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Conflict and Cooperation
in Cyberspace
The Challenge to National Security

Edited by
Panayotis A. Yannakogeorgos and Adam B. Lowther
Conflict and Cooperation
in Cyberspace
The Challenge to National Security
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Conflict and Cooperation
in Cyberspace
The Challenge to National Security

Edited by
Panayotis A. Yannakogeorgos
Adam B. Lowther

Boca Raton London New York

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Contents

Fo re wo rd ix
Acknowledgments xiii
Introduction xv
Editors xxv
Contributors xxvii

Pa r t I K e y C o n s i d e r at i o n s
C h ap t e r 1 Th e F u t u r e of Th i n g s C y b e r 3
M I C H A E L V. H AY D E N

C h ap t e r 2 Ta m i n g t h e “ 21s t C e n t u r y ’ s W i l d W e s t ”
o f C y b e r s pa c e ? 9
LY N N M AT T I C E

C h ap t e r 3 C y b e r s pa c e S u p e r i o r i t y C o n s i d e r at i o n s 13
F R E D TAY L O R , J R . A N D J E R RY C A R T E R

C h ap t e r 4 Tw o , M ay b e Th r e e C h e e r s for Ambiguity 27
M A RT I N C. LI BICK I

C h ap t e r 5 Th e E s s e n t ia l F e at u r e s of an O n t o l o gy
f o r C y b e r wa r fa r e 35
R A N DA L L R . D I P E R T

© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC v

vi C o n t en t s

C h ap t e r 6 Th e P r o s p e c t s f o r C y b e r D e t e r r e n c e :
A m e r i c a n S p o n s o r s h ip o f G l o b a l N o r m s 49
PA N AYO T I S A . YA N N A KO GE O RG O S A N D
A DA M B . L OW T H E R

Pa r t II Te c h n o l o gy
C h ap t e r 7 C h a l l e n g e s in Monitoring Cyberarms
C o m p l ia n c e 81
N E I L C . ROW E , S I M S O N L .
G A R F I N K E L , RO BE R T BE V E R LY, A N D
PA N AYO T I S A . YA N N A KO GE O RG O S

C h ap t e r 8 D i g i ta l P o l i cy M a n a g e m e n t : A F o u n d at i o n
f o r To m o r r o w 101
N AT I O N A L S E C U R I T Y AGE N C Y ( N S A ),
E N T E R P R I S E S E RV I C E S D I V I S I O N , I D E N T I T Y A N D
AC C E S S M A N AGE M E N T BR A N C H

C h ap t e r 9 O n M i s s i o n A s s u r a n c e 107
K A M A L J A BB O U R A N D S A R A H M U C C I O

C h ap t e r 10 S t u x n e t : A C a s e S t u dy in C y b e r W a r fa r e 127
E R I C P. O L I V E R

C h ap t e r 11 Th e I n t e r n e t a n d D i s s e n t in

A u t h o r i ta r ia n S tat e s 161
J A M E S D. F I E L D E R

Pa r t III E t h i c s , L aw , and P o l i cy
C h ap t e r 12 C a n Th e r e B e an E t h i c a l C y b e r Wa r? 195
GE O RGE R . L U C A S , J R .

C h ap t e r 13 P e r s p e c t i v e s f o r C y b e r s t r at e g i s t s on

C y b e r l aw f o r C y b e r wa r 211
C H A R L E S J . D U N L A P, J R .

C h ap t e r 14 A N e w N o r m a l? Th e C u lt i vat i o n
o f G l o b a l N o r m s a s Pa r t o f a

C y b e r s e c u r i t y S t r at e gy 233
RO GE R H U R W I T Z

© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

 C o n t en t s vii

C h ap t e r 15 C y b e r d e f e n s e a s E n v i r o n m e n ta l
P r o t e c t i o n —Th e B r o a d e r P o t e n t ia l
I m pa c t o f Fai l e d D e f e n s i v e C o u n t e r
C y b e r O p e r at i o n s 265
J A N K A L L BE RG A N D RO S E M A RY A . B U R K

C h ap t e r 16 C y b e r S o v e r e i g n t y 277
STEPHEN K. GOUR LEY

C h ap t e r 17 A m e r i c a n C y b e r s e c u r i t y Tr ia d :
G o v e r n m e n t w i d e I n t e g r at i o n ,
Te c h n o l o g i c a l C o u n t e r i n t e l l i g e n c e , and

E d u c at i o n a l M o b i l i z at i o n 291
SU NGH Y U N K I M

© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Foreword

Cyber publications generally seek to provide the reader a methodol-

ogy to address the challenges of cyberspace based on their experience
or research. The editors of this compilation take a different approach,
reminding their readers that cyberspace is complicated and the breadth
of opportunities yet unknown, proposing instead that an understand-
ing of cyberspace’s multidimensional complexities is necessary to over-
come its associated challenges. This book is intended to provide readers
with the views from a diverse set of experts and offer insights into the
direction they are moving the discussion in their particular areas of
expertise. Rather than provide answers or solutions, it seeks to draw
readers, regardless of their field, into the larger debate, which focuses
on national and economic security. As the authors note, the implica-
tions of this debate are critically important for the United States.
The book’s editors argue the need for common ground among the
disciplines involved in today’s cyber debates and discussions. The Air
Force Research Institute conducted several workshops and numer-
ous small group discussions to facilitate the crossflow of information
among subject matter experts across a wide variety of relevant subject
areas. The result is a rich cyberspace dialogue with multidimensional
insights that have not been previously highlighted in other published
works.

© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC ix

x F o re w o rd

Consider the diversity of cyberspace perspectives this volume

addresses: to many, cyberspace is a means to collect private informa-
tion or intelligence, or prevent others from doing so. In a military
context, it is viewed as a contested domain that must be controlled to
ensure freedom of action for joint operations. To yet others, cyber-
space is a way to achieve global effects for both strategic and regional
stability, but at the same its capabilities can be used to foment regional
instability leading to international crises. Cyberspace has reduced the
cost of entry to participate in global commerce, international diplo-
macy, social networking, targeted message delivery, and organiza-
tional recruiting; however, these same attributes also enable adversary
nations, international crime syndicates, transnational extremist orga-
nizations, and terrorist groups to undermine the public and private
interests of the United States at very low cost. Furthermore, the
absence of legal frameworks for maintaining law and order in cyber-
space, exacerbated by the difficulties of attribution, allow actors to
conduct illegal operations against the United States and its population
with very low risk of retribution. Not surprisingly, these different per-
spectives on cyberspace drive widely divergent views regarding appro-
priate policies, strategies, and courses of action to protect the United
States and advance its global interests. This underpins the authors’
desire to find common ground for these discussions and debates.
This book is different. Its purpose is not an attempt to sell a prod-
uct, concept, or organization. It does not claim to have all the answers
to the questions posed by the rapid growth of cyberspace. Instead, it
seeks to help its readers ask key questions that are relevant to their
own organizations and missions. To support this aim, it begins with a
number of thoughtful discussions about the attributes and importance
of cyberspace to the future American way of life. It then examines the
challenges and opportunities inherent in the technologies on which
cyberspace exists. The book concludes with chapters that examine the
topics of cyber ethics, law, policy, and strategy. This treatise is not
only informative and stimulating, but also a valuable reference on the
disciplines comprising the national and economic security aspects of
cyberspace.
The authors’ individual insights and perspectives provide important
contributions to the ongoing debate over cyberspace. Collectively they
offer a powerful cross-disciplinary appreciation of cyberspace that
© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
 F o re w o rd xi

enables practitioners to balance their focus between the exploitation

of cyber-related opportunities and the mitigation of its challenges.
Cyberspace has broken many of the barriers imposed by time and
space; it’s up to the users of cyberspace to break the organizational
and disciplinary barriers that prevent us from fully leveraging its
benefits. Facilitated by the exceptional handiwork of the editors, this
book significantly advances the effort to achieve common ground in
the debates regarding cyberspace; national security and cyber-related
professionals will find it equally useful in their work.
Lt. Gen. Bob Elder, USAF (Ret.)

© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Acknowledgments

This book summarizes research that was conducted by a network of

many individuals and institutions around the world. Several people
contributed directly or indirectly to an ongoing Air Force Research
Institute project on cyber power, national security, and military oper-
ations, but the most important hosting and funding organization for
this work was the United States Air Force Research Institute (AFRI),
where we serve as research professors. The institute and its devoted
team serve us both as a home and a family and continue to be a great
source of support.
Many individuals among the institute’s staff deserve our gratitude,
but we would like to first single out General John Shaud, AFRI’s
founding director. General Shaud was a source of guidance. Others
at the institute who greatly assisted us include Dale Hayden, John
Geis, Steve Hagel, Chad Dacus, Scott Johnson, Tony Gould, and Billy
Barth. Grateful acknowledgement is also made to the leadership of
Air University; Lieutenant General David Fadok, Commander of Air
University, and former Air University Commander Lt. Gen. Al Peck,
for supporting AFRI’s cyber research endeavors that led to this volume.
We would also like to thank our contributors, whose insights were
indispensable. Finally, we would like to thank Rich O’Hanley and his
team of editors, typesetters, and marketing personnel for making the
book you are holding possible.

© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC x iii

Introduction

In recent years, large-scale cyber threats that include the Stuxnet worm,
the emergence of hacker networks, and the militarization of cyberspace
have been raising the awareness of government decision makers and
the private sector to the vulnerability of a networked and digital world.
The risks such threats pose to vital systems and infrastructures—upon
which societies and economies depend—are beginning to receive the
serious attention they deserve. While there is widespread understand-
ing that cyber security is important for the public and private sectors,
key players in government and industry often offer a collective shrug
of the shoulders when asked who bears responsibility for the defense
of American networks and the information they contain. Within the
government and the Department of Defense (DoD), in particular, a
lively debate is underway. Many within the military wonder what role
they may be asked to play in defending the nation’s cyber assets in
coming years—some advocating an expanded role and some advocat-
ing limiting DoD’s efforts to its own network defense. In an effort to
address this and related questions, actors across the national security
system are actively seeking to develop legal and policy solutions that
protect the nation while limiting government regulation and intrusion
into what is largely a privately owned and operated domain.
Within the DoD, the US Air Force (USAF) is a key player in
cyberspace. Given the service’s technology focus, it should come as

© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC xv

xvi In t r o d u c ti o n

no surprise that the “organize, train, and equip” function of the Air
Force—in cyberspace—is taking center stage. In recent years, the ser-
vice activated 24th Air Force (2009) as its dedicated cyber component,
created a career specialty for cyber specialists, developed the cyber
corps tactical school, and made a number of additional changes to
better address its cyber needs. This continues a long tradition of Air
Force involvement in cyberspace starting from the mid-1990s when
Air Force Office of Special Investigations (OSI) investigator Jim
Christy tracked down an East German cyber espionage ring, which
became the stuff of hacker legend in The Cuckoo’s Egg. The Air Force
was the first service to stand up a Computer Emergency Response
Team (CERT) as well as to develop an information warfare doctrine.
However, the complexity and changing nature of the domain creates
an environment that appears unsettlingly new, when indeed it should
be familiar.
In order to assist the service in grappling with some of the complex
questions that must be answered before the Air Force can best serve
the nation, on 26–27 October 2011, the Air Force Research Institute
(AFRI) convened. “Cyber Power: The Quest towards a Common
Ground” at Maxwell AFB was the first in a series of conferences and
workshops focusing on contemporary cyber challenges. The objective
was to open avenues of dialogue and shared understanding among
cyber stakeholders, while advocating a “whole of society” approach to
cyber security.
As part of its mission, AFRI seeks to enhance the unity of cyber
efforts across the military, government, industry, academia, and inter-
national communities. Through its conferences and workshops the
organization is creating a forum for the exchange of ideas and experi-
ences among cyber professionals from all sectors. Recent events gave
particular attention to articulating and anticipating the need to fos-
ter a common methodology on which to base new-style partnerships
among relevant cyber security stakeholders. The quest for common
ground, with respect to cyberspace, refers to the lack of accepted stan-
dards for definitions, data structures, threat assessments, and policies
both within and across communities that employ cyber—a central
challenge in the short term.
© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
 In t r o d u c ti o n x vii

The Quest for a Common Ground

When practitioners and scholars discuss the air, land, sea, and space
domains, there is little confusion as to what they mean. Common
definitions and an accepted lexicon are the foundation of any debate.
Thus, it is rare for individuals to talk past one another or enter a dis-
cussion with very different assumptions about the domain under dis-
cussion. With cyberspace the same cannot be said.
To illustrate this point, it is interesting to point out that Daniel
Kuehl, of the National Defense University, identifies at least 13
definitions of cyberspace in circulation.1 Since the United States, its
allies, and other nations invest vast sums of treasure into cyberspace,
a domain that is identified not only as part of the nation’s critical
national infrastructure—with myriad vulnerabilities—but also a war-
fighting domain, it should come as no surprise that developing widely
accepted concepts and norms is of central interest to both the public
and private sectors. With the Air Force playing a greater role in the
domain, it is also natural for the service to take the lead in facilitating
such agreement and collaboration.

Recent Efforts

The purpose of this book is to expand the formal debate that began
at AFRI in 2011 as AFRI and the USAF continue to discuss and
debate the service’s role in cyberspace. As part of this effort, forg-
ing common cyberspace terms, definitions, and methodologies that
will eventually lead to more coherent cyberspace policy, strategy, and
doctrine is important. This is not a topic of mere academic semantics,
but necessary for reaching a common framework that those involved
in the debate and decision making can employ when operating in a
dangerous world.
In a recent Strategic Studies Quarterly article, Gen. Michael
Hayden writes:
Rarely has something been so important and so talked about with less
clarity and less apparent understanding than this phenomenon. But few
of us (myself included) have created the broad structural framework
within which to comfortably and confidently place these varied phe-
nomena. And that matters. I have sat in very small group meetings in

© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

x viii In t r o d u c ti o n

Washington, been briefed on an operational need and an operational

solution, and been unable (along with my colleagues) to decide on a
course of action because we lacked a clear picture of the long-term legal
and policy implications of any decision we might make.2

The interdisciplinary nature of cyberspace and the challenges

it poses are unique when compared to national security challenges
in other domains. The way in which AFRI has sought to examine
the many questions under investigation reflects a whole-of-society
approach, rather than an airpower-focused approach. Although the
Air Force is on the cutting edge of cyber, the service cannot solve
cyberspace challenges alone. Without the help of joint, interagency,
and private-sector partners, key variables that must be considered are
likely to go unnoticed.
A variety of topics have received attention over the past two years of
meetings. Data needs and structures—focusing on how to share data
for common situational awareness of vulnerabilities and threats—are
of particular importance, because reducing national vulnerability to
cyber attacks requires a common situational awareness among inter-
nal and external stakeholders that defend the cyber domain. Thus,
identifying data needs and influencing the eventual creation of shared
common data structures are essential.
Another area of interest has been common analytical methodolo-
gies (i.e., the best approach to studying hackers). With cyber situ-
ational awareness proving a challenge that hinges on the ability to
analyze complex data, significant debate has focused on this issue.
While the shape of a common analytical methodology that empha-
sizes critical and creative thinking for understanding, visualizing,
and describing complex and ill-structured problems remains unclear,
there is common agreement that it is necessary so operators can offer
decision makers the best approaches to resolving those problems.
In moving from discussions of technical issues to the need for
improved policy, bringing technical and policy experts together has
proven important. All too often they do not understand one another
or the challenges the other faces. In bringing these groups together,
some of the nation’s best and brightest thinkers on cyber policy issues
have informed fruitful discussions between the broader technical and
policy communities. As part of the policy discussion, topics such as
© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
 In t r o d u c ti o n xix

