Reinforced Earth Wall; components, applications and advantages

Reinforced Earth Wall

A reinforced earth wall is designed and constructed to resist the lateral pressure of the
soil and supports the soil laterally so that it can be maintained at different levels on both
sides. The lateral pressure could be also due to earth filling, liquid pressure, sand, and
granular materials. The walls are used to bound soils between two different elevations
often in areas of terrain possessing undesirable slopes. These walls are an economical
way to meet every-day earth retention needs for highway and bridge grade separations,
railroads and mass transit systems. They are also used in response to difficult design
conditions such as very high structures, restricted space, where obstructions within the
soil mass are present.
Components of Reinforced Earth Wall
A reinforced earth wall comprises various components that are necessary for the stability
and functions of the structure. Each of them are analysed below.

Components of a typical section of Reinforced Earth Wall Structure

Reinforcement elements
A variety of materials can be used as reinforcing material. These include steel, concrete,
glass fiber, wood, rubber, aluminum. There are two types of reinforcements, namely
Galvanized Steel reinforcement and Geosynthetic reinforcement.
Galvanized Steel reinforcement is used for high static and dynamic design load, high
walls, bridge abutments, heavy duty mining, and industrial retaining wall railway. The
strips may be galvanized or black and are designed to be bolted to the tie strips at the
back of each facing panel. The Geosynthetic reinforcement is made of high-density
polyethylene, polyester, and polypropylene which become efficient solutions when the
chemical characteristics of the backfill are not suitable for the utilization of galvanized
steel.
Backfill elements
A granular backfill has to be used as a reinforced volume structure. As one of the most
principal components of reinforced earth wall, the backfill has to meet with mechanical
and electrochemical properties of soil. The fill material for reinforced earth structures
must be cohesionless and it should have an angle of on interface friction between the
compacted fill and the reinforcing element . Crushed concrete, Fly Ash and other
recycled material can be used successfully as backfill.
Facing elements
Reinforced Earth walls can be constructed with any of three major facing types: precast
panels, wire facings and concrete masonry blocks. Since the facing is the only visible
feature of a Reinforced Earth wall, selection of the right facing type, including size,
shape, color and texture, is an important design decision.
Drainage elements
Drainage should be provided at the back of reinforcement zones to avoid the
development of hydrostatic pressures during RE Wall construction. A drainage bay of a
minimum 600 mm width at the back of the RE panel facing is usually used. Sometimes
profiled blocks are also used as it has provision for placing granular drainage.
Leveling pads
Rubber, wooden or concrete bearing pads are used for horizontal joints so that there is no
concrete contact between the panels and to avoid the chipping of concrete .
Filter cloth
Migration of backfill fines into the joints is prevented by wide strips of filter cloth glued
over the joints on the back face of the wall. It is used for horizontal and vertical joints in
the interior side of the panels such that the interior fill may not come out of the joints .
Design considerations for Reinforced Earth Wall

Design considerations for Reinforced Earth Wall

Check External/ Internal stability
To assess external stability, check the stability of sliding, overturning, bearing/tilt and
slip by considering the effects of dead loads, other loads and forces acting on the
structure.
To assess internal stability, check out tension and pull-out failure such as shear within the
structure , arrangement and behavior of the reinforcement and backfill. Also checks the
stability for each reinforcement layers and stability of wedges
Earth soil
A selected backfill must meet the minimum requirement for mechanical and
electrochemical parameters, so that the required service life of the structure gets
resistance to the flow of stray current.
Soil Reinforcement
According to the selected backfill and the structure’s service life, different types of
reinforcements can be used in order to meet the specification required in the project.
Facing
The service life should be considered for the facing selection of the structures, you need
to consider whether it will be permanent or temporary.
These factors need to be considered while selecting a reinforced earth wall for your
projects.
Advantages of Reinforced Earth Wall
The geosys reinforced earth retaining wall not only protects your landscaping but it also
contributes aesthetics value. Its advantages include;.

