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Advances in Gear Design
and Manufacture
Advances in Gear Design
and Manufacture
Edited by
Stephen P. Radzevich
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2019 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business
No claim to original U.S. Government works
Printed on acid-free paper
International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-138-48473-3 (Hardback)
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Contents
Acknowledgments........................................................................................................................ vii
Editor................................................................................................................................................ix
Contributors.....................................................................................................................................xi
Introduction.................................................................................................................................. xiii
1. Fundamentals of Transmission of Rotary Motion by Means of Perfect Gears.......... 1

2. Optimization of Geometrical Engagement Parameters for Gear Honing................. 35

Michael Storchak
3. Design and Generation of Straight Bevel Gears.............................................................65

Alfonso Fuentes-Aznar
4. Interaction of Gear Teeth: Contact Geometry of Interacting Gear and Pinion

Teeth Flanks......................................................................................................................... 121
5. Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication of Conformal Gears............................................... 151

R. W. Snidle and H. P. Evans
6. Gear Drive Engineering..................................................................................................... 165

Boris M. Klebanov
7. Adaptive Gear Variators (CVTs)...................................................................................... 243

Konstantin S. Ivanov
8. Kinematic and Power Analysis of Multi-Carrier Planetary Change-Gears

through the Torque Method.............................................................................................. 291
Dimitar Karaivanov and Kiril Arnaudov
9. Powder Metal Gear Technology....................................................................................... 329

Anders Flodin
10. Induction Heat Treatment of Gears and Gear-Like Components............................. 363

Valery Rudnev
11. A Brief Overview on the Evolution of Gear Art: Design and Production
of Gears, Gear Science........................................................................................................ 417
v
vi Contents
Appendix A: On the Inconsistency of the Term “Wildhaber-Novikov

Gearing”: A New Look at the Concept of “Novikov Gearing”......................................... 487
Appendix B: Applied Coordinate Systems and Linear Transformations....................... 503
Index.............................................................................................................................................. 535
Acknowledgments
The author would like to recognize Jonathan Plant, Executive Editor for Mechanical
Engineering, and Ed Curtis, Project Editor, as well as the rest of the team at Taylor &
Francis/CRC Press for their patience and efforts in publishing this book.
vii
Editor
Stephen P. Radzevich is a professor of mechanical engineering and manufacturing

engineering. He earned an MSc in 1976, a PhD in 1982, and a Dr(Eng)Sc. in 1991, all in
mechanical engineering. Dr. Radzevich has extensive industrial experience in gear design
and manufacture. He has developed numerous software packages dealing with computer-
aided design (CAD) and computer-aided machining (CAM) of precise gear finishing for
a variety of industrial sponsors. His main research interest is the Kinematic Geometry of
Part Surface Generation, particularly with a focus on precision gear design, high-power-
density gear trains, torque share in multiflow gear trains, design of special purpose gear
cutting/finishing tools, and design and machine (finish) of precision gears for low-noise
and noiseless transmissions of cars, light trucks, and so on.
Dr. Radzevich has spent over 40 years developing software, hardware, and other processes
for gear design and optimization. Besides his work for the industry, he trains engineering
students at universities and gear engineers in companies. He has authored and coauthored
about 40 monographs, handbooks, and textbooks. The monographs Generation of Surfaces
(RASTAN, 2001), Kinematic Geometry of Surface Machining (CRC Press, 2007, 2nd Edition
2014), CAD/CAM of Sculptured Surfaces on Multi-Axis NC Machine: The DG/K-Based Approach
(M&C Publishers, 2008), Gear Cutting Tools: Fundamentals of Design and Computation (CRC
Press, 2010), Precision Gear Shaving (Nova Science Publishers, 2010), Dudley’s Handbook of
Practical Gear Design and Manufacture (CRC Press, 2012), and Geometry of Surfaces: A Practical
Guide for Mechanical Engineers (Wiley, 2013) are among his recently published books. He
has also written or coauthored over 300 scientific papers and holds over 250 patents on
inventions in the field (USA, Japan, Russia, Europe, Canada, Soviet Union, South Korea,
Mexico, and others).
ix
Contributors
Kiril Arnaudov Boris M. Klebanov

Bulgaria Israel, USA
H. P. Evans Stephen P. Radzevich

United Kingdom USA
Anders Flodin Valery Rudnev

Sweden USA
Alfonso Fuentes-Aznar R. W. Snidle

USA United Kingdom
Konstantin S. Ivanov Michael Storchak

Kazakhstan Germany
Dimitar Karaivanov
Bulgaria
xi
Introduction
There is nothing more practical than a good theory.
James C. Maxwell
Historical Background
Gears and gear transmissions have been extensively used by human beings for centuries.
Lots of practical experience in design, manufacture, and application of gears and gear drives
has accumulated in the industry to this end. An enormous amount of the research in the
field has been carried out, both from the theory side as well as from the experimental side.
All the experience in the field of gearing is summarized in a few fundamental monographs.
However, novel attempts have been undertaken in recent years, and important new results
of the research have been obtained in the field of gearing. Nowadays, gear science is still
extensively evolving.
Uniqueness of this Publication

This book is based on the newest accomplishments in gear theory, gear design, gear
production, and gear application. A team of world-leading experts in gear science have
contributed their achievements in the field of gearing. The most important subjects of gear
science are covered in the book. A gap between the current needs of advanced gear users
and gear manufacturers is bridged by gear science. This makes the book unique.
xiii
xiv Introduction
Intended Audience
This book is written by top level gear experts and for gear experts, that is, for the gear
manufacturers, gear designers, and gear customers, and those used to advanced designs
of gears and gear transmissions: first of all, of gear drives with a highest possible power
density (or, in other words, “power-to-weight ratio”), and low noise (or almost “noiseless”)
gear transmissions. Post gear engineers and gear researchers from the industry, as well as
graduate students, will benefit from the book.
Organization of this Book

The book contains eleven chapters and two appendix parts. The scientific theory of gearing,
gear design, and gear production are covered by these chapters. The evolution of gear art
(gear theory, gear design, and gear production) is briefly outlined in the ending chapter of
the book.
Fundamentals of transmission of a rotary motion by means of
perfect gears are discussed in Chapter 1. This section of the book
is contributed by Prof. Stephen P. Radzevich, an expert in the field
of theory of gearing, gear design, gear production, gear inspection,
and gear application.
The discussion begins with introductory remarks and follows
with the detailed analysis of three fundamental laws of gearing.
Condition of contact between the interacting tooth flanks of a
gear and a mating pinion is the first fundamental law of gearing.
Condition of conjugacy of the interacting tooth flanks of a gear
and a mating pinion is the second fundamental law of gearing.
Ultimately, the third fundamental law of gearing requires equality
of base pitches of interacting tooth flanks of a gear and a mating pinion to operating
base pitch of the gear pair. Perfect gear pairs, that is, gear pairs that feature a constant
angular velocity ratio, obey all three fundamental laws of gearing. Gear pairs that do not
obey one or more fundamental laws of gearing are referred to as approximate gear pairs.
Approximate gear pairs feature a variable in time angular velocity ratio. An illustrative
example of perfect crossed-axes gearing with line contact between the tooth flanks of a gear
and a mating pinion (“R-gear system”) is provided at the end of this section of the book.
Optimization of geometrical engagement parameters for gear
honing is considered in Chapter 2, contributed by Dr. Michael
Storchak of Germany, a well-known expert in the field. Elaboration
of principles for developing technological systems for the finishing
of gears is discussed at the beginning. This discussion is followed
by the consideration of a model of the machine engagement
geometry. The development of the model of the machine
engagement geometry along with the objective functions of the
model are covered in this section of the chapter. The chapter ends
with the discussion on the synthesis of the working layer forms of
tools.
Introduction xv
The design and generation of straight bevel gears are discussed

