The Design of Modern Precast
Concrete Multistory Framed
Structures in the United Kingdom
Kim S. Elliott
B.Tech., Ph.D., C.Eng., MICE
Lecturer in Structural Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering
University of Nottingham
United Kingdom
Dr. Elliott earned a bachelor's degree
at Bradford University in 1976 and a
doctorate from Nottingham University
in 1987. For seven years , he worked
for Trent Concrete Structures Ltd ., one
of the United Kingdom 's leading pre-
casting companies . He is a committee
member of the United Kingdom Precast
Concrete Frames Association and Pre-
cast Flooring Federation, and a mem-
ber of the Federation lnternationale de
Ia Precontrainte. He is the author of
several papers dealing with the design
and behavior of precast concrete struc-
tures . Currently, Dr. Elliott is a lecturer
in structural engineering at Nottingham
University, where he teaches and con-
ducts research on precast and pre-
stressed concrete structures.
32
The important aspects of precast concrete frame design in
multistory buildings are presented. These comprise component
selection and design, joints, stability and integrity. The paper
discusses why these items cannot be dealt with in isolation, and,
contrary to popular opinion, shows that precast concrete design
is an integrated process. The major structural components are
slabs, beams, staircases, columns and walls. The use and
versatility of these units are discussed, and the general
approach to the design of non-composite and composite beams,
columns and walls is given. Precast concrete frame stability is a
crucial issue in multistory frame design. Adequate sway stiffness
and strength, and structural integrity must be provided. It is
important because both the design of the precast concrete
components and the connections must be correct. The most
economical and structurally efficient solution is a pin-jointed
braced frame. The frame is braced against sidesway using
shear walls or diagonal steel bracing. Alternatively, an unbraced
frame may be designed in which the columns resist sway
loading. Unbraced frames are practical only up to three stories,
and braced frames up to about 20 stories.
he lates t ge ne ra tion of m ulti- dom precast concrete frames, fl ooring
T story precas t concrete frames
has evo lved ove r the pas t 20
years. In thi s time period, the market
and cl adding market place is relatively
s m a ll. F o r exa mpl e , in 1988, th e
United Kingdom sales volume fo r the
s ha re o f co mm e rc ia l buildin gs, precedin g items was $68 , $ 180 and
offices , sc hoo ls, hote ls, hos pitals , $65 milli on, respec ti ve ly.' Thu s, the
parkings structu res and other building potenti al for gro wth is very large.
ty pes in th e U nit ed Kin gd o m has The British Precast Concrete Feder-
increased from about 5 to 12 percent. ation (BPCF), a central product orga-
C ompared with co ntin e ntal Euro pe nization serving the precast concrete
and North America, the United King- indu st ry, is c urr e ntl y s po n so rin g
PCI JOURNAL
Fig. 1. Offices at Surrey Docks, London. (Courtesy: Crendon Structures Ltd.)
Fig. 2. High technology offices and laboratory at Sunbury, near London. (Courtesy:
Crendon Structures Ltd.)
research, development, education,
training and marketing. This effort is
coming to fruition, but, unlike the
European and American attitude to
medium rise (3 to 20 stories) build-
ings, precast concrete is still thought
of in this country as an alternative
means of construction to cast-in-place
(in situ) concrete and structural steel.
The reasons for this are three-fold:
• There is a widespread lack of
knowledge among architects and
engineers on the structural mechan-
ics of precast concrete construction
because the subject is not taught at a
May-June 1992
university and is not covered by
post-graduate training in profes-
sional design practices.
• The second reason is more contro-
versial. Structural design and erec-
tion is nearly always (95 percent of
cases) carried out by the nominated
precast concrete manufacturer, thus
depriving the consulting engineer
direct control over design, and
thereby passing on a percentage of
the design fee to the precaster.
• The third reason is lack of manufac-
turing capacity. Large scale precast
production demands capital invest-
ment. In a volatile economy, as has
been seen in Britain since 1970,
manufacturing companies must ride
the crests and troughs with equal
acumen if production capacities are
to be maintained.
Whereas structural steel can be
stockpiled ready for cutting, and in situ
concrete can be poured at a moment's
notice, precast concrete products can
only be manufactured to order. One
survey' has suggested that, by the end
of the decade, the precast frame, floor-
ing and cladding industry must expand
by 33, 140 and 400 percent, respec-
tively, to meet the predicted growth.
Despite some uncertainties on the
economic front, there is no doubt that
what the British precast concrete
industry may lack in quantity it makes
up for in quality. The key issues in
modern design now involve concep-
tual design, durability, detailing and
quality control. The demands on
designers and manufacturers have
resulted in a wide range of high qual-
ity buildings. Specific examples
include:
• Offices, Surrey Docks (Fig. 1)
• High technology offices and labora-
tory, Sunbury (Fig. 2)
• Stone faced structural components,
Halifax (Fig. 3)
• Construction stage at Brighton
(Fig. 4)
33
Fig. 3. Offices at Halifax, Yorkshire. (Courtesy: Trent Concrete ltd.)
OVERVIEW OF
PRECAST FRAM E
DESIGN CONCEPTS
There are three types of precast
concrete frames used in the United
Kingdom:
• The skeletal frame, where the pri-
mary elements are columns, beams
and slabs.
• The wall frame, where the primary
elements are walls and slabs.
• The portal frame, comprising col-
umns and roof rafters.
This paper deals only with the
skeletal frame. This type of frame is
most widely used in medium rise
buildings belonging to the private sec-
tor. Often, this is where architectural,
structural and durability demands are
the highest.
The primary design features are sta-
bility and robustness. Modular precast
systems are scrutinized by building
officials more for structural stability,
integrity and resistance against abnor-
34
mal loading and robustness than for
the design of individual components
(such as slabs, beams and columns),
which usually have adequate safety
factors. In general, our interpretation
of "stability" means adequate resis-
tance against sidesway, and "integrity
and robustness" mean correct joint
design, attention to details and preven-
tion of progressive collapse.
Stability may be achieved in several
ways, but frame design is usually
based on either:
• A braced frame (Fig. 5), where
resistance against horizontal loading
is not provided by the skeletal frame
of beams, columns and slabs. About
80 percent of all frames are braced.
• An unbraced frame (Fig. 6), where
stability is achieved by cantilever
action of columns.
Combinations of braced and un-
braced frames are possible, as in Fig.
7, which is known as "partially braced
frames. " Frames may also be braced in
one of the two orthogonal directions.
Shear walls may be cantilevered deep
beams , infill concrete walls, infill
brick or block walls, or (less fre-
quently) diagonal bracing. It is impor-
tant that sufficient bracing elements
(walls, boxes, columns, diaphragms)
be provided at the very outset of
design, rather than at the end.
The positioning of shear walls is
often a controversial issue and some-
times conflicts arise with architects as
to the number of walls and their posi-
tions in a structural plan. In any event,
it is necessary to "balance" the flexu-
ral resistances (i.e., summation of
stiffnesses) of the walls in the frame to
avoid torsional effects as far as is rea-
sonably practical. A design method for
calculating the forces in walls in pre-
cast structures is given by Pearce and
Matthews. 2
Foundation design is much simpli-
fied in braced frames where the only
loading is a vertical axial load with
small bending moments due to carry-
over moments resulting from fixed-
PCI JOURNAL
Fig . 4. Temporary construction stage for civic offices at Brighton. (Courtesy: Trent Concrete Ltd.)

