Introduction: Ethics is the philosophical study of morality.

It is one of the main branch of philosophy

which corresponds to the traditional division of philosophy into formal, natural and moral philosophy.
It can be turned into a general study of goodness, right action, applied ethics, meta-ethics, moral
psychology and metaphysics of moral responsibility. The general study of goodness and right action is
the main task of ethics. It has correlatively its substantive question as: how are we rational beings and
what moral principles should govern our choice and pursuit?
1.3 Meaning of Ethics: The word Ethics is derived from the Greek word ‘ethos’ which means
character or conduct. Ethics is also called as moral philosophy or philosophical thinking about
morality. This morality has been further elaborated as action and behavior which is concerned with
‘good’ or ‘evil’, of particular traditions, groups or individual. The term ‘moral’ and ‘ethical’ is often
used as equivalent to right or good as opposed to ‘immoral’ and ‘unethical’. It doesn’t mean morally
right or morally good but it definitely pertains to morality
Ethics is that science which is concerned with moral behavior or with right or wrong and good or evil
of human behavior. It propounds those principles which make our conduct moral. It becomes clear
when we explain the derivation of the words right and good. The word right is derived from Latin word
‘rectus’, which literally means ‘straight’ or ‘according to rule’. It means that we are concerned with
those principles which make our conduct right or straight.
 Ethics is a set of principles or standards of human conduct that govern the behavior of
individuals.
 Are codes of values and principles that govern the action of a person, or a group of people
regarding what is right versus what is wrong.
1.4 Nature of Ethics: Ethics refer to guide what human ought to do, usually in terms of right,
obligations, fairness and specific virtue. It is related to issues of propriety –rightness and wrongness,
what is right in ethical, what is wrong in unethical. Sometimes the word ‘proper’ , ‘fair’ and ‘just’ are
also used in the place of right and ethical.
1.4.1 Ethics is a normative science: It is mainly concerned with what ought to be done rather than
what is the case. It differs from positive science. A positive science is concerned with facts and
explains them by their causes, but ethics deals with values. It evaluates standard or norms by which we
can judge human action to be right or wrong. Logic and Aesthetics are also considered as normative
sciences. 1.4.2 Ethics is a science of Character: Ethics is different from natural and factual science: it is
a normative science. Every science is concerned with a particular department of knowledge. So ethics
as a science has its own particular sphere. It deals with certain judgments that we make about human
conduct. In the word of Muirhead “Ethics is not merely concerned with temporal behavior but it forms
the basis of legal decision”. According to Intuitionists ethics is the science of right. Right is the basic
concept. It ought to be obeyed under all circumstances. It is the duty to act in accordance with laws and
wrong to act against them. Man is bound to follow them; this view is called duty predominating ethics.
According to Formalist ethical laws are end in themselves. They are not meant to some other ideal.
Immanuel Kant held that goodwill is the only jewel. He meant that there is nothing in the world or
even out of it that can be called good without qualification, except good will. The conscience is innate
and it acquires the knowledge of good and bad easily. In the view of this, Telelogist said that good is
the supreme element; duty is for ethical emancipation, not for duty sake. Laws are not for the sake of
law but for the attainment of good. To abide by law is a duty because it achieves ethical good. Any act
is right or wrong in relation to the standard of good.
1.4.3 Ethics is not a practical science: Ethics is not a practical science: it only guides us to achieve a
specific goal. Its way is not like practical science which is a means for the realization of an end or
ideals. For example, the medical science is a means to remove the causes of disease. So ethics tries to
see what the ultimate goal of life is and how this goal can be reached.

