An ACI Manual

SP-4 (14) American Concrete Institute

Always advancing
FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE
FORMWORK FOR
CONCRETE
Eighth Edition

DAVID W. JOHNSTON
Edward I. Weisiger Distinguished Professor Emeritus

North Carolina State University

Prepared with the assistance of

ACI COMMITTEE 347, FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE

Kenneth l. Berndt, Chair N. John Gardner Robert G. McCracken

Matthew J. Poisel, Secretary Brian J. Golanowski Eric S. Peterson
Timothy Hayes Steffen Pippig
Rodney D. Adams G. P. Jum Horst Douglas J. Schoonover
Mary Bordner-Tanck Jeffrey C. Jack Aviad Shapira
George Charitou David W. Johnston John M.Simpson
Eamonn F. Connolly Roger S. Johnston Rolf A. Spahr
James N. Cornell II Robert G. Kent Pericles C. Stivaros
Jack L. David Kevin R. Koogle Daniel B. Toon
Aubrey L. Dunham Jim Kretz Ralph H. Tulis
Jeffrey C. Erson H.S.lew

American Concrete Institute

Always advancing
Formwork for Concrete

8'hEdition
First Printing: August 2014
Second Printing: December 2014
Printed in Chelsea, Michigan

ISBN 978-0-87031-912-9
Copyright© 2014 by the American Concrete Institute.
All rights reserved.

This eighth edition has been revised to agree with NGuide to Formwork for Concrete (ACI
347R-14),"which is reprinted in full in the appendix. Other revisions have been made
for consistency with ACI documents undergoing revision since previous editions of this
manual were issued. Wood design stresses and procedures have been updated to agree
with the 2012 National Design Specification" issued by the American Wood Council."

The drawings and examples in this book are based on typical designs and should not be
used as working drawings or in place of making calculations for a particular project. They
are intended to be helpful in the preparation of complete formwork plans that should be
adapted to local conditions and comply with all applicable legal requirements. In no way
is this book able to, or intended to, supplant the qualified designer or engineer to whom
formwork should be entrusted.

limitations of space and time make it impossible to show all of the methods, materials,
and products available for formwork construction. Omission of any item therefore should
not be regarded as a judgment that it is inferior or unsuitable.

Managing Editor: Michael Tholen, Ph.D., P.E.

Art Program: Claire Hiltz
Production Manager: Barry Bergin
Production Editors: Carl Bischof, Kelli Slayden, Ashley Poirier, Kaitlyn Hinman
Page Design & Composition: Ryan Jay
Cover, Acknowledgements, and Foreword art courtesy Eric Peterson
Manufacturing: Marie Fuller

American Concrete Institute

38800 Country Club Drive
Farmington Hills, M148331
USA
www.concrete.org

American Concrete Institute

Always advancing
DEDICATION
The eighth edition of Formwork for Concrete is dedicated to the memory and achieve­
ments of M. K. Hurd, author of the first seven editions and constant advocate for safety,
economy, and quality of formwork. Mary Hurd (1926-2013), a civil engineering graduate
of Iowa State University, began her career as a staff engineer with the American Concrete
Institute in 1947. In the early 1960s, she was asked by ACI to work with the committee
on Formwork for Concrete to develop a major publication on formwork that had been
identified as an industry need. Over the years, as she moved at various times from ACI
staff engineer to private consultant or editor of concrete industry publications, she was
repeatedly engaged by ACI to update Formwork for Concrete. Well known and respected
as an engineering writer and editor on concrete construction, formwork, and concrete
aesthetics, she published over 230 articles on always�timely topics.
In the five decades since Formwork for Concrete made its first appearance, more than
130,000 copies have been printed and the book has become recognized as the•green
bible� of the formwork industry. Formwork for Concrete has been and continues to be a
cooperative effort supported by individuals, companies, public agencies, and industry
and professional associations in large measure due to the groundwork laid and respect for
Formwork for Concrete garnered through the pioneering efforts of Mary Hurd.

Mary K. Hurd in 1969

 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The American Concrete Institute would like to acknowledge the hard work and support
of several groups and individuals without whom the production of a document of this
caliber would not be possible.
Without the vision and effort put forth by Mary K. Hurd and the members of ACI
Committee 347 over the last SO years, much of the basis for this document would not exist.
Their work has established Formwork for Concrete as a well-known and respected reference
in the concrete formwork industry and as an excellent teaching resource in classrooms
across the United States.
David W. Johnston, Ph.D., P.E., took on the task of revising and bringing an iconic docu­
ment up-to-date by including the latest design standards, design methods, procedures,
products, and several new worked examples. In addition, he coordinated the selection
of nearly 500 modern color photographs to enable the eighth edition of Formwork for
Concrete to be the first edition in full color. Photos in this manual without photo credit
were provided by Dr. Johnston. The assistance of Matthew Poisel in revising the document
is also gratefully acknowledged.
The assistance of the many formwork and construction companies that permitted the
use of their photographs and illustrations allows Formwork for Concrete to show a breadth
of formwork application that would not be possible otherwise. Specific acknowledgments
for their contributions are found in the figure captions.
Members of ACI Committee 347, Formwork for Concrete, were engaged by the author
during the process of revising the document, as they have been during the development
of previous editions. Their comments and insight have brought a balanced viewpoint to
the document that is not found in other documents on the topic.
Members of the ACI Educational Activities Committee (EAC), with the assistance of
outside reviewers selected from ACI Committee 347, provided final review comments for
chapters of the document. Responses by the author to these comments were reviewed
and approved by the EAC members who commented on the chapter. These comments
provided a fresh perspective and helped ensure that people reading the document for the
first time would be able to quickly and easily understand the content. These reviewers also
made sure that the content of this work
was consistent with other ACI documents.
These suggestions have helped improve
the document for the final end user.

Michael Tholen, Ph.D., P.E.

Managing Editor

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FOREWORD
Following in the footsteps of Mary K. Hurd is a challenge. My respect for her knowledge
of formwork included recent decades of interaction with her on ACI Committee 347, but
also extended back to my days as a student specializing in construction engineering and
structural engineering. In 1965, I encountered the first edition of Formwork for Concrete
as a construction engineering undergraduate student at North Carolina State Univer­
sity. During my years in industry and later as a faculty member, my appreciation of her
pioneering and dedicated work on Formwork for Concrete and her contributions to ACI
Committee347 continued to grow.
The eighth edition, as all previous editions, follows the most recent guidelines estab­
lished by ACI Committee347 and documented in the committee report, now ACI347R-
14, which is reprinted in full in the appendix. This new edition of Formwork for Concrete
considers the updated lateral pressure provisions now provided by ACI347. Expanded
coverage is provided for wind loads, analysis of the shoring and reshoring process,
evaluation of concrete and structure strength to withstand shoring loads, and design of
shoring and bracing elements.This edition also reflects the latest changes in wood design
recommendations of the American Wood Council and introduces LRFD in addition to the
primary coverage based on ASD procedures. The recent recommendations of other ACI
committees have also been considered in the manual revisions and some related provi­
sions of ACI318 and OSHA have been extracted for convenient reference in the appendix.
The growing number of standards related to design of the construction process and
design of temporary structures, as well as a number of formwork industry products and
practices adopted since the last edition was published, have been considered during
development of the revisions. For instructional use, a series of problems and review ques­
tions have been provided following the appendix.
Drafts of revisions have been submitted for review and comment by members of ACI
Committee347, whose suggestions and advice have been most constructive. I am very
grateful to the many committee members who shared their expertise and cOunsel during
the preparation of the eighth edition. My special thanks to colleague Matthew Poisel, for
his development of the data for the span tables of Chapter 9. The author is also grateful
to the many individuals and organizations who have contributed nearly 500 new illustra­
tions, drawings, and photo images to this first edition to be printed in color and to the
many contractors who have provided access to their construction sites for photographs by
the author, particularly United Forming, Inc., and Clancy & Theys Construction Co.

David W. Johnston, Ph.D., P.E.

July2014
Chapters
1: INTRODUCTION

2: GENERAL OBJECTIVES IN FORMWORK BUILDING

3: OVERALL PLANNING

4: MATERIALS, ACCESSORIES, AND PROPRIETARY PRODUCTS

5: LOADS AND PRESSURES

6: SHORING AND FLOOR LOADS IN MULTI-STORY

STRUCTURES

7: DESIGN OF SLAB, WALL, BEAM, AND COLUMN FORMS

8: DESIGN OF FORM SHORES AND BRACING

9: DESIGN TABLES

10: FORMWORK DRAWINGS

11: BUILDING AND ERECTING THE FORMWORK

12: USING THE FORMS

13: FORMED CONCRETE SURFACE QUALITY

14: FORMWORK FOR ARCHITECTURAL CONCRETE

15: BRIDGE FORMWORK

16: MASS CONCRETE FORMWORK

17: TUNNEL AND SHAFT FORMWORK

18: SPECIAL TECHNIQUES IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION

APPENDIX A-REFERENCED STANDARDS AND REPORTS

APPENDIX &-NOTATION

APPENDIX C-GLOSSARY

APPENDIX D-CONVERSIONS

APPENDIX E-ACI347 R-14 GUIDE

APPENDIX F-ACI318 -11 CODE AND COMMENTARY

APPENDIX G-OSHA REGULATIONS

APPENDIX H-PROBLEMS

INDEX
CONTENTS
1: INTRODUCTION

2: GENERAL OBJECTIVES IN FORMWORK BUILDING

2.1 Standards, Specifications, and Guides Related to formwork 2-1
2.1. I Regulations for Safety 2-1
2.1.2 Project Specifications for Ouality 2-2
2.1.3 Guides and Specifications for Formwork Design and Construction 2-2
2.2 How Formwork AHects Concrete Quality 2-3

2.3 Planning for Safety 2-3

2.3.1 Supervision and Inspection 2-3
2.3.2 Platforms and Acceu for Workers 2-3
2.3.3 Control of Concreting Practices 2·4
2.3.4 Improving Soil Bearing and Bracing 2·4
2.3.5 Shoring and Reshoring 2-4
2.4 Causes of Failures 2-5
2.4.1 Improper Stripping and Shore Removal 2-5
2.4.2 Inadequate Bracing 2-6
2.4.3 Inadequate Concrete Strength Development 2-6
2.4.4 Vibration and Impact 2-6
2.4.5 Unstable Soil under Mudsills, Shoring Not Plumb 2-8
2.4.6 lnodeqvote Control of Concrete Placement 2·8
2..4.7 When FOfmwork Is Not ot Fault 2·8
2..4.8lock of AHention to Formwork Details 2·10
2.5 Relationship of Architect, Engineer, and Contractor 2·10
2.5. I Defining the Concrete Structure 2·10
2.5.2 Maintaining and Coordinating Tolerances 2-11
2.5.3 Preparing a Formwork Specification 2-11
2.5 . .4 Design, Inspection, and Approval of Formwork 2-12
2.5.5 Complex Structures 2·12
2.5.6 Stay-in-Place Forms 2-12
2.5.7 Composite Construction 2·12
2.5.8 Stripping and Decentering 2·12
2.5.9 Materials and Accessories Related to FOfmed Surface of Expo� Concrete 2-13
2.6 Achieving Economy of Formwork 2·13
2.6.1 Moosurement and Payment for Formwork 2-14
2.6.2 How the Engineer/Architect Con Reduce Form Costs 2-14

3: OVERALL PLANNING
3.1 Development of o Basic System 3·1
3.1.1 Compare Alternate Methods 3·2
3.1.2 Examine form Pion in Relation to Total Job 3·2
3.2 Key Areas of Cost Reduction 3·2

3.3 Planning for Maximum Reuse 3·3

3.3.1 Developing a Practical Reuse Plan 3·4
3.3.2 Comparing Reuse Schemes 3-4
 3.4 Economical form Construction 3-4
3.4.1 Job-Built Forms 3-4
3.4.2 Purchased or Rented Forms 3-6

3.5 Setting, Stripping, and Cycling Costs 3-6

3.6 Other Costs Affected by the formwork Plan 3-7
3.6.1 Crew Efficiency 3-7
3.6.2 Crones and Hoists 3·8

3.7 formwork Planning Process 3-8

3.8 BIM for Planning formwork Operations 3-13
3.8.1 How BIM is Used by a Formwork Contractor 3-13
3.8.2 Advantages of BIM 3-15

4: MATERIALS, ACCESSORIES, AND PROPRIETARY PRODUCTS

4.1 Lumber 4-1
4.1.1 Kinds of Lumber 4-2
4.1.2 Lumber Finish and Sizes 4-3
4.1.3 Stress Grading and Design Values 4-4
4.1.4 Adiustment Factors for Sown Lumber Design Values 4-6

4.2 Engineered Wood Products 4-8

4.2.1 Glued Laminated Timber 4-9
4.2.2 Structural Composite Lumber 4-10
4.2.31-Jaists 4·11
4.2.4 Wood Trusses 4-11

4.3 Plywood 4-11

4.3.1 Construction and Sizes Available 4·12
4.3.2 Types and Grades 4·12
4.3.3 Overlaid Plywood 4·14
4.3.4 Textured Surfaces 4·15
4.3.5 Strength Properties 4·15
4.3.6 Bending Plywood to Curved Surfaces 4·15

4.4 Other Framing and Facing Materials 4-16

4.4.1 Reconstituted Wood Materials 4·16
4.4.2 Steel 4-16
4.4.3 Aluminum 4-17
4.4.4 Glass Fiber-Reinforced Polymer 4·18
4.4.5 Other Polymeric Form Materials 4·18
4.4.6 Fabric and Porous Forms 4·19
4.4.7 Form Lining Materials 4·20
4.4.8 Insulation and Insulating Forms 4·22

4.5 Hardware and Fasteners 4-23

4.5.1 Nails 4·23
4.5.2 Wood Screws 4-26
4.5.3 Bolts, Log Screws, and Other Connectors 4·28
4.5.4 Ties 4·31
4.5.5 Anchors 4-35
4.5.6 Hangers 4·36
4.5.7 Friction Collars and Support Brackets 4·36
 4.5.8 Spocen. and Spreader!> 4-37
4.5.9 Steel Strapping 4-37
4.5.10 Column Clamps 4-38
4.6 Prefabricated Forms 4·38
4.6.1 Panel Forms and Forming Systems 4-38
4.6.2 Pons and Domes lor Concrete Joist Construction 4-39
4.6.3 Void and Duct Forms 4-40
4.6.4 Column Forms 4-41
4.6.5 Stay-In-Place Forms 4-42
4.6.6 Special Purpose and Custom-Mode Forms 4-43
4.7 Shoring 4·43
4.7.1 Single-Post Shores 4-44
4.7.2 Shoring Frames 4-44

5: LOADS AND PRESSURES

5.1 Notation for Loads and Pressures 5·1

5.2 Load Combinations 5·2

5.2.1 ASD Combinotiom 5·2
5.2.2 LRFD Combinations 5·2
5.3 Vertical Loads 5·3
5.3.1 Deod Loads 5·3
5.3.2 live Loads H
5. 4 Lateral Pressure of Fresh Concrete 5· 4
5.4.1 Factors Affecting Lateral Pressure 5·6
5.4.2 History of Lateral Pressure Values for Form Design 5·7
5.4.3 lateral pressure of concrete equations 5·8
5.4.4 Bottom-Up Pumping of Concrete 5·9
5.4.5 Column Forms 5-10
5.4.6 Wall Forms 5·10
5.4.7 Pressure on Sloping Surfaces 5·11
5.5 Horizontal Loads 5·13
5.5.1 Minimum Horizontal loads 5·13
5.5.2 Wind load!> 5-14
5.5.3 Shielding from Wind Pressure 5·17
5.5.4 Design Wind load 5·18
5.5.5 Wind Load on Wall and Column Forms 5·18
5.5.6 Wind Loads on Elevated Slob Formwork 5·19
5.5.7 Starting and Stopping Equipment Loads 5·20
5.5.8 Seismic load!> 5·20
5.6 Other Loads 5·20

6: SHORING AND FLOOR LOADS IN MULTI-STORY

STRUCTURES
6.1 Shoring of Multi-story Concrete Structures during Construction 6·1

6.2 Shoring and Reshoring Loads in Multi-story Structures 6·3

6.2.1 Analyzing the loads 6·3
6.2.2 Comparison of Example Analysis Results 6·5
 6.3 Bochhoring 6·16

6.4 Drophead Shores 6·16

6.5 LRFD Analysis 6-17

6.6 Shoring System Design 6-21

6.7 Determining Concrete Strength for Stripping and Loading for Cycle Times 6-22
6.7.1 Analysis and Design Process for Slab Strength 6-22
6.7.2 Alternative Load Oi!otribution!o 6-26
6.7.3 N!ore Concentrated Shore Load!. 6-26
6.7.4 Structures Designed for Composite Action 6-26
6.7.5 Post-Tensioned Structures 6-27
6.8 Effect of Early loading on Slob DeRection 6-27

6.9 Monitoring Early Strength Gain of Concrete in the Field 6-27

6.9.1 Field·Cured Cylinders 6-27
6.9.2 Alternate Tests 6-27

7: DESIGN OF SLAB, WALL, BEAM, AND COLUMN FORMS

7.1 Notation 7-2

7.2 Basic Simplifications 7-3

7.3 Beam Formulas 7-4

7 .A Design Criteria for Wood Beams 7-7

7..4.1 Stresses and Deformations 7-7
7..4.2 Bending 7-7
7..4.3 DeRection 7-9
7..4..4 Shear 7-10
7..4.5 Bearing 7-13
7.5 Form Design 7-13

7.6 Wall Form Design 7-15

7.7 Slab Form Design 7-22

7.8 Beam Form Design 7-27

7.9 Column Form Design 7-30

7.9.1 Types of Column Forms 7-31
7.9.2 General Design Procedure 7-31
7.10 Form Accessories 7-33
7.10.1 Ties 7-36
7.10.2 Bearing Plates or Washers 7-37
7.10.3 Hangers 7-37

8: DESIGN OF FORM SHORES AND BRACING

8.1 Shoring and Bracing Members 8-1

8.2 Solid Wood Compression Members 8-2

8.3 Tubular Steel Shores 8-5

8.3.1 Slenderness Ratio 8-5
8.3.2 Compression Strength 8-5
8.3.3 Steel Shoring Frames 8-6
1 8.4 Other Manufactured Shoring Devices 8·7

8.5 Support for Shoring 8·8

8.6 Bracing for Lateral Loads 8·8

8.6.1 Wall Form Bracing loads 8·8
8.6.2 Design of Braces 8·9
8.6.3 Bracing of Slob Forms Supported by Individual Shores 8·9
8.6.4 Design of Wood Bracing Connections 8·10
8.7 Comber and Adjustment for Settlement 8·10
8.7.1 Anticipoted DeAection or Settlement of Formwork 8·10
8.7.2 DeAedion of the Finished Structure 8·13
8.7.3 Total Allowance for Comber and Adjustments 8·13
8.8 Anchorage of braces 8·13
8.8.1 Deodmen 8-13
8.8.2 Concrete anchors 8-14
8.8.3 Ground anchors 8·14
8.8.4 Anchors 8·14

9: DESIGN TABLES
9.1 Equations for Calculating Safe Spon 9·1

9.2 Sheathing Design: Tables 9.3 to 9.5 9·4

9.3 Joists, Studs, and Beams: Tables 9.4 to 9.8 9·4

9.4 Double Members: Tables 9.9 to 9.11 9·5

9.5 Wood Shores: Tables 9.12 and 9.13 9·5

9.6 Form Design Using the Tables 9·7

10: FORMWORK DRAWINGS

10.1 Preparing Effective Drawings 10·1

10.2 Line Drawings 10·2

10.3 General Layout and Detail Drawings 10·3

10.4 Checklist of Details 10·13

10.5 Recheck for Agreement with Structural Drawings 10·16
10.6 Drawing Review 10·16

10.7 BIM 3-D Graphical Views of Formwork 10·16

11: BUILDING AND ERECTING THE FORMWORK

11.1 Form Fabrication 11·2
11.1.1 location of Shop at Project Site 11-2
11.1.2 Storage of Materials and Finished Pam 11·3
11.1.3 Equipment and layout 11-3
11.2 Formwork Erection Safety 11·4

11.3 Footings 11·5

11.3.1 Wall Footings 11-5
11.3.2 Column Footings 11-6
11.4 Slob-on-Ground ond Paving Work 11-7
11.4.1 Slab�-on-Ground 11-7
11.4.2Highway and Airport Paving 11-8
11.4.3 Curb and Gutter Forms 11-9

11.5 Wall Forms 11-9

11.5.1 .lob-Built Forms 11-9
11.5.2 Prefabricated Panel Systems 11-12
11.5.3 Gonged Panel Forms and Climbing Forms 11-12
11.5.4 Blind Side and Single-Side Wall Forming 11-14
11.5.5 Square Corners 11-14

11.5.6 Pilasters 11-14

11.5.7 Curved Walls and Round Corners 11-15
11.5.8 Wall Openings 11-17
11.5.9 Joints 11-17
11.5.10 Forms for E:��ternal Vibration 11-18
11.5.11 ACI Tolerances for Walls I 1-19

11.6Columnforms 11-19
11.6.1 Erection Practices 11-19
11.6.2 Square or Rectangular Columns 11-21
11.6.3 Round and Flared Columns 11-21
11.6.4 ColumnHeods 11-22
11.6.5 ACI Column Tolerances 11-24

11.7 Beam or Girder Forms 11-24

11.7.1 Beam Bottoms 11-24
11.7.2 Beam Sides 11-25
11.7.3 Panel Assembly and Erection 11-26
11.7.4 Suspended Forms for Fireproofing and Composite Construction 11-27
11.7.5 Beam and Girder Tolerances 11-28