end moments at the first floor. Simple

Column profile under pad footings are used in 90 percent of
Bracing cases, although precast concrete
horizontal load
elements frames may be spliced onto the tops of
Column profile
under vertical
.-.--7~--~~~------.---------.-~
loaJ in sit u co ncrete retai ning walls.
Moment resisting foundations are
required in unbraced frames. These
may be expensive in p9or ground, and
because of this it is advisable to con-
I
I sult specia li sts on the overall eco-
I nomics of unbraced structures.
I
Many new buildings in Britain are
I
I I . founded on reclai med wasteland, e.g.,
I
1 Pm part of Docklands, London, where it
I 1 connection
I \ is not possi ble to use moment founda-
\ tion s. Structures exceeding three sto-
ries or 33 ft (10 m) in height should
~Pin -wr-z::~
base Ground beam required
certainly be designed as braced. Pre-
cast box foundations have been tried,
where bracing element
but the preparation of leve l gro und
fo r them outweighs mo st of the
Fig. 5. Braced structures. advantages.

May-June 1992 35
 ered continuous at floor joints, even
Column profile under though mechanical splices are often
Vertical and Horizontal made at this level.
Beams are connected to columns
load
and other vertical loadbearing mem-
bers (such as walls, lift shaft boxes
or loadbearing panels) using connec-
I Column tors shown in Fig. 8. A particularly
I interesting project is the $100 million
I retail development center at The
Shires in Leicester. The precast super-
and slab structure was worth about $12 million.
Various types of beam-to-column con-
nections were used in this structure
(see Figs. 9a, 9b and 9c).
\ The strength of the connection is
No ground beam
derived from contact or bearing sur-
Moment base faces which are usually steel plates (or
rolled steel sections) fully anchored
Fig. 6. Unbraced structures. into both components. Concrete cor-
bels are not favored in the United
Kingdom because of the increased
The superstructure is designed as overall dimension of the building or structural zone. Most joints incorporate
pin-jointed. One-way spanning pre- part thereof. In this scheme, the slab welding or bolting operations in order
stressed (or reinforced) precast floor span is greater than the span of the to give some immediate fixity to the
slabs are recessed into beams. A struc- beams on which the slabs are sup- connection. Note that site welding is
tural topping is seldom used in struc- ported. For a typical office loading, not used in some European countries.
tures of five stories or less. The struc- the span-to-depth ratio is about 10 to 1. Welding is followed by in situ
tural zone is sometimes less than that Shallow post-tensioned prestressed grouting which gives fire and environ-
used in an equivalent fire protected beams which give an overall span-to- mental protection to the structural
steel frame, often showing a saving of depth ratio of about 18 to 1 are being parts. The result is that an eccentric
4 in. (100 mm) per floor. 3 Small struc- developed . Precast concrete staircases load is applied to the column. The
tural floor zones are essential to suc- are designed as inclined solid floor bending moment is distributed in pro-
cessful design. slabs . To design beams , analytical portion to the relative stiffnesses of
The most economical structural methods taking into account the com- the upper and lower regions of the col-
solution is shown in Fig. 4, where the posite action with the floor slab are umn. Simplified two-dimensional
slabs span parallel with the lesser usually required. Columns are consid- frame analysis is assumed.

.62

Columns grouted
\
I welded etc.
I
I
I
~

Treating each column separately L). 1>.6 2 Concrete wall

Fig . 7. Partially braced structures.

36 PCI JOURNAL
 Pockets in columns .Threaded
coup lers used at external
columns

. to shoe

Pocket rebate containing

an inverted U-shape
steel shoe

column
Fig . 8. Erection of building showing Solid steel or
various beam-to-column connections. rectangular hollow billet

Fig. 9a. Beam -to-column connection using welded anchorage bars.

Beam-to-beam connections may
be designed to provid e adeq uate
shear and punching resistance in the
vicinity of the connection in the primary
Column recess
beam. Torsional effects are usually criti-
cal in these connection s. Similarly, Bolted connect i on
lightly loaded columns are occasionally between beam
and cleat
spliced onto beams. The restriction here
is usually the depth of th e beam
required to carry the embedded rein-
forcement used in the connection. n-- - - 1 Levelling shims
The wide range of precast concrete Jl ~~~~
I ~"H'r'">t
D
M
floors used in precast frames has been I I
II I
reduced in recent years to two main u_ -- __j
types, namely, prestressed holl ow-core
slabs and prestressed double tees. The
design and manufacture of these units Gusseted angle or
are well documented•·' and, therefore, tee c l eat bolted
they are on ly discussed in relation to to column
the design of frames. Steel section or fully
anchored sockets
Double tees must be used compos-
cast into column
ite ly with a 2 in. (50 mm) minimum
structural in situ concrete topping, but
Fig . 9b. Beam-to-column connection using bolts.
hollow-core slabs may be used either
compositely or non-compositely. The
latter relies on smal l quantities of zo nt al diaphragm actio n in the un- Thi s ha s bee n th e subject of much
(small aggregate) in si tu grout placed tapped precast concrete structural floor recent theoreti ca l and experimental
in the longitudinal joints between units zone. Shear forces parallel with the span work (see for example Refs. 6, 7 and 8).
to distribute verti cal and hori zo ntal of the flooring units are transmitted to Yierendeel action is ass umed because
loads through the floor. shear cores, or other sta bili zi ng ele- the in situ concrete strips cast around
In buildings up to and including five ments, either by Vierendeel action, or the floor slabs are subjected on ly to
stories in hei ght, floor plate action in deep beam action, depending on the shear forces caused by the large in-
holl ow-core slabs is achieved by hori - geometry of the floor plan (see Fig. 10). plane stiffness of the precast floor slabs.