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 1.4.4 Ethics is not an art : Art depends upon result while ethics is based on motive. In the words of
Mackenzie, in art the ultimate appeal is to the work achieved, whereas in morals the ultimate appeal is
to the inner harmony. Art especially deals with acquisition of skill to produce objects. So ethics is
different from art because it consists of goodness which is really intrinsic end. Mackenzie again points
out that ethics can never be regarded as an art because virtue has two special features that are not at all
significant in art. First of all virtue implies activity. We cannot regard a man virtuous as long as he is
not the one who knows morality, but one who actually practices it. In case of an art the possession of
skill is more important than the actual activity. In other words a good painter is one who can paint
beautiful; a good man is not one who can, but one who acts rightly. A good painter is good when he is
asleep or on a journey. A good man is not good when asleep or on a journey. Thus goodness is not a
capacity or potentiality but an activity. That is why Aristotle points out that ‘virtue is a kind of habit’.
It is the habit of right choice. In other words virtue is a synthesis of knowledge and habit,
consciousness and activity, thought as well as will. Thus the goal and consequence of ethics, science
and art are different. If we observe the discipline of philosophy to be the quest for knowledge, then
there is no clear cut boundary between ethics and philosophy, science and philosophy. Philosophy has
become more scientific and science has become more philosophical. The variation between then is
only a matter of degree. That is why ethics is both scientific and philosophical, both pure and applied
for the development of human life on the rational ground.
Introduction:
There are four main branches of ethics as Descriptive Ethics, Normative ethics, Meta-ethics and
Applied ethics.
Glossary:
Anthropology: A teaching about nature of man (essence), more specifically a trend in philosophy that
emerged in 1920 and attempts to bring the concrete scientific study of man. Asceticism: It is rejection
of life’s comfort and pleasures, an internal suppression of natural desires and instinct. Egoism: The
habit of valuing everything only in reference to one’s personal interest; selfishness. Altruism: It is the
opposite of egoism. Any ethical view that implies that people sometimes ought to do what is in the
interest of other and not in the self-interest can be considered a form of ethical altruism.
Utilitarianism: An action is morally right if and only if it produces well. The main proponent is J.S.
Mill who formulated the greatest happiness principle always act so as to produce the greatest
happiness.
3.3 Branches of Ethics:
3.3.1 Descriptive Ethics :
It deals with what people actually believes to be right or wrong. It evaluates human actions on the basis
of law and customs. The societies have structured their moral principles which are not forever. They
change from time to time and expect people to behave accordingly. Descriptive Ethics may also be
called as comparative ethics, because it compares the ethics of past and present. It also has some inputs
from other disciplines such as Anthropology, Psychology, Sociology and History to explain the moral
rightness and wrongness.
3.3.2. Normative Ethics :
It deals with norms that how one should act and behave in society. It also called as prescriptive Ethics.
The ultimate principles of ‘Normative Ethics’ s doing to other as we want them to do to us. Normative
Ethics also anticipates rational justification and teaches a lesson to a person who really disturbs the
social and moral order. As like Aristotle ‘Virtue ethics’, Kant’s ‘Deontological ethics’, Mill’s

