Geo Factsheet

www.curriculum-press.co.uk Number 288

Somalia – A Failed State?

Background to a country in turmoil
Somalia is a country in the North Eastern region of Africa, otherwise known as the Horn of Africa. This region has been subject to turmoil
for centuries. Mogadishu, the capital is the seat of a weak UN backed government and a city living in the midst of violence and disrepair.
Since the early 1990’s, the drought, famine, lack of international investment due to civil war, corruption and a myriad of clans and local
extremist groups, has furthered Somalia’s decline.

In 2011, the northern region of Somalia is currently trying to annexe itself from the rest of the country in the hope of creating a separate and
more progressive state called Somaliland. In May 2011, the UN declared a state of famine and emergency in a number of southern regions,
the worst being Bakode. Problems have heightened throughout 2011:
• 10,000 people migrating to bordering countries each week;
• Somalia’s worst drought in 60 years;
• 60% of livestock currently malnourished or dead;
• the majority of a youthful population malnourished;
• continued action by extremist Islamic group Al-Shabab;
• black-market trading of international aid.

Somalia dominates the Horn of Africa. 10,000 people a day are currently migrating to neighbouring Kenya and southern Ethiopia pushed
by the famine in Southern Somalia and the violence associated with the capital Mogadishu. (2012) (Figure 1) ‘

Figure 1 Somalia

It is clear why Somalia tops the UN list of

‘failed states’. Amnesty International
estimates that the recruitment of child
soldiers is at an all time high, some being
as young as 8. The number of
malnourished children and adults is
estimated at 8 million in 2011.

According to the ‘Fund for Peace’

organisation, a failed state is one
Shouls of Hormuz whereby the government has failed its
people socially economically and
New centre of gravity politically. A common characteristic of
Somaliland' attempting
to annexe itself from failed states includes ineffective, corrupt
the rest of Somalia governments that have little control over
territory, incoming aid or policing of
criminality. This very issue of political
ineffectiveness has caused Somalia to
spiral into decline. As a failed state it
displays other common socio-economic
characteristics.
Out migration
Refugees pour into Kenya and Ethiopia
daily; famine and malnutrition are causing
the population to become weak, prone
to disease, and ineffective at working.
Consequently the local and national
economies decline and farming
Famine stricken production ceases prompting a cycle of
Bakode State decline.

