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sixth edition
Fundamentals of
Electric Circuits
Charles K. Alexander
Department of Electrical and
Computer Engineering
Cleveland State University
Matthew N. O. Sadiku
Department of Electrical and
Computer Engineering
Prairie View A&M University
FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS, SIXTH EDITION
Published by McGraw-Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121. Copyright © 2017 by
McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Previous editions
© 2013, 2009, and 2007. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by
any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill
Education, including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or
broadcast for distance learning.
Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers outside
the United States.
This book is printed on acid-free paper.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Alexander, Charles K., author.
Fundamentals of electric circuits / Charles K. Alexander, Department of Electrical and Computer
Engineering, Cleveland State University, Matthew N. O. Sadiku, Department of Electrical Engineering,
Prairie View A&M University. — Sixth edition.
pages cm
Includes index.
ISBN 978-0-07-802822-9 (alk. paper) — ISBN 0-07-802822-1 (alk. paper)
1. Electric circuits. I. Sadiku, Matthew N. O., author. II. Title.
TK454.A452 2017
621.3815—dc23 2015035301
The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication. The inclusion of a
website does not indicate an endorsement by the authors or McGraw-Hill Education, and McGraw-Hill
Education does not guarantee the accuracy of the information presented at these sites.
mheducation.com/highered
Dedicated to our wives, Kikelomo and Hannah, whose understanding and
support have truly made this book possible.
Matthew
and
Chuck
This page intentionally left blank
Contents
Preface xi Chapter 3 Methods of Analysis 79
Acknowledgments xv
About the Authors xxi
3.1 Introduction 80
3.2 Nodal Analysis 80
3.3 Nodal Analysis with Voltage Sources 86
3.4 Mesh Analysis 91
3.5 Mesh Analysis with Current Sources 96
PART 1 DC Circuits 2 3.6 Nodal and Mesh Analyses
by Inspection 98
Chapter 1 Basic Concepts 3 3.7 Nodal Versus Mesh Analysis 102
1.1 Introduction 4 3.8 Circuit Analysis with PSpice 103
1.2 Systems of Units 5 3.9 Applications: DC Transistor Circuits 105
1.3 Charge and Current 6 3.10 Summary 110
Review Questions 111
1.4 Voltage 9
Problems 112
1.5 Power and Energy 10
Comprehensive Problem 124
1.6 Circuit Elements 14
1.7 Applications 16
1.7.1 TV Picture Tube
1.7.2 Electricity Bills
1.8 Problem Solving 19 Chapter 4 Circuit Theorems 125
1.9 Summary 22 4.1 Introduction 126
Review Questions 23 4.2 Linearity Property 126
Problems 24 4.3 Superposition 128
Comprehensive Problems 26 4.4 Source Transformation 133
4.5 Thevenin’s Theorem 137
4.6 Norton’s Theorem 143
4.7 Derivations of Thevenin’s
Chapter 2 Basic Laws 29 and Norton’s Theorems 147
4.8 Maximum Power Transfer 148
2.1 Introduction 30 4.9 Verifying Circuit Theorems
2.2 Ohm’s Law 30 with PSpice 150
2.3 Nodes, Branches, and Loops 35 4.10 Applications 153
2.4 Kirchhoff’s Laws 37 4.10.1 Source Modeling
2.5 Series Resistors and Voltage Division 43 4.10.2 Resistance Measurement
2.6 Parallel Resistors and Current Division 44 4.11 Summary 158
2.7 Wye-Delta Transformations 51 Review Questions 159
Delta to Wye Conversion Problems 160
Wye to Delta Conversion Comprehensive Problems 171
2.8 Applications 57
2.8.1 Lighting Systems
2.8.2 Design of DC Meters
2.9 Summary 63 Chapter 5 Operational Amplifiers 173
Review Questions 64
Problems 65 5.1 Introduction 174
Comprehensive Problems 77 5.2 Operational Amplifiers 174
v
vi Contents
5.3 Ideal Op Amp 178 Chapter 8 Second-Order Circuits 311

5.4 Inverting Amplifier 179
8.1 Introduction 312
5.5 Noninverting Amplifier 181
8.2 Finding Initial and Final Values 313
5.6 Summing Amplifier 183
8.3 The Source-Free Series
5.7 Difference Amplifier 185
RLC Circuit 317
5.8 Cascaded Op Amp Circuits 189
8.4 The Source-Free Parallel
5.9 Op Amp Circuit Analysis with PSpice 192
RLC Circuit 324
5.10 Applications 194
8.5 Step Response of a Series RLC
5.10.1 Digital-to-Analog Converter
Circuit 329
5.10.2 Instrumentation Amplifiers
8.6 Step Response of a Parallel RLC
5.11 Summary 197
Circuit 334
8.7 General Second-Order Circuits 337
Problems 200
8.8 Second-Order Op Amp Circuits 342
Comprehensive Problems 211
8.9 PSpice Analysis of RLC Circuits 344
8.10 Duality 348
8.11.1 Automobile Ignition System
Chapter 6 Capacitors and Inductors 213
8.11.2 Smoothing Circuits
6.1 Introduction 214 8.12 Summary 354
6.2 Capacitors 214 Review Questions 355
6.3 Series and Parallel Capacitors 220 Problems 356
6.4 Inductors 224 Comprehensive Problems 365
6.5 Series and Parallel Inductors 228
6.6.1 Integrator
6.6.2 Differentiator PART 2 AC Circuits 366
6.6.3 Analog Computer
6.7 Summary 238
Review Questions 239 Chapter 9 Sinusoids and Phasors 367
Problems 240
9.2 Sinusoids 369
9.3 Phasors 374
9.4 Phasor Relationships for
Circuit Elements 383
Chapter 7 First-Order Circuits 251
9.5 Impedance and Admittance 385
7.1 Introduction 252 9.6 Kirchhoff’s Laws in the Frequency
7.2 The Source-Free RC Circuit 253 Domain 387
7.3 The Source-Free RL Circuit 257 9.7 Impedance Combinations 388
7.4 Singularity Functions 263 9.8 Applications 394
7.5 Step Response of an RC Circuit 271 9.8.1 Phase-Shifters
7.6 Step Response of an RL Circuit 278 9.8.2 AC Bridges
7.7 First-Order Op Amp Circuits 282 9.9 Summary 400
7.8 Transient Analysis with PSpice 287 Review Questions 401
7.9 Applications 291 Problems 401
7.9.1 Delay Circuits Comprehensive Problems 409
7.9.2 Photoflash Unit
7.9.3 Relay Circuits
Chapter 10 Sinusoidal Steady-State
7.9.4 Automobile Ignition Circuit
Analysis 411
7.10 Summary 297
Review Questions 298 10.1 Introduction 412
Problems 299 10.2 Nodal Analysis 412
Comprehensive Problems 309 10.3 Mesh Analysis 415
Contents vii
10.4 Superposition Theorem 419 12.11 Summary 541

10.5 Source Transformation 422 Review Questions 541
10.6 Thevenin and Norton Problems 542
Equivalent Circuits 424 Comprehensive Problems 551
10.7 Op Amp AC Circuits 429
10.8 AC Analysis Using PSpice 431
10.9.1 Capacitance Multiplier
Chapter 13 Magnetically Coupled
10.9.2 Oscillators
Circuits 553
10.10 Summary 439
Review Questions 439 13.1 Introduction 554
Problems 441 13.2 Mutual Inductance 555
13.3 Energy in a Coupled Circuit 562
13.4 Linear Transformers 565
13.5 Ideal Transformers 571
13.6 Ideal Autotransformers 579
Chapter 11 AC Power Analysis 455
13.7 Three-Phase Transformers 582
11.1 Introduction 456 13.8 PSpice Analysis of Magnetically
11.2 Instantaneous and Average Power 456 Coupled Circuits 584
11.3 Maximum Average Power Transfer 462 13.9 Applications 589
11.4 Effective or RMS Value 465 13.9.1 Transformer as an Isolation Device
11.5 Apparent Power and 13.9.2 Transformer as a Matching Device
Power Factor 468 13.9.3 Power Distribution
11.6 Complex Power 471 13.10 Summary 595
11.7 Conservation of AC Power 475 Review Questions 596
11.8 Power Factor Correction 479 Problems 597
11.9 Applications 481 Comprehensive Problems 609
11.9.1 Power Measurement
11.9.2 Electricity Consumption Cost
11.10 Summary 486
Chapter 14 Frequency Response 611
Problems 488
Comprehensive Problems 498 14.1 Introduction 612
14.2 Transfer Function 612
14.3 The Decibel Scale 615
14.4 Bode Plots 617
14.5 Series Resonance 627
Chapter 12 Three-Phase Circuits 501
14.6 Parallel Resonance 632
12.1 Introduction 502 14.7 Passive Filters 635
12.2 Balanced Three-Phase Voltages 503 14.7.1 Low-Pass Filter
12.3 Balanced Wye-Wye Connection 507 14.7.2 High-Pass Filter
12.4 Balanced Wye-Delta Connection 510 14.7.3 Band-Pass Filter
12.5 Balanced Delta-Delta 14.7.4 Band-Stop Filter
Connection 512 14.8 Active Filters 640
12.6 Balanced Delta-Wye Connection 514 14.8.1 First-Order Low-Pass Filter
12.7 Power in a Balanced System 517 14.8.2 First-Order High-Pass Filter
12.8 Unbalanced Three-Phase 14.8.3 Band-Pass Filter
Systems 523 14.8.4 Band-Reject (or Notch) Filter
12.9 PSpice for Three-Phase Circuits 527 14.9 Scaling 646
12.10 Applications 532 14.9.1 Magnitude Scaling
12.10.1 Three-Phase Power Measurement 14.9.2 Frequency Scaling
12.10.2 Residential Wiring 14.9.3 Magnitude and Frequency Scaling
viii Contents
14.10 Frequency Response Using Chapter 17 The Fourier Series 757