cyber incidences that can be for criminal, espionage, military, and

other purposes are of importance. A common understanding of what
constitutes criminal, espionage, military, and other cyber activities
assists in assigning the appropriate authorities, resources, and type of
response to each incident. This common understanding and method-
ology will help analysts across all services, government, industry, and
allies identify threats and trends—and appropriate target sets from
which threats emanate. The lack of a common cyber understand-
ing, methodology, and lexicon has policy and strategic implications.
Achieving commonality, at least among US equities, should contrib-
ute to improved policy and strategy.
For readers of this volume, it is important to understand the context
in which each chapter is offered. As you read, imagine each author
sitting in AFRI’s conference room—where many of the discussions
occurred—along with two dozen other experts. In a lively give-and-
take, participants from academia, industry, government, and the mili-
tary are exchanging ideas concerning the topics listed above and found
in these pages. While not every contributor participated in these dis-
cussions, most played an important role in informing the debate and
shaping the thinking of other participants. The chapters reflect that
discussion and are often written from the perspective of a practitioner
rather than an academic, although some chapters are written by aca-
demics. Thus, the style and length of each chapter varies in accordance
with each author’s approach to writing about the challenge or issue he
or she was asked to discuss with the group. Where chapters written
by academics are often longer and thoroughly noted, chapters written
by government and industry participants are often shorter and focus
on more tangible problems and solutions. With this in mind, a brief
description of the book’s format and each chapter is useful.

Format

This book is divided into three sections: Key Considerations;

Technology; and Ethics, Law, and Policy. Part 1 takes a broad look at
many of the challenges facing the public and private sector in cyber-
space, with a particular focus on those areas where national security
is a concern. Part 2 examines the technical challenges of improved
cyber security and focuses on possible solutions. Finally, Part 3 looks
© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
xx In t r o d u c ti o n

at the larger ethical, legal, and policy challenges facing government

as it seeks to provide improved cyber security across the public and
private sectors.

Key Considerations

General Michael V. Hayden (Ret.), former director of the National

Security Agency and the Central Intelligence Agency, opens Part 1
with “The Future of Things Cyber.” Given his long career and signifi-
cant experience at senior levels in government, Hayden suggests that
the nation, particularly those working on cyber issues, must come to
understand the policy implications of a rapidly developing cyber tech-
nology before seeking to solve the security challenges that are increas-
ingly evident. In many ways, Gen. Hayden’s brief chapter poses very
strategic questions that later chapters attempt to address in greater
detail.
Lynn Mattice then follows with “What’s Wrong with Cyberspace?”
Here, Mattice argues that early software and hardware designers nei-
ther envisioned the interconnected world of today, nor was there com-
mercial or legal imperative to develop products that were free from
“bugs” or secure from hacking. Thus, according to the author, a cul-
ture of accepting flawed products exists. Mattice argues that this must
change and that through a harmonization of laws and international
treaties, threats in cyberspace can be mitigated more effectively.
Fred Taylor and Jerry Carter, in “Cyberspace Superiority
Considerations,” suggest that the Department of Defense is inad-
equately prepared to gain and maintain cyber superiority now or in
the foreseeable future. They advise that DoD must overcome criti-
cal limitations related to four factors: capability, capacity, cognizance,
and governance. To meet this need, the authors offer a series of more
technically focused, but policy relevant, solutions.
In “Two, Maybe Three Cheers for Ambiguity,” Martin Libicki
discusses some of the most prescient issues in the debate over the
applicability of deterrence to cyberspace. Focusing his discussion on
deterministic versus probabilistic deterrence policy, Libicki weighs
the pros and cons of such policies. With cyberspace possessing a num-
ber of unique characteristics that make it distinct from other domains,
the author demonstrates that comparisons to nuclear deterrence have
© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
 In t r o d u c ti o n xxi

their limits. In the end, Libicki suggests that the determinism of a

policy should not exceed the determinism of the domain over which
the policy applies.
Randall Dipert shifts course in “The Essential Features of an
Ontology for Cyberwarfare,” where he examines the reasons for creat-
ing an applied cyberwarfare ontology and its required characteristics.
As he suggests, a cyberwarfare ontology would systematically organize
and allow inference on all data relevant for the conduct of offensive and
defensive cyberwarfare. Dipert explains that it will have some distinc-
tive characteristics when compared with other ontologies. With infor-
mation sharing about malware and vulnerabilities rapidly increasing, the
author argues for ontologies using widely accepted best practices, mak-
ing a single, robust, and extensible framework for sharing data possible.
Part 1 ends with “The Prospects for Cyber Deterrence: American
Sponsorship of Global Norms.” Panayotis Yannakogeorgos and Adam
Lowther argue that calls for cyber deterrence are premature. Instead,
they posit that cyberspace must become sovereign territory of nation-
states before cyber deterrence is possible. It will then become possible
for the United States to hold nations responsible for their actions or
inactions within the tenets of global norms and behavior in cyber-
space. They offer a framework for developing a deterrence strategy
based on US sponsorship of embryonic global norms.

Technology

Part 2 opens with Neil Rowe, Simson Garfinkel, Robert Beverly, and
Panayotis A. Yannakogeorgos’ “Challenges in Monitoring Cyberarms
Compliance.” Rowe and his colleagues argue that the technical means
exist, or are in development, to enable cyberarms control and monitor-
ing. Where some scholars suggest that international cyberarms agree-
ments are not technically feasible, the authors offer illustrations of
technologies that will enable the very agreements many states desire
but believe are not technically possible. While some of the approaches
offered would likely face challenging political obstacles, the options
discussed are certainly thought provoking.
The National Security Agency’s (NSA) Enterprise Services
Division, Identity and Access Management Branch succinctly
describes the challenges posed in today’s networked world in “Digital
© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
x x ii In t r o d u c ti o n

Policy Management: A Foundation for Tomorrow.” Not only do the

authors describe current challenges facing all Internet users, but they
briefly describe NSA efforts to build an open standard based on digi-
tal policy management capability for the Department of Defense and
the US government at large.
Kamal Jabbour and Sarah Muccio give their take on “On Mission
Assurance” in a brief and direct discussion. With the US Air Force
increasingly relying on cyberspace to perform its mission, the genera-
tion, storage, processing, dissemination, consumption, and destruc-
tion of information are increasingly occurring in a contested and
denied environment. Here, Jabbour and Muccio present mission
assurance in a contested cyber environment comparing and contrast-
ing approaches to cyber security with the requirements for mission
assurance. Within this discussion, they offer a view of the dichotomy
between security and reliability, drawing parallels between system
safety and system security.
In “Stuxnet: A Case Study in Cyber Warfare,” Eric Oliver exam-
ines the truths and myths surrounding Stuxnet and industrial control
systems more broadly. Oliver suggests that the offensive employment
of cyber weapons can be consistent with US national security strategy
but is also accompanied by risks. Because of these risks, the author
argues that the United States should show restraint and seek inter-
national agreements to limit and outlaw the most damaging effects
of attacks on industrial control systems. To this aim, Oliver offers
specific steps the United States can take to improve its defense against
such attacks.
James D. Fielder’s “The Internet and Dissent in Authoritarian
States” asks the relevant question: does the Internet facilitate anti-
regime dissent within authoritarian regimes? By examining a num-
ber of variables related to Internet use in authoritarian regimes,
Fielder finds that Internet use in authoritarian regimes does facili-
tate protest and anti-regime activities, even if the regime attempts
to censor dissent. His work stands to illuminate current discussion
of social media’s role in the Arab Spring and beyond.
© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
 In t r o d u c ti o n x x iii