in Chapter 3, written by Prof. Alfonso Fuentes-Aznar, a well-
known expert in the field of gearing and applications of gears.
The chapter begins with an introduction that is followed by
the determination of the pitch cone angles of bevel gears. Then,
mathematical definition of the spherical involute profile is provided.
Mathematical definition of the spherical involute profile and direct
and indirect definitions are covered here. Spherical bevel gear tooth
surfaces are defined in the next section of the chapter. Gear tooth
thickness, the polar angle at the pitch cone, the base cone angle,
the spherical involute bevel gear tooth surfaces, the face and root
cone angles, along with the modified geometry for localization of contact are discussed.
This discussion is followed by the analysis of geometry of the crown gear for generation of
spherical involute straight bevel gears. The determination of the number of teeth, and of the
base cone angle for the crown gear are disclosed. Then the tooth thickness and generating
surfaces of the crown gear are specified. This analysis is followed by description of the
geometry of the crown gear for generation of octoidal bevel gears, and by the geometry of
spherical and octoidal bevel gears generated by a crown gear. Special attention is devoted
to the generation of bevel gears by dual interlocking circular cutters. For this purpose,
positioning the circular cutters is specified, definitions for the cutter swing angle and
of the blade angle are provided, and localization of the cutting disks on the crown rack
is discussed. The generating surface of the cutting disk and generation of straight bevel
gears by dual interlocking circular cutters are investigated to the best possible extent. A
numerical example is provided. The mechanical behavior of the spherical involute bevel
gear drive is investigated, a comparison of spherical and octoidal geometries is performed,
and mechanical behavior of bevel gears generated by dual interlocking circular cutters is
explained. This section of the chapter ends with the discussion on the application of barrel-
shaped gear blanks to improve the maximum bending stresses of straight bevel gears.
In Chapter 4, interaction of gear teeth from the perspective of
the contact geometry of interacting gear and pinion teeth flanks
is considered. This section of the book is contributed by Prof.
Stephen P. Radzevich), an expert in the field of theory of gearing,
gear design, gear production, gear inspection, and gear application.
The discussion begins with the essence of the approach proposed
by Heinrich Hertz and follows by the second-order analysis of the
contact geometry. This includes, but is not limited to, the discussion
of the local relative orientation of the tooth flanks of a gear and
a mating pinion at a point of their contact along with planar
characteristic images, that is, of “Dupin indicatrices” at a point of
a gear, Dup (G ), of a mating pinion, Dup (P ) , and of the surface
of relative curvature, Dup (G|P ). The reader’s attention is focused on the advantages of
the matrix representation of equation of the “Dupin indicatrix” at the point of a gear tooth
flank.
Then, the fourth-order analysis of the contact geometry of the tooth flanks is performed.
A definition to the term “degree of conformity” of two tooth flanks at the point of their
contact is introduced. This discussion is followed by the introduction of a characteristic
curve of a novel type. This planar characteristic curve of the fourth order is referred to as
the “indicatrix of conformity, Cnf R(G|P )” at the point of contact of a gear and a mating
pinion tooth flank. The directions of the extremum degree of conformity at the point of
xvi Introduction
contact of a gear and a mating pinion tooth flank are determined, and important properties
of Cnf R(G|P ) at the point of contact of a gear and a mating pinion tooth flank are outlined.
This chapter of the book ends with the discussion of the converse indicatrix of conformity at
the point of contact of a gear and a mating pinion tooth flank in the first order of tangency.
Chapter 5, “Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication of Conformal
Gears,” is contributed by Prof. R. W. Snidle and Prof. H. P. Evans of
the UK, who are well-known experts in the area of EHD lubrication
in mechanics in general, and in gearing in particular. At the
beginning of the chapter, a brief introduction to elastohydrodynamic
lubrication (further “EHD lubrication,” for simplicity) is outlined.
This is followed by a detailed discussion of the conditions for
EHL film-forming in conformal gears; detailed contact geometry,
kinematics, load and Hertzian pressure; and ends with the analysis
of the Chittenden et al. film thickness formulas. An example on
the steps in the film thickness calculation for a typical gear set
is provided. Operating conditions, principal radii of relative
curvature at the tooth contact, normal load at the contact, Hertzian
contact dimensions, maximum Hertzian pressure, entraining
velocity, and predicted film thickness values are covered in this
example. The chapter ends with the discussion section, notation
section, and references.
Chapter 6, a contribution in the field of gear drive engineering is
written by Dr. Boris M. Klebanov, a well-known expert in the field.
Disc type gears and design of large gears are covered in the “Gear
Body Design” section of this chapter. This discussion is followed
by a section called “Gear-Shaft Connections.” In this section, both
fixed and movable connections are discussed. Then, compliance of
shafts and bearings is discussed to the best possible extent. Bending
of the shafts, and influence of the shaft’s bearings are considered. A
separate section of the chapter is devoted to the analysis of the gear
housing deformations. This analysis is followed by the discussion
of planetary gear drives. Improvement of relative accuracy, flexible
supports of planet gears, floating sun gears, along with floating
ring gears are considered here. This chapter of the book ends with
the detailed discussion of toothing improvements of cylindrical
involute gears. Transverse contact ratio in spur gearings, tooth
profile modification of spur gears, meshing geometry of helical
gears, as well as tooth root design are covered in this section of
the chapter. The chapter is complemented by the list of references.
Chapter 7 is written by Dr. Konstantin S. Ivanov of Kazakhstan,
a leading expert in the field of continuously variable transmissions
(CVTs). In his chapter titled “Adaptive Gear Variators (CVTs),” a
novel principle of creation of an adaptive gear variator is disclosed.
The chapter begins with the analysis of the structure of the basic
kinematic chain of gear variators, and kinematics of a basic initial
kinematic chain. Special attention is given to the force analysis
of an initial kinematic chain of a gear variator. This discussion
includes, but is not limited to, the consideration of the effect of force
adaptation (necessary condition of adaptation), energy circulation,
Introduction xvii
condition of transfer of forces (sufficient condition of adaptation), method of the force