May-June 1992 37

0
0 companies (Costain-Dowmac, Cren-
,...
In situ concrete (small
(reinforcement not shown
for clarity)
Solid steel
billet
* Dimensions vary depending on shear
capacity of connector
Fig. 9c. Beam-to-column connection using welded plate.
Shear forces perpendicula r to the
floor slab are carried to successive
bays of flooring by the shear friction
reinforcement in the cast-in-place con-
crete strips in the beam-to-slab con-
nection s. In certain situations, floor
plate action may cause bending and
shear stresses. The designer will check
that the loads are correctly carried to
all the walls ass umed in the stability
analysis. Lift shafts or stairwells are
often obvious locations for walls, and
it is necessary to ensure that the con-
tact area between a wall and the floor
plate is adequate.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Precast frame design methods are
not well documented, mainly because
the design is carried out in-house by
the precasting companies and there has
been no compelling reason to publi sh
thi s information. A European docu-
ment prepared by the Federation Inter-
38
20 fillet weld
in beam
Anchorage reinforcement
welded to plate
aggregate)
nationale de Ia Precontrainte (FIP) 9
provides some help in describing the
precast method, but most of the con-
ceptual ideas and details used in conti-
nental Europe are not applicable to the
United Kingdom (which today is more
architecturally sensitive).
The same may be said about the PCI
publications, 10·" which are used across
the United States in design offices.
Nilson " covers precast frame design ,
but most of the details and methods are
based on ACI and PCI provisions and,
therefore, have limited applicability in
Britain. A new edition by Sheppard
and Phillips ' 3 also focuses on Ameri-
can design practice and covers in con-
siderable detail such items as the ther-
mal , acoustic and dynamic properties
of precast concrete products. Emphasis
is also placed on seismic design.
The most useful documents on frame
desig n and joints are by El li ott and
Tovey, 14 and the Institution of Struc-
tural Engineers Manual ("gray book")."
The latter, published in 1978, has found
favor with many precast design engi-
neers because the principles embodied
in the text are not code dependent.
A new book by Bruggeling and
Huyge'6 covers much new ground on
joints and the relation between design
and manufacture. Levitt's' 7 book is
ideal for production purposes, and as
such has a place in the designer's
I i brary , but there is no st ructural
design in the text.
There are publications by the BPCF
(e.g., Ref. 18) dealing with the eco-
nomic merits of using precast con-
crete. Various product literature pre-
pared by the major manufacturing
don, Bison, Belcon, F.C., Trent, etc.)
is useful in design up to a point, in that
the overall ideas are graphically
demonstrated, but these brochures do
not contain design information.
A BRIEF GUIDE TO
PRECAST FRAME
COMPONENTS
The key elements in multi story
skeletal frames are slabs , stairs, beams,
columns and walls. Non-structural or
structural loadbearing panels may also
be incorporated in the frame, usually in
the perimeter, and may be used as dec-
orative cladding with a wide range of
finishes, textures, thermal and sound
insulation , fixings and other provi-
sions. As decorative cladding, they are
beyond the scope of this paper.
Although the precast frame is essen-
tially a modular construction, Briti sh
designers have expanded their ideas
such that frames can cope with more
varied architectural and structural
requirements than was thought possible
in the 1970s. These include grid layout
(external and internal), varied floor lev-
els in any one story, mezzanine floors,
stair and lift wells, balconies, Mansard
(or other) type roofs, atriums, inte-
grated warehouses, connections to in
situ concrete construction and future
(horizontal or vertical) extensions.
Roof and Floor Slabs
The types of slabs used in multistory
buildings are hollow-core units and dou-
ble tees. Hollow-core slabs up to 12 in.
PCI JOURNAL
(300 mm) deep are used mainly in com-
mercial buildings and office blocks
Lateral loading
where the maximum span is about 38 ft
(12 m). Double tees are used in retail ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
developments (shopping malls) where Shear
greater loads and clear spans are wall
required , and in parking structures
where spans of up to 50 ft ( 17 m)
are common. The total proportion of
hollow-core slabs to double tees used
in multi s tory frames in the United Tie beam Reinforcement
Kingdom is about 2 to I. Beam and pot
(aerated concrete blocks) flooring is
not used.
Fig. 11 shows some typical slab-
frame connection details for hollow-
core slabs. The important points to
note are the provisions for placing sta-
bility ties and cast-in-place infill con-
crete in the ends of the slabs. Bearing
lengths of 3 in. (75 mm) must be
maintained and should not be sacri- Tension
ficed at a cost of increasing the gap for chord
the infill. The tops of two or three of precast slabs
the hollow cores are broken out to
faci litate placing shear-friction anchor
bars in the slabs (shown in Fig. 12).
The bars are of U or L shape and are
tied or lapped to projecting beam rein-
Critical shear
forcement to provide structural conti-
interface
nuity with the frame.
between slab
Double tees are designed compos-
itely with an in situ concrete topping.
A single sheet of reinforcing mesh ,
which is placed at mid-depth in the
topping, is lapped to projecting beam Fig. 10. Different design approaches to horizontal diaphragm action using hollow-
reinforcement to satisfy the stability tie core floor slabs.
requirements . T he uni ts are available
in normal or high strength concrete in
depths of between 10 and 33 in. (250 ponents. Internal
and 850 mm). The depth of the topping beams, shown in
varies between 2 and 3 in. (50 and 80 section in Fig.
mm). Double tees are occasionally 13a, are inver-
used in cantilevers of up to about 8 ft ted tee in shape,
(2 .5 m) in span, but otherwise there are where part of the
no other features which are not famil- structural section
iar to the American user. fal ls within the
f loo r zone, thu s
red ucing overa ll
Beams structural depth .
A wide range of internal and exter- Rectangular
nal beam s and spandrel beams are beams are less effi-
available as " preferred" section and an cient structurall y
infinite range as "non-preferred" sec- but are fou nd to
tions . External beams may either be be more economi-
decorative, incorporating external tex- cal if the struc-
ture, color, and weather protection, or tural zones are not
plain gray. A net structural section is a limiting factor. Fig. 11 . Construction details of hollow-core floor slabs in a
used in the design of decorative com- Externa l beams precast concrete frame .

