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Micromechanics of the elastic behaviour of granular materials

Chapter in Lecture Notes in Physics · January 2008

DOI: 10.1007/3-540-44424-6_9

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 Micromechanics of the elastic
behaviour of granular materials

N.P. Kruyt
Department of Mechanical Engineering
University of Twente

L. Rothenburg
Department of Civil Engineering
University of Waterloo

Overview
• Micromechanics: stress, strain and work
• Discrete Element Simulations
• Variational principles
• Upper and lower bounds; uniform strain and stress
• Statistical theory
• Statistics from DEM simulations
• Conclusions

1
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Micromechanics

Objective: relation macroscopic and microscopic charac-

teristics

Macroscopic level Microscopic level

• stress • contact force

• strain • contact relative displacement

pq q p
∆i = ui – ui

Contact geometry

Particle q

pq pq
ti li q
p + Xi
Xi
+ pq
ni

Particle p Contact point c

Micromechanics of the elastic behaviour of granular materials 2

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Stress
ni B
β ti

In boundary terms

= --- ∂ ( x i σ kj ) dS
1--- 1
σ ij = ò
S ij
σ dS
S ∂ xk ò
S S
1 1 β β
S ò
= --- n k x i σ kj dS = ---
S
β∈B
å Xi fj
B

Micromechanics of the elastic behaviour of granular materials 3

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In contact terms

β
Equilibrium conditions
pq
å fj + fj = 0
q

p pq β β
å å Xi fj + å Xi fj = 0
p q β∈B

β β c c
å fj xi = å fj li
β∈B c∈S

Micromechanical stress

1 c c
σ ij = --- å fj li
S
c∈S

Micromechanics of the elastic behaviour of granular materials 4

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Strain

In boundary terms

1--- ∂u i 1 1
α ij = ò
S ∂ xj ò ò
dS = --- u i n j ds = e jk --- u i t k ds
S S
S B B

1 dx k 1 du i 1 α α
ò
= e jk --- u i ds = – e jk ---
S ds S ds ò
x k ds = – e jk ---
S
α∈B
å ∆i Xk
B B

In contact terms

Compatibility conditions
rs rα
å ∆i + ∆i = 0
s

Network connecting
particle centres

Micromechanics of the elastic behaviour of granular materials 5

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rs r rα r
å å ∆i Xj + å ∆i Xj = 0
r s r
Polygon s
α α c c
å ∆i Xj = å ∆i gj
α∈B c∈S
rs
1 c c hi
α ij = --- å ∆i hj rs
gi
S
c∈S
Polygon r
c c
hj = – e jk g k

Work

1--- c c
å f i ∆ i = σ ij ε ij
S
c∈S

Geometry

1 c c
δ ij = --- å li hj
S
c∈S

Uniform strain and stress

c c c c
∆ i = ε ij l j f i = σ ij h j

Micromechanics of the elastic behaviour of granular materials 6

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Geometrical considerations

ln / 2
α/2
α
hn / 2

ln

Coordination number Γ = 3

0.95
Theory
Packing density

tan α
h
α = 2π --- = ----n-
0.9
------
Γ 2 ln
0.85

π
Packing density ≅ ----------------
0.8

Γ tan --π-
Experiments
Γ 0.75
4 5 6

Micromechanics of the elastic behaviour of granular materials 7

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Summary of micromechanics

Particle Connecting relation Polygon

pq 1 c c rs
å hi = 0 δ ij = --- å hi lj å li = 0
S
q c∈S s

pq rs
å fi å ∆i = 0
c c c
= 0 f i = S ij ∆ j
q s

1 c c 1 c c 1 c c
σ ij = --- å fi lj σ ij ε ij = --- å fi ∆i ε ij = --- å ∆i hj
S S S
c∈S c∈S c∈S

Micromechanics of the elastic behaviour of granular materials 8

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Elastic contact constitutive relation

No particle rotation!
c c c c c
S ij = k n n i n j + k t t i t j
kn
c c
fn = kn ∆n
c c
ft = kt ∆t
kt

