Some words in the Mexican language were of Philippine origin.

Among them are golgoreta (earthen jar for storing drinking

water), palay (unhusked rice), parian (market), maluto (cooked rice wrapped in banana leaf) and tik-tik (house lizard).

Finally, the Philippines contributed to the success of the Mexican Revolution for independence (1810-1821) by supplying the
revolution- aries with the needed funds. During the last three years of libertarian struggle General Agustin de Iturbide commander of the
revolutionary forces, faced a desperate situation for lack of funds. The troops were on the brink of mutiny for their salaries had not been
paid for many months. To raise the needed funds, he confiscated the chests of 5,000,000 Mexican silver pesos which were being carried
by burro train from Mexico City to San Blas to be loaded on a Manila-bound galleon. Part of this silver cargo belonged to Doña Ana
Marquesa de las Salinas (wife of Dr. Paul de la Gironiere, French physician in Manila)."

Two years later (1812), General Iturbide again confiscated the chests of several millions of silver pesos which were being trans-
ported by burro train from Mexico City to Acapulco for shipment to Manila. This silver cargo belonged to several Manila merchants,
including Don Antonio de Escura. Many years afterwards, in 1859, Pedro de Escura, son of the deceased Antonio de Escura, went to
Mexico to seek reparations for his father's losses. Upon arrival in Mexico City, he wrote a formal letter, dated December 30, 1859 to
President Benito Juarez of the Mexican Republic requesting payment for his late father's silver cargo seized by General Iturbide in
1821.12 After failing in his mission, he resided permanently in Mexico and married a rich Mexican heiress.

Chapter 7 THE SPANISH COLONIAL SYSTEM

SPAIN WAS THE first European country to rise as a great colonizing power in modern times. At the zenith of her glory and
grandeur during the 16th century, her siglo de oro (golden century), she had far-flung colonies in Africa, the New World (Latin America
and Asia) - the first global colonial empire in history - so that King Philip II was the first monarch to justly boast that the sun never set on
his realm. To rule such extensive possessions, Spain compiled the first code of colonial laws, called Leyes de Indias, which modern
authorities on colonialism acclaim as "one of the most humane and one of the most comprehensive codes published for any colonial
empire". However, because of the distance of the Philippines from Spain and the corruption and decadence of Spanish officials and
friars, especially in the 19th century, these colonial laws were unevenly applied or failed to benefit the colonies.

Aims of Spanish Colonization. Spain's aims in colonizing over- seas lands (including the Philippines) may be keynoted by
three G's - God, Gold and Glory. The first and chief aim of her colonization was the propagation of Catholic Christianity, which is attested
by the Testament of Queen Isabel the Catholic (1479-1504) and the Christian spirit of the Leyes de Indias. This is the reason why every
expedition of discovery, exploration and conquest was accompanied by Christian missionaries. As Dr. Wilhelm Roscher, noted German
authority on Spanish colonization, affirmed: "The principal aim of Spanish coloni- zation was the conversion of the heathen peoples to
Christianity."

The second aim of Spanish colonization was the desire for gold or economic wealth. This aim sprang from the struggle among
European powers to monopolize the spice trade of the Orient and to acquire riches. At that time (as it is today), material wealth was a
measure of greatness among nations.

The third aim of colonization arose out of Spain's ambition to be the greatest empire in the world. By acquiring so many colonies
(in- cluding the Philippines), Spain realized her imperialist ambition.

By and large, the first colonial aim (propagation of Christianity) was the most successful and enduring. All the colonies which
Spain had colonized are now Christian nations. Spain had failed to become rich by colonizing the Philippines and other countries. And
her glory in acquiring so many colonies did not last forever, because in the 19th century her glory vanished and she declined as a world
power.
Spain Retains the Philippines Despite Economic Loss. As a colony, the Philippines was a financial burden to the Spanish
treasury. For this reason, the advisors of King Philip II recommended the abandonment of the Philippines. The king spurned their advice.
He told them that the chief objective of the Spanish colonization was the propagation of Christianity, and that for the conversion of the
Filipino people he would gladly spend "all the riches of the Indies".

