HYDROLOGY NO.

Hydrology is the science that encompasses the occurrence, distribution,

movement and properties of the waters of the earth and their relationship
with the environment within each phase of the hydrologic cycle.

The definition of hydrology is the branch of science or geology that studies

the Earth's water. The study of how the major bodies of water have
shifted, expanded and changed land masses is an example of hydrology.

The hydrologic cycle is important because it is how water reaches plants,

animals and us! Besides providing people, animals and plants with water, it
also moves things like nutrients, pathogens and sediment in and out of
aquatic ecosystems.
Hydrology is the science that encompasses the study of water on the
Earth's surface and beneath the surface of the Earth, the occurrence and
movement of water, the physical and chemical properties of water, and its
relationship with the living and material components of the environment.
Hydrological engineering, sometimes called hydrologic engineering, is
an engineering specialty that focuses on water resources. There are both
undergraduate and graduate degree programs available in this field,
leading to potential career options in education, engineering, and
consultancy.
The scientific study of the properties, distribution, and effects of water on
the earth's surface, in the soil and underlying rocks, and in the
atmosphere.

The science of the properties, distribution, and effects of water on

a planet's surface, in the soil and underlying rocks, and in the atmosphere.
The science dealing with the waters of the earth, their distribution on the
surface and underground, and the cycle involving evaporation,
precipitation, flow to the seas, etc.

The scientific study of the properties, distribution, and effects of water as a

liquid, solid, or gas on the Earth's surface, in the soil and underlying rocks,
and in the atmosphere.

The definition of hydrology is the branch of science or geology that studies

the Earth's water.

Hydrology is the science that encompasses the study of water on the

Earth's surface and beneath the surface of the Earth, the occurrence and
movement of water, the physical and chemical properties of water, and its
relationship with the living and material components of the environment.

Hydrology, particularly water flow, can affect the local environment due to
changes in water quality and quantity. These changes can be man-made
(e.g. a dam release) or weather-related (flooding), or due to a combination
of both factors (rainfall runoff caused by poor agricultural practices).

HYDROLOGY LECTURE NO. 2

Engineering hydrology is the science of water resource engineering which

deals with the study of occurrence, distribution, movement and the
properties of water on the earth or beneath the earth surface or in the
atmosphere.

Features of Hydrology
The engineering hydrology deals with the following features:

1. Estimation of water resources

2. Study the components of the hydrological cycle like precipitation,
runoff, transpiration, and their interactions.
3. Study the problems of floods and droughts and preventive actions.
Scope of Engineering Hydrology
The main scope of engineering hydrology is:

1. Determination of Maximum Probable Flood

2. Determination of Water yield from a basin
3. Study the groundwater development
4. Determination of maximum intensity of the storm
5.
1. Determination of Maximum Probable Flood
The study of hydrology can help in determining the maximum probable
flood that can occur at a particular location. Its frequency is also
determined that is essential for the design of hydraulic structures like dams
and reservoirs, channels and other flood control structures.
2. Determination of Water yield from a basin
For the design of dams and municipal water supply units, river navigation
etc it is necessary to determine the occurrence, the frequency and the
quantity of water that can be yielded from a basin. This is performed in
hydrology.

3. Study the ground water development

The knowledge on hydro-geology of the area helps to understand the
groundwater development that influences the recharge facilities like
reservoirs and streams, climate, cropping pattern etc.

4. Determination of maximum intensity of storm

The maximum intensity of storms influences the design of drainage
projects, which are studied in hydrology in depth.

Applications of Engineering Hydrology

The main applications of engineering hydrology are:

1. Hydrology provides guidance for undergoing proper planning and

management of water resources.
2. Calculates rainfall, surface runoff, and precipitation.
3. It determines the water balance for a particular region.
4. It mitigates and predicts flood, landslide and drought risk in the
region.
5. It estimates the water resource potential of the river basins
6. Enables real-time flood forecasting and flood warning.
7. Hydrology analyses the variations observed in the catchments by
bringing a relationship between the surface water and groundwater
resources of the catchment.
8. Hydrology studies the required reservoir capacity that is necessary
for irrigation and municipal water supply purpose during drought
conditions.
9. It is used in the design and operation of hydraulic structures
10. It is used for hydropower generation.
11. Brings measures to control erosion and sediment.

HYDROLOGY- LECTURE NO. 3

Hydrology the branch of science concerned with the properties of the
earth's water, and especially its movement in relation to land.
"Hydro" comes from the Greek word for... water. Hydrology is the study
of water and hydrologists are scientists who study water.
Hydrology is the scientific study of the movement, distribution, and
management of water on Earth and other planets, including the water
cycle, water resources.
Hydrology is the science that encompasses the study of water on the
Earth's surface and beneath the surface of the Earth, the occurrence and
movement of water, the physical and chemical properties of water, and its
relationship with the living and material components of the environment..

What is Hydrology?

Water is an essential resource that is required by all life on Earth. Studying

the movement, availability, and quality of water are the jobs of a
hydrologist. More specifically hydrologists study the chemical properties,
biological interactions, and the physical processes that govern the water
cycle.

The water cycle or hydrologic cycle is a process by which water is

continuously cycled around the earth. This happens through different
pathways and at different rates but the central concepts remain the
same. Water evaporates from the ocean, condenses as clouds, moves
over land, and precipitates. From there it can enter ground water,
evaporate again, or enter a stream or lake. It will eventually find its way
back to the ocean either by falling as precipitation, flowing with a river, or
by moving ever so slowly with ground water. The hydrologic cycle is also a
process that transfers heat energy. Heat is transported pole ward by water
being evaporated and then condensing which releases heat. Without the
water cycle the climate would be much more frigid and areas away from
the equator would be much less habitable.

