1740, 318.
[816] In 1701 they had begun a school house which was to be
60 by 24 feet. Min. Phila. Mo. Mtg., 4-27-1701, 298.
[817] The schoolroom described is in Merion Meeting House,
which may be reached from Philadelphia via P.R.R. to Narberth,
Pa.; from thence a ten-minute walk.
[818] Min. Goshen Mo. Mtg., 3-8-1782.
[819] Min. Falls Mo. Mtg., 12-3-1794, 169; for value of money
see page 212.
[820] Ibid., 9-4-1799, 283.
[821] Min. Phila. Mo. Mtg., 4-27-1701, 298.
[822] Ibid., 11-25-1744, 379; P. C. S. M., I, 40. Parts of the
school buildings were at times used as tenant property thus
affording a supporting income, P. C. S. M., I, 22.
[823] P. C. S. M., I, 56.
[824] Ibid., I, 39.
[825] Min. Phila. Mo. Mtg., 9-25-1715, 10ff.
[826] P. C. S. M., I, 95 and 37.
 [827] Min. Bradford Mo. Mtg., 6-18-1762; 4-7-1767; 8-14-1767.
[828] P. C. S. M., I, 29 and 25.
[829] Ibid., 31.
[830] Ibid., 95.
[831] Ibid., 37.
[832] P. C. S. M., 72.
[833] Ibid., 151ff.
[834] Ibid.
[835] Min. Phila. Mo. Mtg., 1-30-1784, 123ff.
[836] P. C. S. M., I, 76 and 79; also I, 198.
[837] P. C. S. M., see list of scholars; number is approximate.
[838] Pemberton Mss., Vol. 3, p. 2.
[839] P. C. S. M., I, 102f. (Rules adopted in 1748.)
[840] Robert Proud Mss. Collection, No. 20, pp. 3-7. The rules,
he states, were drawn up for his use in the school in 1780.
[841] The rules presented, taken from records of the Overseers
of the Schools in Philadelphia, are quite like those later drawn up
by Horsham School Committee. There is nothing additional in the
later ones and they were doubtless patterned after them.
(Horsham Sch. Com. Min., 1-27-1783).
[842] Robert Proud Mss., No. 156, 45.
[843] Logan Mss. Letter for 4th month, 12th, 1704. Vol. I, 49. (J.
Dickinson was away on a voyage of some length.)
[844] Vaux, Memoirs of Benezet, 15f.
[845] Watson, Annals, I, 291-2.
[846] See page 181.
[847] P. C. S. M., I, 137.
[848] Ibid., 150.
[849] Min. Horsham Sch. Com., 3-16-1792.
[850] See page 78.
[851] Page 78.
[852] See list of printed rules for the school in custody of P.C.S.
 [853] Min. Horsham Sch. Com., 1-27-1783 (also mentioned in
the monthly meeting minutes very frequently).
[854] See page 78f.
[855] P.C.S.M., I, 84.
[856] Pa. Gazette, No. 1449, 1756.
[857] Ibid., No. 824, 1744.
[858] Pa. Pocket and Daily Advertiser, No. 2385, 1786.
[859] Ibid., No. 2386, 1786.
[860] A list of printed rules issued by the Board, found in the
depository for the P.C.S.M., in the Provident Life and Trust
Building, Phila.
[861] Darby Meeting employed B. Clift to teach a whole year
with the exception of two weeks. (Darby Min., 7-7-1692, 54).
[862] Ibid.
[863] See page 183f.
[864] Min. Phila. Mo. Mtg., 1-30-1784, 123ff.
[865] P. C. S. M., I, 117.
[866] Min. Phila. Mo. Mtg., 1-30-1784, 123ff.
[867] Some copies and volumes of these illustrious news
sheets are found in the Norris Ms. Collection.
[868] Norris Ms. Collection—The Student’s Magazine. The little
volumes are unpaged; page references are impossible.
[869] Norris Ms. Collection.
[870] Ibid.
[871] P. C. S. M., I, 135.
[872] Phila. Mo. Min., 1-25-1771, 430.
[873] London Yr. Mtg. Min., 4-2 to 10-1718, 160. Phila. Advices
XXX, page 250 (for years from 1746-1778). Also a copy of the
Discipline containing the digested recommendations on schools,
p. 386ff. (In first National Bank, Newtown, Pa.).
[874] Col. Rec., I, LXVI.
[875] Extracts from London Yr. Mtg. Min., pub. 1802, 124.
[876] Crouch, Collection of His Papers, 183.
 [877] Col. Rec., I, 36.
[878] P. C. S. M., I, 33.
[879] P. C. S. M., 14.
[880] Ibid., 90.
[881] Ibid., 117.
[882] Ibid., 145.
[883] Ibid., 221.
[884] A letter written to John Penn, Penn Ms. Collections, I,
233.