In 1619 the question of abandoning the Philippines was revived by the court advisers. Upon hearing this news, Fr. Fernando
Moraga, despite his advanced age and feeble health, journeyed to Spain. He threw himself at the feet of Philip III, imploring him not to
abandon the Philippines for the sake of Christianity. Deeply touched by the padre's pleading, the king replied: "Depart with God, Father
Moraga, and be assured that I will not give up what my father had conquered and left me".$

The Philippines as Crown Colony. The Philippines was a crown colony in the sense that she belonged to the Spanish king.
From the beginning of Spanish rule to 1821, she was a dependency of Mexico, being administered directly by the Mexican viceroy in the
name of the Spanish king. After Mexico's separation from Spain in 1821, the Philippines came to be directly ruled from Madrid, and this
arrange- ment lasted until 1898. The king appointed the governor general and other colonial officials and issued royal decrees governing
the Philip- pines.

The Council of the Indies. To help the king rule the colonies, the Council of the Indies was created by King Charles I
(concurrently Emperor Charles V of Germany) in his Royal Decree of August 1, 1524. This council was a powerful body, for it handled
all matters pertaining to the colonies of the Spanish empire. It consisted of a president, four councilors who were either lawyers or
clergymen, a secretary, a fiscal, (crown attorney), a treasurer, a historian, a cosmo- grapher, a professor of mathematics and an usher.
The first president of the Council of the Indies was Fray Garcia Jofre de Loaisa, Father General of the Dominican Order and Archbishop
of Seville.

Later the Council of the Indies was dismantled by Queen Isabel II in 1863. This Queen issued Royal Decree of May 20, 1863
replacing it with the Ministry of Colonies (Ministerio de Ultramar), which was headed by the Minister of Colonies, assisted by the Council
of the Philippines (Consejo de Filipinas). This Council was composed of the Deputy Minister of Colonies, the directors of the Ministry of
Colonies as ex-officio members and twelve regular members appointed by the king because of their knowledge of Philippine affairs.
 The Laws of the Indies. The numerous laws governing the colonies of Spain were compiled and published into a convenient
colonial code entitled Recopilacion de Leyes de las Indias, popularly known as simply Laws of the Indies (Leyes de Indias).6

The Governor General. The chief executive of the Philippines during Spanish times was the Governor and the Captain-General.
This was his official title. He was, however, commonly called governor general. As chief executive, he enforced the king's royal decrees
and other laws from Spain. He was the commander-in-chief of the colonial armed forces. He appointed and removed colonial officials,
except those who were appointed by the king. Until 1861, he served as president (chief justice) of the Royal Audiencia (Supreme Court).
As the king's representative in the colony, he served as vice-royal patron with the power to recommend priests for appointment as parish
priests and to intervene in controversies between religious authorities.

Because of the great distance of the Philippines from Spain, the governor general exercised the powers of a monarch. He could
declare war or peace with China, Japan, Siam, and other countries in the Orient. He appointed ambassadors to, and received
ambassadors from, these countries. He administered not only the Philippines, but also the Marianas, the Carolines and the Palaus
(archipelagoes in the Pacific). These islands were considered a part of the Philippines during Spanish times.

Finally, the governor general could veto any royal decree or law from Spain. This veto power was called cumplase.

Checks to Gubernatorial Powers. The great powers of the governor general were checked by the following: (1) the Royal
Audiencia which was the Supreme Court during the Spanish period; (2) the archbishop and the clergy who were influential in the king's
court; (3) the complaints which subordinate public officials and private citizens sent directly to the king; (4) the residencia, the trial of an
outgoing governor general and other Spanish officials, during which they were called to account for their acts while in office; and (5) the
visitador, an investigator which the king or Mexican viceroy sent to the colony to investigate conditions in the Philippines.

The Royal Audiencia. This was the Supreme Court in Spanish times. Created by the Royal Decree of May 15, 1583, it held its
first session in Manila on June 15, 1584. The first president of the Royal Audiencia was Governor Santiago de Vera. Owing to certain
frictions between the governor and the oidores (justices), it was abolished in 1589 only to be reestablished in 1595.

The Royal Audiencia tried all criminal and civil cases appealed to it by the lower courts. Aside from judicial function as the
highest court of the land, it performed executive and legislative functions.

Until 1719, the Royal Audiencia acted as governor general whenever the governorship was vacant due to the death or incapacity
of the incumbent governor general. Six times during the Spanish period, the Royal Audiencia governed the country-in 1606-08, 1616-18,
1632-33, 1677-79, 1689-90 and 1715-17.

The Royal Audiencia also promulgated certain laws for the colony. These laws were called autos acordados (acts agreed upon)
because they were enacted upon agreement between the governor general and the members of the Royal Audiencia. Examples of the
laws passed by the Royal Audiencia were those restricting Chinese immigration, fixing the prices of prime commodities and ordering the
people to comply with their religious duties.