Studying these different aspects allow hydrologists to do many things such

as calculate water budgets. This process involves tracking where all the
water goes in a watershed and creating an equation with inputs and
outputs to understand water surplus and deficit. Once completed this
budget may be used by city planners to calculate drinking water
availability, farmers to calculate irrigation needs and availability, industries
to calculate if they can produce certain items, and mining companies to
determine if excavation is cost-effective. Studying floods is another thing
that hydrologists do. This can involve creating flood plain maps, modeling
stream flow, and predicting what may happen under certain scenarios.
Hydrologists also study pollution by looking at the sources, transportation
mechanisms, and the ultimate fate of the pollutant. This involves looking
at both point source pollution where the source is known and nonpoint
source pollution where the source is not known. Groundwater and surface
water are investigated to see how the pollutant travels and how it reacts in
nature. The observed data are used to determine where it will end up and
if it is harmful to the aquatic environment. Much of what hydrologists do
involves field work, lab work, and modeling work. This creates a more
complete picture of the hydrologic cycle and aids policy makers in making
their decisions involving water.

Hydrologists typically do the following: Measure the properties of bodies

of water, such as volume and stream flow. Collect water and soil samples
to test for certain properties, such as the pH or pollution levels. Analyze
data on the environmental impacts of pollution, erosion, drought, and other
problems.

Hydrology, particularly water flow, can affect the local environment due
to changes in water quality and quantity. These changes can be man-made
(e.g. a dam release) or weather-related (flooding), or due to a combination
of both factors (rainfall runoff caused by poor agricultural practices).

Hydrology has evolved as a science in response to the need to understand

the complex water system of the earth and help solve water problems.
This hydrology primer gives you information about water on Earth and
humans' involvement and use of water.

Human activities can influence the hydrologic cycle in many other

ways. The volumes and timing of river flows can be greatly affected by
channeling to decrease the impediments to flow, and by changing the
 character of the watershed by paving, compacting soils, and altering the
nature of the vegetation.

The main factors affecting evaporation are temperature, humidity, wind

speed, and solar radiation. The direct measurement of evaporation, though
desirable, is difficult and possible only at point locations. The principal
source of water vapour is the oceans, but evaporation also occurs in soils,
snow, and ice.

LECTURE NO. 4

Applications of Engineering Hydrology

 Hydrology provides guidance for undergoing proper planning and
management of water resources.
 Calculates rainfall, surface runoff, and precipitation.
 It determines the water balance for a particular region.

The branches of Hydrology include: Hydrogeology, Chemical hydrology,

Ecohydrology, Hydroinformatics, Isotope hydrology, Surface
hydrology, Hydrometeorology, Drainage basin management and Water
quality. Surface Hydrology or Surface-water hydrology is a branch of
Hydrology.

Hydrology is the science that encompasses the occurrence, distribution,

movement and properties of the waters of the earth and their relationship
with the environment within each phase of the hydrologic cycle.
Hydrology is the study of the amount and quality of water being stored or
conveyed on the land surface, and in soils and rocks near the surface.
The hydrological response of a catchment is controlled by a combination of
climate, vegetation, drainage, soils and land use.
Description of Hydrologic Cycle

A fundamental characteristic of the hydrologic cycle is that it has no

beginning an it has no end. It can be studied by starting at any of the
following processes:

Earth's water is always in movement, and the natural water cycle, also known
as the hydrologic cycle, describes the continuous movement of water on,
above, and below the surface of the Earth. Water is always changing states
between liquid, vapor, and ice, with these processes happening in the blink of
an eye and over millions of years.

A (very) quick summary of the water cycle

Where does all the Earth's water come from? Primordial Earth was an
incandescent globe made of magma, but all magmas contain water. Water
set free by magma began to cool down the Earth's atmosphere, until it
could stay on the surface as a liquid. Volcanic activity kept and still keeps
introducing water in the atmosphere, thus increasing the surface- and
groundwater volume of the Earth.
The water cycle has no starting point. But, we'll begin in the oceans, since
that is where most of Earth's water exists. The sun, which drives the water
cycle, heats water in the oceans. Some of it evaporates as vapor into the
air. Ice and snow can sublimate directly into water vapor. Rising air
currents take the vapor up into the atmosphere, along with water from
evapotranspiration, which is water transpired from plants and evaporated
from the soil. The vapor rises into the air where cooler temperatures cause
it to condense into clouds.
Air currents move clouds around the globe, cloud particles collide, grow,
and fall out of the sky as precipitation. Some precipitation falls as snow and
can accumulate as ice caps and glaciers, which can store frozen water for
thousands of years. Snowpacks in warmer climates often thaw and melt
when spring arrives, and the melted water flows overland as snowmelt.
Most precipitation falls back into the oceans or onto land, where, due to
gravity, the precipitation flows over the ground as surface runoff. A portion
of runoff enters rivers in valleys in the landscape, with streamflow moving
water towards the oceans. Runoff, and groundwater seepage, accumulate
and are stored as freshwater in lakes. Not all runoff flows into rivers,
though. Much of it soaks into the ground as infiltration. Some water
infiltrates deep into the ground and replenishes aquifers (saturated
subsurface rock), which store huge amounts of freshwater for long periods
of time.
Some infiltration stays close to the land surface and can seep back into
surface-water bodies (and the ocean) as groundwater discharge, and some
groundwater finds openings in the land surface and emerges as freshwater
springs. Over time, though, all of this water keeps moving, some to reenter
the ocean, where the water cycle "ends" ... oops - I mean, where it
"begins."