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‘Consequentialism’ and Bhagwadgita’s ‘Nishkam’s Karmayoga’ are all the typical examples of
Normative ethics.
3.3.2.1 Virtue Ethics :
The foundation of virtue ethics was laid by Plato, whose argument attempts to define justice as one
interlocutor proposes. He said that justice and other virtue as harmony of the soul i.e. interior quality is
independent of any action. Aristotle presents virtue as a mean between two vices i.e bravery and
generosity between miserliness. Generosity between miserliness and prodigality . According to Plato
internal qualities and brave man can be brave even if he never has opportunity to show it. Aristotle
does what he call habit of virtue. The idea is that someone who doesn’t have correct virtue, internal
disposition might attain it gradually through practice. He who is not naturally generous can nonetheless
practice and giving to the poor and eventually, through practice acquire a hobbit or instinct to give and
thus become generous. Thus Aristotle identified some of the moral virtues including wisdom. Plato,
Aristotle, Thomas Aquinas were the major advocates of virtue ethics.
3.3.2.2 Deontology Ethics/ Duty Ethics : It focuses on rightness and wrongness of the action rather
than consequences of those actions. Different deontological theories are categorical imperative, moral
absolutism, divine command theory etc. The most famous deontology theory is Immanuel Kant’s
Categorical Imperative. The moral rules as per Kant follow from two principles viz. Universality and
Principle of reciprocity. By Universality he meant that a moral law must be possible to apply it to all
people. By principle of reciprocity he meant “do as you would be done by’. Such promise of morality
is found in all religious system, including Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Judaism, Buddhism etc. The
second deontological theory is moral absolutism. It believe that there are absolute standards against
which moral question can be judged. Against these standards certain action are right while others are
wrong regardless of the content of the art. For example, theft is wrong. It ignores that sometime wrong
act is done to reach out a right consequences. The third deontological theory is Divine Command
theory. It says that an action is right if God has decreed it to be right. As per this theory, the rightness
of any action depends upon that action being performed because it is duty, not because of any good
consequences arising from that action.
20 3.3.2.3 Consequential and Teleological Ethics :
It says that morality of an action is contingent with the outcome of that action. So morally right action
would produce good outcome while, morally wrong action would produce bad outcome. Based on
outcome, there are several theories such as utilitarianism (Right action leads to maximum happiness of
greatest number of people). Hedonism (anything that maximizes pleasure is right), Egoism (anything
that maximizes the good for self is right). Asceticism (abstinence from egoistic pleasures to achieve
spiritual goal is right action). Altruism (to live for others not caring for self is right action). The core
idea of consequentialism is that “ends justify the means”. An action that might not be right in the light
of moral absolutism may be right action under teleology.
3.3.3 Meta-Ethics : It doesn’t propound any moral principles or goal for action. It has been primarily
interested in classification and philosophical understanding rather than in normative ethics. Meta-ethics
asks the following questions? What is meaning, nature, function of ethical terms like right, wrong,
good and bad? Secondly, how moral usage of terms is to be distinguished from non-moral one ? What
is the analysis of terms like action, conscience, free will, intention, promise excuse, motive, reason,
responsibility etc ? Thus in above questions, meta-ethics doesn’t consider, whether an action is good or
bad, rather it questions what good and badness of morality itself is? It is an abstract way of thinking
about ethics. The key theory in meta- ethics is naturalism, non-naturalism and prescriptivism.
3.3.4. Applied Ethics: It is concerned with the analysis of particular moral issues in private and public
life. It deals with the more concrete subjects like, the family, profession, state and politics etc. in real
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life situations and ethical principles which be applied in it for securing a good life. There are six
domains of applied ethics viz- Decision ethics, Professional Ethics, Clinical Ethics, Business Ethics,
Organizational Ethics and Social Ethics which primarily deal with rightness of social, economical,
cultural, religious aspects like child labor, abortion euthanasia, cloning, surrogacy etc.

Ethical Theory: Overview

 Ethical Theories are attempts to provide a clear, unified account of what our
ethical obligations are.
 They are attempts to tell a single ―story‖ about what we are obligated to do, without
referring directly to specific examples.
 Business ethics to appeal to one or more ethical theories in an attempt to clarify what it
is right or wrong to do in particular situations.
 Some of the philosophical ethical theories commonly appealed to include:
Utilitarianism (end-based approach)
 The utilitarianism system was originated by the British thinker Jeremy Bentham (1748–
1832).
 It aims at creating the greatest degree of benefits for the largest number of people.
 The goal of utilitarian is to provide greatest good for greatest number which is guided by the
value, ―Utility‖. Which says that the right thing to do in any situation is whatever will ―do
the most good‖ (that is, produce the best outcomes) taking into consideration the interests of
all concerned parties;
 According to this system, a human conduct is considered as good if it results in benefits for
society and bad if it generates harm to the society. In-fact Utilitarianism is a special version
of ―Teleology‖.
 Teleology emphasize mainly upon the outcomes of an individual‘s action and not on the
intent of the individual. That‘s why it is called as ―Consequentialism‖ or end based ethics.
Universalism (rule based)
 The approach of universalism is based on the duties and obligations of an individual
(Deontology; (duty-based")).
 Deontology is an ethical theory that uses rules to distinguish right from wrong.
 Deontology is often associated with philosopher Immanuel Kant.