PSpice 650
14.11 Computation Using MATLAB 653
17.2 Trigonometric Fourier Series 759
17.3 Symmetry Considerations 766
14.12.1 Radio Receiver
17.3.1 Even Symmetry
14.12.2 Touch-Tone Telephone
17.3.2 Odd Symmetry
14.12.3 Crossover Network
17.3.3 Half-Wave Symmetry
14.13 Summary 661
17.4 Circuit Applications 776
17.5 Average Power and RMS Values 780
Problems 663
17.6 Exponential Fourier Series 783
17.7 Fourier Analysis with PSpice 789
17.7.1 Discrete Fourier Transform
17.7.2 Fast Fourier Transform
PART 3 Advanced Circuit 17.8.1 Spectrum Analyzers
Analysis 672 17.8.2 Filters
17.9 Summary 798
Chapter 15 Introduction to the Laplace Review Questions 800
Transform 673 Problems 800
15.2 Definition of the Laplace
Transform 675
15.3 Properties of the Laplace
Transform 677 Chapter 18 Fourier Transform 811
15.4 The Inverse Laplace Transform 688
15.4.1 Simple Poles
18.2 Definition of the Fourier Transform 812
15.4.2 Repeated Poles
18.3 Properties of the Fourier
15.4.3 Complex Poles
Transform 818
15.5 The Convolution Integral 695
18.4 Circuit Applications 831
15.6 Application to Integrodifferential
18.5 Parseval’s Theorem 834
Equations 703
18.6 Comparing the Fourier and
15.7 Summary 706
Laplace Transforms 837
Problems 707
18.7.1 Amplitude Modulation
18.7.2 Sampling
18.8 Summary 841
Chapter 16 Applications of the Laplace
Problems 843
Transform 713
16.2 Circuit Element Models 715
16.3 Circuit Analysis 720
16.4 Transfer Functions 724
Chapter 19 Two-Port Networks 851
16.5 State Variables 728
16.6 Applications 735 19.1 Introduction 852
16.6.1 Network Stability 19.2 Impedance Parameters 853
16.6.2 Network Synthesis 19.3 Admittance Parameters 857
16.7 Summary 743 19.4 Hybrid Parameters 860
Review Questions 744 19.5 Transmission Parameters 865
Problems 745 19.6 Relationships Between
Comprehensive Problems 756 Parameters 870
Contents ix
19.7 Interconnection of Networks 873 Appendix A Simultaneous Equations and Matrix

19.8 Computing Two-Port Parameters Inversion A
Using PSpice 879
Appendix B Complex Numbers A-9
19.9.1 Transistor Circuits Appendix C Mathematical Formulas A-16
19.9.2 Ladder Network Synthesis
Appendix D Answers to Odd-Numbered
19.10 Summary 891
Problems A-21
Problems 892 Selected Bibliography B-1
Comprehensive Problem 903 Index I-1
Preface
In keeping with our focus on space for covers for our book, we have
chosen the NASA Voyager spacecraft for the sixth edition. The reason
for this is that like any spacecraft there are many circuits that play criti -
cal roles in their functionality. The beginning of the Voyager 1 and 2
odyssey began on August 20, 1977, for Voyager 2 and on September 5,
1977, for Voyager 1. Both were launched from NASA’s Kennedy Space
Center in Florida. The Voyager 1 was launched on a faster orbit so it
eventually became the first man-made object to leave our solar system.
There is some debate over whether it has actually left the solar system,
but it certainly will at some point in time. Voyager 2 and two Pioneer
spacecraft will also leave the solar system at some point in time.
Voyager 1 is still functioning and sending back data, a truly signifi-
cant achievement for NASA engineers. The design processes that make
the Voyager operate so reliably are based on the fundamentals discussed
in this textbook. Finally, space is vast so that Voyager 1 will fly past
other solar systems; the odds of actually coming into contact with some-
thing are so remote that it may virtually fly through the universe forever!
For more about Voyager 1, go to NASA’s website: www.nasa.gov/.
Features
New to This Edition
We have added learning objectives to each chapter to reflect what we
believe are the most important items to learn from each chapter. These
should help you focus more carefully on what you should be learning.
There are more than 580 revised end-of-chapter problems, new end-
of-chapter problems, and revised practice problems. We continue to try and
make our problems as practical as possible.
In addition, we have improved Connect for this edition by increasing
the number of problems available substantially. Now, professors may select
from more than a thousand problems as they build thier online homework
assignments.
We have also built SmartBook for this edition. With SmartBook, stu -
dents get the same text as the print version, along with personalized tips on
what to study next, thanks to SmartBook’s adaptive technology.
Retained from Previous Editions

A course in circuit analysis is perhaps the first exposure students have
to electrical engineering. This is also a place where we can enhance
some of the skills that they will later need as they learn how to design.
An important part of this book is our 121design a problem problems.
These problems were developed to enhance skills that are an impor -
tant part of the design process. We know it is not possible to fully de-
velop a student’s design skills in a fundamental course like circuits.
To fully develop design skills a student needs a design experience
xi
xii Preface
normally reserved for their senior year. This does not mean that some
of those skills cannot be developed and exercised in a circuits course.
The text already included open-ended questions that help students
use creativity, which is an important part of learning how to design.
We already have some questions that are open-ended but we desired
to add much more into our text in this important area and have devel-
oped an approach to do just that. When we develop problems for the
student to solve our goal is that in solving the problem the student
learns more about the theory and the problem solving process. Why
not have the students design problems like we do? That is exactly
what we do in each chapter. Within the normal problem set, we have
a set of problems where we ask the student to design a problem to
help other students better understand an important concept. This has
two very important results. The first will be a better understanding of
the basic theory and the second will be the enhancement of some of
the student’s basic design skills. We are making effective use of the
principle of learning by teaching. Essentially we all learn better when
we teach a subject. Designing effective problems is a key part of
the teaching process. Students should also be encouraged to develop
problems, when appropriate, which have nice numbers and do not
necessarily overemphasize complicated mathematical manipulations.
A very important advantage to our textbook, we have a total of2,481
Examples, Practice Problems, Review Questions, and End-of-Chapter
Problems! Answers are provided for all practice problems and the odd
numbered end-of-chapter problems.
The main objective of the sixth edition of this book remains the
same as the previous editions—to present circuit analysis in a manner
that is clearer, more interesting, and easier to understand than other cir -
cuit textbooks, and to assist the student in beginning to see the “fun” in
engineering. This objective is achieved in the following ways:
• Chapter Openers and Summaries