Global water distribution

For an estimated explanation of where Earth's water exists, look at the
chart below. By now, you know that the water cycle describes the
movement of Earth's water, so realize that the chart and table below
represent the presence of Earth's water at a single point in time. If you
check back in a thousand or million years, no doubt these numbers will be
different!
Notice how of the world's total water supply of about 332.5 million cubic
miles of water, over 96 percent is saline. And, of the total freshwater, over
68 percent is locked up in ice and glaciers. Another 30 percent of
freshwater is in the ground. Fresh surface-water sources, such as rivers
and lakes, only constitute about 22,300 cubic miles (93,100 cubic
kilometers), which is about 1/150th of one percent of total water. Yet,
rivers and lakes are the sources of most of the water people use everyday.
Notice how of the world's total water supply of about 333 million cubic
miles (1,386 million cubic kilometers) of water, over 96 percent is saline.
And, of the total freshwater, over 68 percent is locked up in ice and
glaciers. Another 30 percent of freshwater is in the ground. Thus, rivers
and lakes that supply surface water for human uses only constitute about
22,300 cubic miles (93,100 cubic kilometers), which is about 0.007 percent
of total water, yet rivers are the source of most of the water people use.
LECTURE NO. 5 - PROPERTIES OF WATER

Water (H2O) is a polar inorganic compound that is at room temperature a

tasteless and odorless liquid, which is nearly colorless apart from an
inherent hint of blue. It is by far the most studied chemical compound and
is described as the "universal solvent" and the "solvent of life". It is the
most abundant substance on Earth and the only common substance to
exist as a solid, liquid, and gas on Earth's surface. It is also the third most
abundant molecule in the universe (behind molecular hydrogen and carbon
monoxide).
Water molecules form hydrogen bonds with each other and are strongly
polar. This polarity allows it to dissociate ions in salts and bond to other
polar substances such as alcohols and acids, thus dissolving them. Its
hydrogen bonding causes its many unique properties, such as having a
solid form less dense than its liquid form, a relatively high boiling point of
100 °C for its molar mass, and a high heat capacity.
Water is amphoteric, meaning that it can exhibit properties of an acid or a
base, depending on the pH of the solution that it is in; it readily produces
both and OH−
ions. Related to its amphoteric character, it undergoes self-ionization. The
product of the activities, or approximately, the concentrations of H+
and OH−is a constant, so their respective concentrations are inversely
proportional to each other.

Water is the chemical substance with chemical formula H2O;

one molecule of water has two hydrogen atoms covalently bonded to a
single oxygen atom.[ Water is a tasteless, odorless liquid at ambient
temperature and pressure. Liquid water has weak absorption bands at
wavelengths of around 750 nm which cause it to appear to have a blue
colour. This can easily be observed in a water-filled bath or wash-basin
whose lining is white. Large ice crystals, as in glaciers, also appear blue.
Under standard conditions, water is primarily a liquid, unlike other
analogous hydrides of the oxygen family, which are generally gaseous. This
unique property of water is due to hydrogen bonding. The molecules of
water are constantly moving in relation to each other, and the hydrogen
bonds are continually breaking and reforming at timescales faster than 200
femtoseconds (2×10−13 seconds). However, these bonds are strong enough
to create many of the peculiar properties of water, some of which make it
integral to life.
Lecture No. 06

· Buoyant plumes — Plumes which are lighter than air because they are at
a higher temperature and lower density than the ambient air which
surrounds them, or because they are at about the same temperature as
the ambient air but have a lower molecular weight and hence lower density
than the ambient air. For example, the emissions from the flue gas
stacks of industrial furnaces are buoyant because they are considerably
warmer and less dense than the ambient air. As another example, an
emission plume of methane gas at ambient air temperatures is buoyant
because methane has a lower molecular weight than the ambient air.
· Dense gas plumes — Plumes which are heavier than air because they
have a higher density than the surrounding ambient air. A plume may have
a higher density than air because it has a higher molecular weight than air
(for example, a plume of carbon dioxide). A plume may also have a higher
density than air if the plume is at a much lower temperature than the air.
For example, a plume of evaporated gaseous methane from an accidental
release of liquefied natural gas (LNG) may be as cold as -161 °C.
· Passive or neutral plumes — Plumes which are neither lighter or heavier
than air.
here are five types of air pollution dispersion models, as well as some
hybrids of the five types:[1]
· Box model — The box model is the simplest of the model types.[2] It
assumes the airshed (i.e., a given volume of atmospheric air in a
geographical region) is in the shape of a box. It also assumes that the air
pollutants inside the box are homogeneously distributed and uses that
assumption to estimate the average pollutant concentrations anywhere
within the airshed. Although useful, this model is very limited in its ability
to accurately predict dispersion of air pollutants over an airshed because
the assumption of homogeneous pollutant distribution is much too simple.
Gaussian model — The Gaussian model is perhaps the oldest (circa 1936)
[3] and perhaps the most commonly used model type. It assumes that the
air pollutant dispersion has a Gaussian distribution, meaning that the
pollutant distribution has a normal probability distribution.

Gaussian models are most often used for predicting the dispersion of
continuous, buoyant air pollution plumes originating from ground-level or
elevated sources. Gaussian models may also be used for predicting the
dispersion of non-continuous air pollution plumes (called puff models). The
primary algorithm used in Gaussian modeling is the Generalized Dispersion
Equation For A Continuous Point-Source Plume.[4][5]
· Lagrangian model — a Lagrangian dispersion model mathematically
follows pollution plume parcels (also called particles) as the parcels move
in the atmosphere and they model the motion of the parcels as a random
walk process. The Lagrangian model then calculates the air pollution
dispersion by computing the statistics of the trajectories of a large number
of the pollution plume parcels. A Lagrangian model uses a moving frame of
reference[6] as the parcels move from their initial location. It is said that
an observer of a Lagrangian model follows along with the plume.
· Eulerian model — an Eulerian dispersion model is similar to a Lagrangian
model in that it also tracks the movement of a large number of pollution
plume parcels as they move from their initial location. The most important
difference between the two models is that the Eulerian model uses a fixed
three-dimensional Cartesian grid[6] as a frame of reference rather than a
moving frame of reference. It is said that an observer of an Eulerian model
watches the plume go by.
· Dense gas model — Dense gas models are models that simulate the
dispersion of dense gas pollution plumes .
LECTURE NO. 7