analysis of an adaptive gear variator, examples of kinematical and force analysis of a gear
variator, force interacting in the adaptive gear variator on start, as well as operation of the
gear variator. This discussion is followed by the analysis of the dynamics of gear variators.
The following problems are carried out in this section of the book: preconditions of dynamic
research of a gear variator, description of a gear variator in dynamics, dynamics of transient
of a gear variator in a starting regime, a numerical example of dynamic calculation for a
starting regime, dynamics of transient of a gear variator in the stage of steady motion, a
numerical example for the stage of steady motion, and a conclusion about the results of
dynamic researches. Then, the designing of a gear variator is discussed. In this section,
the engineering philosophy of a gear variator, description of design of a gear variator,
operation of a gear variator, and design of a gear variator are considered. The experimental
researches of an adaptive gear variator is the other topic to be discussed in this section
of the book. This discussion includes the explanation of the experiment purpose, a test-
bed description, technique of tests of an adaptive gear variator, along with the efficiency
of a gear variator. The chapter ends with the consideration of the
problem of synthesis of an adaptive gear variator. For this purpose,
the range of transmission ratios of an adaptive gear variator, the
solution of problems of synthesis of an adaptive gear variator, and
an example of a solution of the problem of synthesis are discussed.
A conclusion and the list of references are provided at the very
end of the chapter.
Professor Dimitar Karaivanov and Professor Kiril Arnaudov,
leaders in the field of design, kinematics, and application of
planetary gear drives contributed Chapter 8 on the kinematic
and power analysis of multicarrier planetary change gears
through the torque method. This discussion begins with the
simple AI-planetary gear train as a building element of planetary
change gear trains, and is followed by a detailed analysis of the
torque method—a simple and easy way for kinematic and power
analysis of complex compound planetary gear trains. Essence
of the method, kinematic analysis of a simple AI-planetary gear
train, power analysis of AI-planetary gear train, and kinematic
and power analysis of compound two-carrier planetary
gear trains are covered in this analysis. Then, the kinematic
and power analysis of two-carrier and four-carrier change
gear is performed. The discussion end with the consideration
of the load spectra determination of particular elements of a
change gear.
Chapter 9 is on powder metal gear technology. This chapter
is contributed by Dr. Anders Flodin, a well-known expert in the
field. The chapter begins with a general introduction, selection of
materials for gears, lubrication of materials, and alloying concepts.
The alloying is discussed in more detail; mixing, pre-alloyed,
organically bonded alloys, and diffusion alloyed are discussed to
the best possible extent.
The section on materials is followed by a section on
manufacturing. Compaction, tooling, heat treatment, perfomance
boosting processes, hard finishing, different process paths to make
xviii Introduction
gears, and tolerances are discussed here. This discussion is followed by consideration of
design for powder metal, performance, and AM gears.
Novel accomplishments in the area of induction heat treatment of
gears and gear-like components are discussed in Chapter 10. This
section of the book is contributed by Dr. Valery Rudnev, an expert
in the field of heat treatment of gears and gear-like components.
The chapter begins with an introduction that follows with the
discussion of electromagnetic principles of induction heating. This
includes, but is not limited to, commonly accepted definitions in
skin effect, nonexponential distribution in skin effect, and eddy
current cancellation. Then metallurgical subtleties of induction
gear hardening are discussed. Material selection for induction gear
hardening, impact of rapid heating and steel prior microstructure,
super hardness phenomenon, along with specifics of induction
hardening of powder metallurgy (P/M) gears are covered in this chapter of the book.
Particular attention is paid to the technologies for induction gear hardening. This section
of the book begins with general remarks, and is followed by an overview of tooth hardness
patterns, and inductor designs and heating modes. Tooth-by-tooth hardening of gears, gear
spin hardening (encircling inductors), quenching options, along with the heating modes for
encircling inductors are covered when discussing this later topic. In the later sections of the
chapter, the residual stresses at tooth working surface, hardening components containing
teeth, as well as tempering of gears and gear-like components are discussed to the best
possible extent. The chapter ends with the conclusion section, acknowledgement section,
and references.
In Chapter 11, a brief overview on the evolution of gear art
is presented. Design and production of gears, as well as the
accomplishments in gear science are covered in this discussion. This
section of the book is contributed by Prof. Stephen P. Radzevich.
The chapter begins with brief notes on the history of methods
of machining gears and on the design of gear cutting tools. Early
accomplishments in the design of toothed wheels and in methods
for manufacture of gears, early designs of special purpose cutting
tools to produce gear teeth, gear-cutting tools for the first production
machines, and evolution of the gear-cutting tools for production
machines are covered in this discussion. This discussion follows
with a brief analysis of the development of the skiving internal
gears process, and rotary gear shaving process, grinding hardened gears, along with the
designs of gear-cutting tools for generating bevel gears. Later accomplishments in design
of gear-cutting tools for the generating bevel gears are also considered. This section of the
chapter ends with a brief discussion of the generating milling of bevel gears.
In the next section of the chapter, the evolution of the scientific theory of gearing is briefly
overviewed. The discussion is subdivided onto three periods of time that are labeled as
(a) the pre-Eulerian period of gear art, (b) the origin of the scientific theory of gearing:
the Eulerian period of gear art, and (c) the post-Eulerian period of the developments in
the field of gearing. The reader’s attention is focused here mainly on the developments
in the field of perfect gearings. These include but are not limited to G. Grant bevel gearing,
contributions by Prof. N. I. Kolchin, Prof. M. L. Novikov, and by Prof. V. A. Gavrilenko. Then
accomplishments in the investigation of the condition of conjugacy of the interacting tooth
flanks of a gear and a mating pinion in crossed-axes gearing, and the equality of angular
Introduction xix
base pitches of a gear and a mating pinion to operating angular base pitch in intersected-
axes, and in crossed-axes gearing are outlined. This section of the chapter ends with a
tentative chronology of the evolution of the theory of gearing, along with harmonic drive
contributed by Walton Musser.
In the third section of the chapter, the developments in the field of approximate gearings,
Cone double-enveloping worm gearing, approximate bevel gearing, approximate crossed-
axes gearing, and face gearing are discussed.
The chapter ends with a brief summary of the principal accomplishments in the theory of
gearing achieved by the beginning of the twenty-first century. These accomplishments form
a set of three fundamental laws of gearing all gearings must obey to. All the discussions
are summarized in the concluding remarks.
Appendix A, titled as “On the Inconsistency of the Term ‘Wildhaber-Novikov Gearing’:
A New Look at the Concept of ‘Novikov Gearing,’” is contributed by Prof. Stephen P.
Radzevich. An advanced interpretation of the concept of “Novikov Gearing” is outlined
in this appendix.
Contributed by Prof. Stephen P. Radzevich, Appendix B is titled “Applied Coordinate
Systems and Linear Transformations.” Novel accomplishments that pertain to the
coordinate system transformations are briefly outlined in this appendix.
It is likely this book is not free from omissions or mistakes; or that it is as clear and
ambiguous as it should be. If you have any constructive suggestions, please communicate
them to me via email: radzevich@usa.com.
Sterling Heights, MI
September 22, 2018
1
Fundamentals of Transmission of Rotary
Motion by Means of Perfect Gears
CONTENTS
1.1 Introductory Remarks............................................................................................................ 2
1.2 Three Fundamental Laws of Gearing..................................................................................4
1.2.1 Condition of Contact between Interacting Tooth Flanks: The First
Fundamental Law of Gearing................................................................................... 4
1.2.2 Condition of Conjugacy of Interacting Tooth Flanks: The Second
Fundamental Law of Gearing................................................................................... 8
1.2.2.1 Pulley-and-Belt: Analogy of a Gear Pair.................................................. 8
1.2.2.2 Camus-Euler-Savary Theorem................................................................. 10
1.2.2.3 Condition of Conjugacy of Interacting Tooth Flanks in Case of
Crossed-Axes Gearing............................................................................... 14
1.2.3 Equality of Base Pitches of Interacting Tooth Flanks of a Gear and a
Mating Pinion to Operating Base Pitch of the Gear Pair: The Third
Fundamental Law of Gearing................................................................................. 18
1.3 Illustrative Example: Perfect Crossed-Axes Gearing with Line Contact between
the Tooth Flanks of a Gear and a Mating Pinion............................................................. 20
1.3.1 Kinematics of Crossed-Axes Gearing.................................................................... 23
1.3.2 Base Cones in Perfect Crossed-Axes Gear Pairs................................................... 24
1.3.3 Tooth Flanks in Perfect Crossed-Axes Gears........................................................ 27
1.4 Conclusion............................................................................................................................. 32
References........................................................................................................................................ 32
Bibliography................................................................................................................................... 33
Three principal components are recognized in modern machinery. These are (a) a source
of power, and (b) a working member, that are connected to each other by means of (c)
a transmission. Transmitting and transforming an input motion is the main purpose of
the transmission. Gears and gear transmissions are extensively used in today’s industry
for transmitting and transforming an input motion.
Principal features of perfect gear pairs are briefly discussed in this section of the book.
A higher power, and a smaller size, is the main trend in the evolution of the power
sources for the application in modern machinery. Therefore, along with a smaller size, the
output rotation of the power sources (of an internal combustion engine, of an electric DC
motor, as well as of other sources of motion) gets higher. For example, the output rotation
of the electric DC motor spindle in the range of 30,000 to 40,000 rpm is common even in
trivial engineering applications. For an electric motor of a specified power, the following
1
2 Advances in Gear Design and Manufacture
correlation is observed: the smaller the size of the electric motor, the higher the rotation of
the motor spindle, and vice versa.
For many reasons, gear transmissions perfectly meet most of the requirements the
transmissions have to fulfill, especially in cases when a gear transmission is capable of
transmitting a uniform rotary motion with a highest attainable “power density.”1 Modern
gear transmissions have to be as small in size as possible and be capable of transmitting as
high amount of power as possible in order to meet these requirements.
1.1 Introductory Remarks

Gear transmissions have been extensively used by human beings for a long time. The
Antikythera2 mechanism is the oldest surviving relic containing gears [1]. It is named after
the Greek island near where the mechanism was discovered in a sunken ship in 1900.
Gears made of wood represent a perfect example of gears most extensively used in
the past. Wooden gears were used in the design of windmills for pumping seawater, for
producing flour, and so forth. An example of a gear transmission comprised of wooden
gears is illustrated in Figure 1.1. Parallel-axes gear pairs (or just “Pa –gearing,” for simplicity),
intersected-axes gear pairs (or just “Ia –gearing,” for simplicity), as well as crossed-axes
gear pairs (or just “Ca –gearing,” for simplicity), were used at that time. Wooden gears
were possible because the main sources of power—power of the wind, power of the water
stream, and that of animals—produced a low torque, and a low rotation, thus, the gear
FIGURE 1.1
Use of wooden gears in the design of a gear transmission.
1 “Power density” is understood here and below as a ratio of the amount of power being transmitted by means
of a gear transmission to weight of the transmission. “Power-to-weight ratio” is another term used for this
purpose.
2 The artefact was recovered between 1900 to 1901 from the Antikythera shipwreck off the Greek island of
Antikythera. Its significance and complexity were not understood until decades later. Believed to have been
designed and constructed by Greek scientists, the instrument has been dated either between 150 and 100 BCE,
or, according to a more recent view, at 205 BCE. This precious example of antique genius complexity grade was
so high that artefacts of a similar complexity and workmanship did not reappear for a millennium and a half,
when mechanical astronomical clocks were built in Europe.
Fundamentals of Transmission of Rotary Motion by Means of Perfect Gears 3
FIGURE 1.2
Areas of existence of parallel-axes gearings of different kinds.
transmissions featured a low power density. Actually, at that time, the power density of a
gear transmission was not of importance to the gear users.
Let’s consider only two critical parameters of a gear pair, namely, a torque (Trq) and a
rotation (RPM) on the driving shaft of a gear pair. Then, in a Cartesian coordinate system,
“Trq vs. RPM,” a point corresponds to an arbitrary gear pair. As an example, parallel-axes
gear pairs3 are plotted in the reference system, “Trq vs. RPM,” in Figure 1.2.
Two sets of parallel lines are plotted in Figure 1.2. The straight lines, RPM = RPMmin
and RPM = RPMmax, correspond to physically permissible minimal and maximal rotations
of the input shaft of a gear pair. Two other straight lines, Trq = Trqmin and Trq = Trqmax,
correspond to physically permissible minimal and maximal torques of the input shaft of
a gear pair. All the gear pairs can be mapped by a point that is located within the interior
of the rectangle bounded by the lines RPM = RPMmin, RPM = RPMmax, and Trq = Trqmin,
Trq = Trqmax, including the boundaries. No gearing is feasible if a gear pair is mapped by
a point that is located in the exterior of the rectangle bounded by the just mentioned lines.
The permissible area of existence of gear pairs can be narrowed based on the following
analysis.
A highest power, Pmax, that can be transmitted by a gear pair, equals
Pmax = RPMmax ⋅ Trqmax (1.1)
Assuming Pmax = Const, a boundary hyperbola can be constructed in the reference

system, “Trq vs. RPM.”
3 Similar diagrams can be constructed for intersected-axes gear pairs, as well as for crossed-axes gear pairs.
Transmission of a rotation from a driving shaft to a driven shaft is possible only by means
of gear pairs4 that are mapped inside the area shown in Figure 1.2.
Points that correspond to wooden gear pairs are plotted in Figure 1.2 by points that
are located close to the point of intersection of the straight lines, RPM = RPMmin and
Trq = Trqmin. The areas of preferable applications of gear pairs of different types are also
shown in Figure 1.2.
As it follows from the analysis of Figure 1.2, future developments in the field of gearing
have to be undertaken toward the gear systems that feature a highest permissible power
density, that is, of the gear pairs that are mapped in Figure 1.2 closer either to the straight
line RPM = RPMmax, or to the straight line Trq = Trqmax, or to the boundary hyperbola,
Pmax = RPM max · Trqmax (see Equation 1.1). Gearings of these kinds obey to all three
fundamental laws of gearing [6], and, thus, are referred to as “perfect gearings.”
1.2 Three Fundamental Laws of Gearing