Each chapter opens with a discussion about how to enhance skills
which contribute to successful problem solving as well as success -
ful careers or a career-oriented talk on a subdiscipline of electrical
engineering. This is followed by an introduction that links the chap-
ter with the previous chapters and states the chapter objectives. The
chapter ends with a summary of key points and formulas.
• Problem-Solving Methodology
Chapter 1 introduces a six-step method for solving circuit problems
which is used consistently throughout the book and media supple -
ments to promote best-practice problem-solving procedures.
• Student-Friendly Writing Style
All principles are presented in a lucid, logical, step-by-step man -
ner. As much as possible, we avoid wordiness and giving too much
detail that could hide concepts and impede overall understanding of
the material.
• Boxed Formulas and Key Terms
Important formulas are boxed as a means of helping students sort
out what is essential from what is not. Also, to ensure that students
clearly understand the key elements of the subject matter, key terms
are defined and highlighted.
Preface xiii
• Margin Notes
Marginal notes are used as a pedagogical aid. They serve multiple
uses such as hints, cross-references, more exposition, warnings,
reminders not to make some particular common mistakes, and prob-
lem-solving insights.
• Worked Examples
Thoroughly worked examples are liberally given at the end of ev -
ery section. The examples are regarded as a part of the text and are
clearly explained without asking the reader to fill in missing steps.
Thoroughly worked examples give students a good understanding
of the solution process and the confidence to solve problems them-
selves. Some of the problems are solved in two or three different
ways to facilitate a substantial comprehension of the subject mate -
rial as well as a comparison of different approaches.
• Practice Problems
To give students practice opportunity, each illustrative example is
immediately followed by a practice problem with the answer. The
student can follow the example step-by-step to aid in the solution of
the practice problem without flipping pages or looking at the end of
the book for answers. The practice problem is also intended to test a
student’s understanding of the preceding example. It will reinforce
their grasp of the material before the student can move on to the
next section. Complete solutions to the practice problems are avail-
able to students on the website.
• Application Sections
The last section in each chapter is devoted to practical application
aspects of the concepts covered in the chapter. The material covered
in the chapter is applied to at least one or two practical problems
or devices. This helps students see how the concepts are applied to
real-life situations.
• Review Questions
Ten review questions in the form of multiple-choice objective items
are provided at the end of each chapter with answers. The review
questions are intended to cover the little “tricks” that the examples
and end-of-chapter problems may not cover. They serve as a self
test device and help students determine how well they have mas -
tered the chapter.
• Computer Tools
®
In recognition of the requirements by ABET on integrating
computer tools, the use of PSpice, Multisim, MATLAB, KCIDE for
Circuits, and developing design skills are encouraged in a student-
friendly manner. PSpice is covered early on in the text so that stu -
dents can become familiar and use it throughout the text. Tutorials
on all of these are available onConnect. MATLAB is also introduced
early in the book.
• Design a Problem Problems
Finally, design a problem problems are meant to help the student de-
velop skills that will be needed in the design process.
• Historical Tidbits
Historical sketches throughout the text provide profiles of important
pioneers and events relevant to the study of electrical engineering.
xiv Preface
• Early Op Amp Discussion

The operational amplifier (op amp) as a basic element is introduced
early in the text.
• Fourier and Laplace Transforms Coverage
To ease the transition between the circuit course and signals and
systems courses, Fourier and Laplace transforms are covered lu -
cidly and thoroughly. The chapters are developed in a manner that
the interested instructor can go from solutions of first-order circuits
to Chapter 15. This then allows a very natural progression from
Laplace to Fourier to AC.
• Four-Color Art Program
An interior design and four-color art program bring circuit drawings
to life and enhance key pedagogical elements throughout the text.
• Extended Examples
Examples worked in detail according to the six-step problem solv -
ing method provide a road map for students to solve problems in a
consistent fashion. At least one example in each chapter is devel -
oped in this manner.
• EC 2000 Chapter Openers
Based on ABET’s skill-based CRITERION 3, these chapter openers
are devoted to discussions as to how students can acquire the skills
that will lead to a significantly enhanced career as an engineer. Be-
cause these skills are so very important to the student while still in
college as well after graduation, we use the heading, “Enhancing
your Skills and your Career.”
• Homework Problems
There are 580 new or revised end-of-chapter problems and changed
practice problems which will provide students with plenty of practice
as well as reinforce key concepts.
• Homework Problem Icons
Icons are used to highlight problems that relate to engineering de -
sign as well as problems that can be solved using PSpice, Multisim,
KCIDE, or MATLAB.
Organization
This book was written for a two-semester or three-quarter course in
linear circuit analysis. The book may also be used for a one-semester
course by a proper selection of chapters and sections by the instructor. It
is broadly divided into three parts.
• Part 1, consisting of Chapters 1 to 8, is devoted to dc circuits. It

covers the fundamental laws and theorems, circuits techniques, and
passive and active elements.
• Part 2, which contains Chapter 9 to 14, deals with ac circuits. It
introduces phasors, sinusoidal steady-state analysis, ac power, rms
values, three-phase systems, and frequency response.
• Part 3, consisting of Chapters 15 to 19, are devoted to advanced
techniques for network analysis. It provides students with a solid
introduction to the Laplace transform, Fourier series, Fourier trans-
form, and two-port network analysis.
Preface xv
The material in the three parts is more than sufficient for a two-semester
course, so the instructor must select which chapters or sections to cover.
Sections marked with the dagger sign (†) may be skipped, explained
briefly, or assigned as homework. They can be omitted without loss of
continuity. Each chapter has plenty of problems grouped according to the
sections of the related material and diverse enough that the instructor can
choose some as examples and assign some as homework. As stated ear -
lier, we are using three icons with this edition. We are using to de-
note problems that either require PSpice in the solution process, where
the circuit complexity is such that PSpice or Multisim would make the
solution process easier, and where PSpice or Multisim makes a good
check to see if the problem has been solved correctly. We are using
to denote problems where MATLAB is required in the solution process,
where MATLAB makes sense because of the problem makeup and its
complexity, and where MATLAB makes a good check to see if the prob-
lem has been solved correctly. Finally, we use to identify problems
that help the student develop skills that are needed for engineering
design. More difficult problems are marked with an asterisk (*).
Comprehensive problems follow the end-of-chapter problems. They
are mostly applications problems that require skills learned from that
particular chapter.
Prerequisites
As with most introductory circuit courses, the main prerequisites, for a
course using this textbook, are physics and calculus. Although familiar -
ity with complex numbers is helpful in the later part of the book, it is not
required. A very important asset of this text is that ALL the mathemati -
cal equations and fundamentals of physics needed by the student, are
included in the text.
Acknowledgments
We would like to express our appreciation for the loving support we
have received from our wives (Hannah and Kikelomo), daughters
(Christina, Tamara, Jennifer, Motunrayo, Ann, and Joyce), son (Baixi),
and our extended family members. We sincerely appreciate the invalu-
able help given us by Richard Rarick in helping us make the sixth edi-
tion a significantly more relevant book. He has checked all the new and
revised problems and offered advice on making them more accurate
and clear.
At McGraw-Hill, we would like to thank the following editorial
and production staff: Raghu Srinivasan, global brand manager; Vincent
Bradshaw, product developer; Nick McFadden, marketing manager;
and Melissa Leick, content project manager.
The sixth edition has benefited greatly from the many outstanding
individuals who have offered suggestions for improvements in both the
text as well as the various problems. In particular, we thank Nicholas
Reeder, Professor of Electronics Engineering Technology, Sinclair
Community College, Dayton, Ohio, and Douglas De Boer, Professor
of Engineering, Dordt College, Sioux Center, Iowa, for their detailed
and careful corrections and suggestions for clarification which have
xvi Preface
contributed to making this a better edition. In addition, the follow -

ing have made important contributions to this edition (in alphabetical
order):
Zekeriya Aliyazicioglu, California State Polytechnic University—
Pomona
Rajan Chandra, California State Polytechnic University—Pomona
Mohammad Haider, University of Alabama—Birmingham
John Heathcote, Reedley College
Peter LoPresti, University of Tulsa
Robert Norwood, John Brown University
Aaron Ohta, University of Hawaii—Manoa
Salomon Oldak, California State Polytechnic University—Pomona
Hesham Shaalan, U.S. Merchant Marine Academy
Surendra Singh, University of Tulsa
Finally, we sincerely appreciate the feedback received from instructors
and students who used the previous editions. We want this to continue, so
please keep sending us e-mails or direct them to the publisher. We can be
reached at c.alexander@ieee.org for Charles Alexander and sadiku@ieee
.org for Matthew Sadiku.
C. K. Alexander and M. N. O. Sadiku
Supplements
Instructor and Student Resources
Available on Connect are a number of additional instructor and student
resources to accompany the text. These include complete solutions for
all practice and end-of-chapter problems, solutions in PSpice and Mul-
tisim problems, lecture PowerPoints ®, and text image files. In addition,
instructors can use COSMOS, a complete online solutions manual or-
ganization system to create custom homework, quizzes, and tests using
end-of-chapter problems from the text.
Knowledge Capturing Integrated Design

