RES 103
MORALLY UPRIGHT
THE QUALIFIED RESEARCHER
Role of a Researcher
● Research appropriateness is both a
scientific and ethical requirement.
● The researcher has ultimate responsibility
and accountability for the scientific and
ethical soundness of the research.
What makes a research appropriate to conduct
the approved protocol?
➔ something that is right for the purpose
Qualifications Of A Researcher:
1. Scientific Competence
➔ knowledge + skill
2. Resources
➔ personal time and energy
➔ physical facilities
➔ gadgets / equipment
3. Interest / Involvement in Topic
Frome “QUALIFIED” to “QUALITY”
➔ character + attitude
Traits of character: good habits or virtues
Good Habits:
1. TRUSTWORTHINESS
➔ faithful to trust and promise to every
participant, community, institution, and
sponsor that their best interests will be
kept in mind
2. HONESTY
➔ truth in word & deed to the participants /
respondents, sponsor, and public
3. RESPECT
➔ commands respect and is respectful
➔ pays attention to others
➔ obtains free and informed consent
4. HUMILITY
➔ accepts truth: strengths and weakness
➔ accepts that others may know better and
should be followed
➔ complies with the approved protocol
5. COURAGE
➔ does what is right without undue fear
➔ exercises social responsibility
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6.
➔ must not have been accused of fraud or
other immoral activities (in doing research)
➔ must not commit any ethical or scientific
misconduct
● SCIENTIFIC MISCONDUCT – deliberate
falsification or distortion of scientific data in
proposing, performing, reporting, or
reviewing research and other violations of
the internal norms of scientific investigation.
The Researcher has ultimate responsibility for the
ethics of the research.
To be able to do it needs competence and virtue.
DATA GATHERING
Procedures before you give the consent form:
INTRODUCTION
– Briefly introduce yourselves as the researchers.
– Emphasize to the participants that they can take
time to reflect on whether they want to participate.
– Assure the participant that if they don't
understand some of the words or concepts, these
will be explained and that they can ask questions
at any time.
PURPOSE OF THE RESEARCH
– Explain the research question in ordinary, non-
technical terms.
– Use local and simplified words rather than
scientific terms and professional jargon.
– Consider local beliefs and knowledge when
deciding how best to provide the information.
PARTICIPANT SELECTION
– Indicate why you have chosen this person to
participate in this research.
– People wonder why they have been chosen and
may be fearful, confused, or concerned.
VOLUNTARY PARTICIPATION
– Indicate clearly that they can choose to
participate or not.
– State, only if it is applicable, that they will still
receive all the services they usually do if they
choose not to participate.
PROCEDURES
– (1) Provide a brief introduction to the format of
the research study and in which part of the study
they will be involved.
– (2) Explain the type of questions that the
participants are likely to be asked in the focus
group, the interviews, or the survey.
➔ If the research involves questions or
discussions which may be sensitive or
potentially cause embarrassment, inform the
participant of this.
In focus group discussions:
● Give the location of the FGD, describe the
FGD process, inform the participant that
there will be 7-8 other persons with similar
experiences, that the discussion will be
guided by a moderator who is trained to do
so, whether the discussion will be recorded,
how confidentiality will be kept and how long
the records will be stored
● Give the participant an idea of what topics
will be taken up, that questions may also be
raised and discussed, and that they do not
have to share any knowledge that they are
not comfortable sharing.
● It is also important for the participant to know
that they can still opt out of the study even
after the FGD by requesting that their
participation not be cited as part of the data
that the participant has about the study.
For interviews:
● Inform the participant about the location of
the interview (or a preferred location of the
participant) and the identity of the
interviewer.
● Assure the participant that they do not wish
to answer any of the questions during the
interview, the interviewer will move on to the
next question; that no one else but the
interviewer will be present unless they would
like someone else to be there.
● Describe how the interview will be recorded
and kept confidential.
● Explain how long the study records will be
kept and subsequently destroyed.
For questionnaire surveys:
● Describe how the survey will be distributed
and collected.
● Inform the participant that they may answer
the questionnaire personally, or it can be
read to them; answered aloud and written
down by a member of the research team.
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● Assure the participant that if they do not wish
to answer any of the questions, this may be
skipped, and they can proceed to the next
question.
● The information recorded is confidential,
name is not included on the forms, only a
number will identify them, and no one else
except [name of persons with access to the
information] will have access to the results of
the survey.
RISKS
– Explain and describe any risks that can be
anticipated or that are possible.
– The risks depend upon the nature and type of
qualitative intervention and should be, as usual,
tailored to the specific issue and situation
– If the discussion is on sensitive and personal
issues (reproductive and sexual health, personal
habits) or confidential in nature, then there is a
risk of embarrassment, discomfort, or fear.
– Assure the participant that they don't have to
answer any question or take part in the
discussion, interview, or survey if they feel the
questions are too personal or if talking about
them makes them uncomfortable.
BENEFITS
– Benefits may be divided into benefits to the
individual, benefits to the community in which the
individual resides, and benefits to society as a
whole because of finding an answer to the
research question.
– Mention only those activities that will be actual
benefits and not those to which they are entitled
regardless of participation.
REIMBURSEMENTS
– State clearly that the participants will not
receive payments beyond reimbursements for
expenses incurred because of their participation.
CONFIDENTIALITY
– Explain how the research team will maintain the
confidentiality of data with respect to both
information about the participant and information
that the participant shares.
– Outline any limits to confidentiality. Inform the
participant that because something out of the
ordinary is being done through research, any
individual taking part in the research is likely to be
more easily identified by members of the
community and therefore more likely to be
stigmatized.
– If the research is sensitive or involves
participants who are highly vulnerable, research
concerning violence against women for example,
explain to the participant any extra precautions
you will take to ensure safety and anonymity.
SHARING THE RESULTS
– If there is a plan and a timeline for the sharing
of information, include the details. The participant
may also be informed that the research findings
will be shared more broadly, for example, through
publications and conferences.
RIGHT TO REFUSE OR WITHDRAW
– Reiterate that participation is voluntary and
includes the right to withdraw.
– Tailor this section to ensure that it fits the group
for whom one is seeking consent.
– Participants should have an opportunity to
review their remarks in individual interviews and
erase part or all the recordings or notes.
DATA PRESENTATION, INTERPRETATION,
AND ANALYSIS
Chapter 3: Methodology – Data Analysis
QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE
Frequency Coding
(f) Catego
Percentage rizing
(%)
Mean
QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS
– The analysis will utilize statistical and
mathematical tools.
– These can range from simple tools that make
description easier, to those that can be used to
make inferences or predictions from the data.
– Learning how to use statistics in research is a
matter of developing a basic understanding of
statistical concepts and developing skills in using
the various tools available, as well as when and
how to use them.
Two Forms of Statistics:
I. DESCRIPTIVE
– Measures central tendency and dispersion.
– Are a part of statistics that can be used to
describe data.
– It is used to summarize the attributes of a
sample in such a way that a pattern can be
drawn from the group.
– It enables researchers to present data in a
more meaningful way such that easy
interpretations can be made.
Two tools:
1. MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
– These help to describe the central position
of the data by using measures such as
mean, median, and mode.
● MEAN
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– Is a widely used measure of central
tendency.
– It is commonly known as the "average"
of something.
– However, the more precise term is the
"arithmetic average."
– The mean is calculated by adding up all
the values in a given set and dividing it by
the total number of observations.
– The result is an "averaged" value.
● MEDIAN
– The exact midpoint of a list of values,
arranged from lowest to highest.
– Exactly half of the observations are
located below the median value and the
other half are located above the median
value.
– When the total number of observations
is an odd number, the median can be
found by simply determining the middle
number.
– For datasets with even observations, the
median is computed by finding the two
middle numbers, adding them, and
dividing the sum of those numbers by two.
– Like the mean, the median also gives us
an idea of the "average" or "typical" value
in a given group or population.
– Compared to the mean, the median is
not affected by outliers.
– Regardless of the lowest or the highest
value in a given set of values, the median
remains the same for as long as the order
and the total number of values remain the
same.
● MODE
– The mode is the most frequently
observed or the most frequently occurring
value.
– This is helpful in identifying the most
common value or category in a given set.
– There can be more than one mode in a
given frequency distribution, and these
modes do not need to have the same
frequency.
– While the mode may be used to
describe the most frequently occurring
value in a set comprised of numerical
variables (interval or ratio), it is best used
in sets or variables that use categories
(nominal or ordinal).
2. MEASURES OF DISPERSION
– These measures help to see how spread
out the data is in a distribution with respect to
a central point.
 – This includes : range, standard deviation,
variance, quartiles, and absolute deviation.
– Dispersion is the state of getting
dispersed or spread.
– Statistical dispersion means the extent to
which numerical data is likely to vary about
an average value. In other words, dispersion
helps to understand the distribution of the
data.
● RANGE
– It is simply the difference between the
maximum value and the minimum value
given in a data set.
● VARIANCE
– Deduct the mean from each data in the
set, square each of them and add each
square and finally divide them by the total
no of values in the data set to get the
variance. Variance (σ2) =∑(X−μ)2/N
● STANDARD DEVIATION
– The square root of the variance.
2. SPOT - CHECKING
– Taking a subset of the system and listening
to the entire taped interviews of those
interviews while checking the transcripts.
3. EXTENDED INTERVIEW
– An interview that lasts for more than two
hours.
4. TRANSCRIPTIONIST EFFECT
– Misinterpretation of content; unfamiliar
jargon; language-specific errors.
5. TRANSCRIPTION
– The action of providing a written account of
spoken words.
– In qualitative research, transcription is
conducted in individual or group interviews
and is generally written verbatim (exactly
word-by-word).
6. COOL ANALYSIS
– Process of culling significant statements
and coming up with data categories.