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  Kant believed that ethical actions follow universal moral laws, such as ―Don't lie. Don't
steal. Don't cheat.‖
 Deontology views actions as either right or wrong without any regard to contextual features.
An example sometimes used is that of the Ten Commandments (i.e., “Honor your father
and mother,” “Do not kill,” “Do not steal”).
 The moral worth on individual action should be judged by the intention of the person, not by
the outcome of the action.
 It assumes that good intentions always result in good outcomes, ultimately if not
immediately.
 „Immanuel Kant‟ (1724– 1804) proposed the ―Categorical Imperative‖ — One should
act only in ways that one would wish all others to act faced with the same set of
circumstances, and also to treat others with dignity and respect.
 Everyone‘s value is equal. Hence no one‘s rights should be subordinated to those of others.
Care-based approach
 You have to reserve the dilemma keeping in mind that you have an obligation to care for
those with whom you have close relationship or who cares for you.
 You must care for them just to maintain a strong bond in the relationship.
 but some great-men put some argument against it that it would create favoritism while
working with those you have valuable relationship as well as it can degenerate into unjust
favoritism and sacrifice of own needs to care for children, parents, spouse and friends with
whom you have close relationships.
Virtue Ethics
 which says that we ought to focus not on what rules to follow, but on what kinds of
people (or organizations!) we want to be, and what kinds of ethical examples we ought to
follow
 ‗Peter Partley ‗says — ―Virtue ethics can be represented as a mental construction
with prudence.
 More exactly this metal construction has two ceilings –
 one is crowned by private prudence and
 the other by public prudence.
 It describes how we can distinguish two sphere of excellence, public and private well-being
one should make every effort to gain a wider understanding of corporate private and social
well-being.‖

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  In general we say that when a person follows virtue ethics that means while performing
any action he/ she should develop a morally virtuous character.
 Methods of resolving ethical dilemmas occur in organization in different forms, framework
and structure so single unique and standard method cannot be applied to resolve them. Each
and every organization has its own strategies, planned procedure for dealing with ethical
dilemma. Generally, a committee of top level managers is being setup to select suitable
approach and method to solve ethical dilemma.
3.2. Ethical Egoism and Subjectivism
What`s Egoism?
Egoism means "me me me me me-ism." it has a lot to do with selfishnessegoism can be considered
positive or negative — it all depends how someone uses the word.
Definition and Key Principles:
It`s an ethical theory according to which moral decision making should be guided entirely by self-
interest. Ethical egoism is the view that people ought to pursue their own self-interest, and no one
has any obligation to promote anyone else‘s interests.

Ethical egoism is a normative ethical theory that asserts individuals should act in their own self-
interest.
It suggests that people ought to prioritize their own well-being, desires, and personal happiness
when making ethical decisions.
According to ethical egoism, individuals have a moral obligation to maximize their self-interest
and pursue actions that benefit themselves.
It can be broadly divided into three categories: individual, personal, and universal.

 Acting in one's self-interest very often benefits others. E.g., you‘re going to college is in
your self-interest, and it will help keep you off welfare. In pursuing your self-interest, you
will get a job which will benefit others.
Focus on Self-Interest and Personal Happiness:
Ethical egoism places a significant emphasis on self-interest and personal happiness as the guiding
principles for ethical decision-making.
It argues that acting in one's own self-interest ultimately leads to the greatest overall happiness
and well-being.
This theory contends that individuals should prioritize their own needs and desires over the
interests of others.
Ethical Egoism as a Normative Theory:
Ethical egoism is considered a normative ethical theory because it provides guidelines for
determining what individuals ought to do in moral situations.
It offers a framework for evaluating actions based on their consequences for one's self-interest and
personal happiness.
The theory suggests that individuals should strive to fulfill their own desires and pursue actions
that maximize their own well-being.
Criticisms and Limitations of Ethical Egoism:
Lack of concern for others: Critics argue that ethical egoism disregards the well-being and interests of
others, leading to a lack of empathy and compassion.
Inconsistent moral judgments: Ethical egoism may result in conflicting moral judgments when
individuals prioritize their own self-interest over the well-being of others.
Ignoring long-term consequences: Critics argue that ethical egoism may overlook the long-term
consequences of actions and fail to consider the impact on society or future generations.