Environment for Circuits (KCIDE for Circuits)
This software, developed at Cleveland State University and funded by
NASA, is designed to help the student work through a circuits problem
in an organized manner using the six-step problem-solving methodology
in the text. KCIDE for Circuits allows students to work a circuit problem
in PSpice and MATLAB, track the evolution of their solution, and save a
record of their process for future reference. In addition, the software auto-
matically generates a Word document and/or a PowerPoint presentation.
The software package can be downloaded for free.
It is hoped that the book and supplemental materials supply the in -
structor with all the pedagogical tools necessary to effectively present
the material.
McGraw-Hill Create®
Craft your teaching resources to match the way you teach! With McGraw-
Hill Create, http://create.mheducation.com, you can easily rearrange chap-
ters, combine material from other content sources, and quickly upload
Preface xvii
content you have written like your course syllabus or teaching notes. Find
the content you need in Create by searching through thousands of lead -
ing McGraw-Hill textbooks. Arrange your book to fit your teaching style.
Create even allows you to personalize your book’s appearance by select -
ing the cover and adding your name, school, and course information. Or -
der a Create book and you’ll receive a complimentary print review copy
in three to five business days or a complimentary electronic review copy
(eComp) via e-mail in minutes. Go to http://create.mheducation.com to-
day and register to experience how McGraw-Hill Create empowers you to
teach your students your way.
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that is proven to deliver better results for
students and instructors.
Connect empowers students by continually
adapting to deliver precisely what they
need, when they need it and how they need
it, so your class time is more engaging and
effective.
Using Connect improves passing rates

by 10.8% and retention by 16.4%.
88% of instructors who use Connect
require it; instructor satisfaction increases
by 38% when Connect is required.
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About the Authors
Charles K. Alexander is professor of electrical and computer engineer-
ing in the Washkewicz College of Engineering at Cleveland State Univer -
sity, Cleveland, Ohio. He is also the director of the Center for Research
in Electronics and Aerospace Technology (CREATE). From 2002 until
2006 he was dean of the Fenn College of Engineering. He has held the
position of dean of engineering at Cleveland State University, California
State University, Northridge, and Temple University (acting dean for six
years). He has held the position of department chair at Temple Univer-
sity and Tennessee Technological University as well as the position of
Stocker Visiting Professor (an endowed chair) at Ohio University. He
has held faculty status at all of the aforementioned universities.
Dr. Alexander has secured funding for two centers of research at
Ohio University and Cleveland State University. He has been the direc-
tor of three additional research centers at Temple and Tennessee Tech
and has obtained research funding of approximately $100 million (in
today’s dollars). He has served as a consultant to 23 private and govern-
mental organizations including the Air Force and the Navy.
He received the honorary Dr. Eng. from Ohio Northern University Charles K. Alexander
(2009), his PhD (1971) and M.S.E.E. (1967) from Ohio University, and
the B.S.E.E. (1965) from Ohio Northern University.
Dr. Alexander has authored many publications, including a work -
book and a videotape lecture series, and is coauthor of Fundamentals
of Electric Circuits, currently in its fifth edition, Engineering Skills for
Career Success, Problem Solving Made ALMOST Easy, the fifth edi-
tion of the Standard Handbook of Electronic Engineering, and Applied
Circuit Analysis, all with McGraw-Hill. He has delivered more than
500 paper, professional, and technical presentations.
Dr. Alexander is a Life Fellow of the IEEE and served as its presi-
dent and CEO in 1997. In addition he has held several volunteer posi -
tions within the IEEE during his more than 45 years of service. This
includes serving from 1991 to 1999 on the IEEE board of directors.
He has received several local, regional, national, and international
awards for teaching and research, includingan honorary Doctor of Engi-
neering degree, Fellow of the IEEE, the IEEE-USA Jim Watson Student
Professional Awareness Achievement Award, the IEEE Undergraduate
Teaching Award, the Distinguished Professor Award, the Distinguished
Engineering Education Achievement Award, the Distinguished Engi -
neering Education Leadership Award, the IEEE Centennial Medal, and
the IEEE/RAB Innovation Award.
xxi
xxii About the Authors
Matthew N. O. Sadiku received his PhD from Tennessee Technological

University, Cookeville. From 1984 to 1988, he was an assistant professor
at Florida Atlantic University, where he did graduate work in computer
science. From 1988 to 2000, he was at Temple University, Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania, where he became a full professor. From 2000 to 2002,
he was with Lucent/Avaya, Holmdel, New Jersey, as a system engineer
and with Boeing Satellite Systems as a senior scientist. He is currently a
professor at Prairie View A&M University.
Dr. Sadiku is the author of more than 240 professional papers and
over 60 books, including Elements of Electromagnetics (Oxford Uni -
versity Press, 6th ed., 2015), Numerical Techniques in Electromagnet-
ics with MATLAB (CRC, 3rd ed., 2009), and Metropolitan Area Net -
works (CRC Press, 1995). Some of his books have been translated into
French, Korean, Chinese (and Chinese Long Form in Taiwan), Italian,
Portuguese, and Spanish. He was the recipient of the 2000 McGraw-Hill/
Jacob Millman Award for outstanding contributions in the field of elec-
trical engineering. He was also the recipient of Regents Professor award
Matthew N. O. Sadiku for 2012 to 2013 by the Texas A&M University System.
His current research interests are in the areas of numerical modeling
of electromagnetic systems and computer communication networks. He
is a registered professional engineer and a fellow of the Institute of Elec-
trical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) “for contributions to computa -
tional electromagnetics and engineering education.” He was the IEEE
Region 2 Student Activities Committee Chairman. He was an associ -
ate editor for IEEE Transactions on Education and is a member of the
Association for Computing Machinery (ACM).
Fundamentals of
Electric Circuits
P A R T O N E
DCCi rcuits
OUTLINE
1 Basic Concepts
2 Basic Laws
3 Methods of Analysis
4 Circuit Theorems
5 Operational Amplifiers
6 Capacitors and Inductors
7 First-Order Circuits
8 Second-Order Circuits
NASA
c h a p t e r
Basic Concepts
Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be
1
chewed and digested.
—Francis Bacon
Enhancing Your Skills and Your Career

ABET EC 2000 criteria (3.a), “an ability to apply knowledge
of mathematics, science, and engineering.”
As students, you are required to study mathematics, science, and engi -
neering with the purpose of being able to apply that kno wledge to the
solution of engineering problems. The skill here is the ability to apply
the fundamentals of these areas in the solution of a problem. So how do
you develop and enhance this skill?
The best approach is to w ork as man y problems as possible in all
of your courses. Ho wever, if you are really going to be successful with
this, you must spend time analyzing where and when and why you have
difficulty in easily arriving at successful solutions. You may be surprised Photo by Charles Alexander
to learn that most of your problem-solving problems are with mathemat-
ics rather than your understanding of theory . You may also learn that
you start working the problem too soon. Taking time to think about the
problem and ho w you should solv e it will al ways sa ve you time and
frustration in the end.
What I have found that works best for me is to apply our six-
step problem-solving technique. Then I carefully identify the areas
where I ha ve dif ficulty solving the problem. Many times, my actual
deficiencies are in my understanding and ability to use correctly certain
mathematical principles. I then return to my fundamental math texts and
carefully review the appropriate sections, and in some cases, work some
example problems in that text. This brings me to another important thing
you should always do: Keep nearby all your basic mathematics, science,
and engineering textbooks.
This process of continually looking up material you thought you
had acquired in earlier courses may seem v ery tedious at first; however,
as your skills de velop and your kno wledge increases, this process will
become easier and easier. On a personal note, it is this very process that
led me from being a much less than a verage student to someone who
could earn a Ph.D. and become a successful researcher.
3
4 Chapter 1 Basic Concepts
Learning Objectives
By using the information and exercises in this chapter you will be
able to:
1. Understand the different units with which engineers work.
2. Understand the relationship between charge and current and
how to use both in a variety of applications.
3. Understand voltage and how it can be used in a variety of
applications.
4. Develop an understanding of power and energy and their
relationship with current and voltage.
5. Begin to understand the volt-amp characteristics of a variety of
circuit elements.
6. Begin to understand an organized approach to problem solving
and how it can be used to assist in your efforts to solve circuit
problems.
1.1 Introduction
Electric circuit theory and electromagnetic theory are the tw o funda -
mental theories upon which all branches of electrical engineering are
built. Many branches of electrical engineering, such as po wer, electric
machines, control, electronics, communications, and instrumentation,
are based on electric circuit theory . Therefore, the basic electric circuit
theory course is the most important course for an electrical engineering
student, and al ways an e xcellent starting point for a be ginning student
in electrical engineering education. Circuit theory is also v aluable to
students specializing in other branches of the ph ysical sciences because
circuits are a good model for the study of energy systems in general, and
because of the applied mathematics, physics, and topology involved.
In electrical engineering, we are often interested in communicating
or transferring energy from one point to another . To do this requires an
interconnection of electrical devices. Such interconnection is referred to
as an electric circuit, and each component of the circuit is kno wn as an
element.
An electric circuit is an interconnection of electrical elements.
A simple electric circuit is sho wn in Fig. 1.1. It consists of three

basic elements: a battery , a lamp, and connecting wires. Such a simple
circuit can e xist by itself; it has se veral applications, such as a flash-
Current light, a search light, and so forth.
A complicated real circuit is displayed in Fig. 1.2, representing the
+ schematic diagram for a radio receiver. Although it seems complicated,
–
this circuit can be analyzed using the techniques we co ver in this book.
Our goal in this text is to learn various analytical techniques andcomputer
Battery Lamp
software applications for describing the behavior of a circuit like this.
Electric circuits are used in numerous electrical systems to accomplish
different tasks. Our objecti ve in this book is not the study of various uses
Figure 1.1 and applications of circuits. Rather, our major concern is the analysis of the
A simple electric circuit. circuits. By the analysis of a circuit, we mean a study of the beha vior of the
1.2 Systems of Units 5
+ 9 V (DC)
Antenna
C4 L1
R1 R2 R4 R6 C3
C2
C1 Q2 C5
+ Q1
Electret
microphone R3 R7
R5
–
Figure 1.2
Electric circuit of a radio transmitter.
circuit: How does it respond to a gi ven input? Ho w do the interconnected

elements and devices in the circuit interact?
We commence our study by defining some basic concepts. These
concepts include char ge, current, v oltage, circuit elements, po wer, and
energy. Before defining these concepts, we must first establish a system
of units that we will use throughout the text.
1.2 Systems of Units