Density of water and ice

The density of water is about 1 gram per cubic centimetre (62 lb/cu ft):
this relationship was originally used to define the gram. The density varies
with temperature, but not linearly: as the temperature increases, the
density rises to a peak at 3.98 °C (39.16 °F) and then decreases ;this is
unusual. Regular, hexagonal ice is also less dense than liquid water—upon
freezing, the density of water decreases by about 9%.
These effects are due to the reduction of thermal motion with cooling,
which allows water molecules to form more hydrogen bonds that prevent
the molecules from coming close to each other. While below 4 °C the
breakage of hydrogen bonds due to heating allows water molecules to
pack closer despite the increase in the thermal motion (which tends to
expand a liquid), above 4 °C water expands as the temperature increases.
Water near the boiling point is about 4% less dense than water at 4 °C
(39 °F).
Under increasing pressure, ice undergoes a number of transitions to
other polymorphs with higher density than liquid water, such as ice II, ice
III, high-density amorphous ice (HDA), and very-high-density amorphous
ice (VHDA).
The unusual density curve and lower density of ice than of water is vital to
life—if water were most dense at the freezing point, then in winter the very
cold water at the surface of lakes and other water bodies would sink, lakes
could freeze from the bottom up, and all life in them would be
killed.Furthermore, given that water is a good thermal insulator (due to
its heat capacity), some frozen lakes might not completely thaw in
summer.The layer of ice that floats on top insulates the water below. Water
at about 4 °C (39 °F) also sinks to the bottom, thus keeping the
temperature of the water at the bottom constant .

Density of saltwater and ice

The density of salt water depends on the dissolved salt content as well as
the temperature. Ice still floats in the oceans, otherwise they would freeze
from the bottom up. However, the salt content of oceans lowers the
freezing point by about 1.9 °C (see here for explanation) and lowers the
temperature of the density maximum of water to the former freezing point
at 0 °C. This is why, in ocean water, the downward convection of colder
water is not blocked by an expansion of water as it becomes colder near
the freezing point. The oceans' cold water near the freezing point
continues to sink. So creatures that live at the bottom of cold oceans like
the Arctic Ocean generally live in water 4 °C colder than at the bottom of
frozen-over fresh water lakes and rivers.
As the surface of salt water begins to freeze (at −1.9 °C for normal
salinity seawater, 3.5%) the ice that forms is essentially salt-free, with
about the same density as freshwater ice. This ice floats on the surface,
and the salt that is "frozen out" adds to the salinity and density of the sea
water just below it, in a process known as brine rejection. This denser salt
water sinks by convection and the replacing seawater is subject to the
same process. This produces essentially freshwater ice at −1.9 °C on the
surface. The increased density of the sea water beneath the forming ice
causes it to sink towards the bottom. On a large scale, the process of brine
rejection and sinking cold salty water results in ocean currents forming to
transport such water away from the Poles, leading to a global system of
currents called the .

Lecture No. 8

Miscibility and condensation

Water is miscible with many liquids, including ethanol in all proportions.

Water and most oils are immiscible usually forming layers according to
increasing density from the top. This can be predicted by comparing
the polarity. Water being a relatively polar compound will tend to be
miscible with liquids of high polarity such as ethanol and acetone, whereas
compounds with low polarity will tend to be immiscible and
poorly soluble such as with hydrocarbons.
As a gas, water vapor is completely miscible with air. On the other hand,
the maximum water vapor pressure that is thermodynamically stable with
the liquid (or solid) at a given temperature is relatively low compared with
total atmospheric pressure. For example, if the vapor's partial pressure is
2% of atmospheric pressure and the air is cooled from 25 °C, starting at
about 22 °C water will start to condense, defining the dew point, and
creating fog or dew. The reverse process accounts for the fog burning off in
the morning. If the humidity is increased at room temperature, for example,
by running a hot shower or a bath, and the temperature stays about the
same, the vapor soon reaches the pressure for phase change, and then
condenses out as minute water droplets, commonly referred to as steam.
A saturated gas or one with 100% relative humidity is when the vapor
pressure of water in the air is at equilibrium with vapor pressure due to
(liquid) water; water (or ice, if cool enough) will fail to lose mass through
evaporation when exposed to saturated air. Because the amount of water
vapor in air is small, relative humidity, the ratio of the partial pressure due
to the water vapor to the saturated partial vapor pressure, is much more
useful. Vapor pressure above 100% relative humidity is called super-
saturated and can occur if air is rapidly cooled, for example, by rising
suddenly in an updraft.

Compressibility

The compressibility of water is a function of pressure and temperature. At

0 °C, at the limit of zero pressure, the compressibility is 5.1×10−10 Pa−1. At
the zero-pressure limit, the compressibility reaches a minimum
of 4.4×10−10 Pa−1 around 45 °C before increasing again with increasing
temperature. As the pressure is increased, the compressibility decreases,
being 3.9×10−10 Pa−1 at 0 °C and 100 megapascals (1,000 bar).
The bulk modulus of water is about 2.2 GPa.[40] The low compressibility of
non-gases, and of water in particular, leads to their often being assumed
as incompressible. The low compressibility of water means that even in the
deep oceans at 4 km depth, where pressures are 40 MPa, there is only a
1.8% decrease in volume.
Triple point

The temperature and pressure at which ordinary solid, liquid, and gaseous
water coexist in equilibrium is a triple point of water. Since 1954, this point
had been used to define the base unit of temperature, the kelvin
but, starting in 2019, the kelvin is now defined using the Boltzmann
constant, rather than the triple point of water.
Due to the existence of many polymorphs (forms) of ice, water has other
triple points, which have either three polymorphs of ice or two polymorphs
of ice and liquid in equilibrium. Gustav Heinrich Johann Apollon
Tammann in Göttingen produced data on several other triple points in the
early 20th century. Kamb and others documented further triple points in
the 1960s,

Melting point
The melting point of ice is 0 °C (32 °F; 273 K) at standard pressure;
however, pure liquid water can be supercooled well below that
temperature without freezing if the liquid is not mechanically disturbed. It
can remain in a fluid state down to its homogeneous nucleation point of
about 231 K (−42 °C; −44 °F). The melting point of ordinary hexagonal ice
falls slightly under moderately high pressures, by 0.0073 °C
(0.0131 °F)/atm or about 0.5 °C (0.90 °F)/70 atm as the stabilization
energy of hydrogen bonding is exceeded by intermolecular repulsion, but
as ice transforms into its polymorphs (see crystalline states of ice) above
209.9 MPa (2,072 atm), the melting point increases markedly with
pressure, i.e., reaching 355 K (82 °C) at 2.216 GPa (21,870 atm) (triple
point of Ice VI.

