CE 5

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CHAPTER 6 Drainage
is defined as the means of collecting, transporting and disposing
of surface water originating in or near the right of way, or flowing
in stream crossings or bordering the right of way.
only one among the many problems to be considered in estab-
Surface drainage
lishing the location and construction of roads
is that branch of physical geography that deals with water of the
Hydrology
earth
1. Hydraulic design that deals with estimating the highest rate of
run-off to be handled.
2. Hydraulic Design deals with the selection of the kinds and sizes
of the drainage facilities that is most economical to accommodate Surface drainage problems follow three basic considerations
the estimated water flow.
3. Erosion Control is to ascertain the design will not create erosion
or other unacceptable environmental conditions.
Concomitant any methods of predicting may be subject to substantial error
simply mean; finding the solution to a problem that is cheapest in
economy in drainage system
the long run under the following conditions:
Junction Box structure is measured for payment as a manhole
is to determine the cross section of the canal that will accommo-
CHANNEL
date water flow smoothly and cheapest to construct and maintain.
1. Water flowing down a mild slope in an open canal is in Sub-crit-
The condition to various channel problems rest on the following
ical flow.
distinctions
2. Water flowing on steep slope is in Super critical flow.
exists when the depth of water in the channel is greater than the
Sub critical flow
critical depth.
Super critical flow exists when the depth is less than the critical level.
Critical depth occurs when the velocity head is one half the average depth.
is the cross-sectional area of the flow divided by its width at the
Average depth or Mean depth
liquid surface.
culvert includes closed conduits with standard designs repeatedly used.
is loaded vertically by the wheel load of vehicles; the earth fill
Culvert covering the culvert; and the horizontal passive or active earth
pressure.
Corrugated metal pipes are more flexible that could tolerate greater deformations.
Conduits are laid on bedding or footing
pipes are the bell and spigot type, tongue and groove, or other
RIGID CONDUIT
types that may be specified.
Backfilling follows after the laying installation of conduit pipes
shall be permeable meeting the requirements of AASHIO M-6
specifications except that soundness tests will not be required and
Granular backfill filter materials
minor variations in grading and content of deleterious substances
may be approved by the engineer.
Trench for underdrain outlets are excavated to the depth and width
Underdrain Outlet as planned. Pipes are laid in the trench with all ends firmly joined
and backfilled after inspection and approval of the pipe installation
Trenches for blind drains are excavated to the width and depth
Blind Drain as shown on plans. The trench is then filled with granular backfill
material to the required depth.
is legally responsible for any damage tcr private property affected
Highway agency by the changes it makes in natura! drainage pattern within the limit
that water must flow.

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is the tendency of water to seek its own level as if in an open
channel flow through the pores and fine channels of the soil. It
Capillarity
is the force pulling free water through the voids of the soil in all
directions.
is common in soils whose fines consist mainly of flat and flaky par-
Elasticity ticles. This kind of soil has rubberized characteristic that rebound
under heavy loads.
An existing earth slope that have been stable can experience
SLOPE FAILURE OR LANDSLIDE
significant movement
refers to the occurrence where the moving mass is defined and
Slide separated from the underlying and adjacent earth by plane, com-
prising a number of adjacent planes were seepage result
represents the continuous surface where the maximum shear
seepage plane strength of the earth material has been reached with the result
that large displacement occurs.
1. Rational slide
2. Translational Slide
Slide is classified into four
3. Block or wedge failure
4. Flows and Spread
associated with natural slopes and constructed embankment of
l. Rotational slide.
homogeneous materials possessing cohesion
associated with slope of layered materials where the mechanism
2. Translational slide of slippage occurs along a weak plane that possesses a down-
ward dip and in cohesionless soil slopes where seepage occurs
refers to the displacement of an intact mass of soil due to the
3. Block or wedge failure.
action of an adjacent zone of earth.
is the most complex type of soil mass movement. Flow involves
lateral movement of soil having a characteristic of viscous fluid,
4. Flows and spread
although the actual consistency of the moving mass may vary from
very wet to dry.
refers to the occurrence of multi-directional lateral movement by
Spread a fractured soil mass. Earthquake is a typical cause of lateral
spreads.
Used where tension valve of interlock is cellular construction Piling
Straight Sections ordered with required inter- lock strength specified and type of
structure indicated
High ratio of beam strength to weight means maximum economy
Z Sections in steel sheet piling. Used primarily in filled bulkheads or other
walls requiring high beam strength.