As electrical engineers, we must deal with measurable quantities. Our mea-
surements, ho wever, must be communicated in a standard language that
virtually all professionals can understand, irrespecti ve of the country in
which the measurement is conducted. Such an international measurement
language is the International System of Units (SI), adopted by the General
Conference on Weights and Measures in 1960. In this system, there are seven
base units from which the units of all other ph ysical quantities can be de -
rived. Table 1.1 shows six base units and one derived unit (the coulomb) that TABLE 1.2
are related to this text. SI units are commonly used in electrical engineering.
One great advantage of the SI unit is that it uses prefixes based on the The SI prefixes.
power of 10 to relate larger and smaller units to the basic unit. Table 1.2 Multiplier Prefix Symbol
shows the SI prefixes and their symbols. For example, the following are 18
expressions of the same distance in meters (m): 10 exa E
1015 peta P
600,000,000 mm 600,000 m 600 km 1012 tera T
109 giga G
TABLE 1.1 106 mega M
103 kilo k
Six basic SI units and one derived unit relevant to this text. 102 hecto h
10 deka da
Quantity Basic unit Symbol 10−1 deci d
Length meter m 10−2 centi c
Mass kilogram kg 10−3 milli m
Time second s 10−6 micro μ
Electric current ampere A 10−9 nano n
Thermodynamic temperature kelvin K 10−12 pico p
Luminous intensity candela cd 10−15 femto f
Charge coulomb C 10−18 atto a
6 Chapter 1 Basic Concepts
1.3 Charge and Current

The concept of electric charge is the underlying principle for explaining
all electrical phenomena. Also, the most basic quantity in an electric cir-
cuit is the electric charge. We all experience the effect of electric charge
when we try to remove our wool sweater and have it stick to our body or
walk across a carpet and receive a shock.
Charge is an electrical property of the atomic particles of which matter

consists, measured in coulombs (C).
We know from elementary physics that all matter is made of funda-

mental building blocks kno wn as atoms and that each atom consists of
electrons, protons, and neutrons. We also know that the char ge e on an
electron is negative and equal in magnitude to 1.602 × 10−19 C, while a
proton carries a positi ve charge of the same magnitude as the electron.
The presence of equal numbers of protons and electrons leaves an atom
neutrally charged.
The following points should be noted about electric charge:
1. The coulomb is a large unit for charges. In 1 C of char ge, there are
1∕(1.602 × 10−19) = 6.24 × 1018 electrons. Thus realistic or labora-
tory values of charges are on the order of pC, nC, or μC.1
2. According to e xperimental observ ations, the only char ges that
occur in nature are inte gral multiples of the electronic char ge
e = −1.602 × 10−19 C.
3. The law of conservation of c harge states that charge can neither be
created nor destroyed, only transferred. Thus, the algebraic sum of
the electric charges in a system does not change.
We now consider the flow of electric char ges. A unique feature of
electric charge or electricity is the f act that it is mobile; that is, it can
be transferred from one place to another , where it can be con verted to
another form of energy.
When a conducting wire (consisting of se veral atoms) is connected
to a battery (a source of electromotive force), the charges are compelled
I – – to move; positive charges move in one direction while ne gative charges
– –
move in the opposite direction. This motion of char ges creates elec -
tric current. It is con ventional to take the current flow as the mo vement
+ – of positi ve char ges. That is, opposite to the flow of ne gative char ges,
Battery as Fig. 1.3 illustrates. This con vention w as introduced by Benjamin
Figure 1.3 Franklin (1706–1790), the American scientist and in ventor. Although
Electric current due to flow of electronic we now know that current in metallic conductors is due to ne gatively
charge in a conductor. charged electrons, we will follo w the uni versally accepted con vention
that current is the net flow of positive charges. Thus,
A convention is a standard way of
describing something so that others in Electric current is the time rate of change of charge, measured in
the profession can understand what amperes (A).
we mean. We will be using IEEE
conventions throughout this book. Mathematically, the relationship between current i, charge q, and time t is
Δ dq
i = ___ (1.1)
dt
1
However, a large power supply capacitor can store up to 0.5 C of charge.
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dangerous situations. The tide rose very rapidly, and all the
temporary embarrassments of our situation vanished with our
footprints in the sand. The mounting sun soon burned up the fog,
which in dispersing produced its usual singular and fantastic effects
upon the rugged and precipitous shores that lay on each side; and
retaining the services of our old friend as pilot, we ran through the
river, which is about four miles long, and connected with the harbor
of Gloucester by a short canal, through which we passed, and spent
another pleasant day in that town previous to starting for Boston;
which place we had left just three weeks before. We arrived there
the next day, meeting with nothing worthy of particular notice in the
course of it.
Our vessel ashore on Squam Bar.

“Such is a brief outline of our excursion, from which we returned
much invigorated in mind and body. A thousand little incidents
occurred, serving to enhance the pleasure of the trip, which it would
be impossible to condense into so small a space as is here allotted
us. We had finer opportunities of obtaining picturesque sketches of
our New England coast scenery, than could be obtained by any other
method. One of our company made a sketch of our mischance upon
the bar, and an engraving of it is presented to the reader. We had a
good opportunity of observing the peculiar traits that characterize the
hardy race that inhabit our rough and rock-bound coast, and always
found them a freehearted, hospitable people, ever ready to yield any
assistance we might need. We were obliged to submit to many little
inconveniences, it is true, which, had they not been voluntary, or had
they come under other than the then existing circumstances, would
have been deemed hardships; but there was so much excitement, so
much novelty, such an endless variety of new objects from day to
day to attract and interest us, that we were a thousand times repaid
for all our petty privations.”
Proverb.—A person who is suspicious, ought to be suspected.