Furthermore, the Royal Audiencia served as auditor general of the colonial government. It audited the annual expenditures of
the government.

The Residencia. The residencia was a peculiar judicial institution introduced by Spain in the Philippines. It was a trial of an
outgoing governor general and other Spanish officials who were obliged to give an accounting of their acts during their term of office.
This trial was con- ducted by their successors or by a special judge appointed for this purpose.

The first Spanish governor general who was subjected to a resi- dencia was Governor Guido de Lavezaris (1572-75). He was
found guilty by his successor, Governor Francisco de Sande, who presided over the residencia. As penalty, Lavezaris was ordered by
Sande to return the encomiendas of Betis and Lubao, which Lavezaris assigned for himself during his governorship. However, Lavezaris
appealed his case to the king. The king, in recognition of Lavezaris' services during the conquest of the Philippines, pardoned him and
restored to him the two encomiendas.

Governor Sande himself met the same fate at the end of his term (1575-80). At this residencia, he was found guilty by his
successor, Governor Ronquillo de Peñalosa, for enriching himself while in office Accordingly, Sande was sentenced to pay a heavy fine.

Other Spanish governors were convicted at their residencia for enriching themselves while in office or for abusing their power.
Among them were Hurtado de Corcuera (1635-44), who was sentenced to five years imprisonment and a fine of P25,000; Juan de Vargas
(1678-84), who was condemned to stand daily at the doors of the churches, dressed in the sack cloth of a penitent and with a rope around
his neck; and Berenguer de Marquina (1788-93), who was fined P40,000.

The Visitador. Another check to the great powers of the Spanish governor general of the Philippines was the visitador or
investigating officer, which the king of Spain or the viceroy of Mexico sent to Manila at certain times to investigate Philippine conditions
and the complaints against the governor general and other Spanish officials.

In 1629, during the administration of Governor General Niño de Tabora (1626-1636), King Philip IV sent a visitador, Francisco
Rojas, an oidor (member) of the Royal Audiencia of Mexico, to Manila to inves- tigate the quarrel between Governor Tabora and the
Royal Audiencia of Manila over the authority of the governor in permitting a Chinese merchant to bring arms and ammunition to Manila
for the use of the colonial troops. The Audiencia accused the governor of exceeding his authority and ordered the Chinese merchant to
stand trial for arms smuggling. Rojas, after more study of the case, decided the dispute in the governor's favor on the ground that the
governor had the military power to importarmaments to strengthen the colonial defense. Aside from exonerating the governor, Rojas
suspended two oidores of the Audiencia for persecuting the innocent Chinese merchant.

In 1738 the viceroy of Mexico sent a visitador to Manila. This visitador was Jose Ignacio Arzadun, a member of the Royal
Audiencia of Mexico. During his investigation of Philippine conditions, he dis- covered the abuses of the Spanish alcalde mayor in
Cagayan Province. This alcalde mayor enriched himself by extorting money from helpless natives. He punished this corrupt Spanish
official by condemning him to return the money to the victims and disqualifying him forever from holding government office.

The Encomienda System. The encomienda was a grant of inhabitants living in a particular conquered territory which Spain gave
to a Spanish colonizer as a reward for his services. It included only the tribute collected from inhabitants. It did not include the land, the
natural resources and the services of its inhabitants. What the encomendero (owner of the encomienda) received were the tributes of the
inhabitants.

In exchange for the encomienda, the encomendero was obliged by the law to promote the welfare of the inhabitants. His duties
were (1) to protect the inhabitants from enemies, (2) to assist the missionaries in Christianizing them and (3) to promote the education of
the peopl

The encomiendas were of two kinds-royal and private." Royal encomiendas were exclusively owned by the king and they
consisted of cities, seaports and inhabitants of regions rich in natural resources. Private encomiendas were owned by private persons or
charitable institutions, such as the College of Santa Potenciana and the Hospital of San Juan de Dios.

At the beginning, the encomienda was granted for two generations, after which it reverted to the Spanish Crown. Later, the
Royal Decree of February 1, 1636 by King Philip III extended its tenure to three generations.

The first encomiendas in the Philippines were given to the early Spanish colonizers in Cebu on January 1, 1571 by Adelantado
Legazpi, upon orders of King Philip II. In subsequent times, more encomien- das were granted to other Spaniards. By 1591, there were
257 encomien- das in the Philippines (31 royal and 236 private) with total population of over 600,000.