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Undermining cooperative relationships: Prioritizing self-interest may undermine trust and cooperation
among individuals, hindering the development of mutually beneficial relationships and societal
harmony.
Moral relativism: Ethical egoism can lead to a subjective approach to morality, where each
individual determines their own ethical standards based on personal desires and interests.
Despite these criticisms, proponents of ethical egoism argue that it promotes personal autonomy
and individual freedom, allowing individuals to pursue their own goals and aspirations.
Important Pros and Cons of Ethical Egoism
 Ethical egoism is the acceptance of society for people to pursue their own self-interests.
 No one has an obligation to promote what anyone else tries to do because their personal
views are the only thing that matters.
List of the Pros of Ethical Egoism
1. Ethical egoism encourages self-awareness.
If you can know yourself and what you need, then it is easier to stay productive in modern society.
The benefits of having this trait in one‘s life include a higher level of emotional intelligence, greater
listening and empathy skills, along with improved critical thinking.
This combination of factors allows for better decisions to be made, which leads to stronger
communication and better relationships. Self-awareness enhances leadership capabilities so that your
capacity for accomplishments becomes higher. You can have internal and external versions of this
benefit, which involves how we see ourselves and how others see us.

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 2. There are more opportunities for personal improvement.
If you focus on a path involving ethical egoism, then your self-interests become the top priority.
Instead of striving to push others forward, you‘re working toward making yourself better in some
way. It is an approach that makes you think about your overall wellbeing first.
3. Everyone would have an opportunity to provide for themselves.
Ethical egoism is an approach that says what you think or feel is the best motivators to keep you
productive. You‘re effectively the salesperson of your own life, earning what you believe is your full
potential every day.It does give each person a chance to take control of their lives so that they can do
what they feel is right for themselves.
4. Ethical egoism allows people to implement self-care routines.
When you start putting yourself first, then the first word in your vocabulary becomes ―no.‖
That makes it a lot easier for you to begin working toward the goals you have in life because others
are not directing your footsteps. When you eliminate the control of others, then it becomes easier to
prioritize your to-do list each take. Knowing what tasks are the most essential to complete helps you
to achieve a goal faster. Ethical egoism promotes consistency in the facets of this advantage by
encouraging people to build new habits.
5. Productivity would rise in society when ethical egoism is in control.
The idea is that people are usually the best judges of what is in their own best interest. Individuals
have more motivation to work hard to benefit them than to achieve any other goal.
That means productivity levels rise because everyone has a focus on what their daily needs will be.
When everyone is looking out for themselves, then the general good becomes achievable because
most people are not going to let themselves be run over by others.
List of the Cons of Ethical Egoism
1. It is an approach that would create a self-centered society.
One of the principal tenets of ethical egoism is that no one else looks after your personal needs
except you. That means everyone, including people in families, is pursuing a reflection of their self-
interest. Ethical egoism always focuses on self-interest.
2. There would be a loss of empathy in society with ethical egoism.
Implementing a society focused on ethical egoism would cause us to lose sight of our current
culture of empathy. Increases in empathy reduce incidents of domestic violence.

If people pursue their self-interests more than they support each other, then society would
become violent. Our loss of empathy would lead to more errors, worse health outcomes, and
people would feel less satisfied because each effort would become more difficult to complete.

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 3. It would lead to a breakdown in workplace relationships.
Ethical egoism suggests that employee relationships would become problematic in a society with
this structure because the business would only serve its purpose as a means to an end.
4. Ethical egoism eliminates the concept of objectivity from society.
If each person in society were to follow the theory of ethical egoism, then there would no longer be
objectivity. No one would care about what anyone else thought with regards to their actions or
pursuits. The only drive toward thoughts, feelings, and decisions would be self-interest.
5. Ethical egoism goes against the principle of impartiality.
The basic assumption made by most moral philosophers is that we shouldn‘t discriminate against
people for arbitrary reasons. That means a person‘s gender, sexual orientation, ethnicity, religion, or
race shouldn‘t become part of the discussion because our diversity is what makes us stronger.
Ethical Subjectivism
Definition and Key Principles:
Ethics is one of the major branches of philosophy; it is all about attempting to determine the
difference between good and bad, or right and wrong action.
Ethical Subjectivism is the idea that our moral opinions are based on our feelings and nothing
more.
On this view, there is no such thing as "objective" right or wrong. It is a fact that some people are
homosexual and some are heterosexual; but it is not a fact that one is good and the other bad.
Ethical Sub-what is right and what is wrong vary based on context, time period, and culture.