11.8 Slab Forms 11-28

11.8. 1 Beam and Slob Construction 11-28
11.8.2 Flat Plates ond Flat Slobs 11-29
11.8.3 Concrete Joist Construction 11-30
11.8.4 Flying Form Systems 11-32
11.8.5 Adjustable Steel Beams 11-33
11.8.6 Slobs Supported on Steel Beams or Precast Concrete Beam� 11-34
11.8.7 Metal Decking 11-34
11.8.8 ACI Tolerances for Slob Work 11-34

11.9 Shoring 11-35

11.9.1 Shore Layout ond Installation 11-35
11.9.2 Mudsills or Shoring Foundations 11-37
11.9.3 Wood Shores 11-37
11.9.4 Adjustable Shores 11-37
11.9.5 Dropheod Shore Systems 11-38
11.9.6 Shoring Towers 11-38
11.9.7 Adjustment ond Jacking 11-39
11.9.8 Permanent Shores and Bock Shores 11-39
11.9.9 Compo�ile Construction 11-40
12: USING THE FORMS
12.1 Placing Reinforcement and Inserts 12-2
12.1.1 Support for Reinforcing Bars 12-3
12.1.2 Po$ilioning Bars; Placement Tolerances 12-.4
12.2 Preparation for Concreting 12-5
12.2.1 Form Release Agents 12-5
12.2.2 Sticking and Staining Problems 12-7
12.2.3 Use of Water on the Forms 12-8
12.3 Inspection and Form Watching 12-8
12.3.1 Before Concreting 12-9
I 2.3.2 During and After Concreting 12-11
12.4 Placing and Vibrating-Effect on Formwork 12-11
12.5 Removal of Forms and Shores 12-12
12.5.1 Stripping Time Based on Concrete Strength 12-12
12.5.2 form Removal Related to Curing Needs 12-1.4
12.5.3 Stripping Techniques 12-1.4
12.5.4 Multi-Story Buildings 12-16
12.6 Reshoring 12-16
12.7 Core and Storage of Forms and Accessories 12-18

12.8 Cold Weather Protection 12-19

12.8.1 Form Insulation and Heating 12-20
12.8.2 Avoiding Thermal Shock 12-23

13: FORMED CONCRETE SURFACE QUALITY

13.1 Overview ofACI301 Formed Surface Provisions 13-1
13.1.1 General Requirements 13-2
13.1.2 As-Ca�t Surface Fini�he� 13-3
13.1.3 Rubbed Surface Finishes 13-3
13.2 Overview ofACI 347.3R Formed Concrete Surface Provisions 13-3
13.2.1 Determination of Surface Void Ratio 13-4
13.2.2 Speci�cations 13-5
13.2.3 De�ign Considerations 13-6
13.2..4 Construction 13-8
13.2.5 Evaluation of formed concrete surface� and repair procedures 13-10

14: FORMWORK FOR ARCHITECTURAL CONCRETE

1.4.1 SpeciBcations: Dehning Quality 14-2

14.2Architectural Formwork Design 14-3

1.4.2.1 Loods and Pressures 14-3
1.4.2.2 Design Standards 14-4
14.2.3 Farmwork Details 14-5
14.3 Exposed Concrete Surfoces 14-5
1.4.3.1 Smooth As-Cost Surfaces 1.4-6
1.4.3.2 Textured As-Cost Surfaces 14-8
14.3.3 Pre<ost Panels as Forms or liners 14-10
 14.4 Construction of Forms for Architectural Concrete 14-12
14.4.1 Walls 14-12
14.4.2 Columns and Pilasters 14-15
14.4.3 Spandrels and Parapets 14-16
14.4.4 Soffits 14-17
14.4.5 Cantilevers 14-17
14.4.6 Ornamental Detail 14-18
14.4.7 Erection Practices 14-21
14.4.8 Construction and Contraction Joints 14·23
14.5 Stripping 14-24
14.6 Cleanup and Repair 14-25

I 5: BRIDGE FORMWORK
15.1 Foundations 15-2
15.1.1 Caissons 15-2
15.1.2 Piles 15-4
15.1.3 Rock or Soil Offering Direct Support 15-4
15.2 Piers 15-5
15.2.1 Forms Moved for Reuse 15-5
15.2.2 Round Piers 15-6
15.2.3 Stonework Facing 15-6
15.2.4 Massive Piers 15·6
15.2.5 Vertical Alignment 15-6
15.2.6 Access for Workers 15-7
15.2.7 External Ties 15-7
15.2.8 Pier Caps and Tie Struts 15-7
15.3 Superstructures 15-8
15.3.1 Monolithic-Simple Slab, Boom, and Girder 15-8
15.3.2 Cast-in-Place Deck Supported on Steel or Precast Girders 15-9
15.3.3 Expansion Joints 15-10
15.3.4 Overhang, Sidewalks, Parapets, and Median Barriers 15-10
15.3.5 Support for Superstruci\Jre Farms 15-10
15.3.6 Stripping Bridge Forms 15-11
15..4 Arch Bridges 15-12
15.5 Segmental Box-Girder Bridge Construction 15-12
15.5.1 Cast-in-Place Segmental Construction 15·13
15.5.2 Precast Segmental Construction 15-13
15.5.3 Principal Erection Methods 15·14
15.5.4 Making Precast Bridge Segments 15-17
15.5.5 Voids, Inserts, Attachments 15-19
15.5.6 Joint Surfaces 15-19
15.5.7 Vibration 15-19
15.5.8 Heat Curing Considerations 15-19
15.5.9 Tolerance Requirements 15-20

16: MASS CONCRETE FORMWORK

16.1 Types of Cantilever Forms in Common Use 16-2
 16.2 Design Considerations 16·3
16.2.lloods on theFormwork 16·4
16.2.2 Anchorage Accessories 16·5
16.2.3 Other DesignFeatures 16·6

16.3 Handling, Erecting, Stripping 16·7

16.4 Non-Cantilevered formwork 16·7

16.5 facings for Roller-Compacted Moss Concrete and Dam Repair 16·8

16.6 Foundations or Starting Lifts 16-9

16.7 Curing, Joint Cleanup, Insulation 16·10

16.8 Planning and Supervision 16-11

16.9Toleronces 16·11

17: TUNNEL AND SHAFT FORMWORK

17.1 Tunnel forming Components 17-1
17.1.1 CurbForms 17·2
17.1.21nvertForms 17·2
17.1.3 ArchForms 17·3
17.1.4Form Traveler Operations 17·5

17.2 Concrete Placement Methods 17-5

17.2.1 Continuous Advancing Slope 17·6
17.2.2 Bulkhead Method 17·6
17.2.3 Cut·and·Cover Construction 17·7

17.3 General Design Considerations 17-7

17.3.1 lnRuence of Placing Equipment 17-7
17.3.2 Loads and Pressures 17-8
17.3.3 Vibration and Form Access 17·9

17.4 Form Construction 17-9

17.5 Stripping Time 17-10

17.6 Tolerances 17-10

17.7 Shafts 17-11

18: SPECIAL TECHNIQUES IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION

18.1 Vertical Slipform Construction 18-1
18.1.1 Design ond Construction Considerations 18·3
18.1.2 Jacking System 18-6
18.1.3 Sliding Operations 18-6

18.2 Horizontal Slip forms 18-8

18.2.1 Design and Constn.Jction Considerations 18·9
18.2.2 Horizontal Applications 18·9

18.3T;It-Up 18-12
18.3.1 Curing and Bond-Breaking Compounds 18-13
18.3.2 Curved Tilt·Up Panels 18-13

18.4 lift Method of Construction 18-13

18.4.1Forming and Casting 18·14
18.4.2 Slab Separation 18·14
 18.5 Shells, Domes, and Folded Plates 18-14
18.5.1 Shell Form Design Considerations 18-15
18.5.2 Building the Forms 18-16
18.5.3 Placing Concrete 18-16
18.5.4 Form Removol 18-16
18.5.5 lnAoted Forming Methods 18-17

18.6 Traveling Forms 18-17

18.6.1 Applications 18-17
18.6.2 Design Considerations 18-18

18.7 Preplaced Aggregate Concrete 18-19

18.7.1laterol Pressure 18-19
18.7.2 Form Construction and Materials 18-20

18.8 Shotcrete 18-21

18.9 Tremie Concrete 18-21

18.10 Precast Concrete 18-23

18.10.1 Advantages of Precasting 18-23
18.10.2 Formwork Requirements 18-24
18.10.3 Stripping 18-26
18.10.4 Erection and Joints 18-26

18.11 Prestressed Precast Concrete 18-26

18.11.1 Forms for Post-Tensioning 18-27
18.11.2 Forms for Pretensioning 18-29

APPENDIX A-REFERENCED STANDARDS AND REPORTS

APPENDIX B-NOTATION

APPENDIX C-GLOSSARY

APPENDIX D-CONVERSIONS

APPENDIX E-ACI347R·l4 GUIDE

APPENDIX F-ACI318·ll CODE AND COMMENTARY

APPENDIX G-OSHA REGULATIONS

APPENDIX H-PROBLEMS

INDEX
1: INTRODUCTION
Formwork development has paralleled the growth of concrete construction from its
earliest uses through its many applications today. As concrete has been used for increas­
ingly complex and significant structural and architectural tasks, formwork engineers
and contractors have had to keep pace. Projects involving rapid construction schedules
create challenges for the form designer and for the control of field forming operations.
The increasing use of concrete as an architectural medium presents the form builder with
several challenges, ranging from the selection of appropriate sheathing materials to the
maintenance of rigid tolerances.
Sawn lumber, manufactured wood products, plywood, steel, aluminum, reinforced
polymers, and other materials are widely used as formwork components. In addition, new
and specialized accessories are frequently introduced by manufacturers. Form designers,
builders, and manufacturers must keep abreast of advancing technology in other material
fields to develop and implement the creative and innovative solutions required to main­
tain both quality and economy.
In the early days of the concrete industry, formwork was frequently built in place, used
once, wrecked (or stripped), and discarded. Because of high labor costs in the United
States and many other countries, the trend over the last several decades has been toward
increased prefabrication, assembly in large units, erection by mechanical means (such
as Nflying� forms into place by crane), and reuse of the forms. These developments are in
harmony with the increased mechanization often found in other fields and the desired
use of sustainable systems. Consequently, the forming system selection is often a primary
factor in locating cranes and in allocating site space for storage and fabrication.
Not all of the important ideas are new, however. As early as 1908, members of the
American Concrete Institute (then called the National Association of Cement Users) were
debating the relative merits of wood and steel formwork at their annual convention.
The discussion followed a presentation proclaiming the advantages of a modular metal
panel forming system.l.l It could be adapted for most any project, had its own connecting
hardware, and was good for extensive reuse. By 1910, steel forms for paving were being
produced commercially and used in the field. Continuing refinement of basic ideas such as these
represents another area of ongoing progress within the formwork industry. Today, formwork and
forming systems have become an integral part of the entire equipment array on site and of the
overall construction planning process. The comparison of metal versus wood and job�built versus
manufactured systems (Fig. 1.1 and 1.2) continues today with many varieties in use and the deci­
sion ultimately based on factors of quality, safety, and economy for the individual project.
There are differences in forming practice details from one country to another and
even from one region of the United States to another. Some of the differences are due to
prevalent local material use, regional or country limits on supplies for manufacturers, or
preference of a contractor for a particular system due to their own inventory and profi­
ciency of their workers with the system. However, a trend of consolidation among form
and accessory manufacturers is also resulting in several form manufacturers with broad
international supply capability. Variations in formwork application are often most visible
to the public in buildings (Fig. 1.3) and bridges (Fig. 1.4). Formwork is also extensively used
for residential construction, stadiums, airports, harbors, water treatment plants, tunnels,
dams, and other facilities. Although the information presented in this manual has been
drawn from many sources worldwide, it is intended for application primarily in the United
States. Suggestions for formwork economy have been based on conditions in countries
where labor costs are high compared to material costs. In countries where labor costs are
substantially lower in relation to the price of construction materials, many of the ideas
presented regarding formwork economy likely will not have the same validity.
Many individuals, firms, and companies are usually involved in the design of the facility
to be built and in the design and construction of the formwork. The facility team typi­
cally involves structural engineers and architects who determine the requirements for the
concrete structure. For simplicity, the facility design team will usually be referred to as the
engineer/architect, although they may be referred to separately in some situations. The
formwork team may include the general contractor, formwork specialty subcontractors,
formwork engineers, form manufacturers, and form suppliers. The participating compa­
nies and firms also have formwork designers and skilled workers executing many detailed
tasks. For simplicity, the formwork team will usually be referred to as the formworkengi­
neer!contracror, although they may be referred to separately in some situations.
Form building requires both job-site innovation and engineering understanding. There is
certainly no substitute for the skill and sense of�know-how" that come with job-site experi­
ence. In a similar manner, many engineering principles can be used to improve the safety,
quality, and economy of formwork.

Fig. 1.2: Job-built wall formworkconstructed of wood materials

CHAPTER 7
 The primary objective of this manual is to
provide the reader with a convenient and
concise resource containing much of the
available knowledge on concrete formwork.
In no way will it supplant the experienced
formwork designer or form builder. The infor·
mation presented will be useful in planning,
designing. construaing, and using concrete
formwork. For the experienced formwork engi·
neer/contractor. this manual provides consid·
erable help by bringing together a multitude
of properties, design data, and construction
suggestions in a convenient, single-source
reference volume. For the engineer/archi-
tect this manual offers the opportunity for
improved execution of concrete construction
details through a bener understanding of the
problems and possibilities in form building. For
the novice, this manual will serve as an intro­
duction to many common forming practices,
provide an explanation of basic principles of
form design, and encourage a rational rather
than rule-of-thumb approach.
With this audience in mind, three basic
objectives in form building are established
early in the text:
1. Quality-To design and build forms accu­
rately so the size, shape, and position
meet the specified tolerances and the
required formed concrete surface of the
cast concrete is attained;
2. Safety-To build substantially so that
formwork is capable of supporting all
dead and live loads without collapse or
danger to workers, the concrete struc­
ture, and the public; and
3. Economy-To build efficiently, saving
time and money for the contractor and Fig. I .3: Compressed schedules require design of the construction process to include engi­
owner alike. neering of the formwork system and control of the construction operation loads within the
Cooperation and coordination between early strength of the concrete structure (Photo courtesy Atlas Construction Supply)
the engineer/architect and the formwork
contractor are necessary to achieve these
objectives. Chapter 2 concentrates on
economical aspects of formwork design
and discusses the relationship of contractor
to engineer or architect. Overall planning
for profitable construction with formwork
in mind is covered in the next chapter,
directed particularly to the problems of the
contractor (Fig. 1.5).
The remaining chapters are divided
into three main categories: 1) detailed
planning and design of forms; 2) building
the forms: and 3) using the forms. Design
principles and methods are explained
considering materials. loads, analysis of
multi-story operations, and sizing of form­
work members and connections. A chapter
of design tables has been included that
allows designers to quickly select common Fig. 1.4: Specialized formwork systems for concrete bridge construction (Photo courtesy PERl
formwork members without the need for a Formwork Systems, Inc.)

INTRODUCTION
 computer. Since the previous edition of this
manual, many standards impacting form­
work design have been revised and new
ones have been adopted. The manual has
been thoroughly updated in this regard.
Materials and proprietary products for
forming are described, along with manu­
factured systems of steel, aluminum, engi­
neered wood, and reinforced polymers.
Job-built forms emphasize sawn lumber
wood members often mixed with manu·
factured accessories and components.
Form manufacturers sometimes use special
steel and aluminum shapes unique to their
systems and thus offer pre-engineered
components and systems. Job-built forms,
for either general use or as special segments
or fillers between manufactured compo­
nents, are designed by the formwork engi­
neer/contractor. Often, these elements are
Fig. 1.5: Planning for the sequence of form work erection and reuse must be integrated with designed in wood, but may be constructed
planning for other construction operations such as reinforcement placing and concrete from a variety of materials. While this manual
placing (Photo courtesyCECOConcrete Construction, LLC) covers loading and analysis appropriate to
all systems, the design of specific elements
focuses on wood materials.
Suggestions for form construction cover buildings, special requirements for formed concrete
surfaces, and architectural concrete. The section on using the forms covers care and maintenance,
inspection, and reshoring, as well as special considerations for construction in cold weather.
The subsequent sections on bridges, tunnels, and mass concrete deal with special
forming problems encountered in building these structures. Alternate techniques for
concrete placement-such as slip forming, preplaced aggregate, and shotcrete-are
discussed in terms of the unusual requirements they present for formwork. Because
many of the terms encountered in formwork practice are local or regional, or relate to the
vocabulary of special trades, a glossary has been included.
Throughout the manual, the term "formwork" has been employed in its broadest sense to
include the total system of support for the freshly placed concrete, including form sheathing
plus all supporting members, hardware, and bracing. Discussion of concrete construction
practices is limited to items that have a direct bearing on the formwork requirements.
The entire text follows recommendations of ACI Committee 347, Formwork for
Concrete. This eighth edition has been updated for consistency with the latest revision
of the committee's ACI347R-14, "Guide to Formwork for Concrete," ACI347.2R-OS, "Guide
for Shoring/Reshoring of Concrete Multistory Buildings," and ACI 347.3R·13, "Guide
to Formed Concrete Surfaces." ACI347R is included in the Appendix along with other
related documents. ACIdocuments are referenced frequently in this document, and
reference is made to design specifications and product standards on matters of wood
design. The text includes information gathered and contributed by ACI347 members
over B editions. To some extent, FormworkforConcrere has become the source for information
on practical aspects of formwork construction.

REFERENCES
1.1. Caldwell, W. L., "Metal Forms in Reinforced Concrete Construction," Proceedings of
the Fourth Annual Convention, National Association of Cement Producers, Buffalo, NY, Jan.
20-25, 1908, pp. 286-291, Discussion pp. 292-302.
2: GENERAL OBJECTIVES IN
FORMWORK BUILDING
Quality, safety, and economy are achieved by adherence to standards, specifications, and
guides related to formwork and by providing a system for careful planning, design, erec­
tion, supervision, and inspection of the forms {Fig 2.1 ). Failure of the formwork
during erection of the forms or placement of the concrete can result in major expense for
reconstruction and injury or death of construction workers and others on or near the site.

2.1 Standards, Specifications, and Guides Related to

Formwork
Standards and specifications impacting formwork design and construction have two
basic sources. The first includes federal, state, and local regulations having the purpose
of protecting workers and the public during the construction process. The second source
includes project specifications having the primary purpose of obtaining a completed
concrete structure that meets the tolerances and formed surface quality needed for the
structure without incurring damage to the structure during the construction process.
Establishing the minimum acceptable quality is the objective of the project specifications.

2. 1. 1 Regulations for Safety

The federal Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) requirements for
concrete, concrete forms, and shoring are provided in Subpart Q of OSHA 29 CFR 1926,
"Construction Safety and Health Regulations.• The 1988 revision of Subpart Q Concrete
and Masonry Construction, including amendments dated 1989, 1990, 1994, and 1996, is
reproduced in the Appendix of this manual. Other subparts, such as L, Scaffolds, and M,
Fall Protection, can have implications for design of certain work platform areas and guard
rails, such as those shown in Fig. 2.1 and 2.2. Because Subpart Q itself is performance­
oriented, documents cited in its appendixes are significant.
 The non-mandatory appendix to Section
1926.703 (a) (1) of Subpart Q states that
formwork designed, fabricated, erected,
braced, supported, and maintained in accor­
dance with Sections 6 and 7 of ANSIA 10.9-
1983, "Safety Requirements for Concrete
and Masonry Work"
, will be deemed to meet
OSHA's general requirements for formwork.
Section 1926.705, together with its non­
mandatory appendix, presents require­
ments for lift slab work, updated from
earlier versions of the document. ANSl/ASSE
A10.9-13 is now available as a newer edition.
ANSI/ASSE A10.9 in turn references ACI347R
for compliance of formwork.
The non-mandatory appendix to Subpart Q
also includes a list of references and states
that the"references provide information
which can be helpful in understanding
and complying with the requirements� of
Subpart Q.The list includes ACI318-83, ACI
347-78, and ACISP-4.The revision of OSHA
requirements is infrequent, so they often
reference outdated versions of standards.
ACI318, ACI347, and ACISP-4 are now
available in much newer editions than
Fig 2. 1: Formwork must be designed and built to provide the concrete formed quality specified,
existed at the last update of Subpart Q.
safety during construction, and economy for the benefit of the owner and contractor (Photo
Many state, local, and model building
courtesy CECO Concrete Construction, LLC)
codes have adopted ACI318, "Building
Code Requirements for Structural Concrete," to cover concrete construction. Chapter 6 of
ACI318-11 includes general performance requirements for formwork design and general
criteria for formwork removaL For convenient reference, Chapter 6 of ACI318-11 is repro­
duced in the Appendix.
This eighth edition of SP-4 emphasizes implementation of ACI347R-14, "Guide to Form­
work for Concrete," which is reproduced in full in the Appendix. Although these references
offer good information on achieving OSHA safety requirements, local requirements must
be given due consideration on each project because many states have their own OSHA­
approved occupational safety and health regulations.