In the pre-Eulerian period of gear art, numerous intuitive attempts were undertaken to come
up with the most favorable geometry of a gear tooth flank. However, it was Leonhard Euler
who found out that the involute of a circle is a curve that perfectly fits the needs of gear
design. This scientific accomplishment by Euler was far ahead of time, and got no proper
understanding by the majority of the scientists and practitioners in the field of gear art.
The considered below concept of “perfect gearings,” as well as “three fundamental laws
of gearing,” can be traced back to two fundamental papers by Euler [2,3].
A uniform rotation from a driving shaft to a driven shaft can be transmitted by means of
a gear pair, either with a constant angular velocity ratio, or with a time-dependent angular
velocity ratio, uϕ.
In cases when the angular velocity ratio, uϕ, is of a constant value (uϕ = ωinput/ωoutput = const),
it is said that the rotation from a driving shaft to a driven shaft is transmitted smoothly.
Here, rotation of the input shaft (i.e., rotation of the driving shaft) is designated as ωinput, and
rotation of the output shaft (i.e., rotation of the driven shaft) is designated as ωoutput. Perfect
gear pairs feature the angular velocity ratio, uϕ, of a constant value.5 Perfect gears rotate
smoothly, producing almost no vibration and noise excitation.
If the angular velocity ratio, uϕ, is time-dependent, that is, when uϕ = uϕ(t), it is said
that the gear pair is approximate. Variation of the angular velocity ratio causes vibration
generation, an excessive noise excitation, an excessive tooth flank wear, and so forth.
It is important to identify a set of conditions under which the gear velocity ratio in a gear
pair is of a constant value, that is, a set of conditions under which the equality uϕ = const
is valid.
1.2.1 C
ondition of Contact between Interacting Tooth Flanks:
The First Fundamental Law of Gearing
The condition of contact between the tooth flanks of a gear and a mating pinion is reflected
by the “first fundamental law of gearing” to be discussed below. The condition of contact
4 The schematic shown in Figure 1.2 is qualitative (not quantitative), and intuitive.
5 Noncircular gears with a variable angular-velocity ratio are not considered here.
between the tooth flanks is the first fundamental condition to be met in gearings of all types
in parallel-axes gearing, in intersected-axes, as well as in crossed-axes gearing. Alignment
of the linear velocity vector, VΣ, of the resultant relative motion to the common tangent at
point of contact, K, of the interacting tooth flanks, G and P, of a gear and its mating pinion
(VΣ || t, where t is a unit vector through contact point, K; for example, entirely located in
the common tangent plane) is specified by the condition of contact.
The necessity of alignment of the resultant linear velocity vector, VΣ, to the common
tangent (or, the same, the necessity of perpendicularity, VΣ ⊥ ng, of the resultant velocity
vector, VΣ, to the common perpendicular, ng) is illustrated by the following example.
Consider a relative motion of the tooth flanks, G and P, of a gear and a mating pinion
as illustrated in Figure 1.3. For simplicity, but without loss of generality, normal sections
through contact point of the gear and the mating pinion are depicted there. It is also
assumed that the gear tooth flank, G, is motionless, and the pinion tooth flank, P, performs
an arbitrary instantaneous motion, VΣ, in relation to the gear tooth surface, G.
Three different scenarios can be distinguished when the pinion tooth flank, P, travels in
relation to the gear tooth flank, G.
First, an instantaneous motion of point, Ka, within the pinion tooth flank, P, is specified
by an instant linear velocity vector, VΣa (see Figure 1.3a). Point, A, within the pinion tooth
flank, P, is chosen so that the projection, Prn VΣa, of the linear velocity vector, VΣb, onto the unit
normal vector, n ap , to the moving surface, P, at point, Ka, is pointed toward the interior of the
motionless gear tooth flank, G, that is, the inequality, Prn VΣb > 0, is valid. In the differential
vicinity of point, Ka, this results that the moving pinion tooth flank, P , penetrates into the
motionless gear tooth flank, G. A relative motion of this kind is not permissible for the
conjugate tooth flanks, G and P, of a gear and a mating pinion.
Second, an instantaneous motion of point, Kb, within the pinion tooth flank, P, is specified
by an instant linear velocity vector, VΣb (see Figure 1.3b). Point, Kb, within the pinion tooth
flank, P, is chosen so that the linear velocity vector, VΣb, is perpendicular to the unit normal
vector, nbp , and, thus, it is tangent to the gear tooth flank, G, at contact point Kb. The projection,
Prn VΣb , of the linear velocity vector, VΣb, onto the unit normal vector, n ap , to the moving tooth
flank, P, at point, Kb, is equal to zero (i.e., an equality Prn VΣb = 0 is observed). In the differential
FIGURE 1.3
On the necessity of alignment of the linear velocity vector of resultant relative motion, VΣ, to the common tangent
to the contacting tooth flanks, G and P , (a) penetration of the tooth flanks, G and P, (b) proper contact tooth
flanks, G and P, (c) separation of the tooth flanks, G and P, is observed.
vicinity of point, Kb, this results that the moving pinion tooth flank, P, does not penetrate
the motionless gear tooth flank, G. Instead, the pinion tooth flank, P, rolls and slides in
relation to the gear tooth flank, G. In a particular case, either the rolling component, or the
sliding component of the resultant relative motion of this kind can be zero. Relative motion
of this particular kind is permissible for the conjugate tooth flanks, G and P. Transmitting
a motion from a driving shaft to a driven shaft is possible if, and only if, a relative motion of
this particular kind is occurred.
Third, an instantaneous motion of point, Kc, within the pinion tooth flank, P, is specified
by an instantaneous linear velocity vector, VΣc (see Figure 1.3c). Point, Kc, within the pinion
tooth flank, P, is chosen so that the projection, Prn VΣc , of the linear velocity vector, VΣc , onto
the unit normal vector, ncp , to the moving pinion tooth flank, P, at Kc is pointed outward
to the motionless gear tooth flank, G (i.e., the inequality Prn VΣc < 0 is valid). Therefore, in
the differential vicinity of point, Kc, the moving pinion tooth flank, P, departs from the
motionless gear tooth flank, G. No motion transmission is possible when a relative motion
of this kind is occurred.
The schematic depicted in Figure 1.3 shows the necessity of the proper alignment of the
vector of the linear velocity, VΣ, of the resultant relative motion of the tooth flanks, G and
P, to the common tangent to the tooth flanks, G and P, at every point of their contact. This
condition is referred to as the “first fundamental law of gearing.” The first fundamental
law of gearing is formulated as follows: “At every point of contact of tooth flanks of a gear
and a mating pinion, a vector of their instant relative motion has to be perpendicular to the
common perpendicular at every instant of time.”
Various forms of analytical representation of the condition of contact of the tooth flanks,
G and P, of a gear and its mating pinion are known.
To derive a convenient analytical representation for the condition of contact of the tooth
flanks, G and P, of a gear and a pinion, let’s turn our attention to the following. As shown
in Figure 1.3, the dot product of vectors ng and VΣ
• Is of a positive value (n ap ⋅ VΣa > 0) in the first case (see Figure 1.3a)
• Equals zero (n ap ⋅ VΣa = 0) in the second case (see Figure 1.3b)
• Is of a negative value (n ap ⋅ VΣa < 0) in the first case (see Figure 1.3c)
The condition of contact between a gear tooth flank, G, and a mating pinion tooth
flank, P, is violated in a misaligned parallel-axes gear pair as schematically illustrated
in Figure 1.4. Edge contact between the tooth flanks, G and P, is observed in the case
under consideration. Therefore, no common perpendicular is observed, and the condition
of contact of the tooth flanks, G and P, is violated.
FIGURE 1.4
Example of violation of the condition of contact between a gear tooth flank, G, and a mating pinion tooth
flank, P, in misaligned parallel-axes gear pair.
The condition of contact of two conjugate tooth flanks of mating gear teeth can be
expressed in the form of dot product, written as [10]
n g ⋅ VΣ = 0 (1.2)
where ng is the unit vector of common perpendicular through the contact point of the
tooth flanks, G and P, of a gear and its mating pinion, and VΣ is the linear velocity
vector the resultant instantaneous relative motion of the tooth flanks, G and P, at contact
point K.
Equation 1.2 reveals that a component of the linear velocity vector, VΣ, along the common
perpendicular, ng, is equal to zero. Otherwise, either separation, or penetration of the tooth
flanks, G and P, in the gear pair occurs. Neither separation, nor interference of the tooth
flanks, G and P, of a gear and a mating pinion is permissible. Therefore, the linear velocity
vector, VΣ, is either located in a common tangent plane or it is of a zero value.
Equation 1.2 was proposed by Prof. V. A. Shishkov as early as 1948 (or even earlier [4,14]).
As Prof. V. A. Shishkov is the first to propose to express the condition of contact in the form
of dot product (see Equation 1.2), this equation is commonly referred to as the “Shishkov
equation of contact, ng·VΣ = 0.” The interested reader may wish to discover why Prof.
V.A. Shishkov is credited for the discovery of the equation of contact of two tooth flanks in
the form ng·VΣ = 0 (see [6] for further reading).
Equation of contact in the form ng·VΣ = 0 is practical in cases when the interacting
surfaces feature simple geometry, and when the resultant relative motion is also of a
simple nature. The first makes it possible to determine the unit normal vector, ng, without
the derivation of the expressions for the derivatives of the equations of the contacting
surface with respect to the surface parameters. The second allows the determination of
the linear velocity vector, VΣ, without derivation of the equation of the moving surface
with respect to the parameter of motion. Use of the “Shishkov equation of contact” in
the form ng·VΣ = 0 simplifies the solution to the problem in this particular case. In cases
when derivation of the equations of the derivatives for the purposes of determination of
the vectors, ng and VΣ, cannot be avoided, use of the “Shishkov equation of contact” in
the form ng·VΣ = 0 is less efficient.
The above discussion can be summarized as follows. Permissible instant relative motions
of the tooth flanks, G and P, in a gear pair are illustrated in Figure 1.3. No relative motion
of the tooth flanks, G and P, is permissible along the common perpendicular, ng, and the
relative motion is allowed in any direction within the common tangent plane through
contact point, K. It should be pointed out here that a swivel relative motion of the tooth
flanks, G and P, around the axis along the common perpendicular, ng, through an
angle, ±ϕn, (Figure 1.5), also meets the requirement specified by Equation 1.2. The swivel
motion, ±ϕn, of the tooth flanks is not necessary to transmit a rotation from a driving shaft
to a driven shaft. However, motion of this nature can be observed in spatial gearing, that
is, in Ca–gearing.
It is necessary to stress the reader’s attention here on the following. Equation of contact
in the form ng·VΣ = 0, was proposed by Prof. V. A. Shishkov in the mid-twentieth century
(see Equation 1.2). However, the physics of the condition of contact (but not the equation of
contact itself) was properly realized by gear people in the time of Leonardo da Vinci [7],
and earlier.
The condition of contact of a gear and a mating pinion tooth flanks, G and P, is referred
to as the “first fundamental law of gearing.” All perfect gearings have to fulfill this law of
gearing.
FIGURE 1.5
Permissible instant relative motions in “perfect gearing”.
Fulfillment of the condition of contact of a gear and mating pinion tooth flanks, G and
P, is a necessary but not sufficient condition to transmit a uniform rotation smoothly from
a driving shaft to a driven shaft by means of a gear pair.
1.2.2 C
ondition of Conjugacy of Interacting Tooth Flanks:
The Second Fundamental Law of Gearing
The condition of conjugacy of tooth flanks of a gear and a mating pinion is the second
fundamental condition to be fulfilled in perfect gearings of all kinds. Conjugacy is a specific
property of a gear and mating pinion tooth flanks (tooth profiles) that roll over one another.
This property pertains only to surfaces and curves that roll over one another.
The condition of conjugacy of a gear and mating pinion tooth flanks is referred to as the
“second fundamental law of gearing.” Below, the discussion on the second fundamental
law of gearing begins with perfect parallel-axes gearing. Then, this discussion is evolved
to the most general case of crossed-axes gearing.
1.2.2.1 Pulley-and-Belt: Analogy of a Gear Pair