Designed for applications where a combination of beam strength
Archweb Sections and interlock tighness is required. Used generally in light bulk-
heads internally braced single wall cofferdams, cut-off walls.
js placed starting from the bottom to the top of the surface and
Cement grout
then swept with stiff broom
is categorized under ltem 505 of the DPWH standard specifica-
Masonry stone tions. This item consists of stone masonry in minor structures, in
headwalls for culverts and rataining walls at the toes of the slope
All walls and abutments should be provided with weep holes
Weeping Holes placed at the lowest point where free outlets for water can be
obtained and spaced not more than 2 meters center distance
Timber sheet pile may consist of any species that will satisfactorily stand driving
Concrete reinforcement and manufacture of concrete sheet piles
Concrete Sheet Piles
should conform to the requirements of ltem 400 - Piling.

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Piles -should be of the type, weight and section modulus indicated
Steel Sheet on the plans or special provisions and conform to the require-
ments of item 400- piling.
is a wire mish supplied in various width and length that is in
Gabion
multiple of 2,3, or 4 times its width.
When straw is used for curing, the pavement is cured initially with
Straw Curing burlap or cotton mats until after the final set of concrete or in any
case 12 hours after placing the concrete
The entire surface of the pavement is sprayed uniformly with
Impervious Membrane Method white-pigmented curing compound, immediately after the finishing
of the surface and before the setting of concrete has taken place
White Polyethylene Sheet The top surface and sides of the pavement is entirely covered with
are used in removing forms, pulling out nails and pins but care
Crowbars
should be exercised not to break the pavement edges
After the grade or base have been placed and compacted to the
required density, the areas to support the paving machine is cut
The grade to proper elevation by means of properly design machine. The
base on where the pavement is to be constructed is brought-up
to proper profile.
Concrete is deposited inside the form using an approved
Slip-Form Paver designed to spread, consolidate. screed and float
finish the freshly placed concrete ln one complete pass of the
Placing of concrete
machine. in such a manner that minimum hand finish is obtained,
yet provide a dense and homogeneous pavement in conformity
CHAPTER 7 with the specifications
1.) Sub grade/Subbase,
2.) Base Course, Roadway Major Structural Parts
3.) Pavement
earth beneath the road, properly arranged and graded, compact-
1. The Sub grade or Sub base
ed and stabilized.
Supporting Structure on which the pavement surface and its spe-
The Sub grade or Sub base
cial under-courses rest.
materials laid on top of the sub-grade consisting of crushed stone
2. The Base Course
or gravel, sometimes mixed with asphalt binders.
material laid over the base coarse consisting of Asphalt Concrete
3. The Pavement
or Portland Cement Concrete.
Granular Base Course AND Treated Base Course Types of Base Course
1. The granular base course untreated soil mixture and also known as Gravel road
Consist largely of stone pebbles or crushed rock particles com-
granular base course bined with either, clay, lime, iron oxide or other fine materials
sufficient enough to serve as binder of the coarse particles.
sometimes treated with either Asphalt, Lime, Portland Cement or
other Materials as binders mixed with the aggregate base coarse.
/Asphalt or bituminous treatment is employed to waterproof and
bind the granular aggregate to the sand and clay. /Sand and
2. Treated Base Coarse Asphalt base Couse is composed of either, loose beach, sand
dune pit or river sand cemented with asphalt materials. /These
should be clean and strong to resist displacement under load.
/Fine Grain Asphalt Base has controlled plastic index od 6 to 10
respectively.
Process of loosening and removing earth or rock from its original
Excavation
position and transporting it to fill or waste deposit.
Unclassified Excavation,
Rock Excavation, Roadway Excavation Classifications
Common excavation,
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Muck Excavation,
Borrow Excavation
excavation and disposal of all materials regardless of its nature,
Unclassified Excavation
or does not belong in the Bill od Quantities under pay items.
consists of igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks that
Rock Excavation cannot be excavated w/o blasting or the use of rippers and all
detached stones having V=1 cubic m.
are those that are included in the Bill of Quotations under rock
Common Excavations
excavation or other pay items.
removal of deposits of saturated or unsaturated mixtures of soils
Muck Excavations
and organic matter not suitable for foundation materials.
utilization of Approved Materials for the construction of embank-
Borrow Excavation ment or for other portions of the work from approved sources in
accordance w/ the ff.:
Borrow Case 1 : Materials obtained from sources designated on the plans.
Borrow Case 2 : Materials obtained from sources provided by the contractor
Embankment,
Sub grade,
Shoulders, The Use of Excavated Materials
Slope, Bedding,
Backfill for structures
areas excavated shall be moistened to the full depth from the
Pre Watering
surface to the bottom of excavation.