The encomienda system ended in Mexico, Chile, Peru, and other Spanish colonies in Latin America at the end of the 18th
century. In the Philippines the encomienda system lasted a little longer and finally ended in the first decade of the 19th century.

The Tribute. As a symbol of vassalage to Spain, the Filipinos paid tribute. One tribute corresponded to one family consisting of
husband, wife and minor children. An unmarried man or woman paid one-half tribute. At the beginning, a tribute amounted to eight reales
(one peso), payable in money or kind. Later, in 1851, it was increased to twelve reales (one peso and a half). The tribute was finally abo-
lished in 1884 and was replaced by the cedula tax.

The Filipinos hated the tribute because (1) it reminded them of their bondage to Spain and (2) it spawned Spanish abuses. They
had no objection to the amount, for it was not high and they could afford to pay it, but what angered them were the abuses committed by
the tribute collectors.

According to the law, the tribute was payable in money or in kind (rice. honey, corn and other products). The encomenderos
forced them to pay in rice or in honey, appraising it at a low price, and later resold it to them at a very high price. In the town of Dagami,
Leyte, for instance, the encomendero cheated the people by using a tampered weight so that the people actually paid more than the true
value of the tribute. In many places, the encomenderos, while collecting the tribute, cruelly treated the people, torturing them and
plundering their house- hold goods and stealing their chickens, pigs and even carabaos.

No wonder, in 1859 the people of the Ilocos and Cagayan Valley rose in revolt against the tribute.

The Polo. Aside from paying the tribute, all male Filipinos from 16 to 60 years of age were obliged to render forced labor, called
polo. This labor lasted 40 days; later in 1884 it was reduced to 15 days. It took various forms, such as the building and repairing of roads
and bridges, construction of public buildings and churches; cutting timber in the forest; working in shipyards, and serving as sailors and
soldiers in military expeditions.

A person who rendered the forced labor was called polista. He could be exempted by paying the falla, which was a sum of
money.

The Filipinos hated the polo, like the tribute. They were compelled to render forced labor, while the white Spaniards, mestizos
and Chinese were exempted. What really aroused their opposition were the abuses connected with it.

The polistas (Filipinos who rendered forced labor) were, accord- ing to law, to be given a daily wage and rice ration during their
working days. They never received these. And worse, they were compelled to cut logs in the forests and drag them to the shipyards
where they were made into ships for the Spaniards. Because of this hard labor, many polistas died. Often they were forcibly taken away
to work in the shipyards and served as rowers in Spanish expeditions during planting and harvesting seasons.

Some of the early Filipino revolts against Spain were caused by the polo. One of these revolts was the Sumoroy Rebellion in
Samar in 1649-1650.

Abolition of Slavery. One of the good things which Spain had done for the people was the abolition of slavery. The early Spanish
missionaries urged the king to abolish slavery in the Philippines.

On October 17, 1581, Bishop Domingo Salazar and the heads of different religious orders met at the Augustinian convent in
Tondo, Manila. After due deliberation, they signed a document denouncing to King Philip II the Spaniards in the Philippines who kept
slaves contrary to the law of God and in violation of the Laws of the Indies.

King Philip II, heeding the complaint of Bishop Salazar and the religious fathers, issued the Royal Decree of August 9, 1589
emanci- pating all native slaves.

Pope Gregory XIV reinforced the king's decree by promulgating the Papal Bull of April 18, 1591 threatening to excommunicate
those who would not liberate their slaves.
 Provincial Government. For administrative purposes, the Phil- ippines was divided into provinces and special districts. The
provinces were known as alcaldias, each governed by an alcalde mayor. The special districts, representing unpacified regions, were
known as correg- imientos, each under a corregidor, usually an army officer.

The alcalde mayor of the province exercised both executive and judicial functions. He received a low salary, but his office was
lucrative because of his privilege to engage in trade. This privilege was greatly abused so that it was abolished by law in 1844. Finally,
in 1886, the alcalde mayor was made simply a judge, and a civil governor was appointed chief executive of the province.

Municipal Government. The provinces were divided into pueblos (towns). Each pueblo was administered by a gobernadorcillo
(petty governor). He was popularly called capitan and his wife, capitana. At first, he was elected annually by all married males of the
town; later, in the 19th century, he was elected by 13 electors headed by the outgoing gobernadorcillo. Other town officials besides the
gobernadorcillo were the teniente mayor (chief lieutenant), juez de sementeras (justice of the fields), juez de ganados (justice of cattle),
juez de policia (justice of police) and the directorcillo (municipal secretary).