Ethics, Law, and Policy

George Lucas opens Part 3 with “Can There Be an Ethical Cyber

War?” In asking an interesting question, Lucas posits that there have,
in fact, been examples of ethical war, consistent with international
law. Further, he suggests that cyber can play an ethical role in warfare.
The author also offers some innovative ways to wage ethical cyber war,
explaining his rationale for the means he describes.
“Perspectives for Cyberstrategists on Cyberlaw for Cyberwar,”
Charles Dunlap’s contribution to the volume, delves into the many
intricacies and considerations cyberstrategists must contemplate before
they engage in cyber war. General Dunlap (Ret.) clearly highlights the
US military’s growing role in defending American networks and in
responding to attacks. He also identifies the substantive legal chal-
lenges that come with such a role. In the end, Dunlap warns that
allowing intelligence agencies and the military to assist in the defense
of private networks may pose unexpected legal and political challenges.
Roger Hurwitz’s detailed discussion of the prospects for achiev-
ing international cyber norms in “A New Normal? The Cultivation of
Global Norms as Part of a Cybersecurity Strategy” offers a variety of
options available to the international community. While the author
acknowledges the tension between liberal democracies, which seek to
advance the free flow of information, and more authoritarian regimes,
which see social media and other web outlets as a threat, there is com-
mon ground between the two. Hurwitz makes an interesting contri-
bution that spans the many differing perspectives.
In Jan Kallberg3 and Rosemary Burk’s “Cyber Defense as
Environmental Protection—The Broader Potential Impact of Failed
Defensive Counter Cyber Operations” the authors examine the
potential environmental damage that can result from a cyber attack,
which is often overlooked or marginalized. Kallberg and Burk argue
that a cyber attack against an industrial control system in the energy,
chemical, and waste treatment industries, for example, can lead to
serious environmental damage and pose a significant economic cost.
In the end, they advocate considering such risks when thinking about
cyber security.
Stephen Gourley takes a similar position in “Cyber Sovereignty” to
that of the previous chapter. He argues that since cyber is a man-made
© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
x xiv In t r o d u c ti o n

domain, it is appropriate for cyberspace to fall under the same reg-

ulation of other human activities. Contrary to those who seek the
unfettered flow of data on the Internet, Gourley believes that cyber,
like the air, land, sea, and space domains, must be recognized as a
nation-state’s sovereign territory, based on the principal of territorial-
ity. While the author acknowledges that authoritarian regimes will
seek to use sovereignty over cyberspace to their advantage, Gourley
argues that national security imperatives require the state to exert
control over the cyber domain.
In examining the Comprehensive National Cybersecurity
Initiative (2008), Sunghyun Kim’s “American Cybersecurity Triad:
Governmentwide Integration, Technological Counterintelligence,
and Educational Mobilization” takes an interesting look at one recent
policy initiative. In creating a “cybersecurity triad,” Kim offers a frame-
work for thinking about the best way to tackle the cyber challenges
facing the United States. Her construct is one not seen previously.

Conclusion

In bringing together an array of academic, government, and private

sector cyber experts, a number of relevant cyber security challenges
are brought to light. Efforts to address those challenges, by offering
policy and technical solutions, may bear fruit in the future, but only if
common ground is achieved and norms are broadly accepted. To that
end, this work seeks to inform readers of where some experts seek to
move the discussion. It also attempts to draw readers into the larger
debate, which because of its implications for national security, is an
important one.

Endnotes
1. See Daniel T. Kuehl, “From Cyberspace to Cyberpower: Defining the
Problem,” in Franklin D. Kramer, Stuart H. Starr, and Larry K. Wentz
(eds.), Cyberpower and National Security (Washington, DC: Potomac
Press, 2009), 26–27.
2. Gen. Michael Hayden, “The Future of Things Cyber,” in Strategic Studies
Quarterly Vol. 5, No. 1 (Spring 2011), 3.
3. Jan Kallberg is co-author, with Bhavani Thuraisingham, of the forthcom-
ing book, Digital National Security: Cyberdefense and Cyber Operations.

© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Editors

Panayotis “Pano” A. Yannakogeorgos is a research professor of Cyber

Policy and Global Affairs at the Air Force Research Institute. His
expertise includes the intersection of cyberspace, national security, and
military operations; cyber international relations; cyber arms control;
violent non-state actors; and Eastern Mediterranean studies. He has
recently authored articles and chapters including “Internet Governance
and National Security” (Strategic Studies Quarterly), “Challenges in
Monitoring Cyber Arms Control” (Journal of Information Warfare
and Terrorism), “Pitfalls of the Private-Public Partnership Model” in
Crime and Terrorism Risk: Studies in Criminology and Criminal Justice
(Routledge, New York), and “Cyberspace: The New Frontier and the
Same Old Multilateralism” in Global Norms: American Sponsorship
and the Emerging Pattern of World Politics (Palgrave Macmillan, New
York). He has also published in The Atlantic, The National Interest, and
The Diplomat. Prior to his current position, Yannakogeorgos taught
graduate-level courses on globalization, security, and intelligence
at Rutgers University’s Division of Global Affairs (Newark, New
Jersey), where he also served as senior program coordinator, and led
the Center for the Study of Emergent Threats in the 21st Century. He
has participated in the work of global cybersecurity bodies including
the High Level Experts Group of the Global Cybersecurity Agenda
of the International Telecommunications Union. In 2006 he served

© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC xxv

x xvi Ed it o rs

as an advisor within the United Nations Security Council on issues

related to nuclear nonproliferation, the Middle East (including Iran),
Al-Qaida, and Internet misuse. He holds a PhD and MS in global
affairs from Rutgers University, and an ALB in philosophy from
Harvard University (Cambridge, Massachusetts).

Adam Lowther (BA, Arizona State University; MA, Arizona

State University; PhD, University of Alabama) is a research profes-
sor at the Air Force Research Institute (AFRI), Maxwell Air Force
Base (Montgomery, Alabama). His principal research interests
include deterrence, nuclear weapons policy, airpower diplomacy,
and terrorism.
Lowther is the editor of Deterrence: Rising Powers, Rogue Regimes,
and Terrorism in the Twenty-First Century (Palgrave Macmillan, New
York), co-editor of Terrorism’s Unanswered Questions (Praeger Security
International, Westport, Connecticut), and the author of Americans
and Asymmetric Conflict: Lebanon, Somalia, and Afghanistan. He has
published in the New York Times, Boston Globe, Joint Forces Quarterly,
Strategic Studies Quarterly, and elsewhere.
Prior to joining AFRI, Lowther was an assistant professor
of Political Science at Arkansas Tech University and Columbus
State University. Early in his career Lowther served in the US
Navy aboard the USS Ramage (DDG-61). He also spent time at
CINCUSNAVEUR-London and with NMCB-17.

© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Contributors

Robert Beverly Major James D. Fielder

Naval Postgraduate School Air Force ISR Agency
Monterey, California JBSA-Lackland, Texas

Rosemary A. Burk Simson L. Garfinkel

Arkansas Tech University Naval Postgraduate School
Russelville, Arkansas Monterey, California

Lieutenant Colonel Stephen K. Gourley

Jerry Carter Gourley Consulting, LLC
US Marine Corps Aurora, Colorado
Washington, DC
General Michael V. Hayden
Randall R. Dipert USAF (Ret.)
University at Buffalo Chertoff Group
Buffalo, New York Washington, DC

Major General Charles J. Roger Hurwitz

Dunlap, Jr. USAF (Ret.) Massachusetts Institute of
Duke University Technology
Durham, North Carolina Cambridge, Massachusetts

© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC x x vii

Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
capable of producing so much sound. I have never observed this
habit upon a dull or cloudy day.”
Mr Nuttall having presented me with the nest of this species
attached to the twig to which the bird had fastened it, my amiable
friend Miss Martin has figured it for me, as well as the plant, about
which these lovely creatures are represented. The nest, which
measures two inches and a quarter in height, and an inch and three
quarters in breadth, at the upper part, is composed externally of
mosses, lichens, and a few feathers, with slender fibrous roots
interwoven, and lined with fine cottony seed-down.