Let us begin the discussion with a trivial case of transmission of a rotary motion between
two shafts that are parallel to one another. In the simplest case, a rotation from the driving
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found numerously within 100 miles of it. They adhere to stones in
rapid water, and differ from the Melaniidae of the Old World and of S.
America in the absence of a fringe to the mantle and in being
oviparous. They do not occur north of the St. Lawrence River, or
north of U.S. territory in the west, or in New England. Three-quarters
of all the known species inhabit the rough square formed by the
Tennessee River, the Mississippi, the Chattahoochee River, and the
Gulf of Mexico. The Mississippi is a formidable barrier to their
extension, and a whole section (Trypanostoma, with the four genera
Io, Pleurocera, Angitrema, and Lithasia) does not occur west of that
river. The Viviparidae are also very largely developed, the genera
Melantho, Lioplax, and Tulotoma being peculiar. The Pulmonata are
also abundant, while the richness of the Unionidae may be gathered
from the fact that Wetherby states[377] that in 1874 no less than 832
species in all had been described.
The entire Mississippi basin is inhabited by a common
assemblage of Unionidae, and a considerable number of the species
are distributed over the whole of this area, Texas, and parts of E.
Mexico. Some species have spread out of this area into Michigan,
Canada, the Red River, and Hudson’s Bay district, and even into
streams in New York which drain into the Atlantic. An entirely
different set of forms occupy the great majority of the rivers falling
into the Atlantic, the Appalachian Mountains acting as an effective
barrier between the two groups of species, which appear to mingle
below the southern end of the range. In many cases Unionidae seem
to have no difficulty in migrating from river to river, if the distance is
not extreme; they probably are carried across overflowed districts in
time of flood.[378]
Fig. 227.—Helix (Arionta)
fidelis Gray, Oregon.
(2) The Californian Sub-region is markedly distinct from the rest
of N. America. The characteristic sombre Helices of the Eastern
States are almost entirely wanting, and are replaced by Arionta (20
sp.), a larger and more varied group, which may have some affinity
to Chinese forms. Glyptostoma (1 sp.) is also peculiar. Selenites
here has its metropolis, and Pristiolma is a remarkable group of
small Hyalinia (Zonites), but the larger forms of the Eastern States
are wanting. Several remarkable and quite peculiar forms of slug
occur, namely, Ariolimax (whose nearest relation is Arion),
Prophysaon, Hemphillia, and Binneya. There are no land
operculates.
Not more than 15 to 20 species of the Pleuroceridae (sect.
Goniobasis) occur west of the Rocky Mountains, and only a single
Unio, 5 Anodonta, and 1 Margaritana, which is common to New
England. Pompholyx is a very remarkable ultra-dextral form of
Limnaea, apparently akin to the Choanomphalus of L. Baikal.
Bithynia, absent from the Eastern States, is represented by two
species. The general indications are in favour of the Californian
fauna having migrated from an Old World source after the upheaval
of the Sierras; the American fauna, on the other hand, is purely
indigenous, with no recent Old World influence at all.
Land Mollusca of the Nearctic Region
Glandina 4
Selenites 6
Limax 4
Vitrina 4
Vitrinozonites 1
Mesomphix 15
Hyalinia 22
Conulus 1
Gastrodonta 9
Pristiloma 2
Tebennophorus 4
Ariolimax 6
Prophysaon 2
Hemphillia 1
Binneya 1
Patula 18
Punctum 2
Arionta 20
Praticola 2
Glyptostoma 1
Mesodon 27
Stenotrema 11
Triodopsis 21
Polygyra 23
Polygyrella 2
Gonostoma 1
Vallonia 1
Strobila 2
Pupa 18
Vertigo 8
Holospira 2
Cionella 1
Bulimulus 6
Macroceramus 1
Succinea 21
Vaginulus 1
Helicina 2
F. The Neotropical Region

The land Mollusca of the Neotropical Region stand in complete
contrast to those of the Nearctic. Instead of being scanty, they are
exceedingly abundant; instead of being small and obscure, they are
among the largest in size, most brilliant in colour, and most singular
in shape that are known to exist. At the same time they are, as a
whole, isolated in type, and exhibit but little relation with the Mollusca
of any other region.
The most marked feature is the predominance of the peculiar
genera Bulimus and Bulimulus, the centre of whose development
appears to lie in Peru, Ecuador, and Bolivia, but which diminish, both
in numbers and variety of form, in the eastern portion of the region.
In the forests of Central America, Venezuela, and Ecuador, and, to a
lesser degree, in those of Peru and Brazil, occurs the genus
Orthalicus, whose tree-climbing habits recall the Cochlostyla of the
Philippines. These three groups of bulimoid forms constitute, as far
as the mainland is concerned, the preponderating mass of the land
Mollusca. Helix proper is most strongly developed in the Greater
Antilles, which possess several peculiar groups of great beauty. In
Central America Helix is comparatively scarce, but in the northern
portions of the continent several fine genera (Labyrinthus, Isomeria,
Solaropsis) occur, which disappear altogether towards the south.
Carnivorous land Mollusca are, so far as Central America is
concerned, more highly developed than in any other quarter of the
world, particularly in the genera Glandina and Streptostyla. These
genera also penetrate the northern portions of the continent,
Glandina reaching as far as Ecuador, and Streptostyla as far as
Peru. The Greater Antilles have also characteristic forms of these
genera. Streptaxis is tolerably abundant all over tropical South
America, and is the one pulmonate genus which shows any affinity
with the African fauna.
The slugs are exceedingly scarce. Vaginula occurs throughout,
and is the only genus in any sense characteristic.
Clausilia, in the sub-genus Nenia, occurs along the Andean chain
from the extreme north (but not in Central America) as far south as
Bolivia. It has in all probability made its way into S. America in
exceedingly remote ages from its headquarters in Eastern Asia. No
species survives in N. America, and a single straggler is found in
Porto Rico. The genera Macroceramus, Cylindrella, and Strophia,
are characteristic West Indian forms, which are only slightly
represented on the mainland. Homalonyx, a curious form akin to
Succinea, is peculiar to the region.
Fig. 228.—Homalonyx unguis Fér.,