2. 1.2 Project Specifications lor Quality

Project specifications for quality are prepared by the engineer/architect. Many project
specifications cite ACI301-10, "Specifications for Structural Concrete"
, which includes some
provisions for the performance of formwork. Section 2, Formwork and Formwork Acces­
sories, includes requirements for submittals, materials, performance and design, fabrica­
tion and manufacture, construction and erection, and removal of the forms. Section 2 is
reproduced in the Appendix for reference. It is important to understand that the engineer/
architect has options for invoking or modifying the provisions in preparing the project
specifications. Provisions for formwork used for architectural concrete are also covered
in ACI301.The method of specifying and evaluating formed concrete surface quality
is important to the success of the project. ACI 347.3R-13, "Guide to Formed Concrete
Surfaces"
, provides recommendations for implementing specification provisions to define
the quality of surface required and methods for evaluation (refer to Chapter 13).
ACI117-10, "Specifications forTolerances for Concrete Construction and Materials,"
is also frequently adopted in project specifications.The requirements include toler­
ances for the size, shape, and position of formed concrete surfaces.The position, shape,
dimensional tolerances, and rigidity of the formwork are critical in delivering a concrete
structure within required tolerances.

2.1.3 Guides and Specifications lor Formwork Design and Construction

ACICommittee 347 has led the development of guides for formwork design and construc­
tion in the United States. ACI347R includes recommendations on a broad range of topics.

CHAPTER 2
ACI347.2R-05, "Shoring/Reshoring of Concrete Multistory Buildings," covers procedures
and analysis methods for the shoring and reshoring of multi-story concrete buildings
under construction. This publication, ACI SP-4, is a manual to guide both the engineer/
architect and the formwork engineer/contractor in the design and construction of form­
work consistent with these documents.
Determination of appropriate loads for design of formwork has been evolving. Form­
work loads are very different from the loads required for permanent structures. ACI 347R
is generally recognized as the source of recommendations for loads on formwork.lt links
its recommendations for wind and seismic loads to the provisions of ASCEJSEI37-14,
"Design Loads on Structures During Construction," which similarly adopts the lateral pres­
sure recommendations of ACI 347R. Knowledge of all these regulations, specifications,
guides, and standards is critical for attaining quality, safety, and economy in the concrete
construction process.

2.2 How Formwork AHects Concrete Quolity

Size, shape, and alignment of concrete structural elements (such as slabs, beams, walls,
and columns) depend on accurate construction of the forms. The forms must be built
to correct dimensions, sufficiently rigid under the construction loads to maintain the
designed shape of the concrete, stable and strong enough to maintain large members
in alignment, and substantially constructed so they can withstand handling and reuse
without losing their dimensional integrity. The formwork must remain in place until the
concrete is strong enough to carry its own weight.
The quality of the concrete surface is affected by the material of the form. For example,
if a patterned or textured surface is to be secured by use of a textured liner, the liner must
be properly supported so that it will not deflect and cause either bulges or indentations
in the concrete surface. A correct combination of form material and release agent or other
parting compound can contribute materially to minimizing surface air voids or other
surface imperfections in the cast concrete.

2.3 Planning for Safety

Safety begins in the planning and management of a project, and all bids should include
allowance for the cost of supervision, equipment, and procedures that will assure safety
for workers and the public. Good safety planning is good profit planning because it gets
work done in a controlled and supervised, rather than haphazard, manner. To make sure
forms are correctly designed and strong enough for the expected load, rational analysis
rather than rule of thumb is necessary. In the United States, formwork designers, project
planners, and managers are subject to certain local code requirements for formwork
as well as to OSHA regulations and must take these requirements into consideration as
project planning proceeds.

2.3. I Supervision and Inspection

The most effective means of achieving safety in the use of forms is to have competent
supervision during erection, concreting, and stripping. Supervisors must see that form­
work is constructed exactly as designed, following a safe erection procedure so that no
members are temporarily overloaded. A form designer should be consulted whenever a
field change seems necessary in the falsework, forms, or erection procedure.
If forms have been designed with no anticipation of unusual construction loads or
eccentric loads due to placing sequence, the project superintendent must make sure no
such loads are ever imposed on the formwork. The superintendent must be instructed
as to the maximum rate of rise of concrete for which vertical forms have been designed
and must make sure this rate is not exceeded. Formwork drawings prepared for field use
should give the superintendent full information on these factors.

2.3.2 Platforms and Access for Workers

Sound engineering in the planning stage by engineers working with experienced field
personnel can develop safety measures for the protection of everyone on the project.
Work performed in an elevated position requires a method of access and a work area or
work platform. Long ladders to the tops of piers or falsework should have rest or passing Fig. 2.2: Fall arrest systems are used for worker
platforms that will also serve to stop a serious fall. In some types of structures, particu­ fall protection when working at a leading
larly bridges, it is necessary to provide special scaffolds or equipment for the stripping edge to extend formwork or install guard rails
deck and pier forms. Safety signs and barricades should be erected to keep unauthorized

GENERAL OBJECTIVES IN FORMWORK BUILDING

 personnel clear of areas in which erec­
tion or stripping is underway. Ladders,
access ways, work platforms, scaffolds.
and fall protection systems should meet
the requirements of federal or the appro­
priate state OSHA requirements. Special
requirements for scaffolds are given in
ANSI/ASSE A 10.8-1 1, "Scaffolding Safety
Requirements.N

2.3. 3 Control of Concreting Practices

The rate and sequence of concrete placing
should follow all limitations shown on
the formwork drawings. Concrete should
not be placed until formwork for a given
section is completed. In addition, an
attempt should be made to place concrete
so that unbalanced form loadings are
avoided. For example, in beam and slab
construction, fill the beams first and then
work outward equally on both sides when
placing the slab.
Fig. 2.3: Timber mudsill designed to support heavy shoring tower load in concrete bridge
Improved stability can be obtained
construction
in a column-and-slab structure by
concreting the columns at least a day
ahead of the deck. Hardened concrete in the columns adds lateral stiffness to the
formwork structure during concreting of the slab. Some project specifications require
advance casting of columns so that some vertical shrinkage can occur before the floor
is placed. On most projects, it is typical to form, cast, and strip the columns before
erecting floor system formwork.
Form watchers must always be on the job during concrete placement to spot
danger to personnel or to the structure from forms failing or distorting during place­
ment. Extra shores or other material and equipment that might be needed in an emer­
gency must be available.

2.3.4 Improving Soil Bearing and Bracing

Soil of questionable bearing quality can be compacted, stabilized by tamping in a lean
portland cement mortar, or covered with a layer of crushed stone. Mudsills, such as
the one shown in Fig. 2.3, should be sized to coincide with the soil's allowable bearing
capacity. If shores rest on substantial mudsills and are diagonally braced in two directions,
there is less chance of a full collapse from shifting or sagging caused by an earth slippage
or washout. The objective should be to construct the form such that focalized failures or
accidents will not trigger a complete and disastrous collapse. At the time of formwork
design, soil conditions may be unknown. The form designer will often specify the loads
and an assumed soil-bearing capacity, and the contractor will need to verify that the
capacity at the job site is not less than the bearing capacity assumed in the design.

2.3.5 Shoring and Reshoring

Workers should be instructed to install shores plumb and wedged securely so that each
shore carries its share of the load. A bent jack or defective timber may be able to support
only a fraction of the design load and should not be used. When concrete is placed in one
section of a form, it may cause upward movement in another section. Shores may then
come loose or shift out of plumb unless they have been securely fastened. Alert, contin­
uous form watching during concreting should be routine practice so problems such as
these can be corrected as soon as they arise.
The contractor should keep forms and shores in place long enough to develop
sufficient concrete strength. Guidance is provided by OSHA requirements, local
codes, project specifications, and engineer/architect approvals where specified. In
some cases, when forms are stripped for reuse, reshores are installed to support the
concrete until it attains additional strength and to distribute construction loads to
multiple supporting floors. Such reshoring must be done carefully, and foremen

CHAPTER 2
should understand that reshores must not be wedged in so tightly
as to cause a stress reversal that might crack the concrete. (Refer to
Chapter 6 for reshoring recommendations.)

2.4 Causes af Failures

Among the accidents and failures that occur during concrete
construction, some are formwork failures that usually happen at the
time concrete is being placed. A system of formwork filled with wet
concrete has its weight at the top and is an unstable structure if not
property braced. Some form failures occur when an unexpected event
causes one member to give way, then others become overloaded or
misaligned and the whole formwork structure collapses. Good practice
in designing, constructing, and handling formwork can provide safety
as well as efficiency and economy.
Formwork failures may occur due to omissions in the assembly
details, resulting in localized weakness or overstress. Figure 2.4 illus­
trates the blowout of concrete from a failed form. Even if there are no
injuries, cleanup of blowouts and reconstruction will be expensive and Fig. 2.4: This form ruptured after workers failed to correctly
cause delays. install a required tie at the bottom of the form (Photo courtesy
Human error on the job-whether due to indifference, haste, or tack EFCOCorp.)
of knowledge-also causes failures. One careless or irresponsible action
may wipe out all the safety introduced in the design process. The form
designer should plan systems that can be erected using the skills of the crews that are
expected to be involved in the formwork assembly. At the same time, safe and correct work
procedures should be enforced by job-site supervision and training.

2.4. 1 Improper Stripping and Shore Removal

Premature stripping of forms or removal of shores and careless practices in reshoring have
caused numerous failures or deficiencies in the completed concrete structure. Figure 2.5
shows a tragic example of too-early shore removal that occurred at Bailey's Crossroads
in Virginia in 1972.2•1 This flat·plate apartment building had 26 stories plus a penthouse
and four·story basement. It measured 60 x 386 ft in plan. Columns were normalweight
concrete, and stabs were lightweight concrete, 8 in. thick. The structure design live load
was about 50 lb/ft1• Column layout was essentially the same for all 26 stories, with spac­
ings ranging from about 20 to 24 ft. The structure design was the same as two other
26·story apartment structures in the same complex that had been safely completed and
occupied by tenants.
The pattern of construction was that each floor level was
cast in four sections (one each day) that permitted about
one floor a week, allowing an extra day for weather varia­
tions. This construction pattern was fairly regular for the
first 21 floors. Forms were supported by a floor 7 days old
or older that, in turn, was propped to a floor 14 days old or
older. In late February, the work was sped up.
Casting and finishing operations were in progress on
the 24th floor when the collapse occurred. In the section
where failure started, the 24th floor was shored to the
23rd, which was only about 5 days old. Workers began
knocking out the shores supporting that S·day-otd floor
(the 23rd), even though the structural designer's drawing
called for two full floors of shoring and one of reshoring
under the stab being cast. The overloaded 23rd floor failed
in shear around one or more columns, triggering a collapse
that carried through the entire height of the building.
Fourteen workers were killed and others so badly maimed
they would never work again.
Improper stripping and reshoring may also cause sagging
of partially cured concrete and development of fine hair­ Fig. 2.5: Premature removal of shores supporting a S·day·old slab led to the
line cracks that. in later years, create a serious maintenance collapse af that slab, and triggered a failure progressing through the entire
problem. Inadequate size and spacing of reshores may building height; 14 workers died (Photo courtesy National Institute ofSton·
lead to a formwork collapse during construction as well as dards and Technology}

GENERAL OBJECTIVES IN FORMWORK BUILDING

damage of the concrete structure. Proper practices to forestall damage of this type are
discussed in Chapter 12 under stripping and reshoring.

2.4.2/nadequate Bracing
The forces that cause forms to fail are usually not simple cases of vertical overloading. The
more frequent causes of formwork failure are other effects that introduce lateral forces or
induce displacement of supporting members. Inadequate cross bracing and horizontal
bracing of shores is one of the factors involved in formwork accidents.
The main exhibition floor of the New York Coliseum collapsed when concrete was
being placed during construction in 1955. Forms for the floor slab were supported on
two tiers of shores.1.1 Bottom shores were wood 4x4s, capped with horizontal 4x4s and
cross-braced horizontally. Adjustable metal shores were placed directly over the 4x4 posts
to form the second tier. There was little diagonal cross-bracing or horizontal bracing on
the adjustable shores. At the time of the collapse, there were eight or nine motorized
buggies transporting concrete to the area, and about 700ydl of concrete had been placed
by 2:00p.m. Apparently, a horizontal thrust developed through the combined effect of
the movement and sudden stopping of the buggies, dumping of concrete, operation of
concrete agitating machines, and other activities on the floor. If there had been sufficient
diagonal, horizontal, and end bracing of the temporary supporting structure, the collapse
could have been prevented or its area held to a minimum. After the accident, new two-tier
shoring in the coliseum was braced horizontally and diagonally on both tiers.
When a failure occurs at one point, inadequate bracing may permit the collapse to extend
to a large portion of the structure and multiply the damage. For example, suppose a worker
accidentally rams a wheelbarrow into some vertical shores and dislodges a couple of them.
This may set up a chain reaction that brings down the entire floor. One major objective of
bracing is to prevent such a minor accident or failure from becoming a disaster.
Shores can buckle under vertical load if they require bracing to support the imposed load
and that bracing is not adequate. When lacing is used between shores, the lacing must be
restrained from horizontal movement by either connecting it to a rigid element or to diagonal
bracing. Many single-post shores and legs of forming systems can be extended; however, this
reduces the buckling resistance and can cause failures, such as the one shown in Fig. 2. 6.

2.4.3 Inadequate Concrete Strength Development

Wall forms are sometimes supported by anchors in the previously cast walls below. In 1978, a
concrete natural draft hyperbolic cooling tower was under construction at a power station at
Willow Island, WV. A jump form system, typically raised each day, was supported by anchors
cast in the previous day's concrete placement. The forms were linked together around the
inside and outside of the circular shell structure. A scaffold supporting the workers was
integral with the form system. After raising the forms and during the casting of an additional
ring level after construction had reached a height of 166ft, the concrete placed the previous
day failed at the anchors, causing the scaffolding and forms to collapse. As the lift of
concrete was being placed, the cable hoisting a bucket of concrete went slack. The hoist that
was pulling it up fell toward the inside of the tower as the previous day's concrete started
to collapse. As the concrete failed, the form began to unwrap from the top of the tower, first
peeling counterclockwise, then in both directions. A jumble of concrete, forms, and scaf­
folding fell into the hollow center of the tower (Fig. 2.7). All 51construction workers on the
scaffold at the time fell to their deaths. The investigation1J indicated the concrete strength
gain was less than needed to hold the anchors for the hoist and form systems. It had been
unusually cold, reducing the strength gain, and the in-place strength of the concrete had
not been evaluated. As a result of this and other failures, methods to evaluate the maturity of
concrete have been developed along with improved methods for determination of in-place
early strength (refer to Chapter 6).

2. 4. 4 Vibration and Impact

Forms sometimes collapse when their supporting shores or jacks are displaced by vibra­
tion. Sources for the vibrations may include passing traffic, movement of workers and
equipment on the formwork, or vibrating concrete to consolidate it. In one case, forms for
a roof deck were supported on extensible jacks without diagonal bracing. While concrete
was being placed, some of the shoring jacks were vibrated out of plumb by concrete
buggies running on duck boards, and the form collapsed. In another case, a second-
floor form supported by two tiers of pipe shores 30ft high and braced horizontally at

CHAPTER 2
Fig. 2.6: High shoring with a heavy load at the top is vulnerable to buckling, eccentric loading, or latera/loading (Photo courtesy Lawrence C.
Bank)

Fig. 2.7: Failure of concrete with inadequate maturity supporting a hoisting and form system resulted in 51 deaths during construction of a
cooling tower (Photo courtesy National Institute of Standards and Technology)

GENERAL OBJECTIVES IN FORMWORK BUILDING

midheight failed while concrete was being vibrated. Although vibration combined with
poor attachment was the initial cause in these cases, it is evident that lack of diagonal
bracing was the factor that permitted complete failure.

2.4.5 Unstable Soil under Mudsilfs, Shoring Not Plumb

Formwork should be safe if it is adequately braced and constructed so all loads are carried to
solid ground through vertical members, but the shores must be set plumb and the ground
must be able to carry the load without settling. Shores and mudsills must not rest on frozen
ground. Moisture and heat from the concreting operations or changing air temperatures
may thaw the soil and allow settlement that overloads or shifts the formwork. Site drainage
must be adequate to prevent a washout of soil supporting the mudsills.

2.4.6 Inadequate Control of Concrete Placement

The concrete temperature, concrete chemistry, rate of vertical placement of concrete, and
vibration of concrete are factors influencing the development of lateral pressures that act
on the forms. The effects of these factors are discussed in detail in Chapter S.lf concrete
temperature drops during construction operations, the rate of concrete placement often has
to be slowed down to prevent a buildup of lateral pressure overloading the forms. Failure
to properly regulate the rate and order of placing concrete on horizontal surfaces or curved
roofs may produce unbalanced loadings and consequent failures of formwork.
On a project in Israel, the 5500 fe pan joist floor slab shown in Fig. 2.8 collapsed during
concrete placement with four workers seriously injured. Initially, the supporting forms
were suspected as the cause. However, investigation of the formwork strength and
assembly indicated the supporting form system should have been adequate. Further
investigation, confirmed by the concrete delivery tickets, indicated the metal pans had
become loose and partially floated, allowing concrete to enter the void space. At the time
of failure, 30% more concrete had been delivered than required and the local concrete
concentrations severely overloaded the forms.

2.4.7 When Formwork Is Not at Fault

When forms and slabs collapse during concreting, it is natural to assume the formwork was
at fault. As illustrated by the example cited in the previous paragraph, this is not always true.
The collapse of a four-story structure was also thought at first to be caused by form-support
failure, but later investigation showed that some of the exterior wall columns were not on
the solid rock assumed in the design plans. A column settled, became inoperative, and the
slabs collapsed. In other reported cases, slabs collapsed due to weakness caused by duct
openings at high-stress points, or failure to provide proper shear reinforcement. When lower
floors collapse, they carry upper floor forms with them, and the situation sometimes looks
like a formwork failure until an analytical investigation is made.
Well-designed and strongly constructed formwork can withstand some unusual
loads. When a crane boom collapsed during the casting of an upper floor of a concrete
apartment building in New York City {1959), the boom fell across the working deck and
wrapped itself over both sides of the building. Despite the impact of the falling boom, the
forms and supporting shores were undamaged, and concreting operations were resumed
2 days later after some minor repairs.
Sometimes, failures have multiple sources of fault. An example was the tragic failure
of the five-story Harbour Cay condominium shown in Fig. 2.9 in Cocoa Beach, FL, which
collapsed while under construction in 1981, killing 11 workers and injuring 23 more}·� The
flat-plate floor slab failed in punching shear under construction loads as the roof concrete
placement was being completed. The investigation concluded that the floor slab had
not been adequately designed for punching shear for building code-required in-service
loads and a construction error resulted in placement of the slab reinforcement such that
the punching shear strength was even further reduced. The investigation also could not
find indication that a formwork shoring/reshoring analysis and strength evaluation had
been done for the construction stages. Although the latter was not a primary cause of
the failure, an engineering analysis for the shoring/reshoring process might have helped
identify the deficiencies of the original structure design. For most failures to occur, there
must be a major overload; multiple deficiencies; or a major deficiency in design, materials,
or construction execution because normal factors of safety help preclude failures due to
minor deficiencies and minor overload.

CHAPTER2
Fig. 2.8: Four workers were seriously injured when forms for a pan joist floor system collapsed due to concrete overload (Photo courtesy
Aviad Shapiro)

Fig. 2.9: The five-story Harbor Cay condominium collapsed while under construction, killing 11 workers and injuring 23 (Photo courtesy National
Institute of Standards and Technology)

GENERAL OBJECTIVES IN FORM WORK BUILDING

2. 4. 8 Lack of Affention to Formwork Details
Even when the basic formwork design is soundly conceived, deficiencies in assembly
details may cause local weakness or overstress, leading to form failure. This may be as
simple as insufficient nailing or failure to tighten the locking devices on metal shoring.
Other details that have caused failures are inadequate provisions to prevent rotation of
beam forms where slab forms frame into them on one side; inadequate anchorage against
uplift for sloping form faces; or lack of bracing or tying of corners, bulk-heads, and other
places where unequal pressure is found.

2.5 Relationship of Architect, Engineer, and Contractor

Generally, design of the concrete structure and spedfications for its size, strength, and
appearance are the responsibility of the engineer/architect, whereas planning, design, and
construction of the formwork are the responsibility of the formwork engineer/contractor. It is
desirable to leave the formwork engineer/contractor some freedom to use ingenuity in plan­
ning the formwork and concrete placing procedures. Practically speaking, however, the engi­
neer/architect usually considers it necessary to include some minimum specifications for
forming practices to assure the structure will be completed to their satisfaction. The contract
documents and specifications should dearly indicate relationships between the contractor
and the engineer/architect so that each knows their area of authority and responsibility.