May-June 1992 39

Structual grade
insitu concrete fill
Site placed the reinforcement
cast into slots performed
in precast slabs if required
Fig. 12. Tie steel details between beams and slabs.
(see Fig. 13b) are usually reinforced
because their unsymmetrical L-shape
section precludes prestressing. Mini-
mum dimensions are dictated by the
size of the beam-to-column connector.
This is discussed later.
Reinforced or prestressed concrete
beams are designed according to
BS8ll 0, Part I, for specified loading
and support conditions. Complications
to design are usually associated with
beam-to-beam connections, large
asymmetrical loading and the provi-
sion of service holes near to the ends
of beams where special shear cages or
shear boxes are provided to transmit
shear forces to the support, as shown
in Fig. 14.
Stirrups and bent-up reinforcing
bars are provided to ensure the trans-
fer of shear in the critical region. In
some instances, a prefabricated shear
box comprising welded angles or RHS
sections partially or wholly replaces
the stirrup cage and is used to:
• Transfer the shear forces to a point
in the beam where the stirrups are
considered to be fully effective.
• Prevent bursting of the concrete at
the ends of the beam.
• Provide a steel bearing plate with
which to make a steel-to-steel con-
nection to the supporting member.
The design of prestressed concrete
beams is less versatile than reinforced
concrete members because the ten-
dons are restricted to predetermined
patterns by an array of holes in the
jacking heads . The opportunity for
architectural freedom is limited to
symmetrical sections of modular

100 300 100 300 Floor drop

to to to 350
150 350 150 or to suit

30 -
400
150 min 250 max
><
ctl
E
0
150 min 0

500, 550 or 600

...
0

><
...a.0 I I
t - - - - - - - - -1
a. I I
<( 1- - - - - - - - -I
L_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _j

300 500 min

150 600 max
min ,__ -
t- - -
------
- - - - - - --I
-· I I
c=.:.-:::.-::_1
r-----1
~ ==: :._-: . .-_.:-. . : :- =: ._ :J
r---------1
L-=._-_-_-J
I I
r--------""1 ~-----1
r-- ------1 c=.-::..-_-_]
600 c:::._-::._-_-_-_-..::::= =:::1 ____
I I
900 _;

max
125 X 150

Fig . 13a. Range of the most common types of internal and external beams.

40 PCI JOURNAL
 depth -usually in 2 in. (50 mm) lytical or experi-
increments. mental evidence 75 min
Shear reinforcement is rarely neces- to suggest contin- 165 max 315 max
sary in these sections because the ulti- uous horizontal
mate shear resistance of prestressed shear stresses exist

•
concrete members is a function of the between these 330
ultimate flexural requirements. The points. In such min
shear span (Mu!V11 ) for most beams in cases, designers
precast frames is L/4. Thus, the shear will consider the ;-..--- - _I
force at the position of flexural decom- effective width of ~;;:;; :
, - - - -1
pression rarely exceeds 0.5 vcr· the compressive >----_ I
I I
In flexure, design methods are either 1-- - _ _ j
flange as being
non-composite, in which the site cast equal to the width ~ =--=-~.:-:
I I
concrete infill between the ends of the of the precast 900 _ _ _ _ _ I
slab and beam is ignored, or compos- beam alone. max
ite, in which case a portion of the site In cases where
cast concrete is considered . In the every core is 140 min 140 min
analysis, ultimate moments and shear opened, the effec- r-l
resistances are equated with particular
project requirements, and load vs.
span data are prepared in advance.
tive width of the
flange (based on
the full depth of
1 I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I

I
I
I
~~Column
Concrete strengths are at least 6000
and 9000 psi (40 and 60 N/mm') for
the in situ con-
crete) is taken .c
C)
·a;
- I
:
I
: beyond
:f---tcolumn
: beyond

~
precast reinforced and prestressed equal to the actual .c
members, respectively. In situ strengths distance between iij
(J
are between 3500 and 6000 psi (25 the extremities of :;::;

'
(J
and 40 N/mm ' ). Reinforcement, in- the opened core. IV
....
cluding designed links, is high tensile Openings in cores a.
I
hot rolled deformed bar with an ulti- are 24 in. (600 I
I
mate strength equal to 66 ksi (460 mm) in length, I
N/mm' ). Prestressed concrete beams
are reinforced longitudinally using
resulting in effec-
tive widths typi-
j_ I
L_..J
I
I
I
L_...J
I
I

low relaxation (2 .5 percent) helical cally 50 or 28 in.

seven-wire prestressing strand with an
ultimate strength equal to 250 ksi
(1700 N/mm' ). In composite design,
service and ultimate stresses are
checked at two stages of loading (or
three if a structural topping is added to
the floor) and superimposed in the
final analysis, as shown in Table I.
The design considerations used in
Britain are documented in the FIP Draft
Recommendations. '" An important
point to clarify is the effective width of
the compression flange, particularly if
the cores in certain types of hollow-
core floor slabs are filled only inter-
mittently , as is common practice in
Britain. Here, the minimum section is
in the unfilled hollow core which com-
prises only the top and bottom flanges
of the slab - each usually about 1 in.
(25 mm) thick.
Although interface shear transfer is
effective at the positions of the rein-
forced in situ filled cores (representing
possibly only 1/12 of the length along
the span of the beam), there is no ana-
( 1350 or 700 mm) Fig . 13b. Range of the most common types of internal and
wide in symmetri- external beams.
cal or non-sym-
metrical arrangements, respectively. the action of the horizontal supporting
Composite beam design is not usually force. However, some engineers dis-
carried out where double tee floor- pute this viewpoint, particularly if the
ing units and a relatively thin topping floor loading and/or floor span is large
are used. as is often the case where double tees
The beam-to-floor slab connection is are specified. It is more difficult to jus-
a simple support despite the presence tify the elimination of torsion using the
of reinforced in situ concrete strips or sole supporting action of the structural
welded connections (see Fig. 15). Edge topping which is cast on top of double
beams subjected to asymmetrical load- tee units because of the problems in
ing are not always reinforced to resist establishing a practical shear transfer
torsion on the assumption that the floor mechanism in this type of construction.
plate provides a horizontal support Where hollow-core slabs are framed
force and the lateral stiffness of the into beams using details similar to
beam is sufficiently large to prevent those shown in Fig. 15, the approach
excessive horizontal deflections under is to assume that the in situ reinforced
Table 1. Section properties for various stages of loading.
Loading stage Loads Section properties based on
Stage I Self weight of beam and slab Precast concrete beam
Stage II As Stage I plus self weight of topping As Stage I plus cast-in-place infill
Stage ill Superimposed As Stage II pi us topping