Demerara. sh, Shell (shown also
separate); p.o, pulmonary orifice.
Land operculates attain a most extraordinary development in the
Greater Antilles, and constitute, in some cases, nearly one-half of the
whole Molluscan fauna. Several groups of the Cyclostomatidae find
their headquarters here, and some spread no farther. On the
mainland this prominence does not continue. West Indian influence
is felt in Central America and on the northern coast district, and
some Antillean genera make their way as far as Ecuador. The whole
group entirely disappears in Chili and Argentina, becoming scarce
even in Brazil.
Among the fresh-water operculates, Ampullaria is abundant, and
widely distributed. Vivipara, so characteristic of N. America, is
entirely absent. Chilina, a remarkable fresh-water pulmonate, akin to
Limnaea, is peculiar to Chili, Patagonia, and Southern Brazil, but is
not found in the tropical portion of the continent. Of the fresh-water
Pelecypoda Mycetopus, Hyria, Castalia, Leila, and Mülleria are
peculiar forms, akin to the Unionidae.
(1) The Antillean Sub-region surpasses all other districts in the
world in respect of (1) extraordinary abundance of species, (2) sharp
definition of limits as a whole, (3) extreme localisation of the fauna of
the separate islands. The sub-region includes the whole of the half-
circle of islands from the Bahamas to Grenada, together with the
extreme southern end of the peninsula of Florida, which was once,
no doubt, a number of small islands like the Bahamas. Trinidad, and
probably Tobago, although containing an Antillean element, belong
to the mainland of S. America, from which they are only separated
by very shallow water.
The sub-region appears to fall into four provinces:—
(a) Cuba, the Bahamas, and S. Florida; (b) Jamaica; (c) San
Domingo (Haiti), Porto Rico, and the Virgin Is., with the Anguilla and
St. Bartholomew group; (d) the islands from Guadeloupe to
Grenada. The first three provinces contain the mass of the
characteristic Antillean fauna, the primary feature being the
extraordinary development of the land operculates, which here
reaches a point unsurpassed in any other quarter of the globe. The
relative numbers are as follows:—
Cuba Jamaica San Domingo Porto Rico
Inoperculate 362 221 152 75
Operculate 252 242 100 23
It appears, then, that the proportion of operculate to inoperculate
species, while very high in Cuba (about 41 per cent of the whole),
reaches its maximum in Jamaica (where the operculates are actually
in a majority), begins to decline in San Domingo (about 40 per cent),
and continues to do so in Porto Rico, where they are not more than
24 per cent of the whole. These operculates almost all belong to the
families Cyclostomatidae and Helicinidae, only two genera
(Aperostoma and Megalomastoma) belonging to the Cyclophorus
group. Comparatively few genera are absolutely peculiar to the
islands, one or two species of most of them occurring in Central or S.
America, but of the several hundreds of operculate species which
occur on the islands, not two score are common to the mainland.
Map to illustrate the
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION
of the Land Mollusca of the
WEST INDIES.
The red line marks the 100 fathom line.
London: Macmillan and Cọ. London: Stanford’s Geogḷ Estabṭ.
The next special feature of the sub-region is a remarkable
development of peculiar sub-genera of Helix. In this respect the
Antilles present a striking contrast to both Central and S. America,
where the prime feature of the land Pulmonata is the profusion of
Bulimus and Bulimulus, and Helix is relatively obscured. No less
than 14 sub-genera of Helix, some of which contain species of
almost unique beauty and size, are quite peculiar to the Greater
Antilles, and some are peculiar to individual islands.
Here, too, is the metropolis of Cylindrella (of which there are 130
species in Cuba alone), a genus which just reaches S. America, and
has a few species along the eastern sea-board of the Gulf of Mexico.
Macroceramus and Strophia are quite peculiar; the former, a genus
allied to Cylindrella, which attains its maximum in Cuba and San
Domingo, is scarcely represented in Jamaica, and disappears south
of Anguilla; the latter, a singular form, resembling a large Pupa in
shape, which also attains its maximum in Cuba, is entirely wanting in
Jamaica, and has its last representative in S. Croix. One species
irregularly occurs at Curaçao.
The carnivorous group of land Mollusca are represented by
several peculiar forms of Glandina, which attain their maximum in
Jamaica and Cuba, but entirely disappear in the Lesser Antilles.
A certain number of the characteristic N. American genera are
found in the Antillean Sub-region, indicating a former connexion,
more or less intimate, between the W. Indies and the mainland. The
genera are all of small size. The characteristic N. American Hyalinia
are represented in Cuba, San Domingo, and Porto Rico; among the
Helicidae, Polygyra reaches Cuba, but no farther, and Strobila
Jamaica. The fresh-water Pulmonata are of a N. American type, as
far as the Greater Antilles are concerned, but the occurrence of
Gundlachia (Tasmania and Trinidad only) in Cuba is an unexplained
problem at present. Unionidae significantly occur only at the two
ends of the chain of islands, not reaching farther than Cuba (Unio 3
sp.) at one end, and Trinidad (which is S. American) at the other.
A small amount of S. American influence is perceptible throughout
the Antilles, chiefly in the occurrence of a few species of Bulimulus
and Simpulopsis. The S. American element may have strayed into
the sub-region by three distinct routes: (1) by way of Trinidad,
Tobago, and the islands northward; (2) by a north-easterly extension
of Honduras towards Jamaica, forming a series of islands of which
the Rosalind and Pedro banks are perhaps the remains; (3) by a
similar approximation of the peninsula of Yucatan and the western
extremity of Cuba. Central America is essentially S. American in its
fauna, and the characteristic genera of Antillean operculates which
occur on its eastern coasts are sufficient evidence of the previous
existence of a land connexion more or less intimate (see map).
(a) Cuba is by far the richest of the Antilles in land Mollusca, but it
must be remembered that it is also much better explored than San
Domingo, the only island likely to rival it in point of numbers. It
contains in all 658 species, of which 620 are land and 38 fresh-
water, the land operculates alone amounting to 252.
Carnivorous genera form but a small proportion of the whole.
There are 18 Glandina (which belong to the sections Varicella and
Boltenia) and 4 Streptostyla, the occurrence of this latter genus
being peculiar to Cuba and Haiti (1 sp.) among the Antilles, and
associating them closely with the mainland of Central America,
where Streptostyla is abundant. These two genera alone represent
the Agnatha throughout the sub-region.
There are no less than 84 species of Helix, belonging to 12 sub-
genera. Only one of these (Polymita) is quite peculiar to Cuba, but of
7 known species of Jeanerettia and 8 of Coryda, 6 and 7
respectively are Cuban. Thelidomus has 15 species (Jamaica 3,
Porto Rico 3); Polydontes has 3, the only other being from Porto
Rico; Hemitrochus has 12 (Jamaica 1, Bahamas 6); Cysticopsis 9
(Jamaica 6); Eurycampta 4 (Bahamas 1).
The Cylindrellidae find their maximum development in Cuba. As
many as 34 Macroceramus occur (two-thirds of the known species),
and 130 Cylindrella, some of the latter being most remarkable in
form (see Fig. 151, B, p. 247).
The land operculates belong principally to the families
Cyclostomatidae and Helicinidae. Of the former, Cuba is the
metropolis of Ctenopoma and Chondropoma, the former of which
includes 30 Cuban species, as compared with 1 from San Domingo
and 2 from Jamaica. Megalomastoma (Cyclophoridae) is also
Haitian and Porto Rican, but not Jamaican. Blaesospira, Xenopoma,
and Diplopoma are peculiar. The Helicinidae consist mainly of
Helicina proper (58 sp.), which here attains by far its finest
development in point of size and beauty, and of Eutrochatella (21
sp.), which is peculiar to the three great islands (Jamaica 6 sp., San
Domingo 6 sp.).
The Bahamas, consisting in all of more than 700 islands, are very
imperfectly known, but appear to be related partly to Cuba, partly to
San Domingo, from each of which they are separated by a narrow
channel of very deep water. They are certainly not rich in the
characteristic groups of the Greater Antilles. The principal forms of
Helix are Plagioptycha (6 sp.), common with San Domingo, and
Hemitrochus (6 sp.), common with Cuba. Strophia is exceedingly
abundant, but Cylindrella, Macroceramus, and Glandina have but
few species. There are a few species of Ctenopoma, Chondropoma,
and Cistula, while a single Schasicheila (absent from the rest of the
sub-region) forms a link with Mexico.
Fig. 229.—Characteristic Cuban