1
Somalia – A Failed State?
Due to economic collapse, Somalia does not invest in infrastructure
that may encourage foreign investment and curb criminality. It cannot
provide adequate education and basic provisions for its high
youthful population and consequently, many youngsters are
tempted by the economic incentives of becoming child soldiers.
The influence of post-colonial independence on the
decline of Somalia
President Siad Barre of Somalia was overthrown in a coup in 1991.
The coup was forced by two tribal clans who were previously in
opposition. They agreed on a coup because Barre had failed to take
the country forward and development in marginal regions away
from Somaliland and the capital Mogadishu, was non-existent. Like
many post-colonial African countries, Somalia’s transition to a free
state in 1965 was disastrous. Rural areas became isolated and money
was squirreled away, by a supposedly socialist regime and not
invested in development. It is as much the fault of colonialists that
today’s problems are prevalent.
Changing from a colony to free-state was often done without much
help with transition. This often left a power vacuum, whereby citizens
had agreed on pushing out the colonial powers, but without much
thought as to who would democratically rule the free-state.
Subsequently, in post-colonial Africa, military dictators gained power
with a thirst for making money at the expense of development. Often
these new leaders would be unrepresentative of all tribal groups
within state boundaries.
The drawing up of boundaries was another disaster that can be
attributed to the colonists. The borders of African territories are
obviously straight on a map. This was a result of various world and
African wars leading to division of territories between colonial
nations. As such, territorial lines were drawn right through tribal
territories often leaving some tribes and clans isolated in the territory
of a neighbouring clan that they were at odds with. This has caused
past tribal differences to rear their head all over Africa and cause
almost constant civil war in countries such as Congo, Liberia, Sierra
Leone, Somalia and unforgettably the genocide of Hutu and Tsutsi
people in Rwanda in 1994. Military and Sudan in 2000-12
dictatorships such as President Barrés, failed to maintain the
infrastructures (hospitals, schools and communications) set up by
the colonists (in Somalia’s case Italy, then Britain) and became
increasingly oppressive.
On the road to ruin: The seeds for a ‘failed state’ are
sown
His government had been in power since 1969 and was supposed
to be a model socialist state whereby Somali citizens were equals
and received education and health services as a staple offering of
socialism. Farming was contributed to by all for the benefit of feeding
the nation and maximising export income. Unfortunately, the reality
was a military dictatorship, stagnant development in rural areas and
marginalisation of clan communities who disagreed on government
rule and with each other in their respective tribal regions. As a
result of clan differences the government consistently used force
to stop clan conflict and was subsequently accused of human rights
abuses by those same clans.
Anti-government feeling was heightened by drought and ensuing
famine and malnutrition, partly from over-farming and partly due to
extended dry seasons as the ICTZ migrated far south a number of
times during the 1980s and early 90s.
2
Geo Factsheet 288
Drought meant that the socialist model of farming, providing work
and food for all failed. Exports declined and the country found itself
relying on international aid and borrowing which continued to hinder
development. Drought, which reached a peak in 1991 (and has been
a continuous obstacle to development ever since) has hardest hit
the southern and coastal regions of Somalia. Mogadishu to the
east is the hub of piracy, black-market trade of intercepted aid and a
city that has been a terrorist haven and the focal point of civil war
throughout the 1990s, one of them leading to the capture and death
of US soldiers documented in the film ‘Black Hawk Down’.
Barre’s regime polarised opinion. In the north, citizens fought for an
independent state called Somaliland, which they unofficially declared
in 1991. The collapse of Barre’s regime left a country split in to two
states. Within the official state of Somalia, tribal differences are so
passionate and extreme, that democratic rule is difficult. A power
vacuum was created after Barre’s ousting and rulers since have
been unable to appease all tribal factions. Adding to the problem is
the religious differences, between traditional tribal religions and
the predominant Sunni Muslim practice, imposed by Arab colonists.
As a result, many citizens of Somalia are seeking their own ways
forward as tribes, guerrilla armies, pirates and those supporting the
unofficial state of Somaliland.
The unofficial annexation of Somaliland
To the north, Somaliland is a region whose people are still attempting
annexation from the rest of Somalia. Here, since President Barre was
ousted, development has been tangible. Firstly it has a better
standard of life than the rest of the country, with citizens claiming it
to be an unofficial independent state, since they fought their
independence to break away from Barres failing Somalia in 1991.
Somaliland’s progress is a little more stable and steadier than the
rest of the country as tribal differences are less influential here.
Secondly, there is a large contingent of Somalis, from this region
working in the Arabic oil nations (to which they are connected
across the Gulf of Aden and in Europe (Moss Side, Manchester,
being a major British diaspora developed since the millennium).
This diaspora could ultimately provide loans for economic recovery
especially for Somaliland.
As a result a large amount of remittances (£632 million according to
the World Bank) passes via money exchanges each year, into the
Somaliland towns of Hargeisa and Berbera. Such towns are well
connected, as are most coastal and inland towns and villages in
this more compact part of the country. Other reasons for a slightly
faster rate of development are the higher temperature range and
precipitation rates in Northern Somalia. They receive a little more