May-June 1992 41
concrete infill complex in Leicester are shown in
will act as an Fig. 9b. Columns are erected in one
R H S box or
ex tended bear- piece up to 70ft (21 m) in length,
Tension strap sim ilar
ing to the slab. although the usual practical and more
Therefore, the line economic limit is about 40ft (12m).
of application Design makes due allowance for
of the slab load- decora tive (e.g., exposed or acid
ing will be close etched aggregate) finishes in comput-
to the shear center ing a net cross section, but otherwise
of the beam. 2 ' Plate the design is according to BS811 0. It
Edge beams with is possible to precast columns having
narrow width up-
stands are checked
for lateral stability
ifi
c
up to I 0 percent reinforcement (the
recommended maximum value) at the
leve l of the splices, although this
or slenderness in v q uantity of reinforcement is rarely
the temporary con- T used in preference for a larger gross
dition before the section. Concrete strength is 7000 psi
in situ concrete C : Compression under plate (50 N/mm 2), but, because of the early
connection with T : Tension carried by strap strength required for lifting in the fac-
the floor is made. V : T-C tory, actual characteristic strengths are
It is possible that abo ut 9000 psi (60 to 70 N/mm 2),
this is a limiting although strengths of 14,800 psi (102
Fig. 14. S hear box details in the e nds of precast concrete
criterion with re- beams. N/mm 2) have been recorded.
spect to span. Braced columns in no-sway frames
The fire resis- are designed using an effective length
tance of all beams is subject to Columns factor of 1.0. The base of the column
BS811 0. Typical ratings for reinforced Column cross sections are based on is considered as a pinned connection
concrete beams using a "standardized" a minim um 12 x 12 in. (300 x 300 despite the moment fixity afforded
cage (i.e., a predetermined arrange- mm) plan dimension because of the by the pocket type of foundation
ment of bars most suited to the pre- type of col umn-to-column connec- which is used extensively to simplify
ferred range of beams) is 2 hours, tions. Preferred increments in size are column manufacture. Column bending
although 4 hours has been achieved 2 or 3 in. (50 or 75 mm), in one or moments are the result of eccentric
without additional external protection. both faces . Non-preferred shapes (e.g., loading in the beam-to-column con-
Fire ratings for most "standardized" trapezoidal, hexagonal, round) and nection, plus any second order deflec-
prestressed concrete beams is 11/ 2 to 2 sizes are usually based around a col- tion induced moments. The eccentric-
hours, although again, with the use of umn core size of 12 x 12 in. (300 x ity e varies with the type of connec-
a fine mesh and increased cover to the 300 mm) to accommodate structural tion; typical values are e = (h/2 + 3) to
prestressing tendons, 4 hours has been connec tions. Circu lar recessed co l- (h/2 + 6.5) in., where h is the depth of
achieved. umns used at The Shires Development the column. Moment distribution is
not considered because the column-to-
beam or column-to-slab connections
are classed as pinned.
In situ concrete C25 min In sway frames , stability is shared
between the columns in proportion to
Tie steel A the flexural stiffness of each column
and degree of moment fixity provided
at each foundation. Most unbraced
columns are slender, although deep
col umns acting as "wind posts" are
deliberately proportioned so as to be
,, designed as short. The effective length
Precast slab Projecting links B factor for cantilever columns in pin-
jointed frames founded on moment
resist ing bases is 2.3 (refer to the
Appendix).
Precast beam
0. Bending moments due to eccentric
- )' ·
loading, horizontal forces and second-
order deflection (a") effects are com-
Fig. 15. Interna l beam-to-floor slab connection details. bined to give the most typical design

42 PCI JOURNAL
condition. Deflection induced moments
are distributed throughout the frame in
proportion to the stiffness of all the
columns. This assumes that the rigid Rigid infill
floor plate transfers the small restoring
forces, which are the result of reactions
from differential additional moments,
to all parts of the frame .
An example of the application of this
analysis is where large additional Flexible
moments are created in only a few frame Conta ct
columns surrounding a roof level eleva- zones
tor machinery room. The natural struc-
tural response of the columns below
this level ensures the full distribution of
additional moments throughout the
frame by generating a restoring force in
the floor and thereby slightly altering
the notional magnitude of au (i.e. , ini- Fig. 16a. Precast infill frame strut analogy.
tial value) at each floor level. The
resulting bending moments preclude
the use of column splices and pinned
bases. The magnitudes of the forces I 1 Beam I I