Travels, Adventures, and Experiences of Thomas
Trotter.
CHAPTER V.
Departure from Malta.—Arrival at Sicily.—Syracuse Ruins.—Ear of
Dionysius.
Our vessel landed her cargo at Malta, and then took in ballast
and sailed for Palermo, in Sicily, to load with fruit. I preferred to cross
immediately over to Syracuse, and take Mount Ætna in my way,
being very desirous not to lose a sight of this celebrated volcano. I
found a Sicilian vessel about to sail, and took passage in her. She
was a polacre, having the masts of single sticks from top to bottom,
instead of three or four pieces joined together, like the masts of
English and American vessels. I could not help laughing at the
oddities of the crew: there were fifteen of them, although the vessel
was not above seventy tons burthen. They were the queerest ship’s
company I ever saw; all captains and mates, and no common
sailors. Whatever was to be done was everybody’s business: there
was no discipline, no order, no concert; all was hurly-burly, and
scampering here and there, and tumbling head over heels.
Which was the commander, nobody could tell, for every one was
giving orders. The slightest manœuvre caused a clatter and bawling
that made me think the masts were going overboard. If there was a
rope as big as a tom-cod-line to be pulled, the whole crew would
string themselves along it, yo! heave ho! tug it an inch and a half,
puff and blow, thump and clamor, as if it were a case of life and
death. Every man must have a finger in what was going on, even to
cuffing the cabin-boy. The men squatted down upon deck to their
meals all in a group, and fell to cracking jokes and cutting capers
together. The helmsman sat in a chair to steer, and moved his seat
as often as he luffed or bore away. A little hop-off-my-thumb fellow,
with a comically dirty face and ragged breeches, sat upon a bucket
to watch the hour-glass in the binnacle. We had only seventy or
eighty miles to sail from Malta to Sicily, with a fair wind and a smooth
sea, but the fuss and clatter during the navigation of this short space
were prodigious. All hands were running fore and aft, looking out
ahead and astern, bustling around the man at the helm, peeping at
the compass, and jabbering and gesticulating as if they were in the
most imminent danger.
At daylight the next morning, we found ourselves close under the
Sicilian shore, with Mount Ætna in the north, towering up majestically
to the heavens, like a huge pyramid of snow with a black spot at the
top. It was more than seventy miles off. About ten in the forenoon we
arrived at Syracuse, a city which was once ten times as big as
Boston, but is now almost entirely depopulated. It has a noble
harbor, but we found only a few fishing-boats there; and when we
landed at the quay, hardly a living being was to be seen: everything
looked solitary, ruinous, and forlorn. I walked through the streets, but
saw no signs of trade, commerce, or industry. A few people were
sitting lazily before their doors, sunning themselves; and numbers of
beggars dogged my heels wherever I went. Now and then I met a
donkey with a pannier of greens, but no such thing as a wagon or
chaise.
When I got to the market-place, I saw groups of people sitting in
the sun or lounging idly about, but no business doing. I could not
help smiling to see a constable, who was strutting up and down to
keep the peace among this pack of lazy fellows. He wore a great,
long, tattered cloak, a huge cocked hat, a sword, and he had a most
flaming, fiery visage, with a nose like a blood-beet. I never saw such
a swaggering figure in my life, before. He happened to spy a little
urchin pilfering a bunch of greens, on which he caught him by the
nape of the neck with one hand, and drawing his sword with the
other, gave him a lusty thwacking with the flat of the blade. The little
rogue kicked and squalled, and made a most prodigious uproar,
which afforded great amusement to the crowd: they seemed to be
quite familiar with such adventures.
I walked out into the country, and was struck with astonishment at
the sight of the ruins scattered all round the neighborhood. They
extend for miles in every direction. Walls, arches, columns, remains
of temples, theatres and palaces met the eye at every step. Here
and there were little gardens among the ruins, where artichokes
were growing, but hardly a human being was to be seen. I came at
length to the remains of a large theatre, consisting of a semicircle of
stone steps, and found a mill stream tumbling down the middle of it.
A ragged peasant was lying lazily in the sun among the ruins. I
asked him what building it was, but he was totally ignorant of the
matter, and could only reply that it was “cosa antica”—something
ancient. Presently I discovered an enormous excavation in the solid
rock, as big as a house, which excited my curiosity very strongly. I
could not imagine the use of it, till I luckily met an old Capuchin friar,
plodding along in his coarse woollen gown; and learnt from him that
this was the famous “Ear of Dionysius,” where that tyrannical king
used to confine such persons as fell under his suspicion. It is a most
curious place, hollowed out in the shape of the human ear, and
forming a vast cavern: in the top is a little nook or chamber, where
the tyrant used to sit and hear what the prisoners said. The lowest
whisper was heard distinctly in this spot; so that the prisoners were
sure to betray themselves if they held any conversation together.
While I stood wondering at this strange perversion of human
ingenuity, I was startled by the appearance of a grim-looking fellow,
who pulled out a pistol as he approached me. My first impulse was to
grasp my trusty cudgel, and flourish it at him with a fierce air of
defiance, for I took him to be a robber, of course. To my surprise he
burst out a laughing, and told me he had come on purpose to show
me the wonderful effect of sound in the Ear. He bade me go into the
further end of the cavern, while he fired the pistol at the entrance. I
did so, and the effect was like the roaring of thunder: I was glad to
clap my hands to my ears and run out as fast as I could. I gave the
fellow a few cents for his trouble, and told him I had never before got
so much noise for so little money.
I continued to ramble about among the ruins, which seemed to
have no end. The almond trees were in full bloom, and the orange
trees were bowing down under loads of ripe fruit. Flocks of magpies
were flitting about, but everything was silent and deserted. Now and
then I met a countryman jogging lazily along upon a donkey, or an
old woman driving her beast with a load of vine-stalks, which are
used in the city to heat ovens. I could not help wondering to see so
fine a territory lie utterly neglected; but the indolence of the
inhabitants is the cause of all. A very little labor will earn a loaf of
bread, and most of them are satisfied with this. The climate is so
mild, that ragged clothes occasion no discomfort, and hardly
anybody minds going in rags. The soil is so rich as scarcely to
require art or industry in the cultivation. The oranges and the grapes
grow with hardly any care, and the husbandman lives a lazy life, with
but little to do except to pick the fruit and make the wine.
Sketches of the Manners, Customs, and History
of the Indians of America.
(Continued from page 119.)
CHAPTER II.
The West Indies continued.—Discovery of Hayti.—Generosity of the
Cacique.—Testimony of Columbus in favor with the Indians.—
Character of the natives.—Columbus erects a cross.—Indian
belief.—Effect of the Spanish invasion.—The Cacique.
Columbus entered a harbor at the western end of the island of

Hayti, on the evening of the 6th of December. He gave to the harbor
the name of St. Nicholas, which it bears to this day. The inhabitants
were frightened at the approach of the ships, and they all fled to the
mountains. It was some time before any of the natives could be
found. At last three sailors succeeded in overtaking a young and
beautiful female, whom they carried to the ships.
She was treated with the greatest kindness, and dismissed finely
clothed, and loaded with presents of beads, hawk’s bells, and other
pretty baubles. Columbus hoped by this conduct to conciliate the
Indians; and he succeeded. The next day, when the Spaniards
landed, the natives permitted them to enter their houses, and set
before them bread, fish, roots and fruits of various kinds, in the most
kind and hospitable manner.
Columbus sailed along the coast, continuing his intercourse with
the natives, some of whom had ornaments of gold, which they
readily exchanged for the merest trifle of European manufacture.
These poor, simple people little thought that to obtain gold these
Christians would destroy all the Indians in the islands. No—they
believed the Spaniards were more than mortal, and the country from
which they came must exist somewhere in the skies.
The generous and kind feelings of the natives were shown to
great advantage when Columbus was distressed by the loss of his
ship. He was sailing to visit a grand cacique or chieftain named
Guacanagari, who resided on the coast to the eastward, when his
ship ran aground, and the breakers beating against her, she was
entirely wrecked. He immediately sent messengers to inform
Guacanagari of this misfortune.
When the cacique heard of the distress of his guest, he was so
much afflicted as to shed tears; and never in civilized country were
the vaunted rites of hospitality more scrupulously observed than by
this uncultivated savage. He assembled his people and sent off all
his canoes to the assistance of Columbus, assuring him, at the same
time, that everything he possessed was at his service. The effects
were landed from the wreck and deposited near the dwelling of the
cacique, and a guard set over them, until houses could be prepared,
in which they could be stored.
There seemed, however, no disposition among the natives to take
advantage of the misfortune of the strangers, or to plunder the
treasures thus cast upon their shores, though they must have been
inestimable in their eyes. On the contrary, they manifested as deep a
concern at the disaster of the Spaniards as if it had happened to
themselves, and their only study was, how they could administer
relief and consolation.
Columbus was greatly affected by this unexpected goodness.
“These people,” said he in his journal, “love their neighbors as
themselves; their discourse is ever sweet and gentle, and
accompanied by a smile. There is not in the world a better nation or
a better land.”
When the cacique first met with Columbus, the latter appeared
dejected, and the good Indian, much moved, again offered
Columbus everything he possessed that could be of service to him.
He invited him on shore, where a banquet was prepared for his
entertainment, consisting of various kinds of fish and fruit. After the
feast, Columbus was conducted to the beautiful groves which
surrounded the dwelling of the cacique, where upwards of a
thousand of the natives were assembled, all perfectly naked, who
performed several of their national games and dances.
Thus did this generous Indian try, by every means in his power, to
cheer the melancholy of his guest, showing a warmth of sympathy, a
delicacy of attention, and an innate dignity and refinement, which
could not have been expected from one in his savage state.
He was treated with great deference by his subjects, and
conducted himself towards them with a gracious and prince-like
majesty.
Three houses were given to the shipwrecked crew for their
residence. Here, living on shore, and mingling freely with the natives,
they became fascinated by their easy and idle mode of life. They
were governed by the caciques with an absolute, but patriarchal and
easy rule, and existed in that state of primitive and savage simplicity
which some philosophers have fondly pictured as the most enviable
on earth.
The following is the opinion of old Peter Martyr: “It is certain that
the land among these people (the Indians) is as common as the sun
and water, and that ‘mine and thine,’ the seeds of all mischief, have
no place with them. They are content with so little, that, in so large a
country, they have rather superfluity than scarceness; so that they
seem to live in a golden world, without toil, in open gardens, neither
entrenched nor shut up by walls or hedges. They deal truly with one
another, without laws, or books, or judges.”
In fact, these Indians seemed to be perfectly contented; their few
fields, cultivated almost without labor, furnished roots and
vegetables; their groves were laden with delicious fruit; and the coast
and rivers abounded with fish. Softened by the indulgence of nature,
a great part of the day was passed by them in indolent repose. In the
evening they danced in their fragrant groves to their national songs,
or the rude sound of their silver drums.
Such was the character of the natives of many of the West Indian
Islands, when first discovered. Simple and ignorant they were, and
indolent also, but then they were kind-hearted, generous, and happy.
And their sense of justice, and of the obligations of man to do right,
are beautifully set forth in the following story.
Columbus erecting a Cross.