 Counteract the forces of gravity to protect the structure

 Holds the soil together for better functioning
 Resists Gravity Load
 Prevent sinkholes from destroying landscape structure
 Stabilizes the sloping landscapes
 Provides the level surfaces on slopes
 Compatible with a variety of decorative facing systems
 Reduces maintenance and prevents erosion
 Holds back the earth and maintain a difference in the height of the ground
surface
 Withstand the grounds or backfill, other externally exerted loads transmit
 Provides stability under large and unforeseen deformations such as differential
settlements and subsidence
  Can be used with a wide range of fill materials
 Effective in flood control
 Extremely low maintenance
 Inextensible soil reinforcements and bolted connections quickly installed
 Allow for a wide variety of surface textures and custom design
 Suitable and proven performance for extreme loading conditions

Applications Reinforced Earth Wall

Reinforced earth wall is compatible with a variety of facing systems, including large-
sized discrete concrete panels, segmental panels, small-sized modular concrete blocks,
vegetative facing with wrap around or with stones filled gabion, etc. It is also compatible
with a wide range of fill materials, ranging from non-cohesive frictional fills locally
available at site to fly ash and other similar non-cohesive, non-plastic fills. The marginal
cohesive fill material can also be used with reinforced earth walls by providing adequate
design. The benefits of these structures are especially evident on projects with
challenging design conditions such as large structural loads, extreme height, restricted
space, obstructions within the soil mass, poor foundation soils, high or variable water
level and seismic loading. Its application area includes;

 Highway and roads

 Bridges
 Railway
 Waterways and dams
 Protective structures
 Commercial and public facilities
Applications of Reinforced Earth Walls
 GEO-TEXTILES
Geotextile is a synthetic permeable textile material used to improve the soil
characteristics. It has the ability to separate, filter, reinforce, protect and drain when used
in association with soils. Geotextiles are ideal materials for many infrastructures works
such as roads, harbors, landfills, drainage structures, and other civil projects.

Fig 1: Uses of Geotextile in various places.

Types of Geotextiles

Geotextiles are made up of polymers such as polyester or polypropylene. They are

divided into 3 categories on the basis of the way they are prepared :
1) Woven Fabric Geotextiles
2) Non-Woven Geotextiles
3) Knitted Geotextiles

1. Woven Fabric Geotextile

Commonly found geotextiles are of the woven type and are manufactured by adopting the
techniques which are similar to weaving usual clothing textiles. This type has the
characteristic appearance of two sets of parallel threads or yarns. The yarn running along
the length is called warp and the one perpendicular is called weft. (As shown in the figure
below)
Fig 2: Woven Geotextile.
2. Non-Woven Geotextile
Non-woven geotextiles are manufactured from either continuous filament yarn or short
staple fiber. The bonding of fibers is done using thermal, chemical or mechanical
techniques or a combination of techniques.

Fig 3: Non-Woven Geotextile.

Geo-fibers obtained from mechanical interlocking or chemical or thermal bonding have a
thickness of 0.5-1 mm while chemically bonded non-wovens are comparatively thick
usually in the order of 3 mm.
3. Knitted Geotextile
Knitted geotextiles are manufactured by the process of interlocking a series of loops of
yarn together. All of the knitted geosynthetics are formed by using the knitting technique
in conjunction with some other method of geosynthetics manufacture, such as weaving.
 Fig 4: Knitted Geotextile.
Apart from these three geotextiles, other geosynthetics used are geonets, geogrids, geo-
cells, geomembranes, geocomposites, etc. each having their own distinct features and
uses for special applications.
Functions of Geotextiles
The mode of operation of a geotextile in any application is defined by six discrete
functions :

Fig 5: Functions of Geotextiles.

1. Separation
The separation function of geotextile is majorly used in the construction of roads.
Geotextile prevents the intermixing of two adjacent soils. For example, by separating fine
subgrade soil from the aggregates of the base course, the geotextile preserves the
drainage and the strength characteristics of the aggregate material.
Some of the applicable areas are:
  Between subgrade and stone base in unpaved and paved roads and airfields.
 Between subgrade in railroads.
 Between landfills and stone base courses.
 Between geomembranes and sand drainage layers.
2. Filtration
The equilibrium of geotextile-to-soil system that allows for adequate liquid flow with
limited soil loss across the plane of the geotextile. Porosity and permeability are the
major properties of geotextiles which involve infiltration action.
A common application illustrating the filtration function is the use of a geotextile in a
pavement edge drain, as shown in the figure above.
3. Reinforcement
Introduction of geotextile in the soil increases the tensile strength of the soil the same
amount steel does in concrete. The strength gain in soil due to the introduction of
geotextile is by the following 3 mechanisms :

 Lateral restraint through interfacial friction between geotextile and soil/aggregate.