Has to be supplemented where necessary by truck watering unit
Pre Watering to ensure that the embankment materials contain the proper
moisture at the time of compaction.
drilling and blasting procedure that may be employed to control
Pre Splitting over break and to give a uniform face to the back slope or rock
cuts.
1. Drilling holes at uniform intervals along the slope line
2. Loading and stemming the holes with appropriate explosives
Pre Splitting is Performed by
and stemming materials.
3. Detonating the holes simultaneously
the specified distance wherein an excavated materials will be
Free Haul Distance
hauled w/o additional cost. Free haul distance is 600 meters.
Overhaul authorized hauling in excess of the free haul distance.
attained by spreading the materials into a thin layer then compact-
Stable Embankment
ed at a moisture content closer to optimum.
Removal and Replacement Method applicable where the unstable material is shallow or thin.
imported materials are carefully placed along the advancing slope
Displacement Method
allowed to flow under the dense muck to displace it.
The Relief Method is also employed after the fill materials are dumped in place.
applied on low fill over shallow muck up to 30- or 40-centimeters
Submerging Method
depth.
The Vertical Sand Drain Method provides rapid consolidation of deep layer muck.
The Fabric Reinforcement Method covering the much w/ permeable fabrics.
installing a block of Styrofoam over the much to reduce the weight
Weight Reduction Method
of the fill.
materials acceptable that could be compacted in accordance with
Suitable Materials
the contract as specified.
Sub Grade Preparation

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Item 200 Material Requirements
Preparation of the Soil Aggregate
Item 204 Portland Cement Stabilized Road Mix Base Course
Proportioning Mixture
Travel Plant Mixing Method
Central Plant Mixing Method
Spreading, Compacting and Finishing
Clearing and Grubbing
Clearing and Grubbing
Area Basis
Lump Sum Basis
Individual Unit Basis (selective clearing)
a) Materials containing detrimental quantities of organic sub-
stances like grass, roots and sewage b) Highly organic soils like
peat and muck. c) Soils with liquid limit exceeding 80 and or plastic
index exceeding 55. d) Soils with natural water content exceeding
I00yo e) Soils with very low natural density of 800 kg./^t or lower
Diameter at height 1.4 meters - Pay item designated. Over 15 cm. The unit basis will be designated and measured in accordance
to 90 cm. - Small Over 90 cm - Large
Rounding
Warping
Sub grade preparation
categorized under item 105 of the DPW standard specifications.
Prepared for support of overlying structural layers extended to the
full width of the roadway.
aggregates for sub-base shall consist of hard, durable particles of
fragments or crushed stone, crushed slag or crushed or natural
gravel and filler or natural crushed sand or other firmly divided
mineral matter
CaseI. For New Soil Aggregate, Case 2 Salvage Soil Aggregate
This item consists of a foundation for surface course composed of
soil aggregate, Portland cement and water, proper proportions of
road-mixed placed on a prepared sub-grade or subbase.
l. The amount of cement added to the aggregate shall be 6 to 10
mass percent of the dry aggregate. 2. Construction requirement
and procedures is the same as that of Item-203 wherein the world
lime is deleted and replaced with Portland cement.
The salvage or new aggregate is pulverized until at least 80 mass
percent of all the materials other than stone or gravel passes a
4.75 mm (No. 4) sieve.
The plant is equipped with feeding and metering devices that
will introduce the cement aggregate and water into the mixer in
quantities specified. Mixing continue until after a uniform mixture
is attained.
Not more than 60 minutes should elapse from the start of mixing
to compaction of the laid mixture. After spreading, the mixture is
compacted and finished in accordance with the procedures as
enumerated for lime stabilized road mix base course item 2-3
is categorized under ltem-100 of the DPWH standard specifica-
tions. It consists of clearing, grubbing, removing and disposing
of all vegetable matter and debris except those objects that are
designated to remain in place or are to be removed in consonance
with other provisions of the specifications.
It also includes preservation from injury or defacement of all
objects designated to remain.
by hectare and fractions thereof acceptably cleared and grubbed.
No measurement of area will be made for this item.
The diameter of trees will be measured at a height of 1.4 meters
above the ground. Trees less s than 15 cm. diameter will not be
measured for payment.
Unstable Materials are materials other than suitable materials
such as:
with the following schedule of sizes:
Except solid rocks, the top and bottom of all slopes including the
slopes of drainage, ditches, are rounded as planned. A layer of
earth overlapping rock is rounded above as was done in earth
slope
Adjustment in slopes are made to avoid injury to standing trees
or marring of weather head rock or to harmonize with, existing
landscape features adjusting to the gradual slope.
is categorized under ltem 105 of the DPW standard specifications.