Discrete Element Method simulations

• isotropic assemblies with 50,000 disks
• wide lognormal PSD
• coordination numbers 4 ≤ Γ ≤ 6
• stiffness ratios 0 ≤ k t ⁄ k n ≤ 1
• periodic boundaries
• compressive and shearing loading

Micromechanics of the elastic behaviour of granular materials 9

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Extremum principles
Minimum potential energy principle

c c
f ∗ i , ∆∗ i compatible, no equilibrium

fi , ∆i
c c
compatible, equilibrium

1--- c c 1 c c
å f i ∆ i ≤ --- å f∗ i ∆∗ i
2 2
c∈S c∈S

Minimum complementary energy principle

c c
f ∗ i , ∆∗ i equilibrium, not compatible

fi , ∆i equilibrium, compatible
c c

1 c c 1
Then --- f∗ i ∆∗ i ≤ ---
c c
å å fi ∆i
2 2
c∈S c∈S

Micromechanics of the elastic behaviour of granular materials 10

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Network connecting
polygon centres

Network connecting
particle centres

c
Take ∆∗ i = ε ij l j : uniform strain
c

ε
Upper bound ε ij L ijkl ε kl ≤ ε ij L ijkl ε kl ≡ ε ij æè --- S ik l j l l ö ε kl
1 c c c
S å ø
c∈S

c
Take f∗ i = σ ij h j : uniform stress
c

σ
Lower bound σ ij M ijkl σ kl ≤ σ ij M ijkl σ kl ≡ σ ij æè --- S ik h j h l ö σ kl
1 – 1c c c
S å ø
c∈S

Micromechanics of the elastic behaviour of granular materials 11

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Orientational averaging

Uniform strain ∆ i = ε ij l j

Compression
∆n in shear ∆t in shear
Extension

Extension

θ θ
θ

Compression

Contact distribution
2π
1 M
ò E(θ)fj li(θ) dθ
c c
σ ij = --- å f j l i = ----- å E(θ g) ∆θ f j l i(θ g) = m S
S S
c∈S θg
0
Contact density

2π
Overall average á w(θ)ñ = m S ò E(θ)w(θ) dθ
0

Micromechanics of the elastic behaviour of granular materials 12

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Statistical potential energy principle

1
Minimize potential energy á --- ∆ i S ij ∆ jñ
2

Subject to constraints ε ij = á ∆ i h jñ á f i ∆ iñ = σ ij ε ij

∆ n2(θ) = ∆ n(θ) 2 + σ n2(θ)

Gaussian distributions
2
∆ t2(θ) = ∆ t(θ) + σ t2(θ)

ε σ
Disorder χ ≡ á k n σ n2 + k t σ t2ñ = α ( 1 – α )ε ij ( L ijkl – L ijkl )ε kl

Choose α for maximum disorder, then

ε σ
L ijkl + L ijkl
L ijkl = ---------------------------
2

Micromechanics of the elastic behaviour of granular materials 13

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Observations from DEM simulations

Geometry

l n > 2R avg
6.5
Loose system
5.5

γ(R 1)
4.5

3.5

2.5
0.5 1 1.5 2
R2 R1 / Ravg

1.5
R1
R 2(R1) ⁄ R avg

Large particles have more contacts

No size preference
0.5
0.5 1 1.5 2
R1 / Ravg

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Moduli

Simulations
K / kn G / kn
1 1
0.9 1

0.8 0.9
0.8 0.8
0.7 0.8

0.6 0.6 0.6 0.7

kt ⁄ kn

kt ⁄ kn
0.5 0.6

0.4 0.4 0.4 0.5

0.3 0.4
0.2 0.2
0.2 0.3

0.1 0.2
0 0
4 4.5 5 5.5 6 4 4.5 5 5.5 6
Γ Γ

Comparison of theory and simulations

Loose system Dense system
1 1
Simulations
ε
0.75 0.75
G
Simulations
Gε Theory
G / kn