 Forcing the potential bearing surface failure plane to develop an alternate higher
shear strength surface.
 Membrane type of support of the wheel loads.
4. Sealing
A layer of non-woven geotextile is impregnated in between existing and new asphalt
layers. The geotextile absorbs asphalt to become a waterproofing membrane
minimizing vertical flow of water into the pavement structure.
Uses of Geotextile in Construction
The scope of geotextile in the engineering field is very vast. The application of geotextile
is given under the heading of the nature of work.
1. Road Work
Geotextiles are widely used in the construction of the road. It reinforces the soil by
adding tensile strength to it. It is used as a rapid de-watering layer in the roadbed, the
geotextiles need to preserve its permeability without losing its separating functions.

Fig 6: Use of Geotextile in road construction.

2. Railway Works
The woven fabrics or the non-woven ones are used to separate the soil from the sub-soil
without impeding the groundwater circulation where the ground is unstable. Enveloping
individual layers with fabric prevents the material from wandering off sideways due to
shocks and vibrations from running trains.

Fig 7: Use of Geotextile in railways.

3. Agriculture
It is used for mud control. For the improvement of muddy paths and trails those used by
cattle or light traffic, nonwoven fabrics are used and are folded by overlapping to include
the pipe or a mass of grit.
4. Drainage
The use of geotextiles to filter the soil and a more or less single size granular material to
transport water is increasingly seen as a technically and commercially viable alternative
to the conventional systems. Geotextiles perform the filtering mechanism for drainages in
earth dams, in roads and highways, in reservoirs, behind retaining walls, deep drainage
trenches, and agriculture.

Fig 8: Use of Geotextile in drain construction.

5. River, Canals and Coastal Works
Geotextiles protect river banks from erosion due to currents or lapping. When used in
conjunction with natural or artificial enrockments, they act as a filter.

Fig 6: Use of Geotextile in canal construction

 GEO-GRIDS
Geogrids is geosynthetic materials used as reinforcement in construction works. Types of
geogrids, its functions and applications in construction works are discussed. Geogrids can
be categorized as geosynthetic materials that are used in the construction industry in the
form of a reinforcing material. It can be used in the soil reinforcement or used in the
reinforcement of retaining walls and even many applications of the material are on its
way to being flourished. The high demand and application of Geogrids in construction
are due to the fact that it is good in tension and has a higher ability to distribute load
across a large area.

Ply Vid
Origin of Geogrids and its Manufacture
The geosynthetic material, geogrids, are polymeric products which are formed by means
of intersecting grids. The polymeric materials like polyester, high-density polyethylene
and polypropylene are the main composition of geogrids. These grids are formed by
material ribs that are intersected by their manufacture in two directions: one in the
machine direction (md), which is conducted in the direction of the manufacturing
process. The other direction will be perpendicular to the machine direction ribs, which
are called as the cross-machine direction (CMD).

Fig. Geogrid's rib formation in machine and cross machine directions of

manufacturing process
These materials form matrix structured materials. The open space, as shown in the above
figure, due to the intersection of perpendicular ribs are called as the apertures. This
aperture varies from 2.5 to 15cm based on the longitudinal and transverse arrangement of
the ribs. Among different types of geotextiles, geogrids are considered stiffer. In the case
of geogrids, the strength at the junction is considered more important because the loads
are transmitted from adjacent ribs through these junctions. Many manufacturing choices
are available for ribs. Here we are going to discuss three most used method of
manufacturing of geogrids:
Method-1: By Extruding
This manufacturing method of geogrids involves extrusion of a flat sheet of plastic into
the desired configuration. The plastic material used may be high-density polypropylene
or high-density polyethylene. Already set punching pattern is placed over the sheet to
make holes for the formation of desired grids. The punching of a pattern of holes would
result in the formation of so-called apertures. Next step involves the development of
tensile strength, by stretching the material to both longitudinal and transverse direction. A
figure representing an extruded Geogrid is shown below.
 Fig. A Geogrid manufactured from the method of extrusion
Method-2: By Knitting or Weaving
In this method of Geogrid manufacture, single yarns of polyester or polypropylene
material undergo either knitting or weaving to form flexible junctions forming apertures.
These materials are recommended to have high tenacity, to give the Geogrid the final
desired property. The product is bought into the market by giving them an additional
coating of either bituminous material or a polyvinyl chloride or a latex. This choice varies
with the manufacturer of geogrids.