[885] Min. Phila. Mo. Mtg., 7-30-1779, 151; 1-30-1784, 123ff.
Also, Min. Horsham Sch. Com., 1-27-1783; Min. Horsham Prep.
Mtg., 1-24-1783, and Min. Darby Mo. Mtg., 2-28-1793, 165, give
some of the books which were used in the schools.
[886] P. C. S. M., I, 138.
[887] Hildeburn, II, 332.
[888] Ibid., I, 39.
[889] Pa. Gaz., No. 1245, 1752.
[890] Ibid., No. 1499, 1757.
[891] Ibid., No. 1861, 1764.
[892] Ibid., No. 1556, 1758.
[893] Min. Phila. Mo. Mtg., 3-30-1770, 370.
[894] P. C. S. M., I, 138.
[895] Min. Darby Mo. Mtg., 2-28-1793, 165.
[896] Min. Horsham Sch. Com., 1-11-1793.
[897] Min. Sadsbury Mo. Mtg., 2-20-1793, 118.
[898] Min. Byberry Prep. Mtg., 12-26-1792.
[899] Ibid., 8-26-1789.
[900] Min. Radnor Mo. Mtg., 5-8-1789, 55.
[901] Min. Sadsbury Mo. Mtg., 6-17-1789, II, 70.
[902] Hildeburn, I, 39 (published in London 1697).
[903] Ibid., II, 100.
 [904] Prowell, I, 540.
[905] In 1689 Phila. Mo. Mtg. authorized W. Bradford to print
certain of G. Fox’s papers. These are not named and it hardly
seems probable that Fox’s Primmer was in the list. Bradford’s
request for permission (Genealogical Publications, II, 139), H. S.
P.
[906] Min. Phila. Mo. Mtg., 12-25-1697-8, p. 227 (G. S. P. P.)
[907] Hildeburn, I, 38.
[908] Smith, Supplement to Catalogue of Friends Books, 262.
[909] Min. Phila. Mo. Mtg., 11-29-1696-7, 211. (G. S. P. P., Vol.
4).
[910] Pastorius’s Common Place Book (Mss.) H. S. P.
[911] The Primer of Stephen Crisp is also mentioned frequently
with that of Fox, as being used in the schools. (Min. Abington Mo.
Mtg., 8-27-1735, 207).
[912] Hildeburn, II, 21, 114, 341, 340, and 343, respectively.
[913] Hildeburn, I, 318.
[914] P. C. S. M., I, 240.
[915] Prowell, I, 541.
[916] See page 191.
[917] Chiefly in the Norris Mss. Collections.
[918] A scale, having units of known value, which is used in
measuring accomplishment in handwriting.
[919] Hildeburn, II, 164.
[920] Prowell, I, 540.
[921] Elihu Underwood was teacher at Warrington in York
County in 1784 (See Warrington Mo. Mtg. Min., 1-10-1784, 47.)
[922] Norris Ms. Collection, H. S. P.
[923] P. C. S. M., I, 64.
[924] Ibid., 26; also Min. Phila. Mo. Mtg., 7-30-1779, 151.
[925] In 1741 Buller advertised the teaching of writing,
arithmetic, merchants’ accounts, navigation, algebra, and other
parts of the mathematics to be taught at the “Public School.” (Pa.
Gaz. No. 673, 1741).
 [926] Ibid., 84.
[927] Ibid., 101.
[928] Ibid., 122.
[929] Ibid., 131.
[930] Ibid., 133.
[931] Min. Phila. Mo. Mtg., 1-30-1784, 123ff.
[932] Ibid., 7-30-1779, 151.
[933] P. C. S. M., I, 33.
[934] Ibid., 14.
[935] Alexander Seaton, who came to the English School about
1754 (P. C. S. M. I, 117) had been teaching a school of the same
nature in the upper part of the city, in which he taught
mathematics. That school was also under the direction of the
Board. (P. C. S. M., I, 90).
[936] Ibid., 80.
[937] Ibid., 104f.
[938] Ibid.
[939] A list of the rules for the government of the schools,
printed, in the P. C. S. depository.
[940] See page 189.
[941] Hildeburn, II, 266.
[942] Ibid., 464.
[943] P. C. S. M., I, 235.
[944] See page 57.
[945] Pa. Gaz., Apr. 16, 1730.
[946] Hildeburn, II, 342.
[947] Pastorius, Common Place Book (Mss.) H. S. P.
[948] Books of Charles and Isaac Norris in Norris Ms.
Collection.
[949] Books chiefly of Norris, I. Griffiths, and King, in the Norris
Ms. Collection.
[950] P. C. S. M., I, 104f.
 [951] See page 195.
[952] See Norris Ms. Collection, H. S. P.
[953] P. C. S. M., I, 239.
[954] Ibid., 75.