2.5. 1 Defining the Concrete Structure

Plans and specifications must first give the contractor a complete description of the
structure so that an efficient plan for formwork can be developed. In addition to structural
dimensions, the following information will be needed:
Number, location, and details of all construction joints, contraction joints, and expan­
sion joints that will be required for the particular job or parts of it;
b. Sequence of concrete placement, if critical (examples include pour strips and
hanging floors);
c. Tolerances for concrete construction;
d. The live load and superimposed dead load for which the structure is designed and
any live load reduction used;
e. Intermediate supports under stay-in-place forms, such as metal deck used for forms
and permanent forms of other materials supports, bracing, or both, required by the
structural engineer's design for composite action, and any other special supports:
The location and order of erection and removal of shores for composite construction;
g. Minimum concrete strength required before removal of shoring and any project­
specific reshoring requirements;
h. Special provisions essential for formwork for special construction methods and for
special structures such as shells and folded plates. The basic geometry of such struc­
tures, as well as their required camber, should be given in sufficient detail to permit
the formwork contractor to build the forms;
Special requirements for post-tensioned concrete members. The effect of load
transfer and associated movements during tensioning of post-tensioned members
can be critical, and the contractor should be advised of any special provisions that
should be made in the formwork for this condition;
Amount of required camber for slabs or other structural members to compensate for
deflection of the structure. Measurements of camber attained should be made at the
soffit level after initial set and before removal of formwork supports;
k. Where chamfers are required or prohibited throughout the project at all element corners,
such as door openings, window openings, beams, columns, wall ends, and slab edges;
Requirements for inserts, waterstops, and built-in frames for openings and holes
through concrete; similar requirements where the work of other trades will be
attached to, supported by, or passed through formwork;
m. Size and location of formed openings through a structural slab or wall should be
shown on the structural drawings;
Where architectural features, embedded items, or the work of other trades could change
the location of structural members, such as joists in one- or two-way joist systems. Such
changes or conditions should be coordinated by the engineer/architect; and
locations of and details for architectural concrete. When architectural details are to
be cast into structural concrete, they should be so indicated or referenced on the
structural plans because they can play a key role in the structural design of the form.

CHAPTER 2
 If camber is desired for slab soffits or structural members to compensate for elastic
deflection or deflection due to creep of the concrete, the contract drawings must so indi­
cate and state the amounts. Measurement of soffit camber attained should be made afrer
initial set and before stripping supporting formwork.
If architectural features, embedded items, or the work of other trades change the
location of structural members such as joists in one-way or two-way joist systems, such
changes or conditions should be indicated on the structural drawings.
In addition, criteria for and some details of the forming practices will be specified,
depending in part on the type of structure being erected. General minimum requirements
should be stated to assure the owner and their architect or engineer that the formwork
will provide adequate support during concreting and until the concrete has gained suffi­
cient strength to permit form removal. The following items should be clearly covered in
the engineer/architect specifications and drawings:
a. By whom the formwork will be designed;
b. By whom, when, and for what features formwork will be inspected;
What approvals will be required for:
• Formwork drawings;

• Forms before and during concreting; and

Form removal and reshoring; and
•

d. Who will give such approvals.

Details of forming and construction practices that may have to be specified by the engi­
neer/architect are the following:
• location and order of erection and removal of shoring for composite construc­

tion, complex structures, and permanent forms;

• Stripping time (in terms of strength of field-cured concrete or elapsed time) and
reshoring requirements;
• Decentering sequence for shells and other complex structures;
• Formwork materials and accessories where these are critical to appearance or
quality of completed structure; and
• Sequence of concrete placement for structures where this is critical.

2.5.2 Maintaining and Coordinating Tolerances

As mentioned earlier, the engineer/architect should specify tolerances for the structure
so the contractor will know what is required and can design and maintain the forms
accordingly. Most of the tolerances for structural members suggested in this manual are in
accordance with ACI 117. The tolerances are similar to those specified on important work
or major structures by many public agencies and private firms. The engineer/architect who
specifies tolerances should remember that specifying any tolerances more exacting than
needed may increase construction costs or delay the work without good reason.
Contractors should establish and maintain control points and benchmarks in an undisturbed
condition until final completion and acceptance of a project. The control points and bench­
marks should be adequate for their own use and for reference to establish tolerances. This
requirement may be important for the contractor's protection when tolerances are not speci­
fied or shown. The engineer/architect should specify tolerances or require performance within
generally accepted limits. If a project involves particular features sensitive to the cumulative
effect of generally accepted tolerances on individual portions, the engineer/architect should
anticipate this effect by setting a cumulative tolerance. Where generally accepted tolerances
on dimension and location of concrete members, location of reinforcement, fabrication of rein­
forcement, or other items may become mutually incompatible, the engineer/architect should
anticipate this difficulty and specify special tolerances or indicate which tolerances control.
(Refer to discussion of tolerances for placing reinforcement in Chapter 12.)
The engineer/architect should be responsible for coordinating the tolerances for concrete
work with the requirements of other trades whose work adjoins the concrete construction.

2.5.3 Preparing a Formwork Specification

ACI 347R emphasizes the formwork specification will have much to do with the overall
economy and quality of completed work. Such a specification must be tailored to the
particular project, indicated to the contractor exactly what will be expected, and so
written as to result in economy and safety.
A well-written formwork specification tends to equalize bids for the work, provided each
bidder knows that full compliance will be required. Unnecessarily exacting requirements

GENERAL OBJEatVES IN FORM WORK BUILDING

may make bidders question the specification as a whole and may render it difficult for
them to know what is expected. They may be either overly cautious and overbid or not
cautious enough and underbid. A well-prepared formwork specification is of value not
only to the owner and the contractor but also to the field representative of the engineer/
architect and to the subcontractors for other trades.
ACI 301 includes provisions for formwork and is set up as a reference specification the
engineer/architect may make applicable to any building project by citing it in the project
specifications. If additional formwork requirements are needed, the engineer/architect
must supplement requirements.

2.5.4 Design, Inspection, and Approval of Formwork

In most cases, the contractor will plan and design the formwork. Except for unusual or
complex structures, this is desirable because the contractor is in the best position to
evaluate worker skill, materials, equipment, and procedures and arrive at a design that is
both structurally sound and adapted to efficient erection and concrete placement. The
contractor will involve experienced field personnel, formwork engineers, form suppliers,
and specialty contractors as needed to achieve the objectives.
Although formwork safety is the responsibility of the contractor, the engineer/architect may
require the form design be subject to separate review or approval. Engineer/architect approval
should be required for unusual concrete structures, for structures whose designs were predi­
cated on a particular method of construction, for certain post-tensioned structures, and for
structures in which the forms impart a desired architectural formed concrete surface.
ACI 347R has also called attention to the legal implications of specifying the method
by which the work is to be performed and the results to be accomplished in any set of
contract documents. If the method is specified in detail, then provisions regarding the
final results may not be legally binding.

2.5.5 Complex Structures

Structures such as shells, arches, and folded plates often require complex formwork designs,
erection plans, and stripping procedures to guarantee the desired shape, dimensions, and
appearance of the concrete. In these cases, it may be more practical for the engineer/archi­
tect who designed the structure to take responsibility for formwork design. If the contractor
assumes responsibility for design of formwork for complex three-dimensional structures,
such as folded plates, thin shells, long-span roof structures, and similar structures, the
contractor's formwork engineers should consult and cooperate with the engineer/architect
to ensure the completed concrete work will conform to the structural design. The contractor
should receive written approval of such formwork drawings from the engineer/architect.

2.5.6 Stay-in-Place Forms

If metal deck or other material used as a stay-in-place form is also to serve as a permanent
structural component, its shape, gauge, dimensions, and properties as well as shoring
requirements are to be indicated by the engineer/architect in the contract drawings and
specifications. Nevertheless, the contractor may be asked to submit shop drawings of all
permanent deck forms to the engineer/architect for approval.
Shoring needs for this type of construction are frequently overlooked or misunderstood,
which may result in excessive deflections. The alert contractor will either provide for
shoring in the bid or obtain positive assurance that it is not needed.

2.5.7 Composite Construction

The engineer or architect should specify shoring for composite beam and slab construc­
tion wherever the design for composite action requires it. ACI 347R recommends the
forms and supports be removed only after tests and specified curing operations satisfy the
engineer/architect that all cast concrete has attained the strength required for composite
action. The procedure for shore removal should also be specified or reviewed by the engi­
neer/architect in such cases.

2.5.8 Stripping and Decentering

Formwork must remain in place long enough to ensure the concrete structural element is
self-supporting and stiff enough to carry its own weight and construction loads without
undue deflection or damage. This is especially important for long-span flexural members.

CHAPTER2
On small projects where tests are not practicable
or where form reuse is not planned, the forms will lormwork Structure•
be left in place for a specified period of time. For
larger projects, the time of removal will be deter­
I
mined by strength of test specimens. Assessing if
the concrete has achieved the necessary strength
to remove the forms is the preferred approach •structure Materials
and should be used whenever possible. In the
former case, the engineer/architect will include
•structure labor
the period of time the forms are to remain in
place in the specifications or refer to applicable
codes. If form removal is to be based on strength D Formwork labor
tests, the specification should indicate the 0
_Q
acceptable test methods and required concrete ro
_J
strength. • Formwork Materials
In the case of the more complex structures.
such as shells, arches, and folded plates, to
ensure the structure will assume its deflected
shape without damage, the decentering and
handling procedure for the formwork should be Fig. 2.10: Cost components for concrete structural construction
worked out carefully. These procedures should be
described in the contract drawings and specifica-
tions or, if worked out by the contractor, the procedures should be shown on the form­
work drawings and approved by the engineer/architect.

2.5. 9 Materials and Accessories Related to Formed Surface of Exposed

Concrete
If the particular design or desired formed concrete surface requires special materials,
the engineer/architect should indicate in the contract plans and specifications which
formwork materials, ties, and other items are required. If internal ties are not acceptable,
this should be clearly stated. In the interest of scheduling and economy, the contractor
should be permitted to use discretion where quality of the concrete surface would not be
impaired by using alternate materials and methods.
Requirements for formed concrete surfaces should be precisely described in measur­
able terms (refer to Chapters 13 and 14). This may be done by limiting the size and number
of surface imperfections. Because some aspects of a formed concrete surface (such as
texture, color, and uniformity) are difficult to measure, agreement on requirements may
more readily be reached by having the contractor submit for approval a sample panel or
mockup prepared using the proposed form materials and form surface treatments. This
panel or mockup would then remain on the job site as a visual standard of the required
formed concrete surface.

2.6 Achieving Economy of Formwork

An important aspect of concrete construction economy is illustrated in Fig. 2.10.1magine
that a concrete contractor has completed construction of the concrete portions of a
building, including footings, walls, columns, floors, and any other concrete structural
components. Typically, the cost of the formwork materials and labor to assemble and strip
the formwork is about 40 to 60% of the total cost. The concrete, reinforcing steel, and
labor to place those materials is the balance of the cost. The engineer/architect should
reflect on the possible savings that can accrue to the owner if the structure is designed
to reduce the cost of formwork by allowing use of standard modular formwork compo­
nents and allowing great repetition of form use. The contractor should consider the cost
of the formwork "structure; being roughly as much as the building structure, justifies an
expenditure of formwork engineering design and innovation that can produce savings
for the contractor. Indeed, because the contractor has little control over the material and
labor quantities and resulting costs required for the structure, the major opportunity for
contractor savings is in the formwork side of the cost pie, as illustrated in Fig. 2.10.
Judgment in selecting materials and equipment, in planning fabrication and erection proce­
dures, and in scheduling form reuse will expedite the project and reduce costs. The engineer/
architect can also help minimize formworkcost by keeping the requirements of formwork
economy in mind during design of the structure as a part of constructibility considerations.

GENERAL OBJECTIVES IN FORMWORK BUILDING

 In designing and building formwork, the contractor should aim for maximum
economy without sacrificing quality or safety. Shortcuts in design or construction that
endanger quality or safety may be false economy. If forms do not produce the speci­
fied formed surface, for example, much hand rubbing of the concrete may be required;
or if forms deflect excessively, bulges in the concrete may require expensive chipping
and grinding. Obviously, measures aimed at increasing economy that lead to formwork
failure defeat their purpose.

2.6. 1 Measurement and Payment for Formwork

Payment for concrete formwork may be by any one of the following three methods:
1. Included in the lump sum price for the entire job;
2. Included in the unit price paid per cubic yard of concrete in place; or
3. A separate unit price per square foot of formed area.
Regardless of the contractual basis of payment, most contractors keep separate records
of formwork cost-particularly for their larger projects. This serves the dual purpose of
maintaining closer control on formwork costs during the project and also accumulating
cost experience data that could be valuable for negotiating any extra work or in bidding
future projects.
When formwork is paid for at a separate unit price, the specifications should clearly state
what areas of the formwork, if any, are excluded as pay areas. Some specifications exclude
openings such as doors, windows, and pipe blackouts from the area of formwork to be
paid for. This represents a problem for the contractor, who will usually have to build the
form panel continuous across the opening and then attach forms for the opening. Other
specifications exclude only openings in excess of a designated size, such as 30 ft1• The
latter practice permits normal door openings to be paid for when door bucks are nailed to
the main form panels.
Some specifications exclude payment for bulkhead areas. This places the contractor at a
disadvantage for two reasons:
1. Construction joint layout is subject to the owner's approval, and at the bidding stage, the
contractor cannot always be sure of the owner's intent on joint location.
2. The pay basis for formed area is usually used for pricing extra work, which may have a
ratio of bulkhead area to formed area that is substantially different from the main job.
If the contract specifications exclude payment for bulkheads, then they should be fully
supported by comprehensive construction joint drawings.
Contracts that specify payment for all formed areas in actual contact with concrete
surfaces may prove cumbersome to administer if the structure has numerous keyways,
recesses, chamfers, or moldings. A less exacting method of measurement can be achieved
by excluding such items when they are either 3 in. or less in depth or 6 in. or less in width.
Thus, a suggested basis of measurement of form area for payment purposes is shown
2.11. Pay for all formed areas including bulkheads; include area of recesses formed,
in Fig.
but deduct areas of openings larger than 30 ft1 on one contact surface. Include formed
grooves, keyways, and so on when they are more than 3 in. deep and 6 in. wide. Where
some formed surfaces are likely to be substantially more expensive than others and their
ratio to the total form area is likely to vary during the project, separate pay rates for the
two or more classes of formwork should be established.

2.6.2 How the Engineer/Architect Can Reduce Form Costs

Engineers and architects who keep abreast of the various types of form construction can
often adapt their designs to some of the more economical methods. New materials, acces­
sories, and prefabricated formwork components may enable them to achieve their design
goals at a lower cost. Given that the formwork may account for up to 60% of the total cost
of the concrete structure, decisions made during the design phase may be significant.
The Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute has issued a number of suggestions for
economy in formwork that are as follows1·s:
a. Select one framing scheme and stay with it through the project. Two framing
schemes are justifiable only on large projects, and then only for special reasons
such as different occupancies in two parts of the building. Each additional framing
scheme increases costs for mobilization and formwork material as well as a learning
curve for workers.
b. Arrange forming member sizes and spacing so the capacity of minimum-sized
members is used fully. Slabs of minimum thickness controlled by fire ratings should

2-14 CHAPTER2
 span at least as far as the minimum
reinforcement will permit. Walls of
minimum thickness and reinforce­
ment may carry column loads, act as
grade beams or transfer girders, resist
lateral loads, and serve as petitions or
exterior walls-all at the same time.
Use small drop panels in flat plates
rather than tapered column capitals Pay for
(Fig. 2.12) to save on forming cost. If these areas
the slab is at least 8 in. thick, it may be
possible to use steel shear heads and
avoid the capitals and drop panels
DO
entirely.
d. Use a flat plate for spans up to about
25ft because it is the cheapest, fastest,
Do not pay for
and shallowest framing method
available.
When one-way systems are used,
!llil
try to orient all framing in one direc­
tion to save time (and money) in
construction. recess
Bulkhead
Use standard form sizes for one-way Bin. deep
joists and two-way domes to avoid
special form fabrication charges, and Fig. 2.1 1: Suggested basis of measurement of form area for payment purposes
use a single joist pan size to reduce
shipping and handling costs incurred when more than one size has to be provided.
g. Make all beams and joists the same depth. The savings in formwork and shoring will

orr
exceed any cost increase in concrete and steel. Heavily loaded beams on long spans
can be made as wide as necessary-up to four or five times their depth.
h. Keep the same beam concrete outlines even though loads and spans are not the
same, and vary the reinforcement to accommodate the load.
Make beams wider than columns on each side by at least 2 in. This helps reinforcing
bars in the corners of beams and columns to pass without obstruction. Remember, Taperedcolumncapti al Oroppanel
(expensive) (lusexpensive)
it is easier and cheaper to cut a hole in the bottom of a beam form for a column
penetration than it is to cut holes in the side of a column form for beam penetration. Fig. 2.12: Use of square drop panel rather

(
Space columns uniformly. This will result in uniform sizes for columns, joists, and than hard-to-form tapered column capital
beams, thus saving money by simplifying forming.
k. Make all columns the same size, vertically in one stack as well "===cr====:! 314" Plywood sheathing
as horizontally in one story. Adjust the amount of reinforce­
ment or concrete strength as necessary for the loading. This
�;9
will maximize interchangeability and reuse of forms.
Keep floor-to-floor heights constant. If changes are necessary,
reduce the height in the upper stories. It is easier and cheaper
T l Focm '"mboc h• :II
=:!:::':=======d
to cut off a column form than it is to extend it.
m. Make the height of drop panels fit standard lumber dimen­ L Drop panel height
sions as shown in Fig. 2.13 and Table 2.1.
Allow reasonable tolerances. Specify tight tolerances only
where they are needed, or required by code, such as for loca- Fig. 2.13: Sizing drop panel to fit form materials
tion of bars in beams and columns. Tight tolerances require
more field labor, and hence increase cost. Table 2.1: Standard lumber dimensions and drop
Specify when forms may be stripped. Use a time limit for panel height
walls and columns and a strength requirement for beams and Lumber size
slabs, but consider requiring reshoring until design strength
Nomrnal Actual, rn. Drop panel herght, rn.
has been reached to prevent excessive deflection.
1�

6'/.o

GENERAL OBJECTIVES IN FORM WORK BUILDING

 REFERENCES
2.1. Leyendecker, E. V., and Fattal S. G .. �Investigation of the Skyline Plaza Collapse in
Fairfax County, Virginia,N BSS 94, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithers­
burg, MD, Feb. 1977,91 pp.
2.2. Kaminetzky,D.,Design and Construction Failures: Lessons from Forensic Investigations,
McGraw-Hill, New York,1991,600 pp.
2.3. Lew, H. 5.; Fattal, S. G.; Shaver, J. R.; Reinhold, T. A.; and Hunt, B. J., "Investigation of
Construction Failure of Reinforced Concrete Cooling Tower at Willow Island,West Virginia,"
IR 78-1578, National Institute of Standards and Technology,Gaithersburg, MD, Nov. 1979,
195 pp.
2.4.lew,H.S.; Carino, N.J.; and Fattal,S. G., "Cause of the Condominium Collapse in Cocoa
Beach, Florida," Concrete International, V.4, No.8, Aug. 1982,pp. 64-73.
2.5. Fling, R. S., NEconomical Concrete Construction," CRSI Engineering Data Report
Number 30, 1988, 4 pp.
3: OVERALL PLANNING
Formwork is the stock in trade of the concrete contractor, and how it is planned can
make or break the profitability of a concrete project. To achieve minimum cost, the use
of formwork must be treated as an integral part of the total project plan. The overall
construction sequence must be planned to use formwork in the most efficient manner
and to permit the optimum investment in formwork to meet schedule requirements.
Availability and cost of local labor and materials and skill of local labor should also be
considered in developing the plan.
A contractor should plan formwork and activity sequence at the time of making a bid.
Failure to study a project thoroughly enough to arrive at the most efficient plan may
cause loss of the contract. Even worse, to receive a contract in reply to a bid based on a
superficial analysis, and then to find that some aspect of the assumed plan is impractical
so that actual costs will be much higher than anticipated, can be disastrous financially.
Advance planning will also help ensure the safety of personnel engaged in formwork and
concrete placement and the integrity of the finished structure.
Planning for small forming projects may be based on an experienced crew foreman's
knowledge of the material and equipment needs. However, larger projects require more
analysis to arrive at the labor, material, and equipment needs. Planning, scheduling,
estimating, and graphical tools are heavily used by formwork suppliers, formwork
engineers, and contractors. These include detailed spreadsheets, activity network
planning and scheduling, estimating, computer-aided design and drafting (CAD), and
building information modeling (BIM) programs.

3. 1 Development of a Basic System

The formwork plan must be adapted to the layout of the concrete structure and to a
practical construction sequence. Each project will have some feature or combination of
features that will tend to establish, more or Jess automatically, the basis of an efficient
formwork plan. These features may exist in the design of the building, site conditions, or
other factors. The most efficient system can be determined initially through analysis of
 concrete placing schedules and stripping
time requirements, but practical limita­
tions will be imposed by accessibility, site
conditions, and the capacity of equipment
available to handle form sections and
materials (Fig. 3.1 ). Other major factors to
be considered are as follows:
1. Capacity of mixing, delivery, and
placing equipment;
2. Types of concrete (if specified)-for
example, self-consolidating concrete
(SCC);
3. Formed concrete surface requirements;
4. Construction joints (if specified) that
limit size of lifts or placement units;
5. Form construction details and facilities
for form building;
6. Number of form reuses, as affected by
stripping time and other requirements;
7. Relative merits of job-built, shop-built,
and ready-made forms;
Fig. 3.1: Careful planning is needed to position tower cranes so that adequate lift capacity is B. Type of surface on which formwork is
available at reach required (Photo courtesy PER/ Formwork Systems, Inc.) supported (such as concrete, sand, clay,
wet, or frozen);
9. Reshoring requirements if multistory construction is involved;
10. Weather-its influence on protection requirements and stripping time, which will in
turn affect reuse and reshoring practices; and
1 1. Time constraints for project delivery-for example, an accelerated schedule may
influence the decision on type{s) of systems to be used, as well as the quantity.

3. 1. 1 Compare Alternate Methods

Different basic objectives, or alternative plans and methods for achieving the same
objective, should be examined in detail so that overall costs can be compared. Initial form
construction, rental or purchase costs, savings through reuse, and costs of setting and
stripping are compared to arrive at the lowest-cost formwork plan. In addition, for each
plan, a comparison should be made of the estimated number and types of cranes, hoists,
and other equipment required, and the efficiency with which concrete crews, reinforcing
crews, and others will fit into the schedule. In determining a total cost for each plan, allow­
ance must be made for preparation and familiarization or learning time at the beginning
of the project and finishing up�loose ends� at its conclusion.