 Ethical subjectivism is a descriptive ethical theory that posits that moral judgments are
subjective and vary from individual to individual.
 It suggests that moral statements reflect personal opinions, emotions, and attitudes rather than
objective moral truths.
 According to ethical subjectivism, there are no universally valid moral principles, and moral
judgments are ultimately based on individual perspectives.
Subjective Nature of Moral Judgments:
 Ethical subjectivism emphasizes the subjective nature of moral judgments, asserting that they
are rooted in personal beliefs and values.
 It recognizes that moral judgments can differ among individuals, as they are influenced by
personal experiences, cultural backgrounds, and individual perspectives.
 This theory acknowledges that what one person considers morally right or wrong may differ
from another person's viewpoint.
Individual Perspectives and Cultural Influences:
 Ethical subjectivism recognizes the role of individual perspectives in shaping moral
judgments.
 It acknowledges that personal beliefs, emotions, and cultural influences play a significant role
in determining what individuals consider morally right or wrong.
 Cultural norms, social conditioning, and personal experiences contribute to the formation of
subjective moral values and judgments.
Ethical Subjectivism as a Descriptive Theory:
 Ethical subjectivism is considered a descriptive theory because it seeks to describe how
individuals perceive and make moral judgments.
 It aims to explain the diversity of moral opinions and the subjective nature of moral values
within different individuals and cultures.
 Ethical subjectivism does not prescribe how people ought to behave but rather focuses on
understanding and describing the variations in moral perspectives.

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Criticisms and Challenges of Ethical Subjectivism:
 Moral relativism: Critics argue that ethical subjectivism can lead to moral relativism, where
all moral judgments are seen as equally valid, making it difficult to address moral
disagreements or establish ethical standards.
 Lack of objective basis: Ethical subjectivism lacks an objective basis for moral judgments, as
it emphasizes individual opinions rather than universal moral truths.
 Inconsistent moral judgments: The subjective nature of ethical subjectivism may lead to
inconsistent moral judgments, as different individuals or cultures may hold conflicting moral
opinions.
 Difficulty in resolving moral disputes: Since ethical subjectivism does not provide an
objective framework for resolving moral disputes, it may be challenging to reach consensus or
resolve ethical conflicts.
Despite these criticisms, proponents of ethical subjectivism argue that it promotes tolerance, cultural
diversity, and individual autonomy by recognizing the subjective nature of moral judgments.

There are essentially two primary schools of thought when it comes to ethics:

Ethical objectivism or ethical subjectivism.

Ethical objectivism
 Suggests that there is such a thing as absolute good that applies to everyone at all times, and
that it is the job of humans to determine what those standards of good are and then follow
them.
Advantages of ethical subjectivism
 Ethical subjectivism is compatible with our experiences of living in a pluralistic society.
 Ethical subjectivism seems very tolerant Problems for ethical subjectivism.
 It is impossible to disagree about ethical questions in a genuine manner.
 If ethical subjectivism is accurate, then our ethical judgments are always correct.
 It gives preference to a person‘s actions and warns us against judging other people‘s
perspectives in terms of a universal standard objective.

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  It also gives room for open-mindedness such that people are free to make decisions,
behave in a certain way based on their feelings.
 A person‘s idea or decision can be right based on some level of reasoning.
Dis advantages of ethical subjectivism
 Subjectivism ignores the idea that there can be very good and relevant reasons
why one decision is more right.
 person's idea may fail to make sense to others.
The theory has ignored the evidence which should be used to prove the value of
another person's

Difference between Ethical Egoism and Subjectivism

Ethical framework: Ethical egoism focuses on self-interest, while subjectivism emphasizes
individual perspectives.
Normative vs. descriptive: Ethical egoism is a normative theory prescribing how people ought to
behave, whereas subjectivism is a descriptive theory explaining how individuals perceive
morality.
Scope of consideration: Ethical egoism prioritizes self-interest, while subjectivism recognizes
personal and cultural influences on moral judgments.
Evaluating actions: Ethical egoism assesses actions based on their impact on self-interest, while
subjectivism considers individual or cultural views on what is morally right or wrong.

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