[955] For instance, F. D. Pastorius, Anthony Benezet, Robert
Proud, Christopher Taylor, and many others.
[956] Min. London Yr. Mtg., 4-9 to 11-1690, 52; 4-1 to 4-1691,
60; 3-13 to 17-1695, 89; also collected Advices of Philadelphia
and Burlington Yr. Mtg., 250ff.
[957] Min. Byberry Prep. Mtg., 2-22-1786.
[958] Min. Goshen Mo. Mtg., 7-6-1792; Min. Kennett Mo. Mtg.,
5-12-1785, 814; Min. Radnor Mo. Mtg., 7-11-1786, 4; Min.
Uwchlan Mo. Mtg., 12-5-1782, 136; 11-7-1782, 132.
[959] Deed No. 88, New Garden, Tp., Chester Co. (In Fireproof
of Orthodox Friends in West Grove, Pa.).
[960] Min. Goshen Mo. Mtg., 8-11-1797; Min. Ken. Mo. Mtg., 3-
14-1793, 39.
[961] Min. Goshen Mtg., 8-5-1796.
[962] P. C. S. M., 1, 3, 33, and 90; Min. Darby Mo. Mtg., 7-17-
1692, 54; Min. Phila. Mo. Mtg., 1-29-1700, 254; 4-24-1720, 63.
[963] Col. Rec. I, 36.
[964] Min. Phila. Mo. Mtg., 6-26-1784, 64.
[965] P. C. S. M., I, 58.
[966] Ibid., 5f.
[967] Ibid., 175.
[968] Ibid., 208.
[969] Ibid., 139.
[970] Ibid., 141.
[971] Ibid., 265.
[972] P. C. S. M., I, 237.
[973] Ibid., 245.
[974] Ibid., 116.
[975] See Yearly Meetings’ Advices, 250.
 [976] Min. Darby Mo. Mtg., 7-7-1692, 54; 9-20-1693, 56.
[977] 2 Pa. Arch. XIX, 248.
[978] Bean, 680.
[979] There is found no record of his removal by letter, though
he may have done so without, which, however, was not according
to practice.
[980] Min. Phila. Mo. Mtg., 5-26-1689, 154.
[981] Ibid., 3-29-1691, 146.
[982] Weekly Mercury, Nov. 29, 1733.
[983] Min. Phila. Mo. Mtg., 11-28-1697, 227.
[984] Ibid., 1-29-1700, 254.
[985] P. C. S. M., I, 64.
[986] Ibid., 101.
[987] Ibid., 90.
[988] Ibid., 266.
[989] Ibid., 175.
[990] Ibid., 334.
[991] Min. Phila. Mo. Mtg., 1-30-1784, 123.
[992] P. C. S. M., I, 33.
[993] Simpson’s Lives of Eminent Philadelphians, 53. Min.
Phila. Mo. Mtg., 1-30-1784, 128.
[994] Ibid., 1-31-1699, 244.
[995] Ibid., 1-27-1702, 326.
[996] P. C. S. M., I, 126.
[997] Ibid., 221.
[998] P. C. S. M., I, 130.
[999] Ibid., 161.
[1000] Ibid., 158.
[1001] Min. Darby Mo. Mtg., 7-7-1692, 54.
[1002] P. C. S. M., I, 133.
[1003] Ibid., 274.
 [1004] Ibid., 131.
[1005] P. C. S. M., I., 123.
[1006] Ibid., 131.
[1007] Min. Phila. Mo. Mtg., 5-26-1689.
[1008] In the references at the right hand margin of the table
“Ph” refers to Minutes of Philadelphia Monthly Meeting for the
date given; Darby refers to Minutes of Darby Monthly Meeting.
[1009] Futhey and Cope, 308.
[1010] From an old account book in possession of Albert Cook
Myers, Moylan, Pa.
[1011] Dewey, D. R., Financial History of the U. S., 39.
The reader is reminded of the fact that because of greatly
depreciated currency the amounts paid, as shown in the above
table, did not represent so much absolute increase. That some
exact idea of the extent of depreciation of the continental currency
may be gained, there is given the following table for the year
1779, when the depreciation became most marked.

Jan. 14, 1779 8 to 1

Feb. 3 10 to 1
Apr. 2 17 to 1
May 5 24 to 1
June 4 20 to 1
Sept. 17 24 to 1
Oct. 14 30 to 1
Nov. 17 38½ to 1

The fact of such depreciation was not officially recognized by

Congress until March 18, 1780, it being then provided that paper
be accepted for silver at a ratio of 40 to 1.
[1012] See page 20.
[1013] Min. London Grove Mtg., 3-4-1795, 62.
[1014] Ibid., 1-31-1699, 244.
[1015] Ibid., 1-27-1702, 326.
[1016] P. C. S. M., I, 130.
[1017] Ibid., 158.