II. INFERENTIAL 7. WARM ANALYSIS

– It is a branch of statistics that is used to
make inferences about the population by
analyzing a sample.
– When the population data is very large it
becomes difficult to use it.
– In such cases, certain samples are taken that
are representative of the entire population.
– Inferential statistics draw conclusions
regarding the population using these samples.
Some methodologies:
1. HYPOTHESIS TESTING
– Involves the use of hypothesis tests such
as the z test, f test, t test, etc. to make
inferences about the population data.
– It requires setting up the null hypothesis
(Ho), alternative hypothesis (Ha), and testing
the decision criteria.
– Process of identifying the essence
of the phenomenon
8. SATURATION OF CATEGORIES
– This means that your observations and
interviews yield little new information
anymore.
9. MEMBER CHECKING
– Is a technique for exploring the credibility of
results.
– Data or results are returned to participants
to check for accuracy and resonance with
their experiences.

2. REGRESSION ANALYSIS
– Such a technique is used to check the
relationship between dependent and
Independent variables.

QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

– Basic Concept: Every human experience has its
own morphology.
– Qualitative Research is geared toward a better
understanding of human experiences.

Basic terms:
1. EXTENDED OR FIELD TEXT
– Refers to a transcribed interview.
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Steps to Understanding Human
Understanding in Qualitative Data Analysis:

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