The sub-grade is prepared for the support of overlying structural
layers extended to the full width of the roadway.
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is stable. It is capable of developing fairly good strength and has
compacted silt
little tendency for volume change.
has very low permeability, an advantage where movement of
Compacted clay water needs to be restricted, but clay soils cannot be compacted
properly when wet.
l. The Pneumatic or rubber-tired rollers.
2. The drum type roller with projecting feet or logs called the
sheep's foot roller. Equipment for Compaction
3. Vibratory compactors.
4. Smooth drum rollers
can be used effectively on all types of soils. It compacts by knead-
The pneumatic Tire Roller
ing available as self-propelled unit or as towed units
20 tons of this type can compact 6 inches thick layer with few
Light rollers passes. The 40 to 50 tons roller can compact 12 inches thick layer
with 3 to 4 passes.
is limited to cohesive soils. Its pressure varies from 700 kN/m^2
The Sheep's Foot Roller
to 4,200 kN/m^2
1. Vibrating drum type.
The Vibratory Compactor is the most effective compactor on non-
2. Vibrating pneumatic tire.
cohesive soils available as:
3. Vibrating plate equipment
has limited depth of compaction' This is not suited for compacting
The Smooth Drum Roller
earthfill due to the size of the drum and the large soil contact
can be used on earth moving projects to seal the surface of the
The Smooth Drum Roller fill at the end of each workday providing smooth surface for the
water to rapidly run-off from the work area.
should be capable of obtaining compaction requirements without
Compaction equipment
detrimentally affecting the compacted materials.
1. Pneumatic Tire Roller must have smooth thread tires of equal
size that will provide uniform compacting pressure for the full width
of the roller and capable of exerting ground pressure of at least
550 kN ( psi).
2. Sheepfoot Tamping as grid roller should be capable of exerting
a force of 45 Newton per millimeter (250 psi) of length of roller.
Minimum Requirements for Road Roller
3. Vibratory Steel Wheel Roller must have a minimum mass of 6
tons. The compactor is equipped with amplitude and frequency
controls.
4. Steel Wheel Roller. Other than vibratory, should be capable of
exerting a force not less than 45 Newton per milli meter of width
of the compression roll or rolls.
is a combination of limestone, marl or other calcareous materials
CHAPTER 8 Portland cement
and clay, shale, or like argillaceoussubstances.
Type 1 or 1A (Air entraining)
Type II or IIA (Air entraining)
The different types of Portland cement specified by AASFITO are
Type III or IIIA (Air entraining)
the following
Type IV
Type V
This type of cement is for general concrete construction when the
1. Type 1 or 1A (Air entraining)
specified properties of the other four types are not required.
This type is for general concrete construction exposed to moder-
2. Type II or IIA (Air entraining)
ate action or where moderate heat of hydration is required.
3. Type III or IIIA (Air entraining) This type is for high strength concrete.
4. Type IV is for low heat of hydration.
5. Type V for high sulfate resistance.
Deterioration is due to stress brought about by load, moisture and temperature.

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Distress of Concrete is generally grouped into the following cate-
a) Distortion b) Cracking c) Disintegration
gories
is a vertical displacement of concrete slab at the joints or cracks.
Distortion
Distortion is due to failure or weakness of concrete joints.
For faulting to occur, there must be free water on top of the base
course and pavement deflection across the joint due to heavy axle
Faulting
loads. Faulting is the result of pumping tremendous force or load
that develop under pavement.
can take many forms in concrete pavement that could be the result
Cracking
from; applied load, temperature or moisture changes.
a.) Corner cracks b.) Transverse cracks The most common type of cracks are
a) Corner cracks associated with excessive corner deflection
associated with mixture or temperature stresses, or poor con-
b) Transverse cracks
struction methods.
appears in the form of durability cracking, scaling or spalling, as
Disintegration
the result of mix design or construction related problems
a. Durability Cracking Results from freeze-thaw action.
A network of shallow fine hairline cracks which extend through the
upper surface ofthe concrete. This is the result from deicing salts,
b. Scaling
improper construction, freeze-thaw cycle, or steel reinforcement
too closed to the surface.
is the breaking or chipping of the joint edges. It is the result from
c. Spalling excessive stresses at joint, weak concrete, poorly designed or
constructed joints
are constructed according to the type dimensions and at the loca-
tions as indicated on plans or special provisions. All joints should
Concrete Joints
be protected from the intrusion of injurious foreign materials until
after sealed.
provide space allowance for the lengthening of slab due to expan-
Expansion Joints
sion.
are provided between adjacent traffic lanes. It is considered as
Longitudinal joints hinges to provide edge support, but allows rotation between the
slabs.