Electrical properties

Electrical conductivity
Pure water containing no exogenous ions is an excellent insulator, but not
even "deionized" water is completely free of ions. Water undergoes auto-
ionization in the liquid state, when two water molecules form one
hydroxide anion (OH−) and one hydronium cation (H3O+).
Because water is such a good solvent, it almost always has
some solute dissolved in it, often a salt. If water has even a tiny amount of
such an impurity, then the ions can carry charges back and forth, allowing
the water to conduct electricity far more readily.
It is known that the theoretical maximum electrical resistivity for water is
approximately 18.2 MΩ·cm (182 kΩ·m) at 25 °C. This figure agrees well
with what is typically seen on reverse osmosis, ultra-filtered and deionized
ultra-pure water systems used, for instance, in semiconductor
manufacturing plants. A salt or acid contaminant level exceeding even 100
parts per trillion (ppt) in otherwise ultra-pure water begins to noticeably
lower its resistivity by up to several kΩ·m
In pure water, sensitive equipment can detect a very slight electrical
conductivity of 0.05501 ± 0.0001 μS/cm at 25.00 °C.]Water can also
be electrolyzed into oxygen and hydrogen gases but in the absence of
dissolved ions this is a very slow process, as very little current is
conducted. In ice, the primary charge carriers are protons (see proton
conductor). Ice was previously thought to have a small but measurable
conductivity of 1×10−10 S/cm, but this conductivity is now thought to be
almost entirely from surface defects, and without those, ice is an insulator
with an immeasurably small conductivity.

Polarity and hydrogen bonding

An important feature of water is its polar nature. The structure has a bent
molecular geometry for the two hydrogens from the oxygen vertex. The
oxygen atom also has two lone pairs of electrons. One effect usually
ascribed to the lone pairs is that the H–O–H gas phase bend angle is
104.48°, which is smaller than the typical tetrahedral angle of 109.47°. The
lone pairs are closer to the oxygen atom than the electrons sigma
bonded to the hydrogens, so they require more space. The increased
repulsion of the lone pairs forces the O–H bonds closer to each other.
Another consequence of its structure is that water is a polar molecule. Due
to the difference in electronegativity, a bond dipole moment points from
each H to the O, making the oxygen partially negative and each hydrogen
partially positive. A large molecular dipole, points from a region between
the two hydrogen atoms to the oxygen atom. The charge differences cause
water molecules to aggregate (the relatively positive areas being attracted
to the relatively negative areas). This attraction, hydrogen bonding,
explains many of the properties of water, such as its solvent properties.
Although hydrogen bonding is a relatively weak attraction compared to the
covalent bonds within the water molecule itself, it is responsible for a
number of water's physical properties. These properties include its
relatively high melting and boiling point temperatures: more energy is
required to break the hydrogen bonds between water molecules. In
contrast, hydrogen sulfide (H2S), has much weaker hydrogen bonding due
to sulfur's lower electronegativity. H2S is a gas at room temperature, in
spite of hydrogen sulfide having nearly twice the molar mass of water. The
extra bonding between water molecules also gives liquid water a
large specific heat capacity. This high heat capacity makes water a good
heat storage medium (coolant) and heat shield .

Lecture No. 9

Cohesion and adhesion

Water molecules stay close to each other (cohesion), due to the collective
action of hydrogen bonds between water molecules. These hydrogen
bonds are constantly breaking, with new bonds being formed with different
water molecules; but at any given time in a sample of liquid water, a large
portion of the molecules are held together by such bonds.
Water also has high adhesion properties because of its polar nature. On
extremely clean/smooth glass the water may form a thin film because the
molecular forces between glass and water molecules (adhesive forces) are
stronger than the cohesive forces. In biological cells and organelles, water
is in contact with membrane and protein surfaces that are hydrophilic; that
is, surfaces that have a strong attraction to water. Irving
Langmuir observed a strong repulsive force between hydrophilic surfaces.
To dehydrate hydrophilic surfaces—to remove the strongly held layers of
water of hydration—requires doing substantial work against these forces,
called hydration forces. These forces are very large but decrease rapidly
over a nanometer or less. They are important in biology, particularly when
cells are dehydrated by exposure to dry atmospheres or to extracellular
freezing.

Surface tension

Water has an unusually high surface tension of 71.99 mN/m at 25 °C which

is caused by the strength of the hydrogen bonding between water
molecules. This allows insects to walk on water.

Capillary action
Because water has strong cohesive and adhesive forces, it exhibits capillary
action. Strong cohesion from hydrogen bonding and adhesion allows trees
to transport water more than 100 m upward.

Water as a solvent

Water is an excellent solvent due to its high dielectric constant.Substances

that mix well and dissolve in water are known as hydrophilic ("water-
loving") substances, while those that do not mix well with water are known
as hydrophobic ("water-fearing") substances.The ability of a substance to
dissolve in water is determined by whether or not the substance can match
or better the strong attractive forces that water molecules generate
between other water molecules. If a substance has properties that do not
allow it to overcome these strong intermolecular forces, the molecules
are precipitated out from the water. Contrary to the common
misconception, water and hydrophobic substances do not "repel", and the
hydration of a hydrophobic surface is energetically, but not entropically,
favorable.
When an ionic or polar compound enters water, it is surrounded by water
molecules (hydration). The relatively small size of water molecules (~ 3
angstroms) allows many water molecules to surround one molecule
of solute. The partially negative dipole ends of the water are attracted to
positively charged components of the solute, and vice versa for the positive
dipole ends.
In general, ionic and polar substances such as acids, alcohols, and salts are
relatively soluble in water, and non-polar substances such as fats and oils
are not. Non-polar molecules stay together in water because it is
energetically more favorable for the water molecules to hydrogen bond to
each other than to engage in van der Waals interactions with non-polar
molecules.
An example of an ionic solute is table salt; the sodium chloride, NaCl,
separates into Na+cations and Cl−anions, each being surrounded by water
molecules. The ions are then easily transported away from their crystalline
lattice into solution. An example of a nonionic solute is table sugar. The
water dipoles make hydrogen bonds with the polar regions of the sugar
molecule (OH groups) and allow it to be carried away into solution.