Fig. A Geogrid sample manufactured by knitting

Method-3: By Welding and Extrusion
This is recently developed a method by Secugrid manufactures. The method involves the
extrusion of flat polyester or polypropylene ribs by passing them through rollers as
shown in the figure below. These are done in automated machines that run at different
speeds, enabling stretching of ribs and increasing their tenacity.
 Fig. The stretching of ribs through extrusion process
As shown in the figure below, the ribs obtained are sent to the welding section through
either side. One in the machine direction and other in the perpendicular direction.

Forming a high-quality Geogrid.

Fig. The welding of the ribs forming apertures
Functions and Working of Geogrids
The geogrids serve the function of holding or capturing the aggregates together. This
method of interlocking the aggregates would help in an earthwork that is stabilized
mechanically. The apertures in geogrids help in interlocking the aggregates or the soil
that are placed over them. A representation of this concept is shown below.

Fig. A representation of Geogrid Confining the aggregates

The geogrids as mentioned above helps in redistribution of load over a wider area. This
function has made the pavement construction more stabilized and stronger. It has the
following functional mechanisms when applied for pavement construction:
Tension Membrane Effect
This mechanism is based on the concept of vertical stress distribution. This vertical stress
is from the deformed shape of the membrane as shown in the figure below. This
mechanism was initially considered as the primary mechanism. But later studies proved
the lateral restraining mechanism is the major criteria that must be taken into

consideration.
Improvement of Bearing Capacity

Fig. Mechanism for Improved Bearing Capacity

One of the main mechanism happening after Geogrid installation in pavement is the
reduction in lateral movement of the aggregate. This would result in the elimination of
stresses; that if exists would have moved to the subgrade. The Geogrid layer possesses
sufficient frictional resistance that opposes subgrade lateral movement. This mechanism
hence improves the bearing capacity of the layer. Reduction of outward stresses means
inward stresses are formed, which is the reason behind the increase in bearing capacity.
Lateral Restraining Capability

The stresses produced by means of the wheel

loadings coming over the pavement results in the lateral movement of the aggregates.
Which in turn affects the stability of the whole pavement arrangement. The Geogrid act a
restraint against this lateral movement.
Types of Geogrids
Based on the manufacturing process involved in geogrids it can be of

1. Extruded Geogrid
2. Woven Geogrid
3. Bonded Geogrid
Based on which direction the stretching is done during manufacture, geogrids are
classified as

1. Uniaxial geogrids
2. Biaxial Geogrids
Uniaxial Geogrids
These geogrids are formed by the stretching of ribs in the longitudinal direction. So, in
this case, the material possesses high tensile strength in the longitudinal direction than on
the transverse direction.
Biaxial Geogrids
Here during the punching of polymer sheets, the stretching is done in both directions.
Hence the function of tensile strength is equally given to both transverse and longitudinal
direction.

Fig. Uniaxial and Biaxial Geogrids manufactured by the method of extrusion

Applications of Geogrids in Construction
Applications of Geogrids in Construction of Retaining Walls
The usage of geogrids in retaining wall construction is in the area of soil backfills.
Holding the soil together will help in a stable retaining wall construction. The soil
structural integrity can be increased by reinforcing it by geogrids. This help in confining
backfill as well as help in distributing the loads. The geogrids solve the problems with

soft backfill or sloping ground.

Fig. A Typical Arrangement of Geogrids in Retaining Walls

The increase in the length of geogrids will help in increasing the mass of the structure.
This helps in building taller walls. The concept means the geogrids will make the whole
unit to behave as a single mass. The minimum height from which the geogrid laying has
to start depends upon the soil type, the extent of pressure the wall is subjected to from the
backfill and other factors.
Characteristics of Geogrid Retaining Wall System
The geogrid retaining wall system has certain unique characteristics that differ when
compared with the traditional retaining wall construction, like a concrete retaining wall
and gravity retaining walls
. Fig. A completed Geogrid Retaining Wall
The geogrid reinforced retaining wall construction gain the following
characteristics:

 The geogrid system is more flexible in nature. The retaining wall with the geogrid
system has the higher adapting ability with the deformation of the foundation,
when compared with traditional construction, which is very stiffer in nature.
 More flexibility implies they behave well as earthquake resistant
 This construction can be made more economical, compared to traditional method.
The landfill can be made steeper, which shows a cost reduction. More height in
wall and steepness are created with the help of reinforced soil system.
 The onboard Geogrid arrangement has afforestation protection. This brings
environmental benefits, which is an important parameter in sustainable
construction.
 The Geogrid retaining wall construction guaranty quality and reduced cost of
construction. This helps in rapid and convenient construction.
 With time the geogrid reinforcing retaining wall construction and its advantages
have earned appreciation, which had made its demand to increase in the
construction in highways, railways, dams, ports, planning city and projects
focusing on the environment.
Applications of Geogrids in Foundation Soil