It was a custom with Columbus to erect crosses in all remarkable
places, to denote the discovery of the country, and its subjugation to
the Catholic faith. He once performed this ceremony on the banks of
a river in Cuba. It was on a Sunday morning. The cacique attended,
and also a favorite of his, a venerable Indian, fourscore years of age.
While mass was performed in a stately grove, the natives looked
on with awe and reverence. When it was ended, the old man made a
speech to Columbus in the Indian manner. “I am told,” said he, “that
thou hast lately come to these lands with a mighty force, and hast
subdued many countries, spreading great fear among the people;
but be not vain-glorious.
“According to our belief, the souls of men have two journeys to
perform after they have departed from the body: one to a place
dismal, foul, and covered with darkness, prepared for such men as
have been unjust and cruel to their fellow-men; the other full of
delight for such as have promoted peace on earth. If then thou art
mortal, and dost expect to die, beware that thou hurt no man
wrongfully, neither do harm to those who have done no harm to
thee.”
When this speech was explained to Columbus by his interpreter,
he was greatly moved, and rejoiced to hear this doctrine of the future
state of the soul, having supposed that no belief of the kind existed
among the inhabitants of these countries. He assured the old man
that he had been sent by his sovereigns, to teach them the true
religion, to protect them from harm, and to subdue their enemies the
Caribs.
Alas! for the simple Indians who believed such professions.
Columbus, no doubt, was sincere, but the adventurers who
accompanied him, and the tyrants who followed him, cared only for
riches for themselves. They ground down the poor, harmless red
men beneath a harsh system of labor, obliging them to furnish,
month by month, so much gold. This gold was found in fine grains,
and it was a severe task to search the mountain pebbles and the
sands of the plains for the shining dust.
Then the islands, after they were seized upon by the Christians,
were parcelled out among the leaders, and the Indians were
compelled to be their slaves. No wonder “deep despair fell upon the
natives. Weak and indolent by nature, and brought up in the
untasked idleness of their soft climate and their fruitful groves, death
itself seemed preferable to a life of toil and anxiety.
“The pleasant life of the island was at an end; the dream in the
shade by day; the slumber during the noontide heat by the fountain,
or under the spreading palm; and the song, and the dance, and the
game in the mellow evening, when summoned to their simple
amusements by the rude Indian drum.
“They spoke of the times that were past, before the white men
had introduced sorrow, and slavery, and weary labor among them;
and their songs were mournful, and their dances slow.
“They had flattered themselves, for a time, that the visit of the
strangers would be but temporary, and that, spreading their ample
sails, their ships would waft them back to their home in the sky. In
their simplicity, they had frequently inquired of the Spaniards when
they intended to return to Turey, or the heavens. But when all such
hope was at an end, they became desperate, and resorted to a
forlorn and terrible alternative.”
They knew the Spaniards depended chiefly on the supplies raised
in the islands for a subsistence; and these poor Indians endeavored
to produce a famine. For this purpose they destroyed their fields of
maize, stripped the trees of their fruit, pulled up the yuca and other
roots, and then fled to the mountains.
The Spaniards were reduced to much distress, but were partially
relieved by supplies from Spain. To revenge themselves on the
Indians, they pursued them to their mountain retreats, hunted them
from one dreary fastness to another, like wild beasts, until thousands
perished in dens and caverns, of famine and sickness, and the
survivors, yielding themselves up in despair, submitted to the yoke of
slavery. But they did not long bear the burden of life under their
civilized masters. In 1504, only twelve years after the discovery of
Hayti, when Columbus visited it, (under the administration of
Ovando,) he thus wrote to his sovereigns: “Since I left the island, six
parts out of seven of the natives are dead, all through ill-treatment
and inhumanity; some by the sword, others by blows and cruel
usage, or by hunger.”
No wonder these oppressed Indians considered the Christians the
incarnation of all evil. Their feelings were often expressed in a
manner that must have touched the heart of a real Christian, if there
was such a one among their oppressors.
When Velasquez set out to conquer Cuba, he had only three
hundred men; and these were thought sufficient to subdue an island
above seven hundred miles in length, and filled with inhabitants.
From this circumstance we may understand how naturally mild and
unwarlike was the character of the Indians. Indeed, they offered no
opposition to the Spaniards, except in one district. Hatney, a cacique
who had fled from Hayti, had taken possession of the eastern
extremity of Cuba. He stood upon the defensive, and endeavored to
drive the Spaniards back to their ships. He was soon defeated and
taken prisoner.
Velasquez considered him as a slave who had taken arms against
his master, and condemned him to the flames. When Hatney was
tied to the stake, a friar came forward, and told him that if he would
embrace the Christian faith, he should be immediately, on his death,
admitted into heaven.
“Are there any Spaniards,” says Hatney, after some pause, “in
that region of bliss you describe?”
“Yes,” replied the monk, “but only such as are worthy and good.”
“The best of them,” returned the indignant Indian, “have neither
worth nor goodness; I will not go to a place where I may meet with
one of that cruel race.”
(To be continued.)
Something Wonderful.
The thing to which we refer is a seed. How wonderful that an

acorn should contain within it a little plant, capable of growing up into
an enormous oak, which will produce other acorns, capable of
growing into other oaks, and so on forever! and yet there are seeds
not one hundredth part as big as an acorn, which produce trees
almost, if not quite, as large as an oak.
Or think of a grain of wheat. It is just as useful for food as if it
contained nothing but a little flour mixed with a little bran. In fact,
when it is ground there is nothing else to be seen; but beside these it
contains a little plant, too small to be made out by common sight.
When one of these grains or seeds is put into moist earth, it
begins to suck in water, which softens it and makes it swell. The little
plant inside begins to grow, and in a few days a small, delicate root
peeps out from one end of the seed. The seed may be lying on its
side, or with the root end uppermost; but the little root, whether it
comes out at the top or bottom of the seed, immediately turns
downward, and grows in that direction.
Soon after, a little white shoot comes out at the other end, which
turns upwards, and becomes green as soon as it gets into air and
light; and thus we have a little plant.
In the mean time, the seed itself spoils and decays; or, as St. Paul
calls it, dies. The flour changes into a kind of gummy sugar, which is
sucked up by the young plant as its first nourishment; the husk
shrivels and rots, and the plant grows up until it becomes a thousand
times as large as the seed. At last it produces many other seeds, just
as wonderful as that from which it grew.
In all the works of man, there is nothing like this. A watch is a
remarkable invention, and a man would be set down as mad who
should think it should be made by chance. But how much more
wonderful would a watch be, if it could make other watches like itself!
Yet a seed does this; and every cornfield in harvest-time contains
millions of seeds, each of which is far more wonderful than the best
watch.
The reason is, that men make watches, but God makes seeds. It
is true that the skill by which men make watches comes from God,
and should be acknowledged as his gift; but the more wonderful
power by which a seed is made, he keeps in his own hands, that we
may know that we have a Maker and a Master in heaven, and may
serve him with reverence and godly fear.
Fanny Gossip and Susan Lazy;
a dialogue.
Susan. Well, Fanny, I was on my way to your house. I thought I