Quantum tunneling
The quantum tunneling dynamics in water was reported as early as 1992.
At that time it was known that there are motions which destroy and
regenerate the weak hydrogen bond by internal rotations of the substituent
water monomers.On 18 March 2016, it was reported that the hydrogen
bond can be broken by quantum tunneling in the water hexamer. Unlike
previously reported tunneling motions in water, this involved the concerted
breaking of two hydrogen bonds. Later in the same year, the discovery of
the quantum tunneling of water molecules was reported.

Electromagnetic absorption
Water is relatively transparent to visible light, near ultraviolet light, and far-
red light, but it absorbs most ultraviolet light, infrared light,
and microwaves. Most photoreceptors and photosynthetic pigments utilize
the portion of the light spectrum that is transmitted well through
water. Microwave ovens take advantage of water's opacity to microwave
radiation to heat the water inside of foods. Water's light blue colour is
caused by weak absorption in the red part of the visible spectrum.

A single water molecule can participate in a maximum of four hydrogen

bonds because it can accept two bonds using the lone pairs on oxygen and
donate two hydrogen atoms. Other molecules like hydrogen fluoride,
ammonia and methanol can also form hydrogen bonds. However, they do
not show anomalous thermodynamic, kinetic or structural properties like
those observed in water because none of them can form four hydrogen
bonds: either they cannot donate or accept hydrogen atoms, or there
are steric effects in bulky residues. In water,
intermolecular tetrahedral structures form due to the four hydrogen bonds,
thereby forming an open structure and a three-dimensional bonding
network, resulting in the anomalous decrease in density when cooled
below 4 °C. This repeated, constantly reorganizing unit defines a three-
dimensional network extending throughout the liquid. This view is based
upon neutron scattering studies and computer simulations, and it makes
sense in the light of the unambiguously tetrahedral arrangement of water
molecules in ice structures.
However, there is an alternative theory for the structure of water. In 2004,
a controversial paper from Stockholm University suggested that water
molecules in liquid form typically bind not to four but to only two others;
thus forming chains and rings. The term "string theory of water" (which is
not to be confused with the string theory of physics) was coined. These
observations were based upon X-ray absorption spectroscopy that probed
the local environment of individual oxygen atoms.

Molecular structure
The repulsive effects of the two lone pairs on the oxygen atom cause water
to have a bent, not linear, molecular structure allowing it to be polar. The
hydrogen-oxygen-hydrogen angle is 104.45°, which is less than the
109.47° for ideal sp3 hybridization. The valence bond theory explanation is
that the oxygen atom's lone pairs are physically larger and therefore take
up more space than the oxygen atom's bonds to the hydrogen
atoms. The molecular orbital theory explanation (Bent's rule) is that
lowering the energy of the oxygen atom's nonbonding hybrid orbitals (by
assigning them more s character and less p character) and correspondingly
raising the energy of the oxygen atom's hybrid orbitals bonded to the
hydrogen atoms (by assigning them more p character and less s character)
has the net effect of lowering the energy of the occupied molecular orbitals
because the energy of the oxygen atom's nonbonding hybrid orbitals
contributes completely to the energy of the oxygen atom's lone pairs while
the energy of the oxygen atom's other two hybrid orbitals contributes only
partially to the energy of the bonding orbitals (the remainder of the
contribution coming from the hydrogen atoms' 1s orbitals).

Chemical properties
In liquid water there is some self-dissociation giving hydronium ions
and hydroxide ions.
2 H2O ⇌ H3O++ OH−

The equilibrium constant for this reaction, known as the ionic product of
water,Kw, has a value of about 10−14 at 25 °C. At neutral pH, the
concentration of the hydroxide ion (OH−) equal to that of the (solvated)
hydrogen ion (H+), with a value close to 10−7 mol dm−3 at 25 °C.

Geochemistry
Action of water on rock over long periods of time typically leads
to weathering and water erosion, physical processes that convert solid
rocks and minerals into soil and sediment, but under some conditions
chemical reactions with water occur as well, resulting
 in metasomatism or mineral hydration, a type of chemical alteration of a
rock which produces clay minerals . It also occurs when Portland
cement hardens.
Water ice can form clathrate compounds, known as clathrate hydrates,
with a variety of small molecules that can be embedded in its spacious
crystal lattice. The most notable of these is methane clathrate, 4 CH
4·23H2O, naturally found in large quantities on the ocean floor.

Lecture No. 10

Acidity in nature
Rain is generally mildly acidic, with a pH between 5.2 and 5.8 if not
having any acid stronger than carbon dioxide. If high amounts
of nitrogen and sulfur oxides are present in the air, they too will
dissolve into the cloud and rain drops, producing acid rain.

Isotopologues
Several isotopes of both hydrogen and oxygen exist, giving rise to several
known isotopologues of water. Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water is the
current international standard for water isotopes. Naturally occurring water
is almost completely composed of the neutron-less hydrogen
isotope protium. Only 155 ppm include deuterium (2
H or D), a hydrogen isotope with one neutron, and fewer than 20 parts
per quintillion include tritium (3H or T), which has two neutrons. Oxygen
also has three stable isotopes, with
O present in 99.76%, O in 0.04%, and O in 0.2% of water molecules.
Deuterium oxide, D2O, is also known as heavy water because of its higher
density. It is used in nuclear reactors as a neutron moderator. Tritium
is radioactive, decaying with a half-life of 4500 days; THO exists in nature
only in minute quantities, being produced primarily via cosmic ray-induced
nuclear reactions in the atmosphere. Water with one protium and one
deuterium atom HDO occurs naturally in ordinary water in low
concentrations (~0.03%) and D2O in far lower amounts (0.000003%) and
any such molecules are temporary as the atoms recombine.
The most notable physical differences between H2O and D2O, other than
the simple difference in specific mass, involve properties that are affected
by hydrogen bonding, such as freezing and boiling, and other kinetic
effects. This is because the nucleus of deuterium is twice as heavy as
protium, and this causes noticeable differences in bonding energies. The
difference in boiling points allows the isotopologues to be separated.
The self-diffusion coefficient of H2O at 25 °C is 23% higher than the value
of D2O. Because water molecules exchange hydrogen atoms with one
another, hydrogen deuterium oxide (DOH) is much more common in low-
purity heavy water than pure dideuterium monoxide D2O.
Consumption of pure isolated D2O may affect biochemical processes –
ingestion of large amounts impairs kidney and central nervous system
function. Small quantities can be consumed without any ill-effects; humans
are generally unaware of taste differences, but sometimes report a burning
sensation or sweet flavor. Very large amounts of heavy water must be
consumed for any toxicity to become apparent. Rats, however, are able to
avoid heavy water by smell, and it is toxic to many animals.
Light water refers to deuterium-depleted water (DDW), water in which the
deuterium content has been reduced below the standard 155 ppm level.

