CBMEC 2

OPERATIONS PLANNING

FORECASTING

One crucial activity that operations managers perform before creating a product is forecasting. This is an activity of anticipating
future events to prepare the organization for future production activity, human resource planning, and supply chain management.

Managers, on the other hand, make decisions without knowing what will happen in the future. They order inventory without knowing
their sales would be. Managers simply make their best estimates of what will happen in the future in the face of uncertainty.
Forecasting is both the science and art of predicting future events. This may involve taking historical data (such as previous sales or
demand) and projecting them into the future with a mathematical model. This may also be a subjective projection or an intuitive
prediction.

Forecasting Time Horizon

A forecast can be divided by future time horizons, which may fall into three categories:

1. Short-range forecast. This forecast has a period of up to one year. It is used for planning purchasing, job scheduling, workforce
levels, job assignments, and production levels.
2. Medium-range forecast. A medium-range or intermediate forecasting that generally spans from three months to three years. This is
used for forecasting sales planning, production planning and budgeting, cash budgeting, and analysis of various operating plans.
3. Long-range forecast. This type of projection spans up to 3 years and hence and is used for forecasting new products, capital
expenditures, facility location or expansion, and research and development.

Types of Forecast Organizations may use either of the following forecasting types in planning future operations:
1. Economic forecast. Planning indicators that are valuable in helping organizations prepare medium to long-range forecasts. This
addresses the business cycle by predicting inflation rates, money supplies, and other planning indicators.
2. Technological forecast. This is concerned with the rates of technological progress, resulting in the birth of new industries.
3. Demand forecast. This include projection of demand or the company’s products and services

Steps in forecasting Whatever may be the method used for forecasting, the following steps are followed in forecasting.

(a) Determine the objective of forecast: What for you are making forecast? is it for predicting the demand? is it to know the
consumer’s preferences? is it to study the trend? You have to spell out clearly the use of forecast.

(b) Select the period over which the forecast will be made? is it long-term forecast or medium-term forecast or short-term forecast?
What are your information needs over that period?

(c) Select the method you want to use for making the forecast. this method depends on the period selected for the forecast and the
information or data available on hand. it also depends on what you expect from the information you get from the forecast. select
appropriate method for making forecast.

(d) gather information to be used in the forecast. the data you use for making forecasting to produce the result, which is of great
use to you. the data may be collected by:

(i) Primary source: This data we will get from the records of the firm itself.

(ii) Secondary source: this is available from outside means, such as published data, magazines, educational institutions etc.

(e) Make the forecast: Using the data collected in the selected method of forecasting, the forecast is made.

Forecasting Methods:
Methods or techniques of sales forecasting: Different authorities on marketing and production have devised several
methods or techniques of sales or demand forecasting. The sales forecasts may be result of what market people or buyers
say about the product or they may be the result of statistical and quantitative techniques. The most common methods of
sales forecasting are:
1. Survey of buyer’s inventions or the user’s expectation method: Under this system of sales forecasting actual users
of the product of the concern are contacted directly and they are asked about their intention to buy the
company’s products in an expected given future usually a year. Total sales forecasts of the product then estimated on
the basis of advice and willingness of various customers. This is most direct method of sales forecasting. The chief
advantages of this method are:
(i) Sales forecast under this method is based on information received or collected from the actual users
whose buying actions will really decide the future demand. So, the estimates are correct.
(ii) It provides a subjective feel of the market and of the thinking behind the buying intention of the actual
uses. It may help the development of a new product in the market.
(iii) This method is more appropriate where users of the product are numbered and a new product is to be
introduced for which no previous records can be made available.
(iv) It is most suitable for short-run forecasting.
2. Collective opinion or sales force composite method: Under this method, views of salesmen, branch manager, area
manager and sales manager are secured for the different segments of the market. Salesmen, being close to
actual users are required to estimate expected sales in their respective territories and sections. The estimates of
individual salesmen are then consolidated to find out the total estimated sales for the coming session. These estimates
are then further examined by the successive executive levels in the light of various factors like proposed changes in
product design, advertising and selling prices, competition etc. before they are finally emerged for forecasting.

3. Group executive judgement or executive judgement method: This is a process of combining,

averaging or evaluating, in some other way, the opinions and views of top executives. opinions are sought from
the executives of different fields i.e., marketing; finance; production etc. and forecasts are made.

4. Experts’ opinions: Under this method, the organisation collects opinions from specialists in the field
outside the organisation. opinions of experts given in the newspapers and journals for the trade,
wholesalers and distributors for company’s products, agencies or professional experts are taken. By
analysing these opinions and views of experts, deductions are made for the company’s sales, and sales
forecasts are done.

5. Market test method: Under this method seller sells his product in a part of the market for sometimes and
makes the assessment of sales for the full market on the bases of results of test sales. This method is quite
appropriate when the product is quite new in the market or good estimators are not available or where buyers
do not prepare their purchase plan.