Geogrids can be used to stabilize the soil below the foundation mainly in the shallow
foundation. To know that the modes of failure under the reinforced soil foundation has to
be understood. Four failures are observed to occur:

 Failure 1: Bearing Capacity Failure

 Failure 2: Pullout Failure of the Geogrid layer
 Failure 3: Breaking of the geosynthetic layer
 Failure 4: Creep Failure of the geosynthetic layer (Geogrid)
The figure below shows an arrangement of geogrid layer below a rectangular foundation.
Let us consider the dimension of foundation be B x L and that of geogrid layer be b x l
(in the width x length form as shown in the figure below). As shown in figure, 'h' is the
distance between each geogrid layer. The first geogrid layer is placed at a height 'u' below
the ground level. If there are 'N' layers of geogrid reinforcement, the total depth of the
geogrid can be given by the equation
d = u + (N - 1) h --> Equation-1
 Fig.1: Cross section and top plan of a rectangular foundation supported over a
Geogrid reinforced soil

The figure-2, below show a general relation between the load and the settlement caused
for a foundation under two cases:

1. Reinforced soil, and

2. Unreinforced soil.
The effect of reinforcement can be measured in terms of bearing capacity ratio (BCR).
The bearing capacity ratio is formed with the help of the ultimate bearing load capacity at
a given maximum settlement. Say BCR U be the bearing capacity ratio when measured in
terms of ultimate load. Then from the figure below
BCRU = qu(R)/qu –> Equation-2

If BCRS is the bearing capacity ratio at a given settlement . Let it be Se, then
BCRS = qR/q --> Equation-3
Fig.2: Load-settlement Curve for a foundation that is supported with reinforced and
unreinforced soil

Fig.3: The variation of ultimate bearing capacity with the u/B ratio
The figure 3, above shows the variation of bearing capacity with the variation of u/B
ratio. It is seen that BCRu is maximum at a value of u/B > (u/B)cr. At a value say
(u/B)max, the BCRu value is lower. The first range is said as zone-1, the range between
(u/B)cr and (u/B)max is called as zone-2, the range for u/B > (u/B)max is zone 3. Figure
4 and 5 shows the respective failure surface for zone 1,2 and zone 3 respectively.

Fig.4: Zone-1 and Zone-2 conditions

Fig.5: Failure surface in Zone 3

It can be generalized that under the zone 1, the increase in the bearing capacity ratio is
due to the most confining pressure of the geogrid layers. The zone 3 have a lower bearing
capacity, as it acts as semi-rigid in nature.
Applications of Geogrid in Pavement Construction
The Geogrid construction in pavement construction have following features:
  Improvement of subgrade: The subgrade, which is the most important load
bearing strata, is made solid and strong by the geogrids. The problem of soft
subgrade can be solved by this method.
 Reinforcement of pavement base: The thickness of base if increased would
increase the stiffness of base. But increasing thickness enormously is not
economical. The reinforcement to a given base layer would give adequate
stiffening that helps in reduction of thickness and time of construction. This also
helps in increasing the life of the pavement.
The procedure involved in geogrid construction for subgrade preparation are shown
in figure 6,7 and 8

.
Fig.6: Laying the Geogrids over leveled soil sub-base as reinforcement

Fig.7: Placing Aggregates over the Geogrid layer

 Fig.8: Final Compacted and rolled
Advantages of Geogrids in Construction

 Ease of Construction: he Geogrid can be installed in any weather conditions. This

makes it more demanding.
 Land Optimization: This method of Geogrid installation in soils makes an
unsuitable area suitable for preparing it to meet desired properties for construction.
Geogrid thus helps in proper land utilization.
 Geogrid promotes soil stabilization
 A higher strength soil mass is obtained
 Higher load bearing capacity
 It is a good remedy to retain soil from erosion
 No requirement of mortar. The material is implemented dry.
 No difficulty in material availability
 Geogrids are flexible in nature. They are known for their versatility.
 Geogrids have high durability reducing maintenance cost. They are highly
resistant against environmental influences.
 Materials are tested based on standard codes and regulations