Occurrence
Water is the most abundant substance on Earth and also the third most
abundant molecule in the universe, after H2 and CO. 0.23 ppm of the
earth's mass is water and 97.39% of the global water volume of
1.38×109 km3 is found in the oceans

LECTURE NO. 11

A reservoir is an artificial lake where water is stored. Most reservoirs are

formed by constructing dams across rivers. A reservoir can also be
formed from a natural lake whose outlet has been dammed to control the
water level. The dam controls the amount of water that flows out of
the reservoir.

What is the difference between dam and reservoir?

A dam appears as a wall that is constructed across the river or valley,
which ensures that water forms behind the wall constructed. ... On the
other hand, the reservoir is the water that accumulates behind the
constructed dam, which sometimes grows to be some of the largest
lakes in the world

How do dams and reservoirs work?

The construction of a dam across a river forms a reservoir that raises the
water level upstream, stores the water, and slows down its rate of flow.
This improves the navigation conditions upstream of the dam for ships and
boats

What are dams and reservoirs used for?

A dam is built to control water through placement of a blockage of earth,
rock and/or concrete across a stream or river. Dams are usually
constructed to store water in a reservoir, which is then used for a variety
of applications such as irrigation and municipal water supplies.

What is reservoir and types of reservoir?

There are three types of reservoirs: The valley-dammed reservoir,
which floods a valley. The bank-side reservoir, which diverts water from
local rivers. The service reservoir, which is usually a concrete structure
holding water.

Reservoirs are very dangerous places to swim and the government

advises against people taking a dip in a reservoir. Here's why: They tend
to have very steep sides which makes them incredibly hard to get out of.
They can be very deep, with hidden machinery that can cause injuries.
Applications of Engineering Hydrology Hydrologists work in conjunction
with civil engineers to ensure the quality, integrity and sustainability of
infrastructure construction projects. Civil engineers use the knowledge,
information, observation and data that have been collected
by hydrologists to design, build and operate dams and reservoirs.

1. Determination of Maximum Probable Flood

2. Determination of Water yield from a basin
3. Study the groundwater development
4. Determination of maximum intensity of the storm
1. Determination of Maximum Probable Flood
The study of hydrology can help in determining the maximum probable
flood that can occur at a particular location. Its frequency is also
determined that is essential for the design of hydraulic structures like dams
and reservoirs, channels and other flood control structures.
2. Determination of Water yield from a basin
For the design of dams and municipal water supply units, river navigation
etc it is necessary to determine the occurrence, the frequency and the
quantity of water that can be yielded from a basin. This is performed in
hydrology.

3. Study the ground water development

The knowledge on hydro-geology of the area helps to understand the

groundwater development that influences the recharge facilities like
reservoirs and streams, climate, cropping pattern etc.

4. Determination of maximum intensity of storm

The maximum intensity of storms influences the design of drainage
projects, which are studied in hydrology
The main applications of engineering hydrology are:

1. Hydrology provides guidance for undergoing proper planning and

management of water resources.
2. Calculates rainfall, surface runoff, and precipitation.
3. It determines the water balance for a particular region.
4. It mitigates and predicts flood, landslide and drought risk in the
region.
5. It estimates the water resource potential of the river basins
6. Enables real-time flood forecasting and flood warning.
7. Hydrology analyses the variations observed in the catchments by
bringing a relationship between the surface water and groundwater
resources of the catchment.
8. Hydrology studies the required reservoir capacity that is necessary
for irrigation and municipal water supply purpose during drought
conditions.
9. It is used in the design and operation of hydraulic structures
10. It is used for hydropower generation.
11. Brings measures to control erosion and sediments.

LECTURE NO. 12

Applications of Engineering Hydrology

Hydrology is used to find out maximum probable flood at proposed sites

e.g. Dams.
  The variation of water production from catchments can be calculated
and described by hydrology.
 Engineering hydrology enables us to find out the relationship
between a catchments’s surface water and groundwater resources
 The expected flood flows over a spillway, at a highway Culvert, or in
an urban storm drainage system can be known by this very subject.
 It helps us to know the required reservoir capacity to assure
adequate water for irrigation or municipal water supply in droughts
condition.
 It tells us what hydrologic hardware (e.g. rain gauges, stream gauges
etc) and software (computer models) are needed for real-time flood
forecasting
 Used in connection with design and operations of hydraulic structure
 Used in prediction of flood over a spillway, at highway culvert or in
urban storm drainage
 Used to assess the reservoir capacity required to assure adequate
water for irrigation or municipal water supply during drought
 Hydrology is an indispensable tool in planning and building hydraulic
structures.
 Hydrology is used for city water supply design which is based on
catchments area, amount of rainfall, dry period, storage capacity,
runoff evaporation and transpiration.
 Dam construction, reservoir capacity, spillway capacity, sizes of water
supply pipelines and affect of afforest on water supply schemes, all
are designed on basis of hydrological equations.