Trochilus rufus, Gmel. Syst. Nat. vol. i. p. 497.

Trochilus collaris, Lath. Ind. Ornith. vol. i. p. 318.
Trochilus (Selasphorus) Rufus, Swainson.
Cinnamon or Nootka Humming Bird, Richards. and Swains. Fauna Bor.-
Amer. vol. ii. p. 324.

Adult Male. Plate CCCLXXIX. Figs. 1, 2.

Bill long, straight, subulate, somewhat depressed at the base, acute;
upper mandible with the dorsal line straight, the ridge narrow at the
base, broad and convex toward the end, the sides convex, the edges
overlapping, the tip acuminate; lower mandible with the angle very
long and extremely narrow, the dorsal line straight, the edges erect,
the tip acuminate. Nostrils basal, linear.
Head of ordinary size, oblong; neck short; body slender. Feet very
small; tarsus very short, feathered more than half-way down, toes
small; the lateral equal, the middle toe not much longer, the hind toe
a little shorter than the lateral, anterior toes united at the base; claws
rather long, arched, compressed, laterally grooved, very acute.
Plumage soft and blended; feathers on the throat, fore part and sides
of the neck oblong-obovate, with the filaments towards the end
thickened and flattened, with metallic gloss, those on the sides of the
neck elongated and erectile. Wings rather short, extremely narrow,
falcate, pointed; the primaries rapidly graduated, the second being
longest, but only slightly longer than the first; these two quills taper to
a point; the rest are broader, and gradually become less pointed; the
secondaries are extremely short, and only five in number. Tail rather
long, broad, graduated, the lateral feathers four and a half twelfths of
an inch shorter than the central; the latter are extremely broad,
measuring four and a half twelfths across, and the rest gradually
diminish to the lateral, which are very narrow; all obtusely pointed.
Bill brownish-black; toes brown, claws dusky. The general colour of
the upper parts is bright cinnamon or reddish-orange; the head
bronzed green, the wings dusky, the coverts glossed with green, the
primaries with purplish; each of the tail-feathers has a narrow
longitudinal lanceolate median streak toward the end. The loral
space, a narrow band over the eye, another beneath it, and the
auriculars are reddish-orange; the scale-like feathers of the throat
and sides of the neck are splendent fire-red, purplish-red, yellowish-
red, greenish-yellow or yellowish-green, according to the light in
which they are viewed; behind them, on the lower part of the neck, is
a broad band of reddish-white; the rest of the lower parts are like the
upper, the abdomen inclining to white.
1/2
Length to end of tail 3 7/12 inches; bill along the ridge 7 /12, along
the edge of lower mandible 9 1/4/12; wing from flexure 1 7 1/4/12; tail
1 3 1/2/12; tarsus 1 1/2/12; hind toe 1 1/2/12, its claw 1 1/4/12; middle toe
2 1/4/ , its claw 1
1/2
/12.
12

Adult Female. Plate CCCLXXIX. Fig. 3.

The Female has the bill and feet coloured as in the male. The upper
parts are gold-green, the head inclining to brown; the wings as in the
male; the tail-feathers reddish-orange at the base, brownish-black
toward the end, the tip white. The lower parts are white, tinged with
rufous, of which colour, especially, are the sides; the throat marked
with roundish spots of metallic greenish-red.

Length to end of tail 3 7 1/2/12 inches; bill along the ridge 8 3/4/12; wing
from flexure 1 10/12; tail 1 1 1/2/12.

The above descriptions are from two individuals shot by Dr

Townsend on the “Columbia River, 30th May 1835.” A “young male,
Columbia River, 29th May 1835,” resembles the female as above
described, differing only in having the metallic spots on the throat
larger. A “young female, Columbia River, June 10th 1835,” differs
from the adult only in wanting the metallic spots on the throat, which
is spotted with greenish-brown.

Cleome heptaphylla.

The beautiful plant represented in the plate belongs to Tetradynamia

Siliquosa of the Linnæan arrangement, and to the genus Cleome,
characterized by having three nectariferous glandules at each corner
of the calyx, the lower excepted; all the petals ascending; the
germen stipitate; the siliqua unilocular, two-valved. The species, C.
heptaphylla, is distinguished by its septenate leaves, of which the
leaflets are lanceolate, acuminate, and of a deep green colour. It
grows in South Carolina and Georgia.
 TENGMALM’S OWL.

Strix Tengmalmi, Gmel.

PLATE CCCLXXX. Male and Female.

I procured a fine male of this species at Bangor, in Maine, on the

Penobscot River, in the beginning of September 1832; but am
unacquainted with its habits, never having seen another individual
alive. Dr Townsend informs me that he found it first on the Malade
River Mountains, where it was so tame and unsuspicious, that Mr
Nuttall was enabled to approach within a few feet of it, as it sat
upon the bushes. Dr Richardson gives the following notice
respecting it in the Fauna Boreali-Americana:—“When it accidentally
wanders abroad in the day, it is so much dazzled by the light of the
sun as to become stupid, and it may then be easily caught by the
hand. Its cry in the night is a single melancholy note, repeated at
intervals of a minute or two. Mr Hutchins informs us that it builds a
nest of grass half-way up a pine tree, and lays two white eggs in the
month of May. It feeds on mice and beetles. I cannot state the extent
of its range, but believe that it inhabits all the woody country from
Great Slave Lake to the United States. On the banks of the
Saskatchewan it is so common that its voice is heard almost every
night by the traveller, wherever he selects his bivouac.”

Strix Tengmalmi, Gmel. Syst. Nat. vol. i. p. 291.—Lath. Ind. Ornith. vol. i. p.
65.
 Strix Tengmalmi, Tengmalm’s Owl, Swains. and Richards. Fauna Bor.-
Amer. vol. ii. p. 94.

Adult Male. Plate CCCLXXX. Fig. 1.