6. Trend projection method: Under this method, a trend of company’s or industry’s sales is fixed with the
help of historical data relating to sales which are collected, observed or recorded at successive intervals of
time. Such data is generally referred to as time series. The change in values of sales is found out. The study
may show that the sales sometimes are increasing and sometimes decreasing, but a general trend in the
long run will be either upward or downward. It cannot be both ways. This trend is called secular trend. The
sales forecasts with the help of this method are made on the assumption that the same trend will continue in
the future. The method which is generally used in fitting the trend is the method of least squares or straight line
trend method. With this method a straight line trend is obtained. This line is called ‘line of best fit’. By using the
formula of regression equation of Y on X, the future sales are projected.

Calculation of trend.
The trend can be calculated by the least square method as follows:
(i) Find time deviations (X) of each period from a certain period and then find the sum of time deviation (∑X).
(ii) Square the time deviation of each period (X2) and then find the sum of squares of each period (∑X2).
(iii) Multiply time deviations with the sales of each period individually (XY) and add the product of the column to
find (∑XY).
(iv) To find the trend (Y) this is equal to a + bX. The value of a and b may be determined by either of the following
two ways:
 (a) Direct method. This method is applicable only when ∑X = 0. To make ∑X = 0, it is necessary that the time
deviations should be calculated exactly from the mid point of the series. Then, the values of a and b
will be calculated as follows:

a (average)
Y  XY
 n and b (rate of growth) 
X2
This method is simple and direct.
(b) Indirect method. This method is somewhat difficult. This method can be applied in both the cases where
∑X has any positive or negative values or ∑X is not equal to zero. The values of a and b are calculated by
solving the following two equations:
∑Y = na + b∑X
∑XY = a∑X + b∑X2
By calculating the values of a and b in the above manner, the sales can be forecasted for any future
period by applying the formula Y = a + bX.
7. Moving average method: This is another statistical method to calculate the trend through moving averages.
It can be calculated as follows:
An appropriate period is to be determined for which the moving average is calculated. While determining
the period for moving averages, the normal cycle time of changes in the values of series should be
considered so that short-term fluctuations are eliminated. As far as possible, the period for moving
averages should be in odd numbers such as period of 3, 5 or 7 years. The period in even numbers will create a
problem in centralising the values of averages. The calculated values of moving averages present the basis
for determining the expected amount of sale.

8. Criteria of a good forecasting method: It cannot be said which method of sales forecasting is the best
because everyone has merits and demerits of its own. The suitability of a method depends on various
factors such as nature of theproduct, available time and past records, wealth and energy, degree of
accuracy and the forecaster etc. of an enterprise. However, in general, a good forecasting method must
possess the following qualifications.
(i) Accuracy: Accuracy of the forecasting figures is the life blood of the business because many important
plans and programmes, policies andstrategies are prepared and followed on the basis of such estimates. If
sales forecasts are wrong, the businessman suffer a big loss. Hence, the method of forecasting to be
applied must amount to maximum accuracy.
(ii) Simplicity: The method for forecasting should be very simple. If the method is difficult or technical, then there
is every possibility of mistake. Some information are collected from outside and that will remain unanswered
or inaccurate replies will be received, if the method is difficult. Management must also be able to understand
and have confidence in the method.
(iii) Economy: The method to be used should be economical taking into account the importance of the
accuracy of forecast. Costs must be
(iv) Availability: The method should be such for which the relevant information may be available
immediately with reasonable accuracy. Moreover, the technique must give quick results and useful
information to the management.
(v) Stability: The data of forecasting should be such wherein the future changes are expected to be minimum
and are reliable for future planning for sometime.
(vi) Utility: The forecasting technique must be easily understandable and suitable to the management.
Illustration 1.
From the following time series data of sale project the sales for the next three years.

Year 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

Sales (`000 units) 80 90 92 83 94 99 92
Solution:
Computation of Trend Values

Years Time Deviation Sales in Squares Product of time

from 2004 (`000 units) of time deviations and sales
X Y dev. XY
X²
2001 –3 80 9 –240
2002 –2 90 4 –180
2003 –1 92 1 –92
2004 0 83 0 0
2005 +1 94 1 +94
2006 +2 99 4 +198
2007 +3 92 9 +276
n=7 ∑X = 0 ∑Y = 630 ∑X² = 28 ∑XY = + 56
Regression equation of Y on X
Y = a + bX
To find the values of a and b
a=
 Y = 630 = 90
n 7

b=
 XY
=
56
=2

X 2
28

Hence regression equation comes to Y = 90 + 2X. With the help of this equation we can project the trend values
for the next three years, i.e. 2008, 2009 and 2010.
Y2008 = 90 + 2(4) = 90 + 8 = 98 (000) units.

Y2009 = 90 + 2(5) = 90 + 10 = 100 (000) units.

Y2010 = 90 + 2(6) = 90 + 12 = 102 (000) units.