is a substance added in mixing to change the characteristic of
Admixture
concrete mixture
is the entrapment of air in the concrete mixture in the form of
evenly distributed small bubbles It is used to increase the concrete
Air entrainment
resistance to surface scaling caused by deicing with calcium or
sodium chloride.
may the attained by using Air Entraining Portland Cement or by
Air entrainment in concrete Air Entraining Admixture added to each batch of concrete while
mixing.
could be used alone or in combination with Portland cement to
Polymer Concrete
bind aggregates together producing concrete.
a)Polymer-Impregnated Concrete (PIC)
b.)Polymer Concrete (PC) Polymer mixture is classified into the following
c)Polymer Cement Concrete (PCC)
is a Portland cement concrete impregnated with monomer after
• Polymer Impregnated Concrete (PIC)
curing
• Polymer Concrete (PC) is a mixture of polymer binder and aggregate.
is a pre-mixture of cement paste and aggregate wherein a
• Polymer Cement Concrete (PCC)
monomer is mixed before curing.

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Concrete pavement
Joint fillers
Water
Storage of Cement and Aggregate
Concrete Butcher
Concrete Technician
Vibrator
Concrete saw
Base Support
Grading and alignment
Grading and Alignment
Limitation of Mixing
Concrete Joints
l. Longitudinal joint
2. Transverse joint
3. Transverse construction joint
4. Transverse construction joint
5. Load transfer device
l. Transverse Strip Contraction Joint
2. Formed Groove
3. Sawed Contraction Joint
Transverse contraction joint
Load transfer device
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is categorized under item 3l I of DPWI standard specifications,
which provides that. This item shall consist of Portland cement
Concrete pavement with or without reinforcement, constructed on
the prepared base in accordance with the plans and specifica-
tions.
should be mixed asphalt and mineral or rubber filler. The
pre-formed joint fillers are punched to admit the dowels. Filler for
each joint should be furnished in a single place for the full depth
and width of the joint.
to be used in concrete mixing or curing or other designated appli-
cations should be clean and free from oil, salt, acid, alkali, grass or
other substances injurious to be finished product. Drinking water
if used needs to be tested.
should be waterproof with raised floor from the ground to protect
the cement from rain or dampness
The person performing the batching or mixing operation capable
of accurately conducting aggregate surface moisture determina-
tions and establishing correct scale weight for concrete materials.
The person responsible for concrete production control and sam-
pling and testing for quality control proficient in concrete technol-
ogy having a sound knowledge of the specifications as they relate
to concrete production
should operate at 8,300 to 9,600 frequency of impulse per minute
under load at a maximum spacing of 60 centimeters
should be water cooled diamond edge saw blade or an abrasive
wheel conforming to the required dimensions and rate of speed.
The foundation under the forms should be hard and true to grade,
so that the form when set will be firmly in contact with its whole
length at the specified grade.
Form shall be set sufficiently advance from the point where the
concrete is being place
The alignment and grade elevation of the forms should be checked
and corrections be made immediately before the placing of con-
crete
No concrete should be mixed, placed or finished, when natural
light is insufficient, unless an adequate and approved artificial
lighting system is operated
are constructed according to the type' dimensions and at the
locations as indicated on plans or special provisions
Concrete pavement joints are classified into
is installing as parting strip to be left in place as specified.
is installed by depressing an approved tool or device into the
plastic concrete.
is made by sawing groove in the surface of the pavement. Sawing
is done as soon as the concrete hardened sufficiently to permit
sawing without excessive raveling, and the time is usually within
24 hours.
is provided when there is art interruption of more than 30 minutes
in the concreting operations.
is provided along the longitudinal centerline of the pavement either
by tongue and groove concrete or by steel dowels
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Non Vibratory method
Curing
1. The use of cotton or burlap mats.
2. The use of waterproof paper.
3. Straw curing.
4. By impervious membrane method.
5. By use of white polyethylene sheet.
Cotton or Burlap Mats
Waterproof Paper
White Polyethylene Sheet.
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The concrete is distributed and spread as soon as placed. It is
struck off and screened by an approved finishing machine.
Immediately after the finishing operations and the concrete has
sufficiently set, the entire surface of the newly placed concrete is
cured
Curing methods
The pavement surface is entirely covered with mats thoroughly
saturated with water. The mat is placed and weighed to remain in
intimate contact with the pavement and maintained fully wet in its
position for 72 hours unless otherwise specified
The top and sides of the pavement is covered entirely with this.
The units are lapped at least 45 centimeters placed and weighed
down to remain in intimate contact with the surface cover
The top surface and sides of the pavement is entirely covered with
this