Bill short, very deep, strong; upper mandible with its dorsal line
curved from the base, its ridge convex, as are the sides, the edges
sharp and incurved anteriorly, the tip very acute, and at its extremity
nearly perpendicular; the cere short, and bare on its upper part; the
lower mandible has the angle broad and short, the dorsal line slightly
convex, the edges inflected, towards the end incurved, with a notch
on each side close to the abruptly-rounded tip. Nostrils broadly
elliptical, oblique, in the fore part of the cere, which bulges
considerably behind them.
The head is extremely large, roundish, when viewed from above
somewhat triangular; the eyes large. The conch of the ear very large,
of an elliptical form, extending from the base of the lower jaw to near
the top of the head, being an inch and a quarter in length, with an
anterior semicircular operculum stretching along its whole length,
and an elevated margin behind. The neck is very short and thin; the
body very slender; but both appear very full on account of the vast
mass of plumage. The feet are rather short, and strong; the tarsi and
toes covered with very soft downy feathers, the extremities of the
latter with two scutella. The claws are slender, tapering to a fine
point, compressed, and curved.
The facial disk is complete, as is the ruff. The plumage is full, very
soft, and blended; the feathers broadly oblong and rounded. The
wings are rather long, very broad, much rounded; the third primary
longest, the fourth almost equal, the second four-twelfths of an inch
shorter, the first equal to the seventh; the barbs of the outer web of
the first, of half the second, and the terminal part of the third, free
and recurved. Tail of moderate length, arched, slightly rounded, of
twelve broad, rounded feathers.
Bill greyish-brown, yellowish-white at the end; claws yellowish-
brown, their tips dusky. The general colour of the upper parts is
greyish-brown tinged with olive. The feathers of the head have an
elliptical central white spot; those of the neck are similarly marked
with larger white spots, of which some are disposed so as to form a
semicircular band; the scapulars have two or four large round spots
near the end, and some of the dorsal feathers and wing-coverts have
single spots on the outer web. All the quills have marginal white
spots on both webs, arranged in transverse series, there being six
on the outer web of the third quill. On the tail are five series of
transversely elongated narrow white spots. The disk is yellowish-
white, anteriorly black; the ruff yellowish-white, mottled with dusky.
The throat is brown, the chin white. The general colour of the lower
parts is yellowish-white, longitudinally streaked with brown, some of
the feathers of the sides have two white spots near the end; the
tarsal and digital feathers greyish-yellow, with faint transverse bars of
brown.
Length to end of tail 11 inches; wing from flexure 6 10/12; bill along
the ridge 1; tarsus 11/12; hind toe 5/12, its claw 5/12; middle toe 9/12, its
claw 8/12.

Adult Female. Plate CCCLXXX. Fig. 2.

The Female resembles the male, but is considerably larger.
 SNOW GOOSE.

Anser hyperboreus, Bonap.

PLATE CCCLXXXI. Adult Male and Young Female.

The geographical range of the Snow Goose is very extensive. It has

been observed in numerous flocks, travelling northward, by the
members of the recent overland expeditions. On the other hand, I
have found it in the Texas, and it is very abundant on the Columbia
River, together with Hutchins’s Goose. In the latter part of autumn,
and during winter, I have met with it in every part of the United States
that I have visited.
While residing at Henderson on the Ohio, I never failed to watch the
arrival of this and other species in the ponds of the neighbourhood,
and generally found the young Snow Geese to make their
appearance in the beginning of October, and the adult or white birds
about a fortnight later. In like manner, when migrating northward,
although the young and the adult birds set out at the same time, they
travel in separate flocks, and, according to Captain Sir George
Back, continue to do so even when proceeding to the higher
northern latitudes of our continent. It is not less curious that, during
the whole of the winter, these Geese remain equally divided, even if
found in the same localities; and although young and old are often
seen to repose on the same sand-bar, the flocks keep at as great a
distance as possible.
The Snow Goose in the grey state of its plumage is very abundant in
winter, about the mouths of the Mississippi, as well as on all the
muddy and grassy shores of the bays and inlets of the Gulf of
Mexico, as far as the Texas, and probably still farther to the south-
west. During the rainy season, it betakes itself to the large prairies of
Attacapas and Oppellousas, and there young and adult procure their
food together, along with several species of Ducks, Herons, and
Cranes, feeding, like the latter, on the roots of plants, and nibbling
the grasses sideways, in the manner of the Common Tame Goose.
In Louisiana I have not unfrequently seen the adult birds feeding in
wheat fields, when they pluck up the plants entire.
When the young Snow Geese first arrive in Kentucky, about
Henderson for instance, they are unsuspicious, and therefore easily
procured. In a half-dry half-wet pond, running across a large tract of
land, on the other side of the river, in the State of Indiana, and which
was once my property, I was in the habit of shooting six or seven of
a-day. This, however, rendered the rest so wild, that the cunning of
any “Red Skin” might have been exercised without success upon
them; and I was sorry to find that they had the power of
communicating their sense of danger to the other flocks which
arrived. On varying my operations however, and persevering for
some time, I found that even the wildest of them now and then
suffered; for having taken it into my head to catch them in large
traps, I tried this method, and several were procured before the rest
had learned to seize the tempting bait in a judicious manner.
The Snow Goose affords good eating when young and fat; but the
old Ganders are tough and stringy. Those that are procured along
the sea-shores, as they feed on shell-fish, fry and marine plants,
have a rank taste, which, however suited to the palate of the epicure,
I never could relish.
The flight of this species is strong and steady, and its migrations over
the United States are performed at a considerable elevation, by
regular flappings of the wings, and a disposition into lines similar to
that of other Geese. It walks well, and with rather elevated steps; but
on land its appearance is not so graceful as that of our common
Canada Goose. Whilst with us they are much more silent than any
other of our species, rarely emitting any cries unless when pursued
on being wounded. They swim buoyantly, and, when pressed, with
speed. When attacked by the White-headed Eagle, or any other
rapacious bird, they dive well for a short space. At the least
appearance of danger, when they are on land, they at once come
close together, shake their heads and necks, move off in a contrary
direction, very soon take to wing, and fly to a considerable distance,
but often return after a time.
I am unable to inform you at what age the Snow Goose attains its
pure white plumage, as I have found that a judgment formed from
individuals kept in confinement is not to be depended upon. In one
instance at least, a friend of mine who had kept a bird of this species
four years, wrote to me that he was despairing of ever seeing it
become pure white. Two years after, he sent me much the same
message; but, at the commencement of next spring, the Goose was
a Snow Goose, and the change had taken place in less than a
month.
Dr Richardson informs us that, this species “breeds in the barren
grounds of Arctic America, in great numbers. The eggs of a
yellowish-white colour, and regularly ovate form, are a little larger
than those of the Eider Duck, their length being three inches, and
their greatest breadth two. The young fly in August, and by the
middle of September all have departed to the southward. The Snow
Goose feeds on rushes, insects, and in autumn on berries,
particularly those of the Empetrum nigrum. When well fed it is a very
excellent bird, far superior to the Canada Goose in juiciness and
flavour. It is said that the young do not attain the full plumage before
their fourth year, and until that period they appear to keep in
separate flocks. They are numerous at Albany Fort in the southern
part of Hudson’s Bay, where the old birds are rarely seen; and, on
the other hand, the old birds in their migrations visit York Factory in
great abundance, but are seldom accompanied by the young. The
Snow Geese make their appearance in spring a few days later than
the Canada Geese, and pass in large flocks both through the interior
and on the coast.”
The young birds of this species begin to acquire their whiteness
about the head and neck after the first year, but the upper parts
remain of a dark bluish colour until the bird suddenly becomes white
all over; at least, this is the case with such as are kept in captivity.
Although it is allied to the White-fronted or Laughing Goose, Anser
albifrons, I was surprised to find that Wilson had confounded the
two species together, and been of opinion that the Bean Goose also
was the same bird in an imperfect state of plumage. That excellent
ornithologist tells us that “this species, called on the sea-coast, the
Red Goose, arrives in the river Delaware, from the north, early in
November, sometimes in considerable flocks, and is extremely noisy,
their notes being shriller and more squeaking than those of the
Canada, or common Wild Goose. On their first arrival, they make but
a short stay, proceeding, as the depth of winter approaches, farther
south; but from the middle of February, until the breaking up of the
ice in March, they are frequently numerous along both shores of the
Delaware, about and below Reedy Island, particularly near Old Duck
Creek, in the State of Delaware. They feed on roots of the reeds
there, which they tear up like hogs.”
This species is rare both in Massachusetts and South Carolina,
although it passes over both these States in considerable numbers,
and in the latter some have been known to alight among the
common domestic Geese, and to have remained several days with
them. My friend Dr Bachman, of Charleston, South Carolina, kept a
male Snow Goose several years along with his tame Geese. He had
received it from a friend while it was in its grey plumage, and the
following spring it became white. It had been procured in the autumn,
and proved to be a male. In a few days it became very gentle, and
for several years it mated with a common Goose; but the eggs
produced by the latter never hatched. The Snow Goose was in the
habit of daily frequenting a mill-pond in the vicinity, and returning
regularly at night along with the rest; but in the beginning of each
spring it occasioned much trouble. It then continually raised its head
and wings, and attempted to fly off; but finding this impossible, it
seemed anxious to perform its long journey on foot, and it was
several times overtaken and brought back, after it had proceeded
more than a mile, having crossed fences and plantations in a direct
course northward. This propensity cost it its life: it had proceeded as
far as the banks of the Cooper River, when it was shot by a person
who supposed it to be a wild bird.
In the latter part of the autumn of 1832, whilst I was walking with my
wife, in the neighbourhood of Boston in Massachusetts, I observed
on the road a young Snow Goose in a beautiful state of plumage,
and after making some inquiries, found its owner, who was a
gardener. He would not part with it for any price offered. Some
weeks after, a friend called one morning, and told me that this
gardener had sent his Snow Goose to town, and that it would be sold
by auction that day. I desired my friend to attend the sale, which he
did; and before a few hours had elapsed, the bird was in my
possession, having been obtained for 75 cents! We kept this Goose
several months in a small yard at the house where we boarded,
along with the young of the Sand-hill Crane, Grus Americana. It was
fed on leaves and thin stalks of cabbage, bread, and other vegetable
substances. When the spring approached, it exhibited great
restlessness, seeming anxious to remove northward, as was the
case with Dr Bachman’s bird. Although the gardener had kept it four
years, it was not white, but had the lower part of the neck and the
greater portion of the back, of a dark bluish tint, as represented in
the plate. It died before we left Boston, to the great regret of my
family, as I had anticipated the pleasure of presenting it alive to my
honoured and noble friend the Earl of Derby.
There can be little doubt that this species breeds in its grey plumage,
when it is generally known by the name of Blue-winged Goose, as is
the case with the young of Grus Americana, formerly considered as
a distinct species, and named Grus Canadensis.