and moments also restrict the capacities
of most columns to three stories- par-
ticularly if the ground to first floor
height exceeds about 12 ft (3.5 m).
Walls
In skeletal frames , walls are used to
brace the pin-jointed precast frame
against sidesway, thereby relieving the
foundations of overturning bending
moments during the temporary erec-
tion stage and in service. Walls may
be classified as infill or cantilever.
Infill shear walls rely on composite
action with the "unstable" pin-jointed
column-and-beam frame for strength
and stiffness. Where an infill wa ll is
built solid ly - but not monolithically
- into a flexible frame, its resistance
to horizontal loading increases consid-
erably due to composite action with
the frame. This is shown in the load
response sequence in Figs. 16a and
16b.
The problem is analogous to stiff
beams on elastic foundations in that
resistance to horizontal loading is pro-
portional to deformation. The pioneer-
ing work on infilled frames, albeit
using masonry infill , was by Stafford-
Smith and Carter/ 2 Mainstone, 23 and
Wood .24 The design procedures sug-
gested by these authors are widely used
and respected in the United Kingdom.
The procedure is to (a) determine the
~ ---------1------J ~r--
--
I
__ .J
--·..-~ - --,
1
If Silear ' . . , ' T .
ensron/
/ 1
I
l ,, 'I!Q
' . . , ignored y column
I ', CJo ', I
I ', ', I
Crack ing --f- ~ ' ' , ~ ~ -~ ' , ' ,~ I
I
allowed I , ~ ~ ,
1
: ' , , ~r ~ L=rcontact
- - .., r- - - --- ---- - - - - - - - -, r- -
I I I I
I I I I
Fig . 16b. Precast infill frame stresses.
contact lengths between frame and wall, are doweled on to the ground beams.
(b) find an effective width for the equiv- The ultimate stress is 65 psi (0.45
alent strut, and (c) establish the mode of N/mm 2). For this reason, the maxi-
failure and strength of the wall. mum practical height for a frame
The contact length depends on the braced by infill walls is 10 to 12 sto-
relative stiffness of the frame and ries, or about 120 ft (36 m). This
infill, and on the geometry of the depends on the number of walls avail-
panel. An "equivalent" strut analogy is ab le. These are found around stair-
thus developed. Mainstone ' s method 23 cases and elevator shafts , but the
considers an upper bound solution by architect may be reluctant to allow
restricting the width of the equivalent many more walls.
strut to 0.1 times the diagonal length Cantilever walls are designed as deep
of infill. The difference between this beams with adequate tension anchorage
method and Stafford-Smith's is 10 to to the foundation and between succes-
15 percent more conservative. sive story height units (see Fig. 17). In
The critical stress is usually the hor- the case of isolated walls, the wall is
izontal interface shear stress between braced laterally by other walls in the
the bottom of the wall and the ground frame. No beams are used in this type
beam, or first floor beam if the walls of construction and, therefore, seating

May-June 1992 43

Fig. 17. Construction of shear walls.
corbels for flooring are required. Shear
boxes are an extension of the single
cantilever wall. They are formed on site
by "stitching" (splicing) two or more
units, or manufactured as a complete
story (or part-story) height box (with
door and window openings as required)
in the factory.
FRAME STABILITY
Structural stability is the most cru-
cial issue in precast frame design
because it involves both the design of
the precast concrete components and
the connections between them. The
problem is to ensure adequate ultimate
strength and stiffness, but more impor-
tantly to ensure that the failure mode
is ductile. Large safety factors are Jess
relevant to the overall performance
criteria if brittle or sudden failures
involving the release of large amounts
of energy result.
This is not to say that precast frames
are designed as "energy sinks," but
simply that load paths are directed
away from the mechanical connec-
tions toward the under-reinforced pre-
cast components and in situ tie beams.
Stability is not sacrificed at the
expense of additional components, and
the architect is made aware of some of
44
the limitations that the precast solution
imposes. The main issue here is obvi-
ously the number, size and positioning
of shear walls, and other items such as
the continuity of columns and split
floor levels.
Two design stages are considered:
1. Temporary stability during
frame erection - This has certain
implications on design, e.g., the axial
load capacity of column splices must
be greater than (at least) the self
weight of the upper column before the
in situ infill grout has hardened. This
is an extensive subject in its own right
and cannot be dealt with in this paper.
2. Permanent stability -This may
be subdivided into four further stages:
(a) Horizontal diaphragm action in the
precast floor slab
(b) Transfer of horizontal load from
the floor slab to the vertical bracing
elements
(c) Transfer of load to the foundation
(d) Component and joint design
The design process involves com-
patibility and equilibrium. The floor
plate is assumed to be rigid so that
global body displacements and rota-
tions respond to the relative stiffnesses
of the bracing elements, i.e. , shear
walls and/or columns. The horizontal
shear stress in the floor does not
exceed the permissible design value of
33 psi (0.23 N/mm 2) given in BS8ll 0
for unreinforced uncastellated joints
(refer to the Appendix).
Member forces are, therefore, com-
puted and component and joint design
is carried out to satisfy ultimate
strength and serviceability deflections,
with particular consideration for
reverse loading. Some of the connec-
tions in the more lightly loaded beams,
e.g., where floor slabs are running par-
allel with the span of the beam, may
experience uplifting forces. This pos-
sible overload should be recognized in
the design of the joints.
The contribution to the lateral
strength and stiffness of the frame of
the in situ reinforced concrete infill
strips is paramount. These strips pro-
vide the tie forces which eliminate
relative displacements between the
various parts of the frame . Interface
cracking is only acceptable in the
positions where the effects are not
harmful to the sway stiffness of the
frame, e.g. , on the off-diagonal in
infill shear walls. These positions are
not always easy to define, and no
experimental work has addressed this
problem directly.
The general opinion at present is that
because of "overkill" in the use of
shear walls, where manufacturing
requirements usually govern , shear
deformation is not a problem. The
truth of the issue is that it has never
really been fully investigated due to
the physical size of the task. In general,
British engineers are cautious not to
allow service openings or novel con-
nections in these highly sensitive areas.
This is less of a problem in unbraced
frames where horizontal loading is
shared by a large number of columns.
Robustness is ensured by tying all
the precast elements together using
small quantities of in situ reinforced
concrete as described earlier. Tie steel
areas are calculated using the nor-
mal tie forces given in BS8110. The
success of these tie beams depends
largely on detailing. Fig. 15 illustrates
the concept; two tie bars marked A are
fixed on site and pass underneath the
projecting reinforcement loops B. The
hooked bars C are fully anchored into
the hollow cores of the slab. Finally,
bars A pass through small sleeves
preformed in the columns.
Partially Braced Frames
Partially braced frames are used in
situations where stability walls are
architecturally undesirable in the
upper stories. The frame is designed as
fully braced up to a specified level.
This may not always be at the same
level throughout the entire building
and may , indeed , be different in
different directions. The columns are
cantilevered above this level as in an
unbraced frame. The principles are
shown in Fig. 7. The advantages in
using this system are:
• There are no bending moments at
the foundation.
• Columns between ground and first
floor, where a greater headroom is
usually required, are braced.
• Column sizes and reinforcements in
most one or two story cantilevered
frames are sometimes no greater
than if the frame were fully braced,
PCI JOURNAL

