Applied Geophysics – Oct 6

Goals for today

 Review time-intercept method

 Sources/Receivers

 Low velocity zones (applet for Snell’s law)

 Multiple Layers

 Other interpretation methods (Plus-Minus)

 Preparation for TBL

Seismic survey
offset

A B

A B
…
Raw data

 Direct arrivals
 The T-X plot

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Raw data

 First refractions
 The T-X plot

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Raw data

 Second refractions
 The T-X plot

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Raw data

 First arrivals
 The T-X plot
Relations for things we want

 Needed:
 Relations between times, distances and velocites
 Direct arrivals:
 Easy: x=v*t  t=(1/v)x 1/v is slope.

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Relations for things we want

 Refractions – geometry must be accounted for:

 Relations between times, distances, angles and velocites.
Relate x, z, θ
Relate v1, v2, θ (Snell’s law)
Sources & sensors and Raw data

 Geophone:

 Seismic lab #2 involves raw data & first break picking.

Detectors and Recorders
Geophones and Seismographs
Set up the geophone array

Geophone
Multi-channel seismograph receiver
Borehole explosion
Thumper truck
From Lithoprobe website
Measurements - Sources
 For small scale work, energy can be small.
Shotgun blast
Sledge hammer
Sledge hammer
Waves, rays and energy propagation

 How does energy propagate?

Energy decays and the pulse
spreads out as it propagates

 Amplitude gets reduced further from the

source
Refraction Seismic

 Low Velocity Zones

 Refraction for 3 layers.

 Dipping Layers

 More complicated interfaces and approaches.

 Plus-Minus method
 Generalized Reciprocal Method
 Ray Tracing

EOSC 350 ‘06 Slide 22

Low Velocity Zone

 Snell’s law for decreasing velocity

http://staff.washington.edu/aganse/raydemo/RayDemo2.med.html

Ray tracing for non-layered velocity models (Illustration of Snell’s law)

Low Velocity Zones

V2 < v1

No refracted arrival from the top of the second layer

Hidden Layer
 Layers that are too thin may not be seen

V3>v2>v1

Arrival from layer 3

beats that from layer 2
Refraction 3-layers:
Snell’s law rules
 Second refractions
 The T-X plot

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 Intercept time method (ITM)
What’s ultimately wanted from a seismic refraction survey?
 Velocities

 From slopes

 Depth
 From intercept time

ti
Dipping layers: interpretation requires two
shots

Resulting T-X plot

EOSC 350 ‘06 Slide 28

Recall: dipping layers
Reciprocal time

X X
Shot point Shot point
1  1  V1   V 
  sin    sin 1  1 
2  V2 d   V2u 
1  1  V1  V 
  sin    sin 1  1 
2  V2 d   V2u 
Depth estimates
 “Slant” depths can be obtained through the intercept
times
 True depths can be estimated using dip-angle (see GPG
3.e.6)
Irregular Layers

 What happens when boundary can no longer

be approximated with a plane?

 Plus-Minus Methods
 GRM (Generalized Reciprocal Methods)
What about the velocity of the second layer?

 V1 known from first arrivals

 V2 is difficult to obtain because slope is not

straight

 z varies
The Plus-Minus method
Notes section 8.
 We want Z = depth under geophones

 We could do Z  TADV1 cos 

But we don’t know TAD

EOSC 350 ‘06 Slide 33

 Delay time
We want depth, z, under D.
 Relation is 1st to the right

aSD is the “delay time”,

defined as TAB – TBC

Derivation discussed in notes section 8.

EOSC 350 ‘06 Slide 34

 Plus Minus method summary
We want depth, z, under D.
 Relation is 1st to the right

 aSD’s value comes from 2nd relation,

called the “Plus term”.
 V2 comes from slope of the 3
rd

equation, called the “Minus term”.

(Note that the slope is 2/V2).

EOSC 350 ‘06 Slide 35

 Generalized Reciprocal Method - GRM
 ITM with fwd/rvrs shots, and PlusMinus are “reciprocal methods”.

 Goal of GRM is to estimate velocities & depths without requiring

interface segments that are flat.

 Velocity and depth BOTH estimated under EACH geophone that

has seen refractions.

 Therefore lateral velocity variations in one layer can be seen.

 But … “smooth” velocity changes (materials grading one into the

other) can still not be seen.

EOSC 350 ‘06 Slide 37

GRM interpretation

 Can be performed along a line (see GPG

e.10)
Ray tracing and inversion for complicate
structures
 Numerical programs compute the ray paths and travel
times.

 Adjust the velocity so that simulated travel times match

the observed travel times.
Ray tracing techniques

 Created data must look like measured data, within error bars.
Therefore error specifications are an important part of the data set.
 Also “turning rays” can be accommodated.
 Interfaces are not necessary because steadily increasing velocity
means ray paths curve.
 This effect is crucial
in crustal studies
using earthquake
signals.
 Of course, head waves
are also handled
properly.

EOSC 350 ‘06 Slide 40

Ray tracing

 It is possible to calculate ray paths for complex earth

structures, with velocity gradients, no sharp
boundaries, and low velocity zones.
 Limitations?
 Complicated to use, therefore costly in “expert” time.
 2D only.
 Need large data sets
therefore field work
is expensive.

EOSC 350 ‘06 Slide 41

Reading for Team Exercise
Near-surface SH-wave surveys in unconsolidated, alluvial
sediments (on website)

This is a case history for a landfill in Norman, Oklahoma

Pay attention to:

7-Step Process
Understand data plots
Typical data plots
Upcoming
 TBL: Friday, October 8 (Near Surface SH)

 Monday October 11: Holiday (Thanksgiving)

 Wednesday Oct 13: Seismology

 Friday October 15: Finish Seismology and other review

 Monday: October 17: Quiz (with TBL)

 Wednesday Oct. 20: Midterm (physical properties,7 Step

procedure, magnetics, seismic refraction; lab material, team
exercises)
 Global Earthquake

Global Earthquake:

 http://www.iris.edu/hq/programs/education_and_outreach/visualizations
 US Network for global seismic monitoring (see tutorial)