Anas hyperborea, Gmel. Syst. Nat. vol. i. p. 504.—Lath. Ind. Orn. vol. ii. p.
837.
Snow Goose, Anas hyperborea, Wils. Amer. Ornith. vol. viii. p. 76, pl. 68,
fig. 3, Male, and p. 89, pl. 69, fig. 5, Young.
Anser hyperboreus, Ch. Bonaparte, Synopsis of Birds of United States, p.
376.
Anser hyperboreus, Snow Goose, Richards. and Swains. Fauna Bor.-
Amer. vol. ii. p. 467.
Snow Goose, Nuttall, Manual, vol. ii. p. 344.

Adult Male. Plate CCCLXXXI. Fig. 1.

Bill about the length of the head, much higher than broad at the
base, somewhat conical, compressed, rounded at the tip. Upper
mandible with the dorsal line sloping, the ridge broad and flattened at
the base, narrowed towards the unguis, which is roundish and very
convex, the edges beset with compressed, hard teeth-like lamellæ,
their outline ascending and slightly arched; lower mandible
ascending, nearly straight, the angle long and of moderate length,
the dorsal line beyond it convex, the sides erect, and beset with
lamellæ; similar to those of the upper, but more numerous, the
unguis obovate and very convex. Nasal groove oblong, parallel to
the ridge, filled by the soft membrane of the bill; nostrils medial,
lateral, longitudinal, narrow-elliptical, open, pervious.
Head of moderate size, oblong, compressed. Neck rather long and
slender. Body full, slightly depressed. Feet rather short, strong,
placed about the centre of the body; legs bare a little above the joint;
tarsus rather short, strong, a little compressed, covered all round
with hexagonal, reticulated scales, which are smaller behind; hind
toe very small, with a narrow membrane; third toe longest, fourth
considerably shorter, but longer than the second; all the toes
reticulated above at the base, but with narrow transverse scutella
towards the end; the three anterior connected by a reticulated
membrane, the outer having a thick margin, the inner with the margin
extended into a two-lobed web. Claws small, arched, rather
compressed, obtuse, that of the middle toe bent obliquely outwards,
and depressed, with a curved edge.
Plumage close, full, compact above, blended beneath, as well as on
the head and neck, on the latter of which it is disposed in longitudinal
bands, separated by narrow grooves; the feathers of the lateral parts
small and narrow, of the back ovato-oblong, and abruptly rounded, of
the lower parts curved and oblong. Wings rather long, broad;
primaries strong, incurved, broad, towards the end tapering, the
second longest, but only a quarter of an inch longer than the first,
which scarcely exceeds the third; the first and second sinuate on the
inner web, the second and third on the outer. Secondaries long, very
broad, rounded, the inner curved outwards. Tail very short, rounded,
of sixteen broad rounded feathers.
Bill carmine-red, the unguis of both mandibles white, their edges
black. Iris light brown. Feet dull lake, claws brownish-black. The
general colour of the plumage is pure white; the fore part of the head
tinged with yellowish-red; the primaries brownish-grey, towards the
end blackish-brown, their shafts white unless toward the end.
Length to end of tail 31 3/4 inches, to end of claws 33 1/2, to end of
wings 31 3/4, to carpus 14; extent of wings 62; wing from flexure
19 1/2; tail 6 1/4; bill along the ridge 2 5/8, along the edge of lower
mandible 3 1/4; bare part of tibia 3/4; tarsus 3 5/8; hind toe 1/2, its claw
4 1/2/ ; middle toe 3, its claw 4/12. Weight 6 3/4 lb.
12

Young Female, in first winter. Plate CCCLXXXI. Fig. 2.

The colours of the young bird, in its first plumage, are unknown; but
in its second plumage, in autumn and winter, it presents the
appearance exhibited in the plate. The bill is pale flesh-colour, its
edges black, and the unguis bluish-white; the feet flesh-colour, the
claws dusky. The head and upper part of the neck are white, tinged
above with grey, the lower part of the neck all round, the fore part of
the back, the scapulars, the fore part of the breast, and the sides,
blackish-grey; paler beneath. The hind part of the back and the
upper tail-coverts, are ash-grey; as are the wing-coverts; but the
secondary coverts are greyish-black in the middle; and all the quills
are of that colour, the secondaries margined with greyish-white; the
tail-feathers dusky-grey, broadly margined with greyish-white. The
dark colour of the fore part of the breast gradually fades into greyish-
white, which is the colour of the other inferior parts, excepting the
axillar feathers, and some of the lower wing-coverts, which are white.
Length of an individual in this plumage, kept four years, to end of tail
26 inches, to end of claws 25; extent of wings 55; bill along the ridge
2 1/4, from frontal angle 2 1/2; tarsus 2 7 1/2/12; hind toe 6/12, its claw
4 1/2/12; middle toe 2 1/4, its claw 4/12. Weight 2 lb. 13 oz. The bird
very poor.
In an adult male preserved in spirits, the roof of the mouth is
moderately concave, with five series of strong conical papillæ
directed backwards. The posterior aperture of the nares is linear,
margined with two series of extremely slender papillæ. The marginal
lamellæ of the upper mandible are 25, of the lower about 45. The
tongue is 2 inches 5 twelfths long, nearly cylindrical, with strong
pointed papillæ at the base, and on each side a series of flattened,
sharp lamellæ, directed backwards, together with very numerous
bristle-like filaments. It is fleshy, has a soft prominent pad at the base
above, and towards the end has a median groove, the point rounded
thin, and horny. The œsophagus; which is 17 inches long, has a
diameter of 9 twelfths at the upper part, and at the lower part of the
neck is dilated to 1 inch. The proventricular glands are cylindrical,
simple, and arranged in a belt nearly 1 inch in breadth. The other
parts were removed.
The reddish tint on the head affords no indication of the age of the
bird, some individuals of all ages having that part pure white, while
others have it rusty. The same remark applies to our two Swans.
 SHARP-TAILED GROUS.