Illustration 2.
With the help of following data project the trend of sales for the next five years:

Years 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

Sales (in lakhs) 100 110 115 120 135 140

Solution:
Computation of trend values of sales

Year Time deviations from Sales (in lakh Squares of Product of time
the middle of 2004 and `) time deviation and sales
2005 assuring 5 years = 1 deviation
X Y X2 XY
2002 -5 100 25 -500
 2003 -3 110 9 -330
2004 -1 115 1 -115
2005 +1 120 1 +120
2006 +3 135 9 +405
2007 +5 140 25 +700
n=6 ΣX = ΣY = 720 ΣX² = 70 ΣXY = 280
0

Regression equation of Y on X:
Y = a + bX
To find the values of a and b

a=
Y = 720
= 120
n 6

b=
 XY = 280
=4

X 2 70

Sales forecast for the next years, i.e., 2008 to 2012

Y2008 = 120 + 4 (+7) = 120 + 28 = ` 148 lakhs

Y2009 = 120 + 4 (+9) = 120 + 36 = ` 156 lakhs

Y2010 = 120 + 4 (+11) = 120 + 44 = ` 164 lakhs.

Y2011 = 120 + 4 (+13) = 120 + 52 = ` 172 lakhs.

Y2012 = 120 + 4 (+15) = 120 + 60 = ` 180 lakhs.

Illustration 3.
An investigation into the demand for colour TV sets in 5 towns has resulted in the following data:

Population of the town (in lakhs) X: 5 7 8 11 14

No of TV sets demanded (in thousands) Y: 9 13 11 15 19
Fit a linear regression of Y on X and estimate the demand for CTV sets for two towns with a population of 10
lakhs and 20 lakhs.
Solution:
Computation of trend values

Population (in lakhs) Sales of CTV Squares of Product of population and sales
(in the of colour TV
thousands) population
X Y X² XY
5 9 25 45
7 13 49 91
8 11 64 88
11 15 121 165
14 19 196 266
ΣX = 45 Σy = ΣX² = 455 ΣXY = 655
67
 Regression equation of Y on X
Y = a + bX
To find the values of a and b, the following two equations are to be solved
ΣY = na + bΣX ... (i)
ΣXY = aΣX + bΣX 2
... (ii)

By putting the values we get

67 = 5a + 45b ... (iii)
655 = 45a + 455b ... (iv)

Multiplying equation (iii) by 9 and putting it as no. (v) we get,

603 = 45a + 405b ... (v)
By deducting equation (v) from equation (iv); we get 52 = 50b
52
b= = 1.04
50

By putting the value of b in equation (iii), we get

67 = 5a + 45 × 1.04
or, 67 = 5a + 46.80
or, 67-46.80 = 5a
or, 5a = 20.20
or, a = 20.20
5
or a = 4.04
Now by putting the values of a, b and X (10 lakhs) in regression equation of Y on X, we get,
Y = a + bX

or, Y = 4.04 + 1.04 (10)

or, Y = 4.04 + 10.40 or 14.44 thousand CTV sets.
Similarly sales estimates for town having population of 20 lakhs, by putting the values of X, a and b in
regression equation can be found as
Y = 4.04 + 1.04 (20)
= 4.04 + 20.80 = 24.84 thousands CTV sets.

Hence expected demand for CTV for two towns will be 14.44 thousand and 24.84 thousand CTV sets.
Illustration 4.
An investigation into the use of scooters in 5 towns has resulted in the following data: Population in town

Population in town (in lakhs) (X) 4 6 7 10 13

No. of scooters (Y) 4,400 6,600 5,700 8,000 10,300
Fit a linear regression of Y on X and estimate the number of scooters to be found in a town with a population of
16 lakhs.
Solution:
Computation of trend value

Population No. of Squares Product of population

(in lakhs) scooters of and No. of scooters
X demanded population demanded XY
Y X²
4 4,400 16 17,600
6 6,600 36 39,600
7 5,700 49 39,900
10 8,000 100 80,000
13 10,300 169 1,33,900
ΣX = 40 ΣY = 35,000 ΣX² = 370 ΣXY = 3,11,000

Regression equation of Y on X
Y = a + bX
To find the values of a and b we will have to solve the following two equations
ΣY = na + bΣX ... (i)
ΣXY = aΣX + bΣX 2
....(ii)

By putting the values, we get

35,000 = 5a + 40b
3,11,000 = 40a + 370b

By multiplying equation no. (iii) by 8 putting as equation (v) we get,

2,80,000 = 40a + 320b ... (v)
By subtracting equation (v) from equation (iv), we get
31,000 = 50b
or, 50b = 31,000
31000
or, b =
50 = 620
By substituting the value of b in equation no. (iii), we get
35,000 = 5a + 40b
or 35,000 = 5a + 40 × 620
or 35,000 = 5a + 24,800
or 10,200 = 5a
or a = 10200
= 2040
5
Now putting the value of a, b and X (16 lakhs) in regression equation of Y on X, we
get Y = a + bX
or, Y = 2040 + 620 (16)
or Y = 2040 + 9920
or Y = 11,960

Hence, the expected demand of scooters for a town with a population of 16 lakhs will be
11,960 scooters.