3. 1. 2 Examine Form Plan in Relation to Toto/ Job

After selecting the most efficient plan, the contractor should review the formwork plan
along with the specifications to make sure there are no special requirements or conflicts
that would make some detail of the plan or intended form design impractical. The plan
should be reviewed in relation to the entire project to make sure that other site activi­
ties will not interfere with transport of form sections, cause placing delays, or otherwise
upset the schedule so that much of the plan's efficiency is lost. The concrete contrac­
tor's schedule may have to be adjusted to the schedules of other trades. The critical path
method, network scheduling, or linear/flowline scheduling based on location manage­
ment can be advantageously used to coordinate complex projects.

3.2 Key Areas of Cost Reduction

Economy in formwork construction must be achieved within the basic limitations of safety
and quality of construction discussed in Chapter 2. Three major areas of cost reduction will
be discussed in detail on the following pages:
1. Planning for maximum reuse;
2. Economical form construction; and
3. Efficient setting, stripping, and cycling practices.
Savings in first cost of forms must be balanced against other objectives to achieve the
least cost on a per-use basis. If a form material that costs twice as much lasts ten to twenty

CHAPTER3
times as long, the per-use cost will only be
one-fifth to one-tenth as much as using
the cheaper material. A form designed for
maximum reuse may have to be stronger
and more expensive than one designed for
a single use, but it can save a great deal on
the total form investment. Extra features
that make erection, stripping, and cleaning
easier will add to original form costs, but
labor savings may outweigh the extra cost.
It is poor economy to strive for minor
savings that can cause big losses elsewhere.
For example, increasing design stresses
beyond safe limits usually results in small
overall savings while greatly increasing the
risk of damage and severe loss. Careless
assembly or low-cost materials might save
a little in form cost but require more labor
and extensive amounts of expensive hand
finishing of the concrete afterwards.

3.3 Planning for Maximum Fig. 3.2: Planning formwork for maximum reuse reduces forming cost and increases labor
Reuse productivity (Photo courtesy PERl Formwork Systems, Inc.)
The plan or procedure to be followed in
getting maximum reuse of forms will vary greatly depending on the conditions of the
individual job. Generally, the sooner the forms can be stripped, the more economical and
practical it becomes to schedule many reuses of a form (Fig. 3.2). Thus, project specifica­
tion or local code requirements for stripping and reshoring are an important factor in
planning form reuse. The requirements may impose either a time or a level of concrete
strength attainment before stripping. In multistory buildings where forms and shores will
be supported by the recently built structural members, special issues must be considered
(see Chapter 6).
Minimum investment in forms is achieved by constructing the least number of forms
required for a smooth work flow and then reusing these forms as often as necessary until
the job is completed. Because the stripping time for the sides of a beam or girder is much
shorter than for the bottom, it is often economical to build fewer side forms and plan
on early stripping and frequent reuse of the side panels while the bottom forms are left
in place. Chimneys, towers, and cylindrical or rectangular concrete cores for multi-story
buildings can be built quicker and less expensively using slip forms or climbing forms that
are reused for many lifts from bottom to top of the structure.
Mass concrete placements with a gradually changing cross section can be built using
rugged cantilever form panels that are raised and reused for lift after lift. Piers for bridges
or viaducts are frequently cast by repeated use of a form or series of forms. Building
columns can use the same forms over and over if the building designer has had the
foresight to make columns the same size, or with few dimensional changes, and vary the
reinforcing to meet strength needs. Ready-made modular panels can be moved from one
job to another and are adaptable to many different types of structures.
The amount of work involved in reusing a form may depend on whether it has to be
disassembled for stripping and reuse. In some cases, the form can be moved intact. This
is inherent in slip forms, of course, and may be possible with climbing forms or with pier
forms that can be loosened and lifted off the pier by a crane and set into position at the
next pier.
More often, the form must be taken apart and moved section by section. This may
be required by the shape of the concrete structure, which makes it impossible either
to loosen the form or to withdraw it without taking it apart. Sometimes, the weight of
the whole form is beyond the capacity of the crane and handling equipment, so it must
be transported in sections. Crane capacities must always be considered during the
planning stages.
Traveling forms (Chapter 16) eliminate much of the disassembly and reassembly in
reusing formwork. In long-barrel construction, for example, it is possible to build the barrel
arch form and shoring as a unit with a roller-equipped base. At stripping time, the form is

OVERALL PLANNING
 lowered from the cast concrete member and simply rolled forward to the next position.
This sequence is repeated until the full length of the barrel has been cast. Shoring alone
may be assembled and braced in units that can be shifted from bay to bay as forms are
moved for reuse. Such shoring units must be rugged enough to withstand any extra
handling and moving stresses and are practical only where the conditions and equipment
available permit easy, safe handling.

3.3. 1 Developing a Practical Reuse Plan

A minimum number of different forms is established by the number of different shapes,
sizes, and combinations of concrete members in the structure. Where the same size,
shape, or combination is repeated, there is an opportunity for reuse. but placing schedule,
stripping time, and other factors related to a specific project make it impractical to take
advantage of all possible opportunities to reuse forms. If the same size column appears
lOOtimes in a building, all columns could be cast by reusing one form 100 times. However,
this would not permit a smooth work flow and would extend construction over an unrea­
sonably long time.
In most cases, it is necessary to make a detailed study of work flow and construction
sequence to decide on a practical number of reuses that will result in a fast, smooth,
efficient project with lowest overall cost. In simpler cases, it may be possible to
immediately see the number of forms required and the number of reuses that can be
planned. Divide the total structure into unit areas and mark on a key plan the days for
erecting forms, setting steel, installing mechanical and electrical work, placing concrete,
stripping time constraints, and form removal. Experiment with various sizes of area to
maintain steady progress. This will determine the reuse of forms.
When developing multiple re-use plans, consideration should be given to:
Rented materials;
Purchased reusable materials; and
Purchased, one-time use materials.
By comparing the mix for each scenario, it helps evaluate the costs more accurately and
choose the most economical solution.

3.3.2 Comparing Reuse Schemes

In comparing different schemes, the contractor should calculate the size and number of
forms required in each case and find the ratio of form contact area to total area of formed
concrete structure. This ratio is an indicator of overall reuse efficiency, although it does not
necessarily indicate the number of reuses of a particular form in the plan. In comparing
two plans, where one has more reuses than the other, the contractor should take into
account the time and cost of repairs and reconditioning between uses. Forms often have
to be cleaned between reuses, and a vibrating tool, for example, may damage the contact
surface of a form so that a panel must be replaced before the form can be reused.

3.4 Economical Form Construction

In evaluating different schemes to get maximum reuse of forms and an efficient construc­
tion sequence, the contractor must make an estimate of form construction cost for each
plan. In each case, the choice is between building, buying, or renting forms {Fig. 3.3). One
plan may require many forms, while another uses fewer forms of a more expensive type.
A reasonable cost estimate requires a practical construction plan to determine which is
more economical.

3.4. 1 Job-Built Forms

When non-reusable forms are to be built in position on the job site, the contractor plans to
use inexpensive materials that are easy to transport, handle, and shape in the field. Other
job-built forms may be planned for reuse in sections or reuse of the lumber, plywood. and
accessories {fig. 3.4). Reusable forms must be more durable, made of strong materials that
can withstand continued usage, and usually must have added features that make them
easy to handle and to assemble.

Materials and Hardware

Fig. 3.3: A manufactured wall formwork In choosing ties, inserts, and accessories {Fig. 3.5), the initial cost is not as important as the
5y5tem might be purcha5ed or rented (Photo labor involved in their installation and form stripping. In considering the type of mate­
Doka USA) rials to be used in construction of the forms, the contractor will keep in mind materials

CHAPTER3
on-hand and compare with the economics
of purchasing or renting new materials. For
example, if large quantities of 2x4 studs are
available, it may prove more economical to
use them, spaced closer together, than to
purchase 2x6s.
Using plywood panels for large surfaces
usually saves money (as compared with
board sheathing) because there is less
assembly work. With fewer joints in the
form surface, less formed concrete surface
finishing is required after the forms are
removed. The use of 4x4s for floor joists
instead of 2x4s on edge may be more
economical because the 2x4s would have
to be held in good alignment at sheathing
edges and toenailed into place.
The contractor may have to choose
between partially absorptive form
materials like standard plywood and
dressed lumber that produce a slight
texture; hardboard, plastic, plastic-coated Fig. 3.4: Site-built wall formwork
plywood, or metal forms that produce
smooth surfaces; or purposely rough wood forms or form liners that produce a distinctive
texture. Specifications must be carefully studied and possibly discussed with the engineer/
architect to see just what formed surface effects are desired. ACI347.3R, NGuide to Formed
Concrete Surfaces,w can be helpful in specification development and interpretation.
Casting a mock-up panel or locating a reference surface on another project may provide a
basis for comparison.
Better grades of lumber and plywood can be counted on for minimum waste and to a
great extent are reusable, but sometimes savings can be made by purchasing a lower grade
of lumber and culling at the building site. Whether this reduces overall cost depends on how
much labor must be expended in the culling and in cutting and splicing to get maximum use
of material. The decision may depend on the location of the project and the supply available.
Where good materials are required, savings can be realized by obtaining materials for
the current project that can be reused on future projects. It may be economical to invest
in high-grade reusable panels, sections, materials, and hardware and prorate only a part of
their cost to the current project.

Where to Construct Forms

In most projects, the contractor has a choice of building forms in position on the site,
setting up a special shop or assembly area on the site, or building all the forms in a central
shop and shipping them to the site. For many projects, the greatest efficiency in working Fig. 3.5: Hardware details, such as this clamp­

conditions and in the purchase and use of materials and machinery is obtained by fabri­ and-tie wing nut, have an important effect

cating form sections in a central form shop maintained by the formwork contractor and on form assembly and stripping costs (Photo

shipping the forms to the site for erection (Fig. 3. 6). The cost of transporting form sections courtesy MEVA Form work Systems)

to the site may make this plan uneconomical if the shop is located too far from the project,
or the form sections are too large for shipping. In the latter case, the forms must be built
at the site. At times, however, space on the site is limited and off-site fabrication is the only
feasible method regardless of transportation costs. Limited site space is often a problem
for urban downtown projects and can be a problem even at remote sites (Fig.3.7).
For small projects, or where forms must be fitted to the terrain, it may be economical
to cut and assemble at the point of installation where cut-and-try methods can be
used, in spite of the waste that usually occurs under such conditions. Most job-site form
building will benefit from the creation of a sheltered area equipped with power tools and
assembly benches. If necessary, a platform can be built alongside the shop for assembly
of large form sections. The job-site shop should be located so that form materials can be
conveniently stored near the shop and where there is access for transport equipment to Fig. 3.6: Prefabrication of parking garage
pick up the finished form sections. deck panel formwork reduces less-productive
Possible savings through reduced waste of material, consistent quality, and better elevated work (Photo courtesy Symons by
productivity of labor are usually in direct proportion to the amount of work that can be Dayton Superior)

OVERALL PLANNING

Fig. 3.7: Remote construction site for Lick
Observatory unit in difficult terrain with
limited space for staging forms (Photo cour­
tesy Robert Opie)
shop-performed. Shop fabrication improves productivity planning and control because
supervision is easier if the only work done at the point of installation is assembly of forms.
Estimating Form Building Costs
Before a formwork plan is chosen and the forms designed in detail, a rough estimate of
formwork construction cost should be made. Historical cost data should be referenced
where possible, for comparison purposes. It is possible to determine the approximate
number of board feet of timber necessary to produce a square foot of contact area by
examination of similar types of forms used in previous work. Allow for waste material cut
off as well as wales, scabs, strongbacks, and other materials attached to the form. Multi·
plying it by the expected price per board foot of lumber gives an estimated basic material
cost per square foot of contact area. The sheathing, such as plywood, cost/ft1 is added.
Material such as steel beams and heavy timbers on hand in the contractor's yard that will
have value after the job is finished should be priced at a Nuse charge" that is a percentage
of their original value and is reduced to a cost/ft1 of contact area. The total material costlft2
is then divided by the expected number of reuses.
Average labor cost for constructing forms may be available from records. If not, a simple
analysis of crew and operations may be converted to worker-hours per square foot. The
price per worker-hour should be a weighted average of expected labor rates of foremen,
journeymen, apprentices, and helpers in addition to other crafts that may be directly
involved in construction of the forms. Where companies have established standard crew
compositions for different types of work, some estimators develop costs based on crew
hours per square foot and crew hourly rates. When forms are pre-fabricated in panels, the
labor for one-time fabrication is divided by the number of reuses and that cost is added to
the labor costs per use for erection and stripping.
To the foregoing labor and material figures must be added allowances for hardware
and other miscellaneous materials as well as the cost of receiving and handling materials
on the site, the cleanup or preparation of used material, and transport back to the
company yard or disposal. The total cost must consider expected reuses to make a direct
comparison between alternate formwork plans.
3. 4. 2 Purchased or Rented Forms
The contractor's estimated cost for building forms may be compared with bids or esti­
mates from suppliers who will build the forms or who will rent prefabricated forms. Many
contractors find rental of forms for specific usage permits them better flexibility in regu­
lating the volume of work they are able to assume. Passing on the risk, investment cost.
and some of the management responsibility to a formwork subcontractor with special­
ized capabilities may reduce costs. Consideration of cash flow may influence the decision.
Because items such as column forms, fasteners, spacers, and ties will be included or will
be offered by the supplier on a rental basis, the contractor can eliminate an investment
in such stock items. The contractor may find that consulting with form suppliers will help
develop an imaginative approach to formwork planning that will save time and cost.
A careful analysis of all formwork required may show that the contractor can
economically build some of the forms while others should be obtained from specialists.
Those intended for a large number of reuses, for example, that must withstand much
handling, may be purchased from a supplier of prefabricated steel forms. The purchase
price or rental of the forms plus any shipping, handling, or preparation expenses should
be calculated on a per-square-foot of formed area basis to make a valid comparison with
other alternatives (Fig. 3.8).
3.5 Setting, Stripping, and Cycling Costs
The cost of setting forms in place, subsequently stripping them from the concrete, and
cycling them to a new location is an important factor. Substantial savings can be made by
design and planning provisions that make erecting, stripping, and cycling easier and faster.
The full benefit of a plan for reuse of forms can only be realized if the forms can be stripped
and re-erected quickly and if the form is not damaged in the process. Therefore, designing
for easy handling and disassembly is essential. The total formwork plan should, if possible,
permit repetition of the same functions to increase crew efficiency as the job progresses.
Formwork can be assembled with metal clamps or special wedge pin connections that
are secure, yet easy to assemble and disassemble. Handles or a wood strip nailed to the
form give workers a means of grasping the form side so they can pull it away from the
CHAPTER3
concrete and thus eliminate or minimize the need for prying it loose.lihing eyes and
other hardware make it easy to transport the form sections from one placing location to
the next. Work platforms to make both erection and stripping more convenient and safe
for workers should be part of the formwork plan.
In comparing the expected erecting and stripping costs for various formwork plans,
estimates may be based on worker-hours per square foot as shown by previous experi­
ence with similar types of forms. A more detailed comparison might be made through an
analysis of crew size, specific operations, and time from start of stripping of a form until it
�r _ _
- e «: 1
Fig. 3.8: Shipping costs and delivery dates for
is ready for the next placement. This detailed approach would be particularly valuable for
formwork materials and accessories impact
the major forms on a job, including those with a large number of reuses.
project costs and schedule (Photo courtesy
Total time in hours multiplied by the number of workers in the crew gives the total
expected worker-hours. The contact area formed at each placement divided by the
Atlas Construction Supply)

estimated worker-hours gives a production rate in square feet per worker-hour. This
figure should reflect average conditions over a representative period and therefore
should include allowance for delays resulting from poor weather, equipment breakdowns,
and other causes. Allowance should be made for any miscellaneous expense normally
incurred, including the cleaning and oiling of forms between uses. Some allowance must
also be made for the routine nonproductive time of the workers.
Many formwork plans will anticipate raising a form and locating it by inserts in
the previously placed concrete or using inserts as a means of anchoring, lifting, or
attaching it. Ties, spacers, and other hardware items also may be left in the concrete.
Allowance must therefore be made for hardware lost or left in place in the concrete
plus other non-reusable materials expended during the process of placing and
removing the forms.

3.6 Other Costs AHected by the Formwork Plan

The ultimate objective in selecting a formwork plan is to achieve good, safe performance
at the lowest overall cost for the entire project. Because formwork cost is often a large
part of the total cost of erecting a concrete structure, it is easy to assume that a plan that
produces the lowest total formwork cost also will result in the lowest overall cost for the
total concrete work. However, the other cost factors in a concrete project-including
the efficiency of concreting, reinforcing, and concrete finishing crews, and the use of
cranes, hoists, and other equipment-are affected by the formwork plan and could be the
deciding factors between two alternate plans. Possible effects of the formwork plan on
project costs outside of the concrete contract must also be considered.

3.6.1 Crew Efficiency

Advance planning eliminates confusion and costly delay in the field. Where maximum
reuse of forms is emphasized, every operation must be scheduled precisely to sustain
effective continuity of employment of craftsmen on the site.
The contractor must decide on a reasonable day's work for setting forms and placing
concrete. It is poor economy to force a fast pace over short periods with intermittent
stoppages, causing concreting, form stripping, and reinforcing crews to keep each other
under pressure between delays. True economy comes from a smooth daily repetition
of the same operation. If a reasonable schedule is planned, and allowance made for
familiarization, each crew will become fast and efficient; the superintendent will be able
to concentrate on scheduling of workers and materials, and fewer panic situations will
arise to disrupt schedules and lead to errors. In the long run, the project will be completed
faster and at lower cost.

Concreting
The ease and speed of placing concrete is related to the planned sequence and, to some
extent, to the choice of form design. High lifts in wall construction may save money
in setting and stripping forms but make placing and vibrating difficult. High rates of
placing may require a heavier form to withstand the loads, and conversely, the placing
rate is limited by the form design.The size of placements for floor slabs is frequently
controlled by what can be completed within a day with the crew available without
encountering overtime. Concreting of floor slabs requires some lapse of time after
placing and screeding before finishing operations can begin. The finishing process itself
may require several passes.

OVERALL PLANNING
 If the planned placing schedule will not permit the concreting crew to spend a full day
on the job, the contractor is faced with a choice of:
Increasing the placing schedule by making forms and lifts larger or using more forms
with fewer reuses;
Making other assignments available to the concreting crew; or
Allowing for less than full effectiveness on the job.
Size of placement units may be predetermined by construction joint specifications. In
such a case, the contractor should plan changes only in consultation with the architect or
engineer.

Bar Setting
Crews installing reinforcing steel will be used most efficiently if their work can be sched­
uled to fit the concreting sequence without causing lost time in either the concreting or
bar-setting schedule. If the form design can permit the reinforcement to be preassembled
before installing, the reinforcing crew may be able to work under more favorable condi­
tions as they can work at their own pace. Their work can then be scheduled ahead of form
setting, so that forms can be set one day and concrete placed the next, thus speeding the
schedule and possibly increasing the number of form reuses.

Other Trades
The contractor's concreting schedule plan should include coordination of the work by
other trades, such as electrical and mechanical, to permit these other trades to perform
their work efficiently and to minimize interruptions in placing.

3.6.2 Cranes and Hoists

One object of planning should be to use mobile cranes, tower cranes, and hoists effec­
tively so that there are just enough on a project to keep the work going smoothly. The
amount of time that a crane is tied up moving and erecting formwork will determine the
amount of time it may be available for other work on the project. Sometimes, an extra
crane or other conveying equipment, such as a concrete pump, may be required. Careful
scheduling of material handling, plus a form erection sequence that requires the least
movement about the project site, will save crane time. If the use of mobile cranes is the
only option, it may be necessary for the contractor to schedule the placing sequence so
that one bay is left open to permit crane, pump, and concrete truck movement until the
last form is set in place. This access requirement may influence formwork design, requiring
large shores spaced some distance apart.
One approach to efficient use of cranes is to determine what cranes are necessary for
other functions, and then see if a formwork plan can be established that will permit use of
one of these cranes for erecting forms during otherwise idle time. It may be worthwhile
to limit the size of form sections to the capacity of the largest crane that the contractor
would have on the site for other purposes. If a heavy crane is needed for lifting and
placing form sections, it may be possible to schedule its use so that it can handle all heavy
lifts on the project, and thus a small truck-mounted crane may be used for the rest of the
work. It may also be possible to use a single crane for all functions, including handling of
forms and materials, and placing concrete.