rainfall, possibly due to the relief of the nearby Ethiopian Highlands.
Crop growth in Somaliland is therefore easier than in Somalia. They
still experience drought, famine and malnutrition, but not to the
extent experienced on the Indian Ocean coast and southern interior.
Independence seems certain with Bosasso not Mogadishu the new
centre of gravity, as for Somaliland to re-integrate with Somalia
would see it regress. The loss of Somaliland for Somalia means loss
of possible trade with rich Arab nations in the Gulf of Aden.
The impact of a failed state and the cycle of poverty
and lawlessness that it precipitates
President Barre was overthrown by opposing clans, but they failed
to agree a replacement. From 1991-2006, weak UN backed
governments were at war with the Al-Qaeda linked Islamic militants
Al-Shabab. Within regions of Somalia, local tribes have been at war.
In 2006 a group backed by Al-Shabab called the Union of Islamic
Courts took control of Mogadishu and briefly exerted control over
Somalia.
Somalia – A Failed State?
Ethiopia felt threatened by this new extremist neighbour and
invaded, briefly ousting the ‘Union’. However, they were unable to
maintain control and the UN put another ‘democratic’ government
in place, backed by UN soldiers and peacekeepers. However, Al-
Shabab continue to be at war with the government and to this day
Mogadishu and the southern states are the scenes of regular stand
offs.
Since 1991 and particularly since 2006, Al Shabab, and other militia
have been involved in offshore piracy The profile of piracy off the
coast of Somalia has been raised in recent years. Those carrying
out the capture of foreign cargo ships and oil tankers are highly
trained and skilled militia, many it is claimed in Al-Qaeda backed
training camps in the 1990s. They demand a ransom for the return of
the ship and its captives. A second method of profit is the black-
market trade of foreign aid. Food, medical supplies and such are
intercepted and firstly used to supply their own followers, secondly
to sell as black-market goods in the markets of Mogadishu, where
desperate farmers travel to from famine-stricken regions to buy
supplies that should have reached them as foreign aid. This is a
major source of money for the militia groups on land. It helps fund
their ability to buy arms and pay for food, water, medical supplies
and western goods for their followers and soldiers. Figure 2 shows
the distribution of incidents of piracy.
Figure 2 Incidents of piracy 2011
The worst use of this money however, is to attract child soldiers to
the armed struggles of Al –Shabab and other militia groups. When
children are not abducted and forced to become child soldiers,
others are tempted by the lure of food, water, clothes and western
luxuries, bought with the money from piracy and black-market trade
of foreign aid. With famine and malnutrition the only other option,
this seems an attractive proposition to many children and their
families. As a result, militia and Al-Sahabab numbers continue to
grow, piracy and interception of aid persists and so war continues
to be funded, whilst the poorest, try to maintain farmland in the face
of drought and malnourishment.
Socio-economic effects of drought and war in Somalia
As Somalis become further malnourished, it becomes impossible
for them to work, even walk to a village or town to buy black-market
supplies.
3
Geo Factsheet 288
As a result the individual family suffers from malnutrition and
starvation and the following social implications ensue:
• Poverty means local communities are unable to fund a
rudimentary education or health care system. As a result may
develop other health issues such as HIV and Malaria, where in
other places a basic education could deter the development of
such diseases.
• Uneducated children exposed to poverty will grow to become
child soldiers or to resent their government further and be
encouraged to take up arms. The battling clans and militia often
subject citizens to terror, rape and child abduction.
• Drought compounds these problems, forcing people into
poverty, resentment and lawless acts. As a result Somalia is
experiencing social issues as diverse as malnutrition, HIV, low
literacy rates, human rights abuses, piracy, the stealing of aid
and the withholding of aid from those who need it.
• It is also claimed by many in opposition to the government that
many within the halls of ‘power’ are involved in corrupt acts
such as squirreling away foreign money to be used for
development and that they may be involved with the black-
market trade of foreign aid.
• According to the UN, more than two million fled their homes -
20% of the population. Some 678,000 have officially been
accepted as refugees in foreign countries while thousands more
have fled their devastated homeland to live abroad. Somalia
loses a potential working population and refugees face the issues
of integration into foreign societies. Many have been internally
displaced, enhancing tribal friction. The destination of displaced
Somalis can be seen in Figure 3.
Figure 3 Location of Somali refugees since civil war broke
out in 2006. source UNHCR 2009
Major refugee countries Number of people
US 7,112
UK 32,299
Norway 7,064
Netherlands 11,068
South Africa 9,718
Ethiopia 58,980
Kenya 310,280
Yemen 161,468
Somalia: Population 9,830,000
Internally displaced 1,420,000
Refugees 678,000
Economically, the countries problems run deeply and are summarised
below.
• Individual families are farming and producing less due to a
combination of drought and weakness brought on by
malnutrition.
• The government is losing money each day in its battle to
suppress Al-Shabab and other militia.
• Most remittances sent back by foreign based Somalis, are sent
to money exchanges in more peaceful Somaliland, unofficially a
separate state, so money is unlikely to travel to corrupt and
crumbling Somalia. The loss of Somaliland has meant the loss of
important trade routes in the Gulf of Aden too.
• Somalia’s climate has proved a major hindrance to development.
Drought, famine and malnutrition have prompted revolt.
However, it could be argued that if past governments had
managed the country better, the worst affected regions may not
have experienced malnutrition to the current extent.
Somalia – A Failed State? Geo Factsheet 288