never should see your face again. Did you ever know such a long,
stupid storm? nothing but rain, rain, rain for three everlasting days!
Fanny. And in vacation-time too! it did seem too bad. If our house
had not been on the street, so that I could see something stirring, I
believe I should have had the blues.
Susan. And I did have the blues outright. I never was so dull in my
life, moping about the house. Mother won’t let me touch such books
as I like to read, and the boys went to school all day, so I had nothing
on earth to do but look at the drops of rain racing down the windows,
and watch the clouds to see if it was going to clear up. I assure you I
fretted from morning till night, and mother got out of all patience with
me, and said I was a perfect nuisance in the house; but I am sure it
was not my fault.
Fanny. Well! I was a little better off. I sat half the time making fun
of all the shabby cloaks and umbrellas that turned out in the rain.
There was Mr. Skimmer went by every day with a cotton umbrella;
and Mr. Saveals with an old faded silk one, three of the whalebones
started out on one side, as if he wanted to poke people’s eyes out,
and a great slit to let the rain through:—both of them misers, I know!
And there was Miss Goodbody! she goes to see sick poor folks in all
weathers, and won’t take a carriage, though she can afford it,
because she says that would be ridiculous. I wish you had seen her
come paddling through the wet! such shoes, and such stockings! I
do think it is unladylike. Then, when everything else failed to amuse
me, there were our neighbors opposite to be speculated upon.
Susan. Ah! Laura Busy lives just across the street, I believe?
Fanny. Yes, and there she sat at the window, on purpose to be
seen, stitching away, and reading, and setting herself up as a pattern
to the whole neighborhood.
Susan. I would not have such a strict mother as she has for all the
world. I don’t believe she enjoys her vacation at all.
Fanny. I dare say it is her mother that keeps her at it so close. I
should think she was bringing her up to be a seamstress; and yet,
considering that everybody knows Mr. Busy is not rich, they dress
Laura extravagantly. Did you see that beautiful French calico she
wore on examination day?
Susan. Yes, I saw it across the room, and thought I would go over
and look at it, but couldn’t take the trouble.
Fanny. Why, how you do gape, Susan!
Susan. I know it; mother says I have a terrible trick of gaping. But
I do get so tired.
Fanny. Tired of what?
Susan. I don’t know; I am tired of the vacation, I believe: and
before the term was over I was wishing so for it! I was tired to death
of school, and dare say I shall be so again in a fortnight.
Fanny. Here comes Laura, glad enough to get away from
mamma’s workbasket. Just see how fast she walks;—ah ha! she is
going to the circulating library; look at that novel under her arm.
Susan. I shall tell my mother of that; she thinks everything right
that the Busy family do.
(Enter Laura.)
Fanny. Well, Laura, poor thing! you are so glad to get out of the
house that I suppose you are running away from it as fast as you
can.
Laura. I am not quite running, I believe, but you know I always
walk fast.
Susan. I can’t think why, I am sure.
Laura. It saves a deal of time, and the exercise does me more
good than if I were to go sauntering along.
Susan. Saves time? and in the vacation too? why, of what
consequence is time now, when you have no school-hours to mind?
Laura. Because if I don’t take care I shall not get through what I
have planned. Only think how fast the vacation is going! Next
Monday school begins.
Fanny. So the studious Miss Laura Busy is sorry the vacation is
almost over. I thought you told the master, when school broke up,
that you wished there was no vacation.
Laura. I did wish so then, for I thought vacation would be a dull
time.
Susan. I am sure it has been horrid dull to me, and I should think
it must have been worse yet for you.
Laura. Why?
Susan. Because your mother keeps you at work all the time.
Laura. Indeed she does not. She sent me out to walk this very
afternoon, and she always makes me put my work away at just such
hours, for fear I should sit too close at my needle.
Susan. Mercy! do you love to sew? oh, I suppose you are learning
fancy work: well, I don’t know but I might like that for a little while.
Laura. No, mother says I must not learn fancy work till I can do
plain sewing extremely well. I was thinking how I should manage to
pass the vacation, and I took it into my head that I would try to make
a shirt by a particular time, and that is Saturday, my birthday. I shall
be twelve years old next Saturday, and then I shall present my father
with a shirt of my own making.
Susan. Did you do all the fine stitching yourself?
Laura. To be sure.
Susan. I am sure I would not make myself such a slave.
Laura. There is no slavery about it; it was my own pleasure; and
you cannot think how fast it has made the time go. I set myself a task
every day, and then, you see, trying to get just so much done by
twelve o’clock, made me feel so interested!
Fanny. And the rest of the time you have been reading novels, I
see.
Laura. No, indeed; I never read one in my life. Did you think this
library-book was a novel?
Fanny. Let me see it; “Astoria;” is not that the name of some
heroine? let me look at it a little. (Turning over the leaves.)
Laura. You can’t think how interesting it is. It gives an account of a
place away on the western coast of North America; and of all that the
people suffered to get there; and about the very wildest Indians, and
the trappers, and the Rocky Mountains; and here is a map, you see,
Susan.
Susan. Oh, well! it is a sort of geography-book, I suppose.
Laura. Such books will make your geography pleasanter than
ever, I am sure; do read it.
Susan. Not I; I have hardly touched a book or a needle this
vacation, and I have no idea of it. These long summer days are
tedious enough without that.
Laura. But I do believe they would be pleasanter if you were only
occupied about something or other.
Fanny. And so, Laura, you have really spent this whole vacation
without a bit of amusement? I must say I think there is a little
affectation in that.
Laura. Oh no, indeed! I do not like to sit still from morning till night
any better than you do; and mother would not let me if I did. I have
taken a long, brisk walk every day.
Fanny. What, alone? I hate walking alone.
Laura. Not alone, very often; sister Helen sometimes walks over
the bridge into the country with me, and we get wild flowers, and she
explains all about them; that we call going botanizing, and it makes
the walks much more pleasant. It really made me stare when she
pulled a common head of clover to pieces and showed me how
curiously it is made up of ever so many florets, as she calls them;
and even the dandelion is very queer.
Susan. And did you go botanizing in the rain too?
Laura. No; of course we could not stir out then.
Susan. Then I rather think you found the last three days as dull as
any of us.
Fanny. Not she, Susan. No doubt it was very pleasant to sit
perched up at the window all day, for the passers to admire her
industry.
Laura. O, Fanny, how can you be so uncharitable! if you had not
been at the window so much yourself you would not have seen me.
Fanny. But I was not making a display of myself, with a book or a
needle forever in my hand.
Laura. No, Fanny; if you had been occupied, however, you would
not have been making such unkind remarks about your neighbors,
would you? Did you not observe that my mother sat at the window
with me? The reason was, we cannot see to work in any other part of
the room when it is cloudy. You know our little breakfast-room has
only one window.
Susan. So for the last three days you have been reading and
poking your needle in and out from morning till night? Well! it would
be the death of me. (Gaping.)
Laura. Why no; I tell you I do not like sitting still forever, any more
than you do; I like to use my feet every day as well as my hands, and
I presume they expect it. Too much stitching gives me a stitch in my
side; so when rainy weather came I played battledoor and
shuttlecock with father when he came home to dinner, and one day
we kept it up to five hundred and two. Then before tea I used to skip
rope along the upper entry sometimes; and then there was
something else—but I suppose Fanny will tell all the girls in school
and make them laugh at me; but I really enjoyed it best of anything.
Fanny. What was it? tell us, do. I hate secrets.
Laura. You like to find them out, I am sure; but it is no mighty
secret, after all; and I don’t know why I need be ashamed to tell, for
my father and mother made no objection. I went up into the nursery
every evening before the little ones went to bed, and played blind
man’s buff with them.
Fanny. And could you take any pleasure in it?
Laura. To be sure.
Fanny. Then I must say I had no idea you were such a baby. Mr.
Teachall’s best scholar playing romping games with little children! I
am six months younger than you, Laura, but I hold myself rather too
much of a woman for blind man’s buff! I gave that up three years
ago!
Laura. Well! it seemed to make the children enjoy their fun all the
better, and I am sure it did me a deal of good, and did nobody any
harm; so I am content to be called a baby.
Susan. I don’t see how you could take the trouble; it tires me just
to think of going racing about the room at that rate. I should as soon
think of sitting down to study French for amusement.
Fanny. I wonder you did not do that too, Miss Busy. I declare she
looks as if she had! Who would have thought of that?
Laura. I see no harm. You know how terrible hard those last
lessons were before the term ended, and I was afraid I should forget
them; so I have been reviewing the last thirty pages with sister
Helen, to keep what I had got, as she says, and make the next come
easier.
Susan. A pretty vacation, to be sure! How upon earth did you find
time for it all?
Laura. Why, I don’t know. There are no more hours in my day than
there are in yours, Susan. But good-by, girls; I am going to see if

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Fundamentals of electric circuits Sixth

Edition Alexander Charles K

Senior Vice President, Products & Markets: Kurt L. Strand

5.3 Ideal Op Amp 178 Chapter 8 Second-Order Circuits 311

10.4 Superposition Theorem 419 12.11 Summary 541

14.10 Frequency Response Using Chapter 17 The Fourier Series 757

19.7 Interconnection of Networks 873 Appendix A Simultaneous Equations and Matrix

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Over 4 billion questions have been

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An electric circuit is an interconnection of electrical elements.

A simple electric circuit is sho wn in Fig. 1.1. It consists of three

circuit: How does it respond to a gi ven input? Ho w do the interconnected

1.2 Systems of Units

1.3 Charge and Current

Charge is an electrical property of the atomic particles of which matter

We know from elementary physics that all matter is made of funda-

Our vessel ashore on Squam Bar.

Proverb.—A person who is suspicious, ought to be suspected.

(Continued from page 119.)

Columbus entered a harbor at the western end of the island of

Columbus erecting a Cross.

The thing to which we refer is a seed. How wonderful that an

Susan. Well, Fanny, I was on my way to your house. I thought I

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