3.7 Formwork Planning Process

The following example illustrates the step-by-step thinking involved in following many of
the planning principles explained in this chapter. The steps in working out the formwork
plan for a bridge involving a large number of piers are similar to many other kinds of work
where sequence, reuse, and coordination of all operations are important.
A contractor has received plans for the bridge illustrated in Fig. 3.9 and proceeds to
make an overall plan for its construction. The seven double piers for one roadway of a
divided expressway are shown. The double piers in the opposite direction roadway are
identical. The project is to be bid in early February with good prospects of an award on
March 1 and the completion date set for September 30 of the following year, a project
duration of 19 months. Because a substantial liquidated damage charge may be levied in
event of running past the completion date, finishing the project on schedule is mandatory.
Working backward, for the moment, the contractor reasons that an allowance
should be made of 11 months for erecting the superstructure and considers that steel

CHAPTER 3
girder erection may encounter delays in
the winter months. Starting steel erection
in November, the deck concreting may
commence in the early spring a month or TopofcapEiev." 130
so before the steel erection is complete, Bottom ofcap Elev.:: 120
and the job can be finished within the Cap length z 67
allowable time. If completion of the bent Capwidth :9
caps for the second roadway can overlap Pierdia. "8
the steel erection underway on the first
roadway by 4 months, this leaves 11
months for the excavation and concrete
substructure. 80.0
Because considerable site preparation 40.0
and excavation is necessary before pier 0.0
footings may be constructed, it is decided 0.0
that pier construction cannot be carried
40.0
60.0
out on any kind of production scale until
90.0
around May 1. Rainy spring conditions may
also influence this schedule. Further, severe
winter conditions may render concreting . . . .
F1g. 3.9: Planmng example-bndge p1ers for eastbound lanes
after December 1 erratic and too costly
to be practical. Therefore, the bidder concludes that the schedule demands that the
substructure be started and essentially completed during the months of April through
November with allowance of remaining overlap months toMtail outwthe top pier cap
placement, which may lag because of the time required for the supported form to remain
in place. Assuming a start on foundations during April, this leaves approximately 30 weeks
to place the pier and cap concrete except for a few tail-out pier caps. Assuming a 5-day
week with some holidays, miscellaneous delays, and lost days to weather, there are about
130 work days available.
Because the footing forms depend on the excavation and suitability of the sides of the
excavation as forms, they are not subject to reuse analysis and probably will be built in
place. The bidder assumes sufficient foundation placement lead may be attained in April
so that pier shaft concrete may start on May 1.
The ideal situation is to find that set of circumstances which would permit one crew
to be placing concrete regularly all day every day while a crew of carpenters and one of
reinforcing steel workers were continuously employed preparing the forms for concrete.
This is rarely obtained and provision must be made for rainy days or other contingencies
that would throw the sequence off schedule. Shaft forms in this hypothetical case may be
stripped the day after placing while the supported cap beam forms must be left in place
14days.

Trial Plans
Because so many variables are involved, it is necessary to adopt a trial plan that fits the
circumstances and then compare it to any alternative ideas that may evolve. Many of
these comparisons and the subsequent analysis of alternatives are accomplished without
detailed work due to the ability and experience of the estimator. However, in cases where
all the factors are not so clearly seen, it is necessary to evaluate each detail of an alternate
plan. As a result, the contractor may decide the advantages of working through the winter
and completing the work ahead of schedule outweigh the added cost of attempting steel
erection during cold weather. In developing and evaluating the trial plan, the contractor
has involved the formwork engineer, formwork supplier, estimator, expected project
manager, and an experienced formwork crew leader.
Project specifications indicate that the contractor is to submit the location of pier
construction joints for approval. The one requirement is that all but the bottom lift are
to be equal height so that the joints are at the same elevations from pier to pier. The
contractor has developed a tentative plan for the joint elevations listed in Table 3.1. There
are 2B double-shaft lift placements on the piers to be accomplished if the construction
joint layout is used as listed. This would require almost 1SO yd3per placement. There are 14
cap placements, each requiring about 225 yd3•

OVERALL PLANNING
 Planning Form Sizes
To meet this schedule as outlined so far, all operations
should be checked thoroughly for timing.Cap beam forms
must remain in place for 14days, whereas the pier forms can
be stripped after 1day.Thus, the pier forms can be reused
several times while the cap forms remain in place. The size of
the piers and the concrete that can be reasonably placed in
a day in a deep pier leads to evaluation of using lifts of about
40ft. This requires only one lift on the short piers and two or
three lifts on the taller piers.Figure 3.10illustrates the height
of steel round column form sections that could be used on
the 120ft tall piers. The layout for each 120h pier calls for
three 10ft tall sections, one 8ft tall section, and one 2ft
tall section to make up the 40ft, plus one extra 2ft section.
Double this number is needed for casting each lift of the pair
of piers at the same time. Figures 3.11to 3.13 show forms and
construction for a similar, but different, bridge project.
To stabilize the second 40h lih, the 2h section is leh in
place and the stripped 38ft portion is set in place for the second lift with an additional

i:
2ft section added at the top.When the second lift is stripped, including the lower 2ft
section, the upper 2ft section remains in place.The sections stripped are then set for
�
the third lift.Guying cables are employed to align and further stabilize the forms for the
placements.These section sizes and numbers provide the needed form sections for reuse
to accomplish the various pier heights.

�
Study of trial schedules indicates that two complete cap beam forms appear to be
needed.This is driven by the much longer time before stripping is allowed.For the
tentative form design, the steel plate girder side forms are supported on brackets
attached to the piers with 3 in.through bolts.Soffit forms are supported by the side forms.
An alternate-to shore the cap from the ground or otherwise from the piers, allowing the
side forms to be stripped earlier-was considered but not found to be economical.

!
Crane Size
10ft-#3 The contractor proposes to have two tall, high-capacity cranes on the project. Due to site

10ft-#2 terrain, crawler-mounted mobile cranes will be needed. A rough weight calculation is
made on the tentative cap beam form that is to be raised as an assembled unit using both
10ft-#1 cranes.Its weight is compared to that of the steel girders and other major items, and the
needed crane capacity, reach, and boom length are determined to allow erection of all
Fig. 3.10: Reuse ofform sections in three members and stripping of all forms.
concrete lifts for 120ft pier Analysis is made of each operation for pier bent construction involving crane time to
determine their availability for other activities.It is found that the two heavy cranes will be
in good use lifting cages, setting and stripping
forms, and moving materials.Because both
cranes are available, concrete will be placed by
crane and bucket rather than pumping. On the
hilly side, their reach will be desirable even for
light loads. From this analysis, it appears the rig
requirements for the scheme contemplated will
be in reasonable balance. Having two cranes
also assures concrete placement will not be
imperiled if one breaks down. However, further
analysis of various miscellaneous operations
brings out the desirability of having a general­
purpose crane, such as a small truck crane
for small jobs.These may include building
forms, handling materials, and fabricating
reinforcing cages.Production operations of the
large cranes for moving forms and concreting
preclude using these pieces of equipment for
any operations that take them away from the
pier shafts during the critical forming or placing
activities. Therefore, it is decided to use the

CHAPTER 3
truck crane to fabricate the reinforcing steel into cages for individual lifts so that the cage
may be delivered to the pier ready to set into place as soon as the form is removed from
the previous lift.

Efficient Scheduling
In cases where maximum reuse of the form is emphasized, every operation must be
scheduled precisely so that the form may be stripped and reset as soon after concreting as
possible. Otherwise, it will be difficult to sustain continuity of effective employment of the
various crafts involved. Ideal production rates are attained when crews can be set up to do
the same operation day after day; that is, one crew concreting or preparing to do so every
day, one crew stripping and setting forms, one crew fabricating and placing reinforcing
cages, and so on.
Figure 3.14 shows a preliminary bar chart schedule for the first 5 weeks focusing on
placing reinforcing steel, setting forms, casting concrete, and stripping forms for the pier
bents. The bar chart may have been produced from network scheduling software or from
rough sketches as a preliminary analysis. Codes further define the location of the activity:
P2-L2-E =Pier bent 2, lift 2, Eastbound series of double piers.
(1-E =Cap beam on pier bent 1, Eastbound series of double piers.
The plan envisions starting at one end of the eastbound roadway, proceeding to the far
end, and then working back for the seven pier bents of the westbound lanes. This will allow
setting of the bearings for the girders, and eventually setting girders for the eastbound lanes
first while pier construction is nearing completion for the westbound roadway.
From an examination of the schedule, it appears that some crews are idle on some days.
Fig. 3.12: Cap beam form preparation for
However, only principal activities are shown. for example, between placing reinforcement
tallest piers (Photo courtesy EFCO Corp.)
for the pier lifts or caps, the crew would be tying cages on jigs or placing steel in the
preceding foundations. The formwork crew would be cleaning and reassembling form
sections as needed. The casting crew would have other placements for foundations
and preparation work for the next concrete placement, each being a major activity that
must go smoothly. Thus, the crews will be fully active and no allowance for less than full
effectiveness needs to be taken. Because the piers have a different number of lifts, the
activities do not repeat in a rigid cycle. The work on the cap beam interrupts the cycle of
work on the piers. Thus, in some cases, the pier forms are stripped, cleaned, and reset on
different days and sometimes all on the same day. Weather has not been considered in
this schedule. Delays can be expected due to weather, equipment breakdown, and other
unpredictable events that will stretch out this simplified schedule.
Expected crane time on the activities is again considered and found to be consistent
with the schedule. Two cranes will be needed for major placements and the small truck
crane can handle parallel activities on those
days. The major placements are expected
to require the entire day.

Duration
The schedule in fig. 3.14 only covers the
first 5 weeks. However, it can be seen
that 3 of 14 caps have been constructed
in 4 weeks and 8 of 28 pier lifts have
been constructed in 5 weeks. Extrapo­
lating this pace for the caps, it can be
estimated 14 caps x 4 weeks/3 caps=
18.6 weeks for total cap construction
duration, plus 2 weeks final curing or
20.6 weeks. for the piers, 28 lifts x5
weeks/8 lifts= 17.5 weeks for all piers.
An adjustment must be made for initial
assembly, holidays, bad weather, and
breakdowns. This includes:
3 holidays;
20 days bad weather;
5 days for other delays; and
2 days for initial assembly. Fig. 3.13: Sequential placement of bridge pier lifts, cap beams, and girders (Photo courtesy
EFCOCorp.)

OVERALL PLANNING
 Mo�th 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 s s 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 s 5 5 s 5 5 5 5 5
This adds up to 30 work days total or
Oo 7 8 91 11 121314151 171819 21 22 2]242526272829 l1 1 2
6 weeks. Thus, for the piers, forms will
Ploce errelni.PI-ll·E
be needed for 2 3.5 weeks/4. 3 3 weeks/
Set erformPJ.LH

Plocerelni.PHI-E
month = 5.4, or say 6 months. For the
cap beams, forms will be needed for
26.6 weeks/4.3 3 weeks/month= 6.2,
or say 7 months. Extending the schedule
shown in Fig. 3.14 would provide a more
accurate estimate of the duration.

Stri 'erlormPHI-E Cost Estimate

S.t trformPH2(
·
On the basis of the procedure outlined, the
contractor then evaluates costs for pier and
cap forming.From Table 3.1, there are 14
S.tco lorm•2ottl·E
lift placements for each roadway direc­
Co11 ltrPlU
- E
· tion-28 total-and there will be seven cap
beam placements for each roadway-14
Co• cureco C2·E
total. The costs are evaluated for acquiring
Plocerelnf.Pl-ll-E the forms by purchase and by rental, for
comparison. After checking with several
Colt ltrPJ..U·{
Plocerelnf.Pl-1.3-E
form suppliers, the quotes in Table 3.2
St� lerformP3l
- 2E
- appear to be the best, considering the
Set erformPl1
- .3E
-
features of the form related to assembly,
handling, and stripping. The contractor
also has prior experience with the supplier,
indicating form tolerances will be satisfac­
Plocerelnf.C:I--E tory for the project. The quote includes all
Set erformP"L
- H
needed bolts and accessories for each item,
shipping to the project site, and return
shipping for the rental forms.
In evaluating the quote, the contractor
considered the purchase option by evalu­
ating the likelihood of reuse on a future
project or possibility of resale. Due to the
large diameter of the piers and size of
Fig. 3. 14: Preliminary schedule of activities for first five weeks of bridge substructure
the girders, it was concluded that having
construction
another project that was similar in the
contractor's region of operations in the
foreseeable future was unlikely. While
resale was possible, finding a purchaser
was uncertain. The expected value of reuse/
resale reflects those uncertainties. Thus, the
rental option was selected as least expen­
sive, even if the project rental overruns an
extra month.
The material-forming cost on a square
foot basis can also be determined. For the
piers, contact area is:
8 ft X 3.14{4(40ft) + 8(80ft) + 8(120 ft)
+ 4(60ft) + 4( 30ft)J= 25.12 ft {2120ft]=
5 3,250ft2•
For the cap beams, contact area of sides,
ends, and soffit is:
14{10ft (67 +9 + 67 +9) ft +9 ft (67ft)-
2 X 3.14 X (4 ft)2)= 14(1520 + 603- 100) =
28,320ft2•
The average total rental form cost is
$21 3,503 I (5 3,250+ 28, 320) ft2= $2.62/ft2•
labor costs would be calculated by the
contractor based on planned crew size, composition, and local labor rates. Equipment
costs would be dominated by the crane rental costs.

CHAPTER3
Recheck Plan Details
Once the complete schedule has been worked out and the general plan developed, the
bidder must go back over each step to check out the details of the form design. Rein­
forcement details should be checked to make sure that there is no conflict with the form
placing method and that the assumption of fabricating cages of one-lift units is feasible.
Ladders and stairs for access to and on the forms must be provided. Provision must be
made for working platforms for concrete crews and their equipment. Safety features
figure prominently here as crews are more productive when they are in a safer working
environment.
Details of corner connections, aligning devices, and handling hooks or slings must be
made to assure fast action of removing and erecting the form to permit the production
rates assumed. Specifications on chamfer, rustication strips, finish, anchor bolts, and other
embedded items must be investigated to be sure they are consistent with the proposed
form plan. The formwork engineer must recheck and finalize the sizing of structural
members. The weight of the form is then rechecked to ascertain if it is still within the
capacity of the selected cranes. A re-evaluation of other construction operations that will
be in progress during this period is necessary to determine if any will adversely affect the
forming operation.

3.8 BIM for Planning Formwork Operations

BIM is a protocol developed by the 3D industry to allow competing 3D software to
communicate with each other for design and coordination purposes. A BIM model is a
digital representation of the physical and functional characteristics of a facility. As such, it
serves as a shared knowledge resource for information about a facility, forming a basis for
decisions during its lifecycle from inception onward.
A BIM model may include not only the geometry of the building in whole but also
information about its individual elements, design, materials, material properties,
performance requirements, surface finishes, quality assurance/quality control
requirements, means, methods, safety data, and temporary structures such as formwork
and shoring. It can and often does also include facilities management and operations
data to complete the structure's life-cycle information and needs. Additionally, if the BIM
model is updated through the build process, it may contain and reflect the actual Nas-built�
information and modifications. By integrating the known geometry with construction
quantities, scheduling tasks, productivity rates, material costs, and labor costs along with
other facilities management information and owner turnover requirements for the project,
a true electronic prototype of the project is created and useable by all stakeholders up and
down the project life-cycle chain.
Multiple models can be produced from the primary model to ensure that proprietary
information is not contained in models that may be needed for exchange with other
parties outside of the contractor's company. The BIM model provides the means for both
data-driven and visual decisions well in advance of the physical construction and other
site activities. It can also be integrated into field layout solutions of planned and as-built
conditions and shared with hand-held devices in the field for tolerances, fit-up, code,
and even for payment information and documentation. Data-driven decision making
that can be further filtered by location also enhances change management, detailed
estimates, and schedules. All of this information supports detailed income, expense, and
cash flow reporting. BIM is a process combined with interoperability through multiple
software platforms.

3.8.1 How BIM is Used by a Formwork Contractor

A formwork contractor can use BIM to make projects more predictable, controllable, and
profitable. This is accomplished by creating data-rich (intelligent) elements that can be
used at any phase of a construction project (bidding, construction, design assistance,
design, and handover).
BIM will allow the formwork/concrete contractor to:
1. Engage and educate project participants-The BIM model can provide a visual repre­
sentation of elements such as the structure, formwork, construction joints, casting
areas, formwork cycling, site congestion, safety, and site orientation. This allows partici­
pants to quickly understand and respond based on their personal experiences, knowl­
edge, observations, and trade requirements.

OVERALL PLANNING
 d) Linear schedule of concrete construction activities linked to cost
and resource data

Fig. 3. l 5: Form work material, labor, and schedule information extracted from formwork 8/M (Images courtesy Klarman Construction)

2. Capture human knowledge and expertise-Historically, as employees retire or move

from one contractor to another, tlote tricks of the trade that they have perfected or have
been passed on to them leave with them. By implementing BIM, the contractor can
capture various best practices-such as formwork design, erection sequences, mate­
rial use, production rates, hoisting plans, and transportation information-that can
be assigned to the various formwork components in the model. This allows for consis­
tent performance across all projects, better predictability of cost and time, and ease
of examining multiple what-if scenarios in minutes rather than days. This improved
performance increases the contractor's chances to succeed on the project at bid time
and during construction.
3. Optimize labor, material, and equipment use-Once a BIM model has been created,
it can be used to better understand the labor, material, and equipment needs of the
project and the contractor's resources (Fig. 3.1 5). Concrete construction is founded in
repeatable processes to maximize labor, material, and equipment reuse throughout the
multiple casting cycles of a proje<t. A project can be quickly and consistently reviewed
to maximize casting areas to optimize these resources. BIM allows construction quanti­
ties to be immediately known as the areas are created and changed. Equally, the impact
on labor, material, and equipment is immediately calculated, allowing contractors to
apply their unique production and consumption rates and availability of resources to
make optimum decisions.
4. Simulate and validate the building process and safety-By adding intelligence to
the BIM model, such as schedule information, preferably based on resource use, a
contractor can produce a 4-0 simulation of the project formwork operations (fig. 3.16).
This simulation can be for a specific element or multiple elements combined. The visual
simulation allows validation of the schedule and resource use. Because it is a visual
representation based on the intelligence contained in the model, more project partici­
pants can quickly gain knowledge and add to the validation.

CHAPTER 3
 IL� 11 " 1
,

/JI• . ··.. ,.,,_:J...,_

,··� ·
rc"=---
_ I
/II - �

/11• - � I

Fig. 3.16: 4-0 program validation of formwark activities for multistory building construction
with flying table forms and three levels of reshores (Image courtesy Klarman Construction)

5. Make projects more predictable, controllable, and affordable-Because contractors

can extract construction quantities, apply best practices, maximize resource use, and
validate construction sequences and processes, they can now monitor the work in real
time to better predict and control the project.
6. Maximize sustainability and lean construction practices-One way BIM benefits the
move toward a sustainable building is through speed of analysis. Using a comprehen­
sive model encompassing the entire project (a prototype of the finished structure),
analysis programs can quickly compare, evaluate, and rate the project for sustainability
purposes. The BIM model allows analysis and review for the sek.. �--·m of both temporary
and permanent construction materials and systems to maximize sustainability. BIM
allows users to systematically reduce material and labor required to construct, maintain,
and ultimately recycle the building or structure. The concrete structure is an ideal place
to achieve improvements in the selection of such items as formwork for the cast-in­
place elements of the building, concrete mixture proportions, and reinforcement. By
modeling several form systems, the optimum reuse of material can be predetermined.
This reuse reduces the amount of materials needed, which thereby reduces the impact
from generating the material, reduces debris, and reduces labor associated with the
construction and disposal. Formwork for all portions of a project can be modeled to
reduce impact and allow selection of materials that have greater benefits. An efficiently
planned BIM model can generate bills of material so the various alternatives can be
adequately reviewed and evaluated. An evaluation can include equipment required to
erect, dismantle, move, and remove materials from the site. There are numerous studies
that can be done using the model that will allow all project participants to improve
consumption rates for material and labor and contribute to sustainability.

3.8.2 Advantages of 8/M

Creating building information models for projects to varying degrees is clearly a trend and
many expect it will continue. Some concrete formwork contractors have embraced this
process and have found it to be indispensable. Advocates of BIM in construction indicate
that it increases productivity and makes projects more predictable, which makes
them more controllable and therefore more profitable. It streamlines and improves

OVERALL PLANNING
internal workflow and reduces duplication of effort for layout, detailing, shop drawings,
prefabrication on and off site, drawing production, bills of material, tracking, and change
management. If used in pursuit of or bidding for projects, additional advantages are
found. There is significant investment in startup, but these costs are expected to lessen as
more standard components are modeled by producers and become generally available.
Several native BIM software packages are currently in use. Ultimately, a contractor
will use one as its main system and several others for various specialty purposes. These
should not be confused with viewing software. The viewing software allows one to query,
view, compare, and extract information and combine several models for coordination
and clash detection, among other things, but they do not let the user create native
elements. The native BIM tools are used to actually create the model and add intelligence
to the geometry (such as surface finishes, tolerances, design parameters, mixture design,
testing, formwork, production rates, fabrication and erection information, scheduling,
maintenance, and warrantee). There are also other BIM tools that allow the user to do
quantity takeoffs, estimating, and scheduling along with constructability reviews from BIM
models provided to, or created by, the user.
4: MATERIALS, ACCESSORIES, AND
PROPRIETARY PRODUCTS
The selection of materials suitable for formwork should be based on maximum economy
to the contractor consistent with safety and the quality required in the finished work.
The primary structural components of formwork may be of dimension lumber, plywood,
structural composite lumber, steel, or aluminum. Due to the varied needs of a concrete
construction project, many of these materials are often found in use on a single job site
(fig. 4.1 ). Some are job-built systems, while others are manufactured systems.
Prefabricated, reusable form panels and shoring units have become standard items of
construction equipment. Panels are ganged into larger units for efficient wall forming,
and large"flyingH deck forms have become commonplace. Tying, fastening, bracing, and
support accessories continue to increase in number and variety. New materials have
been adapted to form construction, and new ways to use conventional materials have
been found. Plastics, glass fiber, steel, aluminum, and rubber, both as raw materials and in
patented, prefabricated shapes, have simplified the forming of concrete to meet the chal­ Fig. 4.1: Dimension lumber and plywood
lenges of contemporary architectural demands. dominate this construction view of a three­
The purpose of this chapter is to describe the various products and materials currently story parking structure, but aluminum beams,
in use for formwork. In the case of patented panels, shoring, ties, and other accessories, steel shoring frames, and steel-framed panels
some generalizations have been made because of the enormous number of individual are also in use
items. The illustrations have been selected as representative of a class of items, and their
inclusion does not imply superiority of the product pictured. With globalization, some
form and accessory suppliers operate on an international scale, although practices in
countries vary as a function of the relative cost and availability of materials and labor. For
practical reasons, the present discussion focuses on U.S. practice.