Helices. A, Polydontes imperator
Montf. B, Caracolus rostrata Pfr.
C, Polymita muscarum Lea.
Southern Florida, with one or two species each of Hemitrochus,
Cylindrella, Macroceramus, Strophia, Ctenopoma, and
Chondropoma, belongs to this province.
(b) Jamaica.—The land Mollusca of Jamaica are, in point of
numbers and variety, quite unequalled in the world. There are in all
as many as 56 genera and more than 440 species, the latter being
nearly all peculiar. The principal features are the Glandinae, the
Helicidae, and the land operculates. The Glandinae belong
principally to the sub-genera Varicella, Melia, and Volutaxis,
Streptostyla being absent, although occurring in Cuba and San
Domingo. There are 10 genera of Helix, of which Pleurodonta is
quite peculiar, while Sagda (13 sp.) is common only with S.W. San
Domingo (2 sp.), and Leptoloma (8 sp.) only with Cuba (1 sp.). The
single Strobila seems to be a straggler from a N. American source.
Macroceramus has only 2 species as against 34 in Cuba, and of
Cylindrella, in which Cuba (130 sp.) is so rich, only 36 species occur.
The genus Leia, however (14 sp.), is all but peculiar, occurring
elsewhere only in the neighbouring angle of San Domingo, which is
so closely allied with Jamaica. The complete absence of Strophia is
remarkable.
Fig. 230.—Characteristic
Jamaican and Haitian
Mollusca: A, Sagdae
pistylium Müll., Jamaica; B,
Chondropoma salleanum Pfr.,
San Domingo; C,
Eutrochatella Tankervillei
Gray, Jamaica; D, Cylindrella
agnesiana C. B. Ad.,
Jamaica.
The land operculates form the bulk of the land fauna, there being
actually 242 species, as against 221 of land Pulmonata, a proportion
never again approached in any part of the world. As many as 80 of
these belong to the curious little genus Stoastoma, which is all but
peculiar to the island, one species having been found in San
Domingo, and one in Porto Rico. Geomelania and Chittya, two
singular inland forms akin to Truncatella, are quite peculiar. Alcadia
reaches its maximum of 14 species, as against 4 species in San
Domingo and 9 species in Cuba, and Lucidella is common to San
Domingo only; but, if Stoastoma be omitted, the Helicinidae
generally are not represented by so many or by so striking forms as
in Cuba, which has 90 species, as against Jamaica 44, and San
Domingo 35.
(c) San Domingo, although not characterised by the extraordinary
richness of Cuba and Jamaica, possesses many specially
remarkable forms of land Mollusca, to which a thorough exploration,
when circumstances permit, will no doubt make important additions.
From its geographical position, impinging as it does on all the islands
of the Greater Antilles, it would be expected that the fauna of San
Domingo would not exhibit equal signs of isolation, but would appear
to be influenced by them severally. This is exactly what occurs, and
San Domingo is consequently, although very rich in peculiar species,
not equally so in peculiar genera. The south-west district shows
distinct relations with Jamaica, the Jamaican genera Leia,
Stoastoma, Lucidella, and the Thaumasia section of Cylindrella
occurring here only. The north and north-west districts are related to
Cuba, while the central district, consisting of the long band of
mountainous country which traverses the island, contains the more
characteristic Haitian forms.
The Helicidae are the most noteworthy of the San Domingo land
Mollusca. The group Eurycratera, which contains some of the finest
existing land snails, is quite peculiar, while Parthena, Cepolis,
Plagioptycha, and Caracolus here reach their maximum. The
Cylindrellidae are very abundant, but no section is peculiar. Land
operculates do not bear quite the same proportion to the Pulmonata
as in Cuba and Jamaica, but they are well represented (100 to 152);
Rolleia is the only peculiar genus.
The relations of San Domingo to the neighbouring islands are
considerably obscured by the fact that they are well known, while
San Domingo is comparatively little explored. To this may perhaps
be due the curious fact that there are actually more species common
to Cuba and Porto Rico (26) than to Porto Rico and San Domingo.
Cuba shares with San Domingo its small-sized Caracolus and also
Liguus, but the great Eurycratera, Parthena, and Plagioptycha are
wholly wanting in Cuba. The land operculates are partly related to
Cuba, partly to Jamaica, thus Choanopoma, Ctenopoma, Cistula,
Tudora, and many others, are represented on all these islands, while
the Jamaican Stoastoma occurs on San Domingo and Porto Rico,
but not on Cuba, and Lucidella is common to San Domingo and
Jamaica alone. An especial link between Jamaica and San Domingo
is the occurrence in the south-west district of the latter island of
Sagda (2 sp.). The relative numbers of the genera Strophia,
Macroceramus, and Helicina, as given below (p. 351), are of interest
in this connexion.
Porto Rico, with Vièque, is practically a fragment of San Domingo.
The points of close relationship are the occurrence of Caracolus,
Cepolis, and Parthena among the Helicidae, and of Simpulopsis,
Pseudobalea, and Stoastoma. Cylindrella and Macroceramus are
but poorly represented, but Strophia still occurs. The land
operculates (see the Table) show equal signs of removal from the
headquarters of development. Megalomastoma, however, has some
striking forms. The appearance of a single Clausilia, whose nearest
relations are in the northern Andes, is very remarkable. Gaeotis,
which is allied to Peltella (Ecuador only), is peculiar.
Fig. 231.—Examples of West Indian
Helices: A, Helix (Parthena)
angulata Fér., Porto Rico; B,
Helix (Thelidomus) lima Fér.,
Vièque; C, Helix (Dentellaria) nux
denticulata Chem., Martinique.
Land Mollusca of the Greater Antilles
Cuba. Jamaica. S. Domingo. Porto Rico.
Glandina 18 24 15 8
Streptostyla 4 ... 2 ...
Volutaxis ... 11 (?) 1 ...
Selenites 1 ... ... ...
Hyalinia 4 11 5 6
Patula 5 1 ... ...
Sagda ... 13 2 ...
Microphysa 7 18 8 3
Cysticopsis 9 6 ... ...
Hygromia (?) ... ... 3 ...
Leptaxis (?) ... ... 1 ...
Polygyra 2 ... ... ...
Jeanerettia 6 ... ... 1
Euclasta ... ... ... 4
Plagioptycha ... ... 14 2
Strobila ... 1 ... ...
Dialeuca ... 1 ... ...
Leptoloma 1 8 ... ...
Eurycampta 4 ... ... ...
Coryda 7 ... ... ...
Thelidomus 15 3 ... 3
Eurycratera ... ... 7 ...
Parthena ... ... 2 2
Cepolis ... ... 3 1
Caracolus 8 ... 6 2
Polydontes 3 ... ... 1
Hemitrochus 12 1 ... ...
Polymita 5 ... ... ...
Pleurodonta ... 34 ... ...
Inc. sed. 5 ... ... ...
Simpulopsis ... ... 1 1
Bulimulus 3 3 6 7
Orthalicus 1 1 ... ...
Liguus 3 ... 1 ...
Gaeotis ... ... ... 3
Pineria 2 ... ... 1
Macroceramus 34 2 14 3
Leia ... 14 2 ...
Cylindrella 130 36 35 3
Pseudobalea 2 ... 1 1
Stenogyra 6 7 (?) ...
Opeas 8 (?) 4 6
Subulima 6 14 2 2
Glandinella 1 ... ... ...
Spiraxis 2 (?) 2 1
Melaniella 7 ... ... ...
Geostilbia 1 ... 1 ...
Cionella 2 ... ... ...
Leptinaria ... 1 ... 3
Obeliscus ... ... 1 2
Pupa 2 7 3 2
Vertigo 4 ... ... ...
Strophia 19 ... 3 2
Clausilia ... ... ... 1
Succinea 11 2 5 3
Vaginula 2 2 2 1
Megalomastoma 13 ... 1 3
Neocyclotus 1 33(?) ... ...
Licina 1 ... 3 ...
Jamaicia ... 2 ... ...
Crocidopoma ... 1 3 ...
Rolleia ... ... 1 ...
Choanopoma 25 12 19 3
Ctenopoma 30 2 1 ...
Cistula 15 3 3 3
Chondropoma 57 (?) 19 4
Tudora 7 17 5 ...
Adamsiella 1 12 ... ...
Blaesospira 1 ... ... ...
Xenopoma 1 ... ... ...
Cistula 15 3 3 ...
Colobostylus 4 13 5 ...
Diplopoma 1 ... ... ...
Geomelania ... 21 ... ...
Chittya ... 1 ... ...
Blandiella ... ... 1 ...
Stoastoma ... 80 1 1
Eutrochatella 21 6 6 ...
Lucidella ... 4 1 ...
Alcadia 9 14 4 ...
Helicina 58 16 24 9
Proserpina 2 4 ... ...
The Virgin Is., with St. Croix, Anguilla, and the St. Bartholomew
group (all of which are non-volcanic islands), are related to Porto
Rico, while Guadeloupe and all the islands to the south, up to
Grenada (all of which are volcanic), show marked traces of S.
American influence. St. Kitt’s, Antigua, and Montserrat may be
regarded as intermediate between the two groups. St. Thomas, St.
John, and Tortola have each one Plagioptycha and one Thelidomus,
while St. Croix has two sub-fossil Caracolus which are now living in
Porto Rico, together with one Plagioptycha and one Thelidomus
(sub-fossil). The gradual disappearance of some of the characteristic
greater Antillean forms, and the appearance of S. American forms in
the Lesser Antilles, is shown by the following table:—
S
P S S G M t
o t S t u a S .
r . t A . a D r t B T
t S . T n A d o t . a V G r
o T t o g K n e m i r i r i
h . C r u i t l i n L b n e n
R o r t i t i o n i u a c n i
i m J o o l t g u i q c d e a d
c a a i l l ’ u p c u i o n d a
o s n x a a s a e a e a s t a d
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bulimulus 7 4 2 4 1 2 2 3 8 9 5 3 3 6 2 4
Cylindrella 3 2 1 1 1 . . . . 1 1 1 1 . . 1
Macroceramus 3 1 1 . 2 1 . . . . . . . . . .
Cyclostomatidae, etc.23 4 1 5 1 1 1 . 4 . . . . . . 1
Dentellaria . . . . . . 1 1 8 5 11 2 2 . 1 1
Cyclophorus . . . . . . . . 1 2 2 . . . . .
Amphibulimus . . . . . . . . 2 3 1 . . . . .
Homalonyx . . . . . . . . 1 1 . . . . . .
(d) In Guadeloupe we find Cyclophorus, Amphibulimus,