• Ultimately, the marginalisation of the country by the international community due to conflict has had the most draining economic
impact. Colonists were initially to blame, leaving Somalia open to military dictatorship, centuries of resource pillaging and failing to see
through a stable period of transition.
• The cost of decades of war combined with famine is phenomenal. The current conflict is complicated involving government, Al-
Shabab, militia groups and tribal factions. Along with the instability of government, the raised profile of piracy, the interception of
foreign aid and the haven such a lawless environment provides for terrorist groups these factors make it inconceivable that any foreign
trans-national corporations or even the Chinese government (currently rebuilding in the Congo in return for resources) will invest,
create employment and raise the level of development and standard of living.

Conclusion
As a result of such political instability and socio-economic meltdown, Somalia is a failed state and its people continued to be failed in every
sense of the word. The impacts could spread due to the diversity of backgrounds of refugees, into neighbouring Kenya and Ethiopia and
will undoubtedly be heightened as wars predicted to be fought over water supply decline in the face of global warming occur. A cycle of
poverty and decline so bad that a country is deemed a ‘failed state’ is summarised in the diagram (fig 4) on the following page. The recent
famine 2011-12 in which 50,000 are estimated to have died has merely exacerbated a dire situation.

Figure 4 How a cycle of poverty and lawlessness creates a failed state

Malnourished and lawless society

Weakens Economy
• Weaker workers, less
• Lower production reduces GDP/
production
GNP and export income
• Further health problems
• Reliance on foreign aid
resulting from malnourishment
• Black-market selling of aid means
• Government unable to fund The Cycle of Poverty and Lawlessness, citizens have even less money
healthcare and food supply Preciptating a failed State • Workers migrate, reducing
• Disenchantment creates
potential workforce
extremism and militia groups
• Cost of civil war
• Children join armies, foreign aid
• Lack of foreign investment due to
intercepted and sold on
insecurity and unstable
blackmarket and piracy is
government
advocated to escape poverty

Destabilises a Country
• Infrastructural damage from civil war
• Human rights abuses toward children and minority
tribal groups
• Dispersal of Somalis around the world
• Piracy and civil war and corrupt government
continue
• Somaliland becomes annexed, with Somalia losing
crucial trade links in the Gulf of Aden

Q and A: With reference to Somalia, discuss the impacts of a failed state. (15)
Answers should include a definition of a failed state. Measures of a failed state with specific reference as to how Somalia fits the definition.
Students should refer to the colonial and post colonial issues that have lead to civil war such as colonial territories, poor transition to free
status, tribal differences, military dictatorships lack of investment in development and power vacuum left after coup in 1991. Drought and
famine leading to malnourishment should be reference. For ‘discuss’ and ‘impacts’, students should write about a range of social and
economic impacts. These would range from black-market selling of aid, piracy and child soldier issues to national economic issues such as
the loss of Gulf of Aden access and workforce due to migration. The lack of future investment due to instability and danger should be
mentioned with reference to unlikely future economic development. The cycle of poverty and lawlessness should be linked into the essay
to show how impacts have further reaching impacts and are inextricably linked to further decline and continuation of being a failed state.

Further Research
www.unhcr.org (impacts of civil war on Somali refugees)
www.irin.org/tv (reports on human rights issues, famine and civil war in Somalia)
Wright, L. (2007) ‘The Looming Tower’. Penguin Press, London. (Somalia’s role in terrorism and 9/11)
Acknowledgements;
This Geo Factsheet was researched by Alexander Cooke a teacher of geography at The Manchester Grammar School .
Curriculum Press, Bank House, 105 King Street, Wellington, TF1 1NU Geopress Factsheets may be copied free of charge by teaching staff or students, provided
that their school is a registered subscriber. No part of these Factsheets may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any other form or by
any other means, without the prior permission of the publisher. ISSN 1351-5136