4.1 Lumber
Practically all formworkjobs, regardless of the varied or exotic form materials that may be
used, require some lumber. Although availability of the species, grades, sizes, and lengths
vary geographically, the local supplier wilt advise what material and sizes are in stock or
promptly obtainable. Any lumber that is straight and structurally strong and sound may
be used for formwork, although the wide distribution and abundance of softwoods make
them generally most economical for all types of formwork. The softwoods are usually
lighter and are easier to use, though not necessarily softer than hardwoods. Hardwood
caps and wedges may be introduced where additional compressive strength perpendic·
ular to the grain is needed. The choice of lumber species is a question of local availability.
Usually, there are several kinds that will serve equally well for a given job, and the cost may
be the deciding factor in the selection process.
Partially seasoned stock is preferred for formwork because fully dried lumber swells
excessively when it becomes wet, and green timber will dry out and warp during hot
weather, causing difficulties of alignment and uneven surface. Green lumber is also signifi·
cantly heavier than dry lumber-a factor that should be considered when determining
which lumber to select. Depending on the species, most commercially available lumber
is either sold kiln-dried to 19% moisture content (MC) or less, or sold as green. Attention
should be paid to the moisture content being used and consistency should be an objec·
tive. Old and new boards should not be used together in the same panel if uniform finish
is important. Although final choice of wood for forming will depend on the local market,
the following brief description of some of the commonly used woods may be of value.

4. 1. 1 Kinds of Lumber
There are many individual species of trees used to produce lumber.•-1 However, agencies
grading lumber frequently group species for grading and marketing. As a practical matter,
it is the technical information for a commercial species group that is used most often in
structural design. Some of the more commonly used species groups for formwork and
their approximate regions of availability are:
Douglas Fir-larch-may be either Douglas fir or western larch; primarily available in
pacific, mountain, central, and midwest states.
Southern Pine-may include loblolly, longleaf, shortleaf, or slash pines; primarily avail·
able in eastern and central states.
Douglas Fir (South)-only Douglas fir from southwestern growth areas; primarily
available in pacific, mountain, and central states.
Spruce-Pine-Fir-may be alpine or balsam fir, black or Engelmann spruce, jack pine
or lodge-pole pine, red spruce, and white spruce; from Canada, generally available
throughout the United States.
Hem-Fir-includes western hemlock and the following firs: grand, noble, white,
California red, and Pacific silver; primarily available in pacific, mountain, central, and
midwest states.
Spruce-Pine-Fir (South)-may include balsam fir, black or Engelmann spruce, jack
pine or lodge-pole pine, red (Norway) pine, red spruce, Sitka spruce, and white spruce;
primarily produced and available in the northeast and northwest states. In this group,
South is to differentiate from Canada, not to indicate southern United States.
In addition to the major species groups, there are regional pockets where individual
species like ponderosa pine, aspen, and Norway (red) pine are produced on a large scale
and are commonly used for formwork. Southern Pine and the species groups including
Douglas fir are most widely used in structural concrete forms and are equally suitable
for architectural concrete. They are easily worked and are the strongest in the softwood
group. Both hold nails well and are durable. They are used for sheathing, studs, and wales.
Douglas fir is sometimes used for milled wood forms. Kiln-dried Douglas fir is appreciably
lighter and a little softer than Southern Pine, but is often sold green. For this reason,
attention should be paid when specifying and ordering Douglas fir to ensure all parties
understand what material is being requested and supplied. Southern Pine has moderately
large shrinkage but stays in place well when properly seasoned. The choice between the
two should be primarily one of cost and availability, as the differences between them are
generally insignificant. Many markets, particularly in the middle of the United States, may
find greatest economy by switching between Southern Pine and Douglas fir depending on
the state of the lumber market.
Western Hem-Fir, including western hemlock, is comparable to Douglas fir as form
lumber and may generally be used wherever Douglas fir or Southern Pine are used,
although it is not quite as strong. The species of hemlock growing on the Pacific Coast
should not be confused with eastern hemlock, which is not generally considered suitable

CHAPTER4
for architectural concrete forms due to its tannin content that can produce staining. It is,
however, used for structural concrete forms.
Spruce-Pine-Fir, often abbreviated SPF, is a Canadian species group available
throughout the United States. SPF is the most common species group used in wood­
framed construction. Because of its availability, workability, and price, it is commonly used
in formwork construction. SPF is not as strong as Southern Pine, Douglas fir, or Hem-Fir,
but is usually sufficient for formwork construction, particularly in applications requiring
2x4 and 2x6 nominal sizes of dimension lumber. SPF is soft and straight-grained and can
be milled easily, making it a good choice for architectural concrete forms. SPF (South) is Table 4.1: Specific gravity G of
usually marked SPFs or SPF{s) in the grade stamp. Northern white, Idaho white, sugar, some wood species used for
and ponderosa pines are also excellent woods for architectural concrete forms. Because formwork
they are not as abundant, the four main species of pine are used for purposes for which Spec1f1e grov1ty,
the latter are not so well-suited. They are generally not economical for forms except for Wood spec1es oven dry
special uses or in regions where they are locally produced. Because the white pines are DouglasFirL
- arch 0.50
soft and straight-grained, they are especially well-suited for moldings and milled shapes DouglosFir-lorch
for forming concrete ornamentation. The white pines stay in place well, as they are not {NorthI
0.46
inclined to warp and twist. This characteristic is especially desirable for forms made up of DouglosFirS
- outh 0.49
an assembly of milled pieces, as they will remain tight and will ensure sharp detailing. Red
Eastern Hemlock 0.41
(Norway) pine and eastern spruce have many of the qualities of the white pines and may
EasternSoftwoods 0.36
be used, provided satisfactory grades can be obtained.
Occasionally, form lumber contains enough tannin, sugar, or other organic substances EasternSpruce 0.41
to cause staining or softening of the surface concrete. For example, the U.S. Army Corps of Hem-fir 0.43
Engineers has reported4-l cases of mass concrete failing to harden where it was in contact Mountain Hemlock 0.47
with forms made of new ponderosa pine. When this condition is recognized, it can be NorthernPine 0.42
remedied by treating the form surfaces with whitewash or lime water before applying a
SouthernPine 0.55
form oil coating. The condition also disappears after one or two reuses of the form.
For additional information on these and other species of wood, consult References 4.1, 4.3,
Spruce-Pine-Fir 0.42
and 4.4. Spruce-Pine-Fir(Southl 0.36
The specific gravity of woods suitable for formwork varies from 0.36 to as high as 0.55 Western Hemlock 0.47
when oven dry, as shown in Table 4.1 based on values from AWC NDS-12, �National Design Western WhitePine 0.40
Specification for Wood Construction.ffBroadly speaking, heavier or denser woods are
Western Woods 0.36
stronger and hold nails or other fasteners better. Increased moisture content increases all
Specoes names fottowed by"(North)"indoc.:He lumber gr�ded
of the specific gravities shown in Table 4.1. The density of the wood as a function of the bytheCanadi a nN ationatlumberGrade�Authoo i ty.Values
oven-dry specific gravity, G, and the percent moisture content, m.c., can be determined as basedonpoovisionsofAWCNDS-2012.

follows

Density=62.4 [ G

1+G(0.009)(m.c.)
][
1+
m.c
100
. l lb/ft 3 (4.1)

4. 1.2 Lumber Finish and Sizes

Sawn lumber is grouped by its minimum nominal dimension. Technically, boards have a

·B"--1
minimum nominal thickness of 1-1/2 in. or less, dimension lumber has a minimum nominal
thickness from 2 to 4-1/2 in., and timbers have a minimum nominal thickness ofS in. '"'
or more. However, it is not unusual for dimension lumber to be referred to as boards in
t
545, t9Percenl Moi51ure
everyday discussion.
Lumber that has been surfaced in a planer to attain smoothness of surface and unifor­

�-
mity of size is called �dressedu lumber. The surfacing may be on one side {515), one edge
19/16
(51E), two sides (525), two edges {52E), a combination of sides and edges {51SIE, 51S2E,
L
5251E) or on all four sides (545). Dressed lumber is generally used for formwork because it ROu<;th,t9PercentMo<slure S4S,More Thllni9
is easier to handle and work, but rough-sawn dimension lumber and timbers may be used Percent Moisture

in bracing and shoring or as a form-surfacing material to secure a special texture effect in Fig. 4.2: Specified actual size of a 2x4 for
the finished concrete. different moisture contents and finishes
Minimum sizes of both rough and dressed lumber are specified in NIST PS 20-10, uAmer­
ican Softwood Lumber Standard.ff Lumber is commonly referred to by its nominal size,
which at one time was the same as the rough-sawn measurements. However, the actual
sizes in effect since 1970 were adopted in an attempt to equate green and dry lumber.
That is, minimum sizes for green lumber were selected so green lumber becomes the
same size as dry lumber after the moisture is lost (fig. 4.2). Rough lumber is now generally
required to be 1/8 in. thicker and 1/8 in. wider than its finished counterpart. Often, rough­
sawn lumber is requested in custom sizes; so when requesting or ordering rough-sawn
lumber, the actual size should be clearly communicated so all parties involved know what
is expected.

MATERIALS, ACCESSORIES, AND PROPRIETARY PRODUCTS

 Table 4.2 shows actual dimensions and cross-section properties of American Standard
lumber at 19% moisture content, which by definition of the standard is the maximum
moisture permitted in dry lumber. Actual, not nominal, dimensions and section properties
must always be used for design, although the lumber is often classified by nominal size.
Table 4.2 values can be safely used with either green or dry lumber.
It is e<:onomical to order lumber lengths that can be used to best advantage with little
waste. Availability and price are concerns with lengths greater than 16ft. These lengths
are not available in all areas, with lengths greater than 20ft usually at a premium price.
Sheathing can be ordered in random lengths, as it generally has to be cut, and short pieces
can be worked in. Joists, studs, posts, beam bottoms, and other members where exact
dimensions are required should be ordered in the nearest commercial length that equals or
is a multiple of the span or height required. Joists, for example, that are to span 5 ft 6in. can
be ordered in 12 ft lengths for the least waste.
The lumber industry standard measurement is board feet, and pricing within the lumber
industry is typically stated in dollars per thousand board feet, commonly abbreviated
as mbf (thousand board feet) or bf (board foot). The board foot is a measure of quantity,
based on nominal cross-section dimensions and actual length, equal to 144 in.J, or a
nominallx12 board1ft long. For example, a nominal 2x4, 16ft long, has 10.67 board feet.
These units are sometimes used in estimating and paying for formwork lumber. However,
most local suppliers convert pricing to the preferred unit of measurement of the buyer:
usually price per piece or per foot.
Boards are sometimes used for form sheathing although plywood sheathing domi­
nates. Where board sheathing is used, tongue-and-groove boards are chosen for smooth
surfaces. Matching of the boards-that is, fitting the tongue into the groove of the
adjacent board-improves alignment of the sheathing and also prevents loss of mortar
through the joints.
Shiplap boards are used to some extent in place of tongued-and-grooved stock. The
finished surface obtained is less smooth, but greater reuse is sometimes possible because
there is less chance of splitting the edges when stripping. Square-edged boards are also
used where a rougher finished surface is either desirable or permissible, but some leakage
between boards can be expected.

4. 1. 3 Stress Grading and Design Values

Stress-graded lumber provides material of designated and assured strength so that form­
work structures can be designed to safely carry anticipated loads. Detailed requirements
that lumber must meet to qualify for a stress grade are published by various manufac­
turers' associations in conformance with NIST PS 20. Because of regional differences in
grading practices and strength characteristics of different species, grade designation
alone is not a sufficient indicator of lumber quality or strength for the user. For example,
No.1Douglas Fir-larch dimension lumber has a reference design value of 1000 psi in
bending, while the same grade in Spruce-Pine-Fir has a reference design value of B75 psi,
and in the species group Western Woods has a value of 675 psi.
Allowable stress design (ASD) values and load and resistance factor design (lRFD)
values for design of formwork made from stress-graded lumber are derived from refer­
ence design values given in the AWC NOS for Wood Construction, modified by applicable
adjustment factors. The factor of safety represented in these reference design values is
about 2.5. To be sure that stress grades are obtained, the lumber should be checked for
proper grade mark, grade stamp, or certification of quality by a recognized grading and
inspection agency.
Wood strength depends on many factors, including the species of wood, grade, cross
section, moisture content, and load duration. Table 4.3 shows reference design values for
several species of wood in common use for formwork. The tabulated stress values reflect
the ongoing softwood lumber industry's program of testing full-size pieces of lumber
pulled from mill stock throughout the United States and Canada. These reference design
values must be adjusted by several factors that relate to their conditions of use. Consult
AWC NOS for information on other species and grades.
Sheathing boards are not ordinarily available in stress grades. Stress values for
sheathing may be approximated by comparison with face appearance of 2 in. lumber
available in stress grades. Design values so selected should be adjusted with wet service
use factors due to wetting of the sheathing by contact with the concrete. In the United

CHAPTER4
'Based on a unit dry weight of 35 lb/ft'. Actual weights vary depending on species and moiswre contents. At 15% moOsture content, the unit weight of Douglas Fir-Larch is 34 lblft:', and that of
Southern Pine is 371b/ft'. The other species commonly used in formwork in North America weigh less.

MATERIALS, ACCESSORIES, AND PROPRIETARY PRODUCTS

Table 4.3: Representative reference design values, psi, for visually graded sawn dimension lumber at 19%
moisture

States, Douglas fir, Southern Pine, and

Eastern Spruce are frequently specified
for formwork sheathing due to their wide
availability.

4.1.4 Adiuslmenf Factors for Sawn

Lumber Design Values
Adjustment factors to convert the reference
design values to adjusted design values for
ASD and LRFD design approaches are shown
in Table 4.4.1n formwork design, some of the
factors rarely apply. If an adjustment does
not apply, it is taken to be 1.0 in the calcula­
tion of the adjusted design value. The buck­
ling stiffness factor, C,.. only applies to 2x4 or
smaller compression chords of wood trusses.
Applications in formwork are limited to
manufactured engineered wood products.
Consult the AWC NDS for Wood Construc­
tion for this situation if encountered. Other
adjustment factors are described in the
following sections.

Adjusfment for Load Duration, C0 (ASD only}

For formwork materials, ACI 347R-14, "Guide to Formwork for Concrete," states that the
effects of cumulative load duration should be considered in accordance with the appli­
cable design specification for the material. The AWC NDS for Wood Construction includes

CHAPTER4
an adjustment for cumulative load duration, C0. The reference design values correspond
to normal load duration, which is presumed to stress the member to its full allowable load
for a period between 2 months and 10 years. Formwork maximum loading is typically of
much shorter duration.
In the case of lumber for formwork, this is often interpreted to mean the adjustment
factor of 1.25 shown in Table 4.S for 7 days or less duration of load. The AWC NOS indi­
cates the 7-day load duration is the cumulative duration at full maximum load, so any
formwork likely to see more than 168 hours of maximum loading would not qualify for
the 25% stress increase (CD= 1.2S). However, because the live load of personnel is gener­
ally very brief during placement, the cumulative duration at maximum load may not be
the same as the duration that the forms are in place until stripping. As a result, assuming
a duration of less than 7 days is often reasonable. When there is substantial reuse, a
longer cumulative load duration may be appropriate. In such cases, the 15% increase for
maximum loading exceeding 7 days but not exceeding 2 months could be considered as
an alternate. When wood forms are being reused from prior projects (such as when they
are pulled out of storage from prior use) with unknown loading history, it is prudent not to Table 4.6: Wet service factors, Cw
apply the load duration increase (CD= 1.0). for sawn lumber
For short-duration loads such as wind, earthquake, or impact, higher adjustment
factors are permitted based on the ability of wood to absorb significant overload for
short periods.
'When (f.)(C,J,;; 1150psi,C�� 1.0.
!.M
'When (F)K,l :!i 750psi, C�= 1.0
Adjustment for Wet Service, eM
Reference design values in Table 4.3 are subject to possible adjustment for wet service
conditions. For wood moisture content.,:; 19%, C.,.= 1.0. When moisture content is
greater than 19% for an extended period of time, adjustment factors ranging from 1.0
to 0.67 apply to dimension lumber of 2 to 4 in. nominal thickness, as shown in Table 4.6.
Other wet service adjustments, listed in the AWC NOS, apply to timbers SxS or larger.
The moisture content of initially dry wood may or may not exceed 19% from expo-
sure to rain depending on the frequency and field storage conditions. Wood that will
be in direct contact with fresh concrete should be considered to be in wet service. A
conservative assumption for other wood formwork members is to assume wet service.
However, actual field experience for the environment of use based on checking form
components with a moisture meter (Fig. 4.3) can serve as a basis for concluding that the
wet service reduction is not normally needed.

Fig. 4.3: Evaluation of wood moisture content

Adjustment for Temperature, C, with on electronic moisture meter; level of
Reference design values in Table 4.3 are subject to adjustment for temperature conditions
electrical resistance between probes is corre­
listed in Table 4.7. c, = 1.0 for wood at ordinary temperatures with occasional exposure
lated to approximate moisture content
to temperatures up to 1so•F. Usually, heat from cement hydration of fresh concrete is
not a concern. The hydration-related heat is of short duration and the resulting concrete
temperature rarely exceeds 1S0°F. Additionally, the temperature rise is accompanied by
concrete strength gain, which relieves the need for support by sheathing elements in
direct contact. Members backing up the sheathing continue to support load but are not
subject to the hydration heat. For the unusual condition of prolonged exposure to higher
temperatures, make the adjustments shown in Table 4.7.

Table 4.7: Adjustment factors for temperature, C,

Repetitive Member Adjustment_ C,
The repetitive member factor applies only Tempergture Tempergture
Reference Servtce mot:Sture Temperature :S gbgve 1 OO"f tg obove 12S'F to
to adjustment of the reference design value
destgn vglue cond1t1on lOO"F 12S"F lSO"F
for bending. Increased bending stress is
permitted for dimension lumber of 2 to 4 in. F� E, E_ Wet or dry 1.0 0.9 0.9
nominal thickness when it is used as joists,
studs, decking or similar members that are: 1.0 0.8 0.7
1) in contact or spaced no more than 24 in.
apart; 2) are not less than three in number; Wot 1.0 0.7 0.5
and 3) are joined by sheathing or other Nole. These adJUSlments apply to susta•ned e•posure of wood at Jhe •nd•caled temperatures

load-distributing elements adequate to

support the design load. The reference design values for bending stress consider statistical
variations in wood and the effects of worst-case locations of allowed defects on strength.
Because there is a very low probability of the worst-case defects occurring in three
members at the critical location simultaneously, an increase in the bending stress value is

MATERIALS, ACCESSORIES, AND PROPRIETARY PRODUCTS

 allowed. The repetitive member factor, C,
is 1.15.

Size Factor, CF
Except for Southern Pine, the reference
design values for lumber commonly
used for formwork are subject to a size
adjustment for bending and compression
parallel to grain {see Table 4.8). Southern
Pine reference design values have size
adjustments already included in their
reference design values, and Construction­
and Standard-grade lumber require no
adjustment {C� = 1).

Flat Use Factor, C1u

When dimension lumber 2 to 4 nominal in.
thick is loaded on the wide face such that
bending occurs about the weak axis, the reference bending design values are multiplied
Table 4.9: Incising factors by adjustment factors, as shown in Table 4.8.

Incising Factor, C;
Some treated wood is incised to improve penetration of preservatives. Incising involves
making shallow, slit-like penetrations parallel to the grain in the surfaces. Douglas fir
is among those species that tend to be resistant to side penetration of preservatives.
Because Douglas fir species are more prevalent in the western states, incised wood is more
frequently seen in that region. Incising
factors are listed in Table 4.9.

Stability and Bearing Adjustments

Seam and column stability factors, Cl and
C�, and the bearing area factor, CIT' are
discussed in Chapters 7 and 8.

Adiusfment Factors For LRFD Only

Formwork design using LRFD requires
application of three additional adjustment
factors. Values for the format conversion
factor, K,, and the resistance factor, 41, are
listed in Table 4.10. The time effect factor, h,
is a function of the load combination. Load combination examples in the AWC NOS relate to
permanent structures rather than temporary structures. Generally, A= 1.0 for combinations
dominated by transient loads such as wind or earthquake, 0.8 for those dominated by occu­
pancy loads, 0.7 for storage loads, and 0.6 for long-term permanent loads. For applications in
formwork, it is reasonable to use h = 1.0 for components where wind or earthquake domi­
nate the loading and h = 0.9 for components dominated by short-term personnel loads,
form dead load, concrete and reinforcement dead load, and concrete lateral pressure, unless
subject to a large number of reuses, in which case A= 0.8.