Every pueblo was divided into barangays (barrios), each under a cabeza de barangay. Like the gobernadorcillo, the cabeza
served annually, without salary.

The Cities. Several large towns in the Philippines were organized into cities. Among them were Manila, Lipa, Jaro, Cebu, Albay,
Arevalo, Naga and Vigan. The city government was called ayuntamiento. The city council, known as cabildo, was composed at the
alcalde (mayor), regidores (councilors), alguacil mayor (chief constable) and the escribano (secretary).

Missionaries and Spanish Colonization. The missionaries played a significant role in the colonization of the Philippines. They
came with the conquistadores. They bravely penetrated the uncharted mountains and unexplored jungles, enduring great hardships and
not infrequently suffering a martyr's death in the course of their evange- lical labors. Their only arms were the crucifix, the rosary and
their virtues. By the sign of the Cross, they conquered, winning the Filipinos to accept Christianity and Spanish rule.

The first missionaries to reach the Philippines were the Augus- tinians under Father Urdaneta. They came with Legazpi in 1565.
In subsequent times more and more misssionaries arrived such as the Franciscans in 1577, the Jesuits in 1581, the Dominicans in 1587,
the Recollects in 1606 and the Benedictines in 1895.

Ecclesiastical Organization. Parallel to and intimately associated with the civil government was the ecclesiastical organization.
At the top of this organization was the Archbishop of Manila, who was appointed by the Pope upon recommendation of the king. Below
him were bishops, who were heads of dioceses (bishoprics). And below the bishops were the parish priests, who administered the
parishes.

The church had its own court, called the Archbishop's Court which tried cases involving Canon Law and cases concerning the
clergy.

The Bishopric of Manila was established in 1578 by Pope Gregory XII. The first Bishop of Manila was Most Rev. Domingo de
Salazar. In 1595 Pope Clement VIII elevated Manila into an archbishopric, with Cebu, Nueva Segovia and Nueva Caceres as suffragan
bishoprics. Bishop Salazar who was visiting Spain was named archbishop. But he died before he could assume his new office, so that
Rev. Ignacio de Santibañez, a Franciscan prelate of Mexico, was named by the Vatican as the first Archbishop of Manila.

Union of Church and State. During the Spanish times there was a political union of Church and State in the Philippines. Catholic
Christianity was the state religion. Both civil and ecclesiastical autho- rities served God and the king. Owing to the union, the clergy
enjoyed political influence in the colony.

In the town, the parish priest was the real power. He represented the majesty of Spain. He supervised local elections, education,
charities, morals, and taxation.

Until 1762, bishops and archbishops acted as governors general in cases of vacancy in the gubernatorial office. Among them
were: Archbishop Francisco de la Cuesta (1719-21), Bishop Juan de Ar- rechederra (1745-50), Bishop Lino de Espeleta (1759-61) and
Arch- bishop Manuel Antonio Rojo (1761-62).

Chapter 8 OUR ECONOMY UNDER SPAIN

SPAIN STRESSED the religious aspects of colonization and neglected to promote the economic development of the Philippines.
Despite many good laws and policies on the economic welfare of the colony, the country languished miserably due to the corruption,
ignorance and indolence of Spanish officials and friars. In the end, Spain could only give what she herself possessed: when the Spanish
empire declined, so did the colonies of Spain suffer. Ironically, the period of rapid economic growth in the 19th century also brought about
the political enlightenment of the Filipinos who became eager to ensure their share of material progress and to assert their equality with
the Spaniards.

Spain's Economic Policy. The pace of economic development of the Philippines under Spain was generally slow because the
latter lacked the entrepreneurial merchants and materialistic drive of Eng- land, Holland and the United States. Ironically, this was a
blessing in disguise to the Filipinos. Had Spain fully exploited the country's rich natural resources, these resources would have more
rapidly been depleted, only to benefit the Spaniards and not the Filipinos. Hence, while harsh critics of Spain have pilloried her for
"negligence" in developing the economy, that colonial deficiency ensured the preser- vation of the nation's patrimony for future
generations.

The colonial government, owing to the undeveloped economy of the Philippines, could not maintain its expenses and suffered
a deficit every year. To relieve the financial worries of Manila authorities, King Philip III established the annual subsidy (real situado) in
1606.