Homalonyx, and Pellicula, which are characteristic of S. America,
and nearly all recur in Dominica and Martinique. These islands are
the metropolis of Dentellaria, a group of Helix, evidently related to
some of the forms developed in the Greater Antilles. Stragglers
occur as far north as St. Kitt’s and Antigua, and there are several on
the mainland as far south as Cayenne. Traces of the great Bulimus,
so characteristic of South America, occur as far north as S. Lucia,
where also is found a Parthena (San Domingo and Porto Rico).
Trinidad is markedly S. American; 55 species in all are known, of
which 22 are peculiar, 28 are common to S. America (8 of these
reach no farther north along the islands), and only 5 are common to
the Antilles, but not to S. America. The occurrence of Gundlachia in
Trinidad has already been mentioned.
The Bermudas show no very marked relationship either to the N.
American or to the West Indian fauna. In common with the former
they possess a Polygyra, with the latter (introduced species being
excluded) one species each of Hyalosagda, Subulina, Vaginula, and
Helicina, so that, on the whole, they may be called West Indian. The
only peculiar group is Poecilozonites, a rather large and depressed
shell of the Hyalinia type.
(2) The Central American Sub-region may be regarded as
extending from the political boundary of Mexico in the north to the
isthmus of Panama in the south. It thus impinges on three important
districts—the N. American, West Indian, and S. American; and it
appears, as we should perhaps expect, that the two latter of these
regions have considerably more influence upon its fauna than the
former. Of the N. American Helicidae, Polygyra is abundant in
Mexico only, and two species of Strobila reach N. Guatemala, while
the Californian Arionta occurs in Mexico. S. American Helicidae, in
the sub-genera Solaropsis and Labyrinthus, occur no farther north
than Costa Rica. Not a single representative of any of the
characteristic West Indian Helicidae occurs. Bulimulus and
Otostomus, which form so large a proportion of the Mollusca of
Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru, together with Orthalicus,
are abundant all over the region. Again, Cylindrella, Macroceramus,
and some of the characteristic Antillean operculates, are
represented, their occurrence being in most cases limited to the
eastern coast-line and eastern slope of the central range.
Besides these external elements, the region is rich in indigenous
genera. Central America is remarkable for an immense number of
large carnivorous Mollusca possessing shells. There are 49 species
of Glandina, the bulk of which occur in eastern and southern Mexico;
36 of Streptostyla (S.E. Mexico and Guatemala, only 1 species
reaching Venezuela and another Peru); 5 of Salasiella, 2 of Petenia,
and 1 of Strebelia; the last three genera being peculiar. Streptaxis,
fairly common in S. America, does not occur. Velifera and
Cryptostracon, two remarkable slug-like forms, each with a single
species, are peculiar to Costa Rica. Among the especial peculiarities
of the region are the giant forms belonging to the Cylindrellidae,
which are known as Holospira, Eucalodium, and Coelocentrum (Fig.
232). They are almost entirely peculiar to Mexico, only 7 out of a
total of 33 reaching south of that district, and only 1 not occurring in it
at all.
Fig. 232.—Examples of
characteristic Mexican
Mollusca: A, Coelocentrum
turris Pfr.; B, Streptostyla
Delattrei Pfr.
The land operculates are but scanty. Tomocyclus and
Amphicyclotus are peculiar, and Schasicheila, a form of Helicina,
occurs elsewhere only in the Bahamas. Ceres (see Fig. 18, C, p. 21)
and Proserpinella, two remarkable forms of non-operculate
Helicinidae (compare the Chinese Heudeia), are quite peculiar.
Pachychilus, one of the characteristic fresh-water genera, belongs to
the S. American (Melaniidae) type, not to the N. American
(Pleuroceridae). Among the fresh-water Pulmonata, the Aplecta are
remarkable for their great size and beauty. In the accompanying
table “Mexico” is to be taken as including the region from the United
States border up to and including the isthmus of Tehuantepec, and
“Central America” as the whole region south of that point.
Land Mollusca of Central America
Mexico Central Common to
only. America both.
only.
Strebelia 1 ... ...
Glandina 33 13 3
Salasiella 4 ... 1
Streptostyla 18 12 6
Petenia ... 1 1
Limax ... 1 ...
Velifera ... 1 ...
Omphalina 10 1 1
Hyalinia 2 5 3
Guppya ... 8 3
Pseudohyalina 2 ... 2
Tebennophorus 1 ... ...
Cryptostracon ... 1 ...
Xanthonyx 4 ... ...
Patula 3 ... 4
Acanthinula 1 2 2
Vallonia ... 1 ...
Trichodiscus 2 2 3
Praticolella 1 ... 1
Arionta 3 ... ...
Lysinoe 1 1 1
Oxychona 2 5 ...
Solaropsis ... 2 ...
Polygyra 14 1 2
Strobila 1 1 ...
Labyrinthus ... 5 ...
Otostomus 23 20 7
Bulimulus 6 5 2
Berendtia 1 ... ...
Orthalicus 6 3 3
Pupa 1 1 1
Vertigo 1 ... ...
Holospira 12 ... ...
Coelocentrum 6 1 1
Eucalodium 15 ... 5
Cylindrella 6 4 ...
Macroceramus 2 1 ...
Simpulopsis 2 1 ...
Caecilianella 1 ... ...
Opeas 1 2 3
Spiraxis 8 2 1
Leptinaria ... 2 ...
Subulina 2 3 4
Succinea 11 3 1
Vaginula 1 ... ...
Aperostoma ... 4 1
Amphicyclotus 2 1 2
Cystopoma 2 ... ...
Tomocyclus ... 1 2

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1. Fundamentals of Transmission of Rotary Motion by Means of Perfect Gears.......... 1

2. Optimization of Geometrical Engagement Parameters for Gear Honing................. 35

3. Design and Generation of Straight Bevel Gears.............................................................65

4. Interaction of Gear Teeth: Contact Geometry of Interacting Gear and Pinion

5. Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication of Conformal Gears............................................... 151

6. Gear Drive Engineering..................................................................................................... 165

7. Adaptive Gear Variators (CVTs)...................................................................................... 243

8. Kinematic and Power Analysis of Multi-Carrier Planetary Change-Gears

9. Powder Metal Gear Technology....................................................................................... 329

10. Induction Heat Treatment of Gears and Gear-Like Components............................. 363

Appendix A: On the Inconsistency of the Term “Wildhaber-Novikov

Stephen P. Radzevich is a professor of mechanical engineering and manufacturing

Kiril Arnaudov Boris M. Klebanov

H. P. Evans Stephen P. Radzevich

Anders Flodin Valery Rudnev

Alfonso Fuentes-Aznar R. W. Snidle

Konstantin S. Ivanov Michael Storchak

There is nothing more practical than a good theory.

Uniqueness of this Publication

Organization of this Book

The design and generation of straight bevel gears are discussed

condition of transfer of forces (sufficient condition of adaptation), method of the force

1.1 Introductory Remarks

Pmax = RPMmax ⋅ Trqmax (1.1)

Assuming Pmax = Const, a boundary hyperbola can be constructed in the reference

1.2 Three Fundamental Laws of Gearing

1.2.2.1 Pulley-and-Belt: Analogy of a Gear Pair

F. The Neotropical Region

Fig. 228.—Homalonyx unguis Fér.,

Fig. 229.—Characteristic Cuban

(d) In Guadeloupe we find Cyclophorus, Amphibulimus,

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