Fig. 18. Columns designed as propped
cantilever, owing to lateral restraint
given by steel roof construction.
i.e. , stability is provided for "free."
• Column splices may be made in the
braced part of the frame.
• Clear floor areas for open plan
offices and staircases are punctuated
only by columns. Areas of up to
SOx 30ft (15 x 9 m) plan module
are feasible using double tee roof
slabs and edge beams of about 30 in.
(750 mm) in depth.
I
I
I
I
P=O
Columns in the unbraced part of the
structure are designed as cantilevers
with an effective length rat io of 2.3.
This is a conservative value because
some of the columns immediately
adjacent to the stabilizing walls may
have an effective length factor of 2.0.
This is because their connection to
the braced frame can be considered
as infinitely rigid (although BS8110
does not recognize such an end condi-
tion). A special case, shown in Fig. 18,
is where columns are supporting rak-
ing steelwork, which is connected at
its other end to a rigid (no-sway) part
of the frame. These columns are
designed as propped cantilevers, i.e.,
restrained horizontally at the top, with
an effective length factor of 1.6 (see
the Appendix).
An issue of particular concern arises
in partially braced frames because the
lower end conditions for the columns,
which are not in direct contact with
shear walls, is not defined in BS811 0.
The structure can be idealized as
shown in Fig. 19, where the deflected
profile of a column held in position
but not in direction at level N, and a
free cantilever up to level (N + I) is
shown. The effective length of the col-
umn at level (N + I) is 2.85. Thus, the
true manner of slenderness induced
deflections would be as shown in Fig.
19, where the effective length of all
columns is 2.35.
This value has been computed from
critical buckling loads obtained using
eadd <eadd
1t-
f
~
1
0
stability functions. 25 The shear forces
at the base of the unbraced columns
are carried in the floor plate to the
stiffening elements in accordance with
their stiffnesses and position. How-
ever, bending moments resulting from
sway in the unbraced part are carried
over into the braced part of the frame,
diminishing to zero with distance to
the level of the floor plate below it.
The effective length factor for the
columns in this lower region is 1.0.
A final comment (and a controver-
sial point in British design offices) on
the subject of deflection induced bend-
ing moments is that the accuracy to
which precast concrete columns are
erected is far superior than that of
cast-in-place columns. Thus, the over
conservative values for a,,. which must
inevitably be placed on the latter,
should not be applied to precast con-
crete construction.
CONCLUSIONS
The main aspects of precast frame
design are as follows:
• Component selection and design
• Joints
• Frame stability
• Structural integrity
These items cannot be dealt with in
isolation. For example, the type of
column -to-beam connection dictates
the arrangement and function of the
reinforcement in the ends of beams,
and the manner in wh ich floor slabs
are connected to edge beams influ-
ences the torsional behavior of the
beam. The precast frame design is,
therefore , an integrated process in
which many of the iterative steps are

1
,' < Small
1restoring fore 1
I
) I/-.-L
not obvious because they are now hid-
den within the natural evolution of the
design, detailing and site erection pro-
cedures. It must also be remembered
I C:O I that two additional procedures,
- t- namely, manufacture and site erec-
~
C\J
L /o v(l)
0 0
tion, are also directly influential in
c:o _L/r--o.423L making design decisions.
C\J
II
(l)
I
\
\ j L

_,__
The type of frame discussed in this
paper is ca ll ed the " beam-to-column

l
skeleta l frame," to distinguish this
from the wall frame or portal frame.
The skeletal frame is ideally suited to
medium rise buildings for commercial
use of up to about 20 stories. The vast
Fig. 19. Models used in making a stability analysis of a partially braced frame. majority of frames of this type are ,