Tetrao Phasianellus, Linn.

PLATE CCCLXXXII. Male and Female.

This is another species of our birds with the habits of which I am

entirely unacquainted. Dr Richardson’s account of it is as follows:
—“The northern limits of the range of the Sharp-tailed Grous is Great
Slave Lake, in the sixty-first parallel; and its most southern recorded
station is in latitude 41°, on the Missouri. It abounds on the outskirts
of the Saskatchewan plains, and is found throughout the woody
districts of the Fur Countries, haunting open glades or low thickets
on the borders of lakes, particularly in the neighbourhood of the
trading paths, where the forests have been partially cleared. In
winter it perches generally on trees, in summer is much on the
ground; in both seasons assembling in coveys of from ten to sixteen.
Early in spring, a family of these birds select a level spot, whereon
they meet every morning, and run round in a circle of fifteen or
twenty feet in diameter, so that the grass is worn quite bare. When
any one approaches the circle, the birds squat close to the ground,
but in a short time stretch out their necks to survey the intruder; and,
if they are not scared by a nearer advance, soon resume their
circular course, some running to the right, others to the left, meeting
and crossing each other. These “Partridge dances” last for a month
or more, or until the hens begin to hatch. When the Sharp-tailed
Grous are put up, they rise with the usual whirring noise, and alight
again at the distance of a few hundred yards, either on the ground,
or on the upper branches of a tree. Before the cock quits his perch,
he utters repeatedly the cry of cuck, cuck, cuck. In winter they roost
in the snow like the Willow Grous, and they can make their way
through the loose wreaths with ease. They feed on the buds and
sprouts of the Betula glandulosa, of various willows, and of the
aspen and larch; and in autumn on berries. Mr Hutchins says that
the hen lays thirteen white eggs with coloured spots early in June;
the nest being placed on the ground and formed of grass, lined with
feathers.”
Dr Townsend informs me that while crossing the north branch of the
Platte (Lorimie’s Fork), he found this species breeding, and that as
an article of food it proved to be a very well-flavoured and plump
bird, considerably superior to any of the other larger species that
occur in the United States.

Tetrao Phasianellus, Linn. Syst. Nat. vol. i. p. 273.—Lath. Ind. Ornith. vol.
ii. p. 635.—Ch. Bonaparte, Synopsis of Birds of United States, p. 127.
Tetrao Phasianellus, Sharp-tailed Grous, Ch. Bonaparte, Amer. Ornith.
vol. iii. p. 37, pl. 19.
Tetrao (centrocercus) Phasianellus, Swains. Sharp-tailed Grous,
Richards. and Swains. Fauna Bor.-Amer. vol. ii. p. 361.
Sharp-tailed Grous, Nuttall, Manual, vol. i. p. 669.

Adult Male. Plate CCCLXXXII. Fig. 1.

Bill short, strong, as broad as high; upper mandible with the dorsal
line arcuato-declinate, the ridge narrow at the base on account of the
great extent of the nasal sinus, which is feathered, the sides convex
toward the end, the edges overlapping and thin, the tip declinate and
blunt, but thin-edged; lower mandible with the angle of moderate
length and width, the dorsal line ascending and convex, the edges
sharp and inclinate, the tip obtuse.
Head rather small, oblong; neck of moderate length; body full. Feet
rather short, stout; tarsus roundish, feathered, bare and reticulated
behind. Toes of moderate size, with numerous scutella above, but
covered over at the base by the hair-like feathers which grow from
the sides and the intervening basal membranes, laterally pectinate
with long slender projecting flattened scales; first toe small, second a
little longer than fourth, third much longer. Claws slender, arched,
moderately compressed, rather obtuse; that of the third toe with the
inner edge dilated.
Plumage dense, soft, rather compact, the feathers in general broadly
ovate; those on the head and upper part of the neck short, but some
on the upper and hind part of the former elongated and forming a
slight crest. There is a papillate coloured membrane over the eye, as
in the other species; and on each side of the neck is a large bare
space, concealed by the plumage, which I have no doubt is inflated,
as in Tetrao Cupido and T. Urophasianus, during the love season.
Wings rather short, concave, much rounded; the primaries stiff and
very narrow, so as to leave large intervals when the wing is
extended; the third quill longest, the fourth next, the second shorter
than the fifth, the sixth longer than the first. Tail short, much
graduated, of sixteen feathers, of which the lateral are three inches
shorter than the central; all the feathers are more or less concave,
excepting the two middle worn along the inner edge, obliquely and
abruptly terminated, the two middle projecting an inch beyond the
next.
Bill dusky above, brown beneath; iris light hazel; superciliary
membrane vermilion; toes brownish-grey, claws brownish-black. The
upper parts are variegated with light red or brownish-orange,
brownish-black and white; the black occupying the central part of the
feathers, the light red forming angular processes from the margin,
generally dotted with black, and a lighter bar near the end; the white
being in terminal, triangular, or guttiform spots on the scapulars and
wing-coverts. The alula, primary coverts, secondary coverts, and
quills are greyish-brown, the coverts spotted and tipped with white;
the primaries with white spots on the outer web, the inner tipped with
white, as are all the secondaries, of which the outer have two bars of
white spots, and the inner are coloured like the back. The tail is
white, at the base variegated, and the two middle feathers like the
back. Loral space, and a line behind the eye, white; a dusky streak
beneath the eye, succeeded by a light coloured one. The throat is
reddish-white, with some dusky spots; the fore part and sides of the
neck barred with dusky and reddish-white: on the lower part of the
neck and fore part of the breast, the dusky bars become first curved,
and then arrow-shaped, and so continue narrowing on the hind part
of the breast, and part of the sides, of which the upper portion is
barred; the abdomen, lower tail-coverts, axillar feathers, and most of
the lower wing-coverts, white. The hair-like feathers of the tarsi are
light brownish-grey, faintly barred with greyish-white.
Length to end of tail 17 1/2 inches, to end of wings 14, to end of
claws 17; extent of wings 23; wing from flexure 8 1/4, tail 4 1/2; bill
along the ridge 10 1/2/12, along the edge of lower mandible 1 1 1/2/12;
1/2 1/2
tarsus 1 7 /12; hind toe 6/12, its claw 6/12; middle toe 1 7 /12, its
claw 7/12.

Adult Female. Plate CCCLXXXII. Fig. 2.

The Female is considerably smaller, but is coloured like the male,
the tints being duller.
 LONG-EARED OWL.

Strix otus, Linn.

PLATE CCCLXXXIII. Male.

This Owl is much more abundant in our Middle and Eastern Atlantic
Districts than in the Southern or Western parts. My friend Dr
Bachman has never observed it in South Carolina; nor have I met
with it in Louisiana, or any where on the Mississippi below the
junction of the Ohio. It is not very rare in the upper parts of Indiana,
Illinois, Ohio, and Kentucky, wherever the country is well wooded. In
the Barrens of Kentucky its predilection for woods is rendered
apparent by its not being found elsewhere than in the “Groves;” and
it would seem that it very rarely extends its search for food beyond
the skirts of those delightful retreats. In Pennsylvania, and elsewhere
to the eastward, I have found it most numerous on or near the banks
of our numerous clear mountain streams, where, during the day, it is
not uncommon to see it perched on the top of a low bush or fir. At
such times it stands with the body erect, but the tarsi bent and
resting on a branch, as is the manner of almost all our Owls. The
head then seems the largest part, the body being much more
slender than it is usually represented. Now and then it raises itself
and stands with its legs and neck extended, as if the better to mark
the approach of an intruder. Its eyes, which were closed when it was
first observed, are opened on the least noise, and it seems to squint
at you in a most grotesque manner, although it is not difficult to