4.2 Engineered Wood Products

Dwindling supplies of suitable sawn dimension lumber, as well as price considerations,
have led form builders to use other framing members to support formwork. Such
members {Fig. 4.4) include boards of structural composite lumber {SCL), structural glued
laminated timbers, engineered fabricated wood trusses, and prefabricated wood 1-joists,
as well as steel and aluminum supporting members described later in this manual. In addi­
tion to lower cost, other benefits offered by engineered wood products include:
Long length: allows the use of members that run over multiple spans and take advan­
tage of continuity.
Consistency: more consistent stiffness and higher published design values due to the
fact that naturally occurring strength-reducing defects in wood can be either elimi­
nated or more randomly dispersed throughout the product.

CHAPTER4
 Predictability: less distortion such as
bow, twist, crook, and splitting and
more predictable cup and swell asso­
ciated with wood response to changes
in moisture.
Reference design values, adjustment
factors, and design procedures are defined
by the AWC NDS for some manufactured
wood products. However, other product
standards continue to be developed by
APA- The Engineered Wood Association.

4. 2. I Glued Laminated Timber

Structural glued laminated timber, also
called glulam timber, is an assembly of
selected and suitably prepared dimension
lumber laminations bound together with
adhesives, with the grain of the lamina­
tions aligned longitudinally parallel to each
Fig. 4.4: Engineered wood truss /-joists used as vertical studs in wall formwork (Photo courtesy
other. APA publishes the requirements for
Aviad Shapiro)
production, testing, and certification for
this product in ANSI A190.1-2012, "Stan­
dard for Wood Products- Structural Glued Table 4.11: Typical finished width of standard glued laminated
Laminated Timber." Procedures for design timbers•
and reference design values are included in
the AWC NOS.
Design values are given for various lami­
nation configurations in separate tables for
members with primarily axial loading and
for members loaded primarily in bending.
Consult ANSI A190.1, AWC NDS, and
manufacturers' recommendations when
designing forms with glued laminated
timber. Adjustment factors are similar to
those for sawn lumber.
The standard finished widths of glued laminated timbers are as shown in Table 4.11.
Depths are typically supplied in 1-1/2 in. increments for western species glulam beams,
and in 1-3/8 in. increments for eastern species. Depths of up to 60 in. and lengths to 60 ft
can be ordered in clear, straight stress-graded glulam materials.
In addition to determining appropriate size for glued laminated beams, the following
considerations should be made for ordering the appropriate beam:
Application Type: Primary loading type of the member should be considered when
determining grade. The most common considerations are whether the members are
primarily subjected to axial loads, bending loads, or combined loads, and whether
members supporting bending loads are subjected to negative bending moment. This
would occur in multiple-span applications. Members primarily axially loaded will typically
be specified with column-grade designations. Members primarily loaded in bending will
typically be specified as either"balancedn or "unbalanced"layup. nBalanced" layups are
symmetrical and are usually used in multiple-span applications or in applications where
equal strength on both top and bottom faces is desired. "Unbalancedfflayup has higher­
strength tension laminations on the face intended to be loaded in tension. This type of
layup is typically used in simple span applications, and is usually marked on the top or
bottom face to help communicate proper installation orientation.
Grade: Several designations exist for grades, but there are three primary methods for
specifying the grade designation: 1) bending layup combinations; 2) axial layup combina­
tions; and 3) stress classes. The specific designation defines various strength properties.
Consult AWC NDS for details and expected suppliers for availability.
Camber: Glued laminated beams may be fabricated with or without camber. Camber
may either be specified in inches or as a radius of curvature. Some commonly available
camber radii include 3500, 3000, 2000, and 1600 ft. However, custom camber can also
be specified.

MATERIALS, ACCESSORIES, AND PROPRIETARY PRODUCTS

(a) Laminated veneer lumber
Fig. 4.5: En g ineered wood products usedfor form support
Fig. 4.6: Laminatedveneer lumberproductsuit-
ab/eforapplication as a stringer, wale, or shore
(b) Parallel strand lumber (c) Laminated strand lumber
Finish: There are four appearance grades for glued laminated beams: industrial, framing,
architectural, and premium. In typical formwork applications where appearance of the form·
work is not important and load is being applied perpendicular to the glue lines (referred to
as beam orientation for glue laminated members), industrial appearance is usually appro­
priate. Several different grade designations for glulam beams exist depending on species
and intended applications.
4.2.2 Structural Composite Lumber
In addition to glued laminated timbers, structural composite lumber (SCL) is available
for form support. Structural composite lumber is a generic term that describes a family
of engineered wood products that combine veneer sheets, strands, or other small wood
elements with exterior structural adhesives to form lumber-like structural products. These
composites are well-suited for applications that require added strength/stiffness while
retaining the convenience of wood for job fabrication and connections. APA publishes
guides and design information for SCL.Three SCL products (Fig.4.5) used in formwork are
as follows:
Laminated veneer lumber(LVL), a structural composite lumber product manufactured
from veneers that are typically about 1/8in. thick, is laminated so that the grain of all
veneers runs parallel to the length of the member, and is bonded with an exterior adhe­
sive. Many LVL manufacturers have begun to offer LVL with water-resistant coatings that
prolong the life of the lumber under the harsh conditions associated with concrete form­
work, job-site use, and storage.LVL is typically produced in thicknesses from 1-1/4 to 3-1/2
in., and is usually manufactured in either 2 or 4 ft billet widths. Finished product sizes will
vary depending on manufacturer capability and application. Some LVL manufacturers
incorporate a limited number of cross-plies to improve dimensional stability (reduced
swell across the width of the billet and reduced cupping).This is more commonly done
for LVL intended for edge forms in non-elevated slabs.LVL products are typically used for
joists, form beams, stringers, wales, and shores {Fig. 4.6).
Parallel strand lumber(PSL) is a structural composite wood product made by gluing
together long strands of wood that are parallel to the product's length and have been
cut from softwood veneer. PSL products are used for both form beams and shores. It is
typically produced in billets of 10.75 in.thickness and up to 19.2 5 in.depth and is usually
machined down to finished product sizes depending on the application.
Laminated strand lumber(LSL) is a structural composite lumber product made from thin
strands about 12 in. long that are cut directly from logs and glued together parallel to the
finished product's length. A common use for LSL is as edge forms for non-elevated slabs,
but it can be used as a structural member in formwork as a substitute for dimensional
lumber when long lengths or dimensional stability is desired.LSL is typically produced
in thicknesses from 1-1/4 to 5-1/2 in. and is usually manufactured in an 8ft billet width.
Finished product sizes will vary depending on manufacturer capability and application.
Strength characteristics of SCL products are not standardized industry-wide, and design
must be based on data provided by the manufacturer of the particular product being
used. A range of recommended reference design values from several manufacturers is
given in Table 4.12.
CHAPTER4
Table 4.12: Representative reference design values for structural composite lumber with loads applied
parallel to gluelines for or parallel to wide face of strands for LSL and PSL (beam orientation)•

lv\odulus of elosticity 1,400,000to 2,000,000 psi 1,100,000to 1,750,000psi 1,800,000 to 2,000,000psi

Shear modulus of elasticity 118,750psi 96,870psi 125,000psi

Flexurolstren 2100to 3100psi 1700to 2500psi 2900psi

750psi
Compression perpendicular to 750to 900psi 750to 9500to 30to 1500psi
(Iced porollel ta wide foce of
groin (Iced porollel to glue lines) (Iced porollel to wide face of slfands)
slfonds)

Compression pom!lel to groin 2500to 3200psi 1400to 2050psi 2500to 2900 psi

Horizontal shear 285to 290psi 310to 410psi 290psi

Width ,example availability 1-1/2, 1-3/4, 2-1/2,and 3-1/2 in 1-1/4, 1-1/2, 1-3/4,ond 3-1/2in. 3-1/2, 5-1/4,and 7in.

Depth,example availability 3-1/2 in. and greater 3-1/2in. and greater 9-1/4in. and greater
Applw::�bte v�tue'S v�ryW>th �oes, gr�de, �nd or�en��Uon of use. The des�gner !hoold U§e v�tues suppt•ed by �h.e m.lnuf.Kturer ofrh.espe.:ific producf being used. Value'S are based oo dry use and
pe1manen� toad dur�tion. wirh new or like-new producf, �nd must be mulriplied by<lpplic�ble adjustmenr f<KfO<S

'U should be nored th,t LSlls someti� used <ls an � fo<m fo< elev<lted mbs. where load Is applied perpendicular ro wide f<Ke of strands (plank o•ientarlon).

4.2.31-Joists
Wood I-joists are built-up members consisting of two rectangular flanges glued to
a web that is often positioned in a routed slot in the flanges. There are two types of
1-joists commonly used in formwork: those intended for handset applications, and those
intended to be used in a form table (Fig. 4.7). 1-joists used in handset systems are typically
built in depths ranging from 7 to 9 in.and often have a relatively thick web. These joists
are typically built with either LVL or sawn lumber flanges and either plywood or edge­
laminated built-up wood webs. These joists feature lateral stability from the relatively low
depth-to-width ratio and can carry relatively high loads over short spans.l- joists used in
table systems are built in depths ranging from 10 to 20 in.and are often built with camber
in simple span applications.These 1-joists are typically built withLVL flanges and oriented
strand board (OSB) webs.Together with sheathing, they are commonly used to make form
tables for supporting horizontal elevated slabs. As some 1-joists are produced for formwork
applications and some are produced for other applications (such as framing lumber in resi­
dential floors), the designer should obtain and use the manufacturer's recommendations
to ensure proper selection, sizing, and use of 1-joist products.
Fig. 4.7: Assembly of flying table form using
wood /·joists for beams and joists (Pharo
courtesy MEVA Formwork Systems)
4.2.4 Wood Trusses
Trusses featuring wood members as both
the chords and the webs (Fig.4.8) can be
used as vertical strongbacks or slab form
supporting members.These members
are often supplied for handset systems in
depths ranging from 7 to 9 in. for standard
formwork or in a special size or shape as
part of a custom form component.For
these specialized fabricated products, the
designer may rely on the recommendations
of the manufacturer.

4.3 Plywood
Plywood made with waterproof glue
is the most widely used sheathing for
job-built forms and prefabricated form
panel systems. Relatively large sheets of
plywood save labor in form building, and
the correspondingly large areas of joint­
free concrete reduce the cost of finishing
and rubbing exposed surfaces.With proper
care and treatment of form surfaces and
panel edges, five to 10 reuses are common Fig. 4.8: Engineered wood truss joists used in formwork for bridge box-girder web and flange

with standard form grades of plywood (Pharo courtesy PERl Formwork Systems, Inc.)

MATERIALS, ACCESSORIES, AND PROPRIETARY PRODUCTS 4-11


Fig. 4.9: Plywood is assembled by gluing thin
wood plies or layers with grain direction
alternating in adjacent layers
Fig. 4.10: Plywood structural properties are
affected by characteristics of the layers and
reuse is affected by surface durability. From top
to bottom: U.S. MOO plywood with five layers;
U.S. MDO plywood with seven layers; and
European PSF HDO plywood with 131ayers
a) Face grain parallel to plywood span -
strong direction of use
b) Face grain perpendicular ro plywood span
- weak direction of use
Fig. 4.11: Plywood face grain direction relative
to its span direction affects strength and stiff­
ness to resist loads
sheathing. Fifty reuses or more have been reported for some plywoods that have overlays
or special surface coatings.
4.3. 1 Construction and Sizes Available
Plywood is a flat panel made of a number of thin sheets of wood. A single sheet in the
panel may be referred to as a Nply," but U.S. standards also use the term Nlayer.N A layer may
consist of a single ply or it may be two or more plies laminated together with their grain
direction parallel. U.S. plywood is built up of an odd number of layers with the grain of
adjacent layers perpendicular to each other {Fig. 4.9). The layers or plies are dried and
joined under pressure with glues that make the joints stronger than the wood itself. The
number of layers, allowable layer defects, and species of wood affects the structural prop­
erties {Fig. 4.10). Alternating direction of the grain of adjoining layers called crossbands
equalizes strains and thus minimizes shrinkage and warping of plywood panels. Standard
North American plywood generally has the grain of the outer layers parallel to the long
dimension of the panel with crossbands running perpendicular to the long dimension of
the panel.
In the United States, commercial and industrial plywood used for concrete forms is
manufactured from several species and species groups of wood, including Douglas fir,
western larch, western hemlock, Southern Pine, and various other species of pine, spruce,
fir, cedar, maple, birch, beech, and other hardwood species.
Hardwood plywood products are increasingly available in the United States from
sources in Europe, South America, and Australia. Birch plywood from Europe {Fig. 4.10),
with 13 plies in a 3/4 in. thickness, has recommended bending reference design values
ranging from 2500 to 3500 psi and a modulus of elasticity of 1,800,000 to 2,000,000 psi.
Its premium price may be offset by the many reuses that are possible with a smooth and
durable phenolic resin film surface.
Less expensive imported plywood has outer plies of birch and inner plies of spruce
or other softwood, but also has a phenolic resin film surface. Unlike Canadian and U.S.
plywood, European panels typically have the face grain running in the short direction.
To use plywood the strong way, face grain should run parallel to the span (Fig. 4.11). The
detailed information presented in this volume is intended for plywoods manufactured to
U.S. product standards.
The 1/2, S/8, and 3/4 in. thicknesses of plywood in 4 x 8ft sheets are most commonly
used for formwork with sheets of 1/4 in. plywood frequently used as form liners. Scant
thicknesses of plywood are equally if not more common than full-thickness panels. Many
times the scant size panels are loosely referred to as the same thickness as the full thick­
ness so some confusion can develop between parties. For example, many will refer to
a 23/32 in. panel as 3/4 in. despite it being 1/32 in. thinner. In many circumstances, the
slight difference doesn't affect the use, but it may for some applications like architectural
formwork, high form pressure situations, or form systems with tight tolerances. A greater
range of thicknesses is obtainable when needed {refer to Table 4.13).1n addition to the
standard 4 x 8ft sheet, 5 ft widths and lengths ranging from 5 to 12 ft are often available
from stock, although production of these sizes is limited to a few mills in the United States
and Canada, so cost per square foot may be higher and availability may be lower than
standard 4x8ft sheets, particularly with overlaid plywood. Some contractors cut the 5 ft
width to 2-1/2 x 10 ft panels that are easier for one worker to handle than the 4 ft width.
Table 4.13 shows the weight of 4 x 8ft panels of various thicknesses, as well as the weight
per square foot.
Manufacturing tolerances for length and width of plywood panels are +0 and -1/16
in. The thickness tolerance is ±1/64 in. for sanded panels (including certain presanded
overlaid panels) 3/4 in. thick or less, and ±3% of specified thickness for thicker panels.
Unsanded overlaid form-grade plywood panels have a ±1/32 in. tolerance for 13/16 in. or
thinner panels, and ±S% for panels thicker than 13/16 in. Product standards require panels
to be square within 1/64 in. per foot for 4 x 4 ft and larger panels. They must be manufac­
tured so that a straight line drawn from one corner to the next falls within 1/16 in. of the
panel edge.
4.3.2 Types and Grades
Construction and industrial plywood are made in two types: interior and exterior. The exte­
rior type is bonded with waterproof glue, and the interior type is bonded with water-resis­
tant glue. Both types may be used for formwork, but the exterior type is necessary where
CHAPTER4
any reuse is desired. Plywood grades and types are defined in a commercial standard,
NIST PS 1-09, •structural Plywood.• The product standard defines grades of veneer-N and
A through 0-depending on the freedom of the surface from knots and other defects.
Grades 8-8 and 8-C are commonly used for formwork. B-B has both faces of B-grade
veneer, which is a smoothly sanded solid surface sheet with repair plugs and small tight
knots permitted. 8-C has one face of C-grade veneer, which allows small knots, knot holes,
and patches. The product standard also establishes three classes of plywood depending
on the kinds of woods used in manufacture-Class I, Class II, and Structural I. Class I and
Structural I are stronger and stiffer than Class II, and also the most widely available.
The standard further provides that plywood labeled as concrete form-grade shall be mill
oiled unless otherwise agreed between buyer and seller. Mill oiling does not eliminate the
need for oiling on the job, but mill-oiled plywood does give better service than that which
is job treated only. Some form release agents require an unoiled base. If the use of such
agents is planned, it is important to specify unoiled plywood. Edge sealing of plywood
adds protection against moisture and is recommended before the first use of any concrete
form plywood. Moisture ingress through unprotected edges may cause swelling and dete­
rioration of wood layers even though the glue itself is waterproof. Plywood designated
OES indicates it has been oiled and edge-sealed during manufacture. Resealing the edges
and tie holes after a number of uses, or sealing freshly cut edges, helps prolong the life of
the forms.
It is a good practice to specify panels carrying the mark of an approved inspection and
testing agency that indicates type and grade, species of veneer, and conformance with
applicable standards. If there is any doubt as to quality of plywood purchased, a certifica­
tion of type and grade may be requested. Structural properties of Class I and Structural I
Plyform are listed in Table 4.13 based on APA V345V-2012, ·concrete Forming- Design/
Construction Guide.·

MATERIALS, ACCESSORIES, AND PROPRIETARY PRODUCTS

 4.3.3 Overlaid Plywood
In addition to the previously mentioned plywood and veneer grades, concrete form
panels are available with special surface overlays. Overlaid plywood is intended for exte­
rior applications. It is produced similarly to other plywood, but with the addition of over­
lays-resin-impregnated fiber faces permanently fused under heat and pressure on one or
both sides. Overlaid plywood is also referred to as plastic coated, but it should be care­
fully distinguished from plywood that is coated or treated by the user with various plastic
compounds. Traditionally, overlays are either high-density (HDO) or medium-density
(MOO). In recent years, phenolic surface film (PSF) and other proprietary overlays designed
to resist the effects of high-alkaline concrete mixtures have become common.
Translucent or opaque overlays are designed to blank out the pattern of grain or knots,
but the product standard, NIST PS 1, permits Nsome evidence" of underlying grain. These
overlaid plywoods are used where smoother, relatively grainless surfaces are desired. Up
to 200 reuses in formwork have been reported for phenolic surface film and high-density
form-grade overlaid plywood, but such performance depends largely on the care taken
before, during, and after using the forms. The overlay generally improves the abrasion and
moisture resistance of plywood and decreases requirements for release agent. Some of
the high-density overlay surfaces may be used untreated, but light application of release
agent usually prolongs their service life. Because the exact nature of the overlay may vary
from manufacturer to manufacturer, the producer's instructions should be followed with
regard to oiling or treating overlaid plywood.
Phenolic Surface Film (PSF)-Containing 64 to 68% resin, PSF is the hardest and most
durable standard overlay available. It was first used on imported birch panels but has since
become a common overlay for domestic producers as well. PSF is designed to impart a
smooth glossy surface on the concrete and achieve many reuses with high-quality results.
High-DensityOverlay(HDO}-The surface of HDO plywood is hard and smooth. The
overlay, which may be on one or both sides, consists of a cellulose fiber sheet or sheets
having no less than 45% phenolic or other resin solids, based on weight of fiber and
resin, exclusive of adhesive. There have been occasional reports of blushing or pinkish
discoloration of concrete surfaces cast against HOO plywood when using Type Ill cement.
Blushing is a reaction of free dyes in the overlay with Type Ill cement. It can be prevented
by treating the panel with a slurry of mason's lime until the overlay turns pink. Once the
overlay is pink, the free dyes that cause blushing are no longer present and blushing will
no longer occur. If blushing occurs on the concrete surface, the stain usually disappears
with exposure to sunlight and air. Where such natural bleaching is delayed or impos­
sible, household bleaching agents (5% solutions of sodium hypochlorite) followed by
clear-water flushing are helpful in hastening stain removal. HDO plywood is available in
many different combinations of substrate panel and overlay weight, allowing flexibility in
performance and price depending on the application. In good condition, HDO plywood
will impart a smooth semi-gloss concrete surface that is generally considered acceptable
for architectural surfaces.
Medium-DensityOverlay(MOO)-The resin-impregnated facing on one or both surfaces
of MOO plywood consists of a cellulose fiber sheet in which not less than 17 to 22% by
weight of the laminate is a phenolic or other thermosetting resin. MOO plywood is less
resistant to abrasion and water penetration than HDO plywood. Only MOO products
designated for formwork are recommended for form construction. General-purpose, or
paint-grade, MOO plywood is not recommended. Use of a release agent suggested by
the manufacturer is important for achieving optimum results. like HDO plywood, MOO
plywood is available in several different substrate panel and overlay combinations. It will
typically leave a matte finish on concrete surfaces and is generally considered adequate
for creating a smooth base surface for mechanical finishing operations.
Special Overlays- The increased use of alternative cementitious materials and higher
alkaline mixtures has prompted many plywood and overlay manufacturers to develop
new overlays that are resistant to the effect of these mixtures. In addition to the resin­
impregnated overlays defined in NIST PS 1, manufacturers have produced form panels
overlaid with materials such as Formica, epoxy resin, glass fiber-reinforced polymer, and
panels with phenolic resin thermally fused into the panel faces. Some of the most expen­
sive and durable panels are surfaced with a 0.025 to 0.05 in. thick layer of glass fiber­
reinforced polymer. Release agent is usually not required on plywood panels coated with
polymeric resin.

4-14 CHAPTER4
4.3.4 Textured Surfaces
Plywood textures range from the very smooth PSF and HDO to striations, wood grain, or
patterned board-and-batten siding panels. The pattern or design of the plywood is trans­
ferred to the concrete, providing decorative surfaces that may have a marked reduction in
light reflection and glare.
Exterior-type textured plywood may be used as a form liner or as the basic forming
panel. Fewer reuses of textured panels can be expected because the repeated stripping
damages plywood. Coating the plywood with a film-forming material such