G / kn

0.5 0.5

Gσ
0.25 0.25
Theory
Gσ
0 0
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1

kt ⁄ kn kt ⁄ kn

Micromechanics of the elastic behaviour of granular materials 15

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Displacements

∆ i = ζε ij l j
K G
ζn ζn
1 1

0.8 0.8

0.6 0.6
kt ⁄ kn

kt ⁄ kn
0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2

0 0
4 4.5 5 5.5 6 4 4.5 5 5.5 6
Γ Γ
0.75 0.8 0.85 0.9 0.95 1 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

0.7 0.75 0.8 0.85 0.9 0.95 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9

G G G
ζt ( ζn + ζt ) ⁄ 2
1 1

0.8 0.8

0.6 0.6
kt ⁄ kn

kt ⁄ kn

0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2

0 0
4 4.5 5 5.5 6 4 4.5 5 5.5 6
Γ Γ
1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 0.875 0.9 0.925 0.95 0.975 1

0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 0.85 0.875 0.9 0.925 0.95 0.975

Micromechanics of the elastic behaviour of granular materials 16

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Probability density functions

Compression
probability density

probability density
Gaussian Gaussian
distribution distribution
-3 0 3 -3 0 3

∆n – ∆n ∆t – ∆t
---------------------------
- --------------------------
-
StdDev(∆ n) StdDev(∆ t)

Shear
probability density

probability density

Gaussian Gaussian
distribution distribution
-3 0 3 -3 0 3

∆n – ∆n ∆t – ∆t
---------------------------
- --------------------------
-
StdDev(∆ n) StdDev(∆ t)

Micromechanics of the elastic behaviour of granular materials 17

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Energy ratios

1 1
E n = --- á k n ∆ n2ñ E n = --- á k t ∆ t2ñ
2 2

Et / En in compression Et / En in shear
1 1

0.8 0.8

0.6 0.6
kt ⁄ kn

kt ⁄ kn

0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2

0 0
4 4.5 5 5.5 6 4 4.5 5 5.5 6
Γ Γ
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

Micromechanics of the elastic behaviour of granular materials 18

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Conclusions
• two regimes: uniform strain and uniform stress
• upper and lower bound for moduli
• uniform strain assumption is only correct for dense
systems
• statistical theory gives average of uniform strain and
stress; appropriate for loose systems
• Gaussian probability functions for normal and tangen-
tial components of relative displacements
• no equipartition of energy

Micromechanics of the elastic behaviour of granular materials 19

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Uniform field moduli

ε mS ε mS æ k
------ = ------ 1 + -----t ö l n2
K G
------ = ------ l n2
kn 4 kn 8 è k nø
σ kt ⁄ kn σ 2k t ⁄ k n
K G
------- = --------------------------------- ------- = ----------------------------------------------------------
kn m S ( λh n2 + h t2 ) kn m S ( 1 + k t ⁄ k n ) ( h n2 + h t2 )

Theoretical generalised strain

σh
K 1--- K n
ζn = + ------- ----- Compression
2 kn ln
σ
G G hn
1--- ------
ζn = + - ----- Shear
2 kn ln
σ
G G hn
1--- ------
ζt = + - ----- Shear
2 kt ln

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Influence of rotation; shear modulus

Without rotation With rotation

1 1
0.9 1

0.8 0.9
0.8 0.8
0.7 0.8

0.6 0.7
0.6 0.6
kt ⁄ kn

kt ⁄ kn
0.5 0.6

0.4 0.5
0.4 0.4
0.3 0.4

0.2 0.3
0.2 0.2
0.1 0.2

0 0.1
0 0
4 4.5 5 5.5 6 4 4.5 5 5.5 6

Γ Γ

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Particle size distribution

Probability density function Cumulative probability function

1

cumulative probability
probability density

0.75

0.5

0.25

0
0 1 2 0 1 2
R / Ravg R / Ravg

Micromechanics of the elastic behaviour of granular materials 22

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