CHAPTER 6: HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES

6.1 Introduction
· Hydraulic structures are basically essential in conveying water runoffs in a particular path. They normally necessitate convenient
passage of traffic and humans along waterways e.g. streams, rivers etc.
· Mainly gabions, drifts, fords and culverts will be discussed.

6.2 The Use of Gabions in hydraulic applications

· A flexible gabion structure is a combination of wire netting and stone fill. To fill the gabion, all types of durable stone can be
used, preferably those with a high specific weight and good resistance to the atmospheric agents (water, wind, ice, etc.).

· The ideal size of stone varies between one and two times the smaller dimension of the mesh opening (see “b” in the figure 6.1).
The gabion void index is defined as being the percentage between the stone fill volume and the total capacity of the gabion. The
use of regular dimension stones, possibly between 1 and 2 b, gives a minimum void ratio, thus providing a better distribution of
the existing strains, and maximum support capability of the structure.

· The average specific weight for a gabion, when considering a void content between 30% and 40%, is approximately 1,700 kg/m3.

Figure 6.1: Gabion mesh pattern

6.2.1 Technical and Functional Characteristics

The acceptance of gabions in various types of work for more than a hundred years is due to the following characteristics, which gives
gabions enormous advantages over other possible solutions:

1. Monolithicity:
· A gabion structure is made by various elements linked through continuous fastening.
· The latter ensures mesh continuity and allows regular distribution of the imposed forces among the three dimensions (width,
height and depth), as well as ensuring that the whole weight of a structure is equal to the sum of the weights of each element.
· The settling of soil, transported by water, in the voids between stones, and the eventual appearance of vegetation, increase
monolithicity, improving the static characteristics of the structure over time. Gabion works can therefore be considered as single,
homogeneous and monolithic structures.

2. Flexibility:
· The constituent materials of gabions give high flexibility to the structure when compared to other types of solutions.
· The wire netting assures resistance to tension on the structure, which therefore may absorb loadings not predicted at the time of
design.
· This is one of the most important characteristics of gabions – the structure deforms, but its resistance is not decreased, because
while following land movements the structure maintains the same loadings on the soil.

3. Permeability
· Empty spaces between stone fill-in gabions allow fluid movement through them.
· For this reason gabion works are not generally affected by hydraulic pressure and therefore work much more efficiently under
such circumstances.
· As for hydraulic works, like in canal and river bank support, gabions allow water flow in both directions, i.e. river-land and land-
river, without forming an impermeable barrier.

4. Versatility
· Gabion structures match local needs and conditions perfectly.
· While they can be built using mechanical means, they are also very suited to labour intensive projects.

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· These structures can be built in any climate – low or high temperatures, drought or rainy season, and under different
environmental conditions, such as in the presence of water, at remote sites, and on poor soils with low bearing capability.

5. Environmental integration
· Gabion structures are the least damaging to the environment, as they are built with stone.
· The structure integrates with the environment over time as empty spaces between stones become filled with soil and seeds, and as
vegetation grows, harmoniously covering the structure and eventually re-creating the pre-existing environment.
· Gabion structures therefore do not significantly change the ecosystems in which they are erected.

6. Simplicity and economy

· Being simple, gabions do not require a skilled labour force or special equipment.
· Ordinary tools are usually needed, such as pliers, tweezers, crowbars and other easily available tools.
· Rapid construction, resulting in immediate use of the completed gabion structures, is possible, together with the possibility to
easily change or enlarge the structure.
· It is therefore also possible to be built in stages. Because of the standardization of gabions it is possible to produce effective
structures with only a few technical instructions.
· Stone fill for the work is usually easily found near the site.

An illustration of use of gabions as elements in a hydraulic structure is shown in figure 6.2.

Figure 6.2: gabions as elements in a hydraulic structure (culvert)

6.3 Culverts
· The culvert consists essentially of a pipe barrel (conveyance part) under the embankment fill, with protection works at its entrance
and exit.
· At the entrance a head wall, with or without wing walls, and a debris barrier are normally provided. If necessary, an end wall with
energy-dissipating devices is provided at the exit.
· The culvert acts as a constriction and creates a backwater effect to the approach flow, causing a pondage of water above the
culvert entrance.
· The flow within the barrel itself may have a free surface with subcritical or supercritical conditions depending on the length,
roughness, gradient, and upstream and downstream water levels of the culvert. If the upstream head is sufficiently large the flow
within the culvert may or may not fill the barrel, and its hydraulic performance depends upon the combination of entrance and
friction losses, length of barrel, and the downstream backwater effects.

All culverts require a good foundation whether they have a large or a small diameter. A foundation can be provided in different ways:
· by improving the existing subsoil (place gravel);
· by constructing a floating floor. This method is especially suitable in soft swampy areas and consists of placing several layers
of round timber (diameter 5-10 cm) on top of each other, so that a floating timber floor results;
· by pouring a concrete floor (usually only applied when major structures are concerned).

6.4 Drifts
Drifts basically provide a firm surface over which vehicles can pass a waterway provided that the level of the water is low enough.
From an economical and technical point of view drifts are usually the most appropriate solution when wide, normally dry rivers have
to be crossed. Figure 6.3 shows a functional drift.

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 Figure 6.3: Drift in operation

· Drifts can offer a desirable alternative to culverts and bridges for stream crossings on low-volume roads where road use and
stream flow conditions are appropriate.
· Like other hydraulic structures for stream crossings, they require specific site considerations and specific hydrologic,
hydraulic, and biotic analyses.
· Ideally, they should be constructed at a relatively narrow, shallow stream location and should be in an area of bedrock or
coarse soil for good foundation conditions.

Advantages of Drifts
1. The major advantage is that a drift is usually not susceptible to plugging by debris or vegetation the way a culvert pipe may plug.
2. They are typically less expensive structures than large culverts or bridges. They may be initially more expensive than culverts, but
they require less fill in the channel, and they can accommodate larger flows.
3. The structure can be designed as a broad-crested weir that can pass a large flow volume. It is not very sensitive to specific flow
volumes since a small increase inflow depth greatly increases capacity. They can be more “forgiving” and accommodate more
uncertainties in the design flow and thus are ideal for drainages with unknown or variable flow characteristics.

6.4 Vented ford (or vented drift)

The vented ford is an intermediate solution between a drift and a bridge. It is a medium-level stream or river crossing through which
the normal flow of water can pass, but which is designed
to be over-topped during periods of heavy rainfall.

Figure 6.4: Vented ford

Read about jetties and make short notes.

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