May-June 1992 45
however, 3 to 10 stories for reasons
other than the structural capabilities of
the precast system.
Frame stability is very important in
multistory precast design, and there are
several ways of achieving it. Despite
the many variations in the methods, the
overriding features to design are, in
order of priority: ductility, ultimate lat-
eral strength and lateral stiffness. This
can be achieved by affording careful
consideration to the design , detailing
and site preparation of the joints
between the bracing elements, e.g.,
walls or steel diagonals, floor slabs and
the main frame. The design process
has been listed as follows:
I. Precast Concrete Strategic Group,
"Precast Concrete Study Summary
Report," Arup Economic Consultants,
London, United Kingdom, November
1989.
2. Pearce, D. J., and Matthews, D. D.,
"An Appraisal of the Design of Shear
Walls in Box Frame Structures,"
Property Services Agency, London ,
United Kingdom, April 1973.
3. Brigginshaw, G., "A New Era for
Structural Frames," Concrete (Lon-
don), V. 21, No. 10, October 1987.
4. FIP Recommendations, "Precast Pre-
stressed Hollow Cored Floors ," FIP
Commission on Prefabrication,
Thomas Telford, London, United
Kingdom, 1987.
5. Walraven, J. C., and Mercx, W. P.M.,
"The Bearing Capacity for Pre-
stressed Hollow Core Slabs," Heron ,
28, No. 3, Delft University of Tech-
nology, Delft, Netherlands, 1983.
6. Davies, G., Elliott, K. S., and Omar,
W., " Horizontal Diaphragm Action in
Precast Concrete Floors," The Struc-
tural Engineer (London), V. 68, No.2,
January 1990, pp. 25-33.
7. Moustafa, S. E. , "Effectiveness
of Shear-Friction Reinforcement
in Shear Diaphragm Capacity of
Hollow-Core Slabs," PCI JOURNAL,
V. 26, No. I, January-February 1981 ,
pp. 118-132.
8. Svensson, S., "Diaphragm Action in
Precast Hollow-Core Floors," The
Nordic Concrete Federation, Nordic
Concrete Research, Publication No. 4,
1985, pp. 179-191.
9. FIP Recommendations , "Design of
Multistory Precast Concrete Struc-
46
(a) Horizontal diaphragm action in the
precast floor slab
(b) Transfer of horizontal load from
the floor slab to the vertical bracing
elements
(c) Transfer of load to the foundation
(d) Component and joint design
So, too, have the different methods
of achieving Item (c):
(a) Unbraced frame
(b) Braced frame
(c) Partially braced in height, i.e., type
(a) up to a specified level and then
type (b) above it
(d) Unidirectionally braced frame,
i.e., type (a) in one orthogonal direc-
tion and type (b) or type (c) in the
REFERENCES
tures, Thomas Telford, London,
United Kingdom , 1987.
10. PC/ Design Handbook, Third Edition,
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute,
Chicago, IL, 1985.
II. PC/ Manual for Structural Design of
Architectural Precast Concrete, Pre-
cast/Prestressed Concrete 'Institute,
Chicago, IL, 1977.
12. Nilson , Arthur H., Design of Pre-
stressed Con crete, Second Edition,
John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY,
1987, 592 pp.
13. Sheppard, D. A., and Phillips, W. R.,
Plant-Cast Precast and Prestressed
Concrete, Third Edition , McGraw-
Hill, New York, NY, 1989.
14. Elliott, K. S., and Tovey, A., et al.,
"The Use of Precast Concrete in
Buildings - A Design Guide ,"
British Cement Association, Wexham
Springs , Slough , United Kingdom ,
May 1992.
15. ISE, "Structural Joints in Precast
Concrete," Institution of Structural
Engineers, London, United Kingdom,
August 1978, 56 pp.
16. Bruggeling , A. S . G. , and Huyge ,
G. F., Prefabrication With Concrete,
A. A. Balkema Publishers , Brook-
field, VT, 250 pp.
17. Levitt, M., Precast Concrete, Applied
Science Publi shers, London, United
Kingdom, 1982, 233 pp.
18. PCFA, " Frames for Multistory Build-
ings- An Economic Comparison,"
Precast Concrete Frames Association,
Leicester, United Kingdom, 1985.
19. BS8110, Code of Pra cti ce for the
Structura l Use of Concrete, British
Standards Institution, London, United
other direction
Three types of bracing mediums
were discussed:
(a) Cantilever columns, including the
use of deep section wind posts
(b) Cantilever walls designed as deep
beams
(c) In fill concrete or masonry walls
designed contiguously with the
frame
Moment-resisting frame design with
semi-rigid connections has not been
discussed because the development of
the connections and the implications
on stability are not fully understood at
present. Research work"·26 is progress-
ing in this field.
Kingdom, 1985 .
20. FIP Guide to Good Practice, "Hori-
zontal Composite Structures," Federa-
tion Internationale de Ia Precon -
trainte, London, United Kingdom. To
be published.
21. Adlparvar, M. R., "Torsional Behav-
ior of Precast Concrete Beams and
Connections," Ph .D. Thesis, Univer-
sity of Nottingham, United Kingdom,
1991.
22. Stafford-Smith, B., and Carter, C., "A
Method of Analysis for Infill Frames,"
Paper 7218, Proceedings, Institution
of Civil Engineers, London, United
Kingdom, September 1969.
23. Mainstone, R. J., "On the Stiffnesses
and Strengths of Infill Frames,"
Building Research Establishment
Paper CP2/72, Garston, Watford ,
United Kingdom, February 1972.
24. Wood, R. H., " Plasticity, Composite
Action and Collapse Design of Un-
reinforced Shear Wall Panels in
Frames," Paper 8110, Proceedings,
Institution of Civil Engineers, V. 65,
June 1978.
25. Elliott, K. S., Davies, G., and Mahdi,
A. , "The Effect of Moment Rotation
on the Stability of Columns in Pre-
cast Concrete Structures ." Current
research at the University of Nolting-
ham, United Kingdom.
26. Virdi, K. S. , and Ragupathy, P., " Sta-
bility Problems Associated with the
Behavior of Joints in Precast Con-
crete Frames," Proceedings of First
International Conference on Lessons
From Structural Failures , Prague ,
Czechoslovakia, September 1991 , pp.
123-138.
PC! JOURNAL

0z, = second order horizontal deflec-
tions of a column under ulti-
mate load conditions
APPENDIX B-
NOTES ON DESIGN RULES GIVEN IN BS811 0
APPROPRIATE TO THIS PAPER
1. Effective column height,
Part 2, Clause 2.5
Braced columns: the effective height
for columns in framed structures may
be taken as the lesser of:
le =1
0 [0.7 + 0.05 (<1r-1 + CX.:-2)] < 10
le =1
0 [0.85 + 0.05 <Xrmin] < 10
Unbraced columns: the effective
height for columns in framed struc-
tures may be taken as the lesser of:
le =lo [1.0 + 0.15 (<1r-l + <Xr2)]
le = !0 [2.0 + 0.3 CX.:.min]
where
a.:- 1 =ratio of the sum of the column
stiffnesses to the sum of the
beam stiffnesses at the lower
end of a column
a.:- 2 =ratio of the sum of the column
stiffnesses to the sum of the
beam stiffnesses at the upper
end of a column
CX.:.min = lesser of a.:- 1 and a.:.2
le = effective height of a column
in the plane of bending con-
sidered
/
0
= clear height between end
restraints
May-June 1992
APPENDIX A- NOTATION
e = eccentricity of load about cen-
troidal axis of column
M 11 = ultimate bending moment
In calculating a..cmin• ac1 and ac 2 ,
only members properly framed into
the end of the column in the appropri-
ate plane of bending should be consid-
ered. The stiffness of each member
equals 1110 , where I is the uncracked
second moment of area for the section
considered.
In specific cases of relative stiffness,
the following simplifying assumptions
may be used:
(a) Simply supported beams framing
into a column: ac is to be taken
as 10.
(b)Connection between column and
base designed to resist only nomi-
nal moment: a.:. is to be taken as 10.
(c) Connection between column and
base designed to resist column
moment: Or· is to be taken as 1.0.
2. Deflection induced moments
in solid slender columns,
Part 1, Clause 3.8.3
Account has to be taken of the addi-
tional moment induced in the column
by its deflection. The deflection of a
rectangular or circular column under
ultimate conditions may be taken to be:
a11 = ~a K h
V 11 = ultimate shear force
vcr = design ultimate shear resistance
of cracked section
where
~a= ((!Jh) /2000
2
]
K = a reduction factor that corrects
the deflection to allow for the
influence of axial load
h = overall depth of a column in the
plane considered
b smaller dimension of a column
3. Structural connection
between precast concrete units,
Part 1, Clause 5.3
Joints transmitting shear, Clause 5.3.7,
may occur when a wall acts as a wind-
bracing or a floor acts as a wind
girder. They may be assumed effective
if the joint is grouted with a suitable
concrete or mortar mix and the appro-
priate condition is satisfied:
(a) Units transmitting shear in plane.
These should be restrained to pre-
vent their moving apart. No rein-
forcement need be provided in or
across the joint, and the sides of
the units forming the joint may
have a normal finish, whence the
design ultimate stress in the joint
does not exceed 0.23 N/mm 2 • Very
smooth moulded surfaces should
be roughened.
47