LECTURE NO. 13

Water Refilling Station Study

The demand at the water refilling stations – water stores that sell
purified water – is now increasing. The quality of purified water
conforms with the national standards for drinking water and is
even better than the quality of water produced by traditional
water supply systems in terms of removed impurities.

Over the years, as the demand for cleaner water becomes higher, the price
of household water purifiers and bottled water has become prohibitive.
Water refilling stations managed by private entrepreneurs offer a cheaper
and more convenient solution to the public’s drinking water needs than
bottled water or the use of household filters.

At present, about 3,000 water refilling stations have proliferated

nationwide. They sell purified water of comparable quality with bottled
water at a lower price. For example, the current price per gallon of refilled
purified water in Metro Manila ranges from P 50 to P 120 per 5-gallon
container or about P 2.50 to P 6.00 per liter while the bottled water is sold
at P 12.00 to P 25.00 per liter. Household filters, on the other hand, cost P
5,000 to P 25,000 per unit ( 1 US $ = P 56 in 2004).

In Metro Manila, most of the water refilling stations are connected to the
pipes of two concessionaires: Maynilad Water Company or Manila Water
Company for their source of raw water while in other areas they opt to use
private deep wells. The “potable water” supplied by the providers is then
further purified by utilizing a combination of water treatment equipment,
such as sediment filters, carbon filters, water softeners, reverse osmosis
membranes, ultra-violet lamps, and ozone generators. Typical water
refilling stations can produce 3,000 to 12,000 litres of purified water per
day. In previous years, most of the people were bringing a container to a
water refilling station to buy purified water.

Nowadays, because of convenience on the part of the consumers, purified

water in 5-gallon (22.7 litres) containers are delivered by the station
directly to the people’s home. Aqua Sure, a water refilling station in Metro
Manila, can deliver 5,500 gallons (25,000 litres) a day to its 8,000
household clients.

Features of a water refilling station

Structurally, water refilling station can be operated with a minimum area of
at least 20-25 square metres. It comprises the following sections: refilling
and selling room, enclosed water purification room, container washing and
sanitizing room, storage room for empty and refilled containers, source
water storage facility, toilet and an office. To operate the water store,
about five employees are needed.

1 – Manager – Overseas store operations at least 4 hours a day

1 – Accountant/Bookkeeper – Makes financial statement of business
operations
1 – Administrative assistant – Logs and handles cash sales and purchases
1 – Front Liner – Accepts and refills containers of customers
1 – Technical Asst. – Maintains and runs the machine
1 – Driver/Delivery Man – Transport refilled containers to customer’s home

The main processes in a water refilling station is dictated by raw

water quality. The typical steps are filtration (several stages), softening,
and disinfection. The machines that could be installed for such processes
are the following:
Multi-media sediment filter – removes sediments such as rust, sand
and particles that are invisible to the naked eye; employs a total of 5
filters.
Ion exchanger – replaces hard minerals with soft minerals.
Activated carbon filter – removes all organic chemicals, herbicide,
pesticide, offensive odor and bad taste.
Reverse osmosis membrane – the heart of the system and the most
expensive unit; removes inorganic minerals, bacteria and viruses while
retaining its oxygen content. Since the filter size is very small at less than
0.05 micrometre, the product water could have a total dissolved solids
(TDS) of less than 10 ppm. The filtration process rejects about 50 percent
of raw water volume.
Post-carbon filter – improves the taste of water.
Ultraviolet lamp – ensures that the water is free from disease-causing
micro-organisms.
Ozone generator – inhibits the growth of bacteria in the product tank
and prolongs the shelf life of water.
The efficiency of water purification system in removing impurities is high.
The 10 water quality parameters measured by Magtibay (2001) showed an
average of 80 percent efficiency.
Institutions and policies
The agencies directly involved in the establishment operation of
water refilling stations are as follows:
The Department of Health (DOH). DOH is the main agency responsible for
protecting the health of the people. The Sanitation Code of the Philippines
mandates DOH in protecting drinking water quality. Consequently, DOH
issues implementing rules and regulations prescribing sanitary standards
for water supply systems, including water refilling stations.

The Center for Health Development (CHD) is the regional branch of DOH.
Its main function is to provide technical assistance to local government
units and to monitor DOH programme implementation which includes
water quality and sanitation standards. For water refilling stations, CHD is
mandated to issue initial and operational permits.

The Local Government Units (LGUs) are mandated by Presidential Decree

(PD 856) to issue sanitary permit, sanitary clearance, health certificates,
certificate of potability, drinking water site clearance and closure order (if
necessary) and to conduct sanitary inspection of WRS.

The Water Quality Association of the Philippines Inc. (WQAP) is an

organization of private firms who are engaged in the manufacture, sale,
and distribution of water refilling station equipment and supplies, as well as
water treatment and purification equipment and technology for household,
institutional, commercial and industrial applications. About 85 percent of its
250 members operates water refilling stations.

Association of Water Refilling Entrepreneurs (AWARE) concentrates on

resolving business management issues of its members.

Presidential Decree No. 856 (PD 856) or the Sanitation Code of the
Philippines is the main law requiring all establishments to comply with
existing sanitary standards to protect public health. Guidelines for
operating a water refilling station are indicated in the Supplemental
Implementing Rules and Regulations on Water Supply of PD 856 issued in
1999.
LECTURE NO. 14

Water quality monitoring

Source water and product water are subject to regular monitoring by the
local health office. The national standards for drinking water contains 54
parameters that must be complied with. Only DOH-accredited laboratories
are allowed to conduct water testing and analysis. The frequency of
monitoring is as follows:

Bacteriological quality – at least monthly

Physical quality – at least every six (6) months
Chemical quality – at least every six (6) months
Biological quality – at least once a year
Monitoring of radioactive contaminants shall be done only if there is
significant input of radiation from the surrounding environment.

Conclusions
Water refilling stations can be a good source of safe drinking
water in the Philippines. Purified water can meet the aesthetic
standards easily detectable by the people in terms of taste, odor and color.
The efficient water purification processes can make the quality of water
superior to the traditional water systems. However, the risk of
contamination is possible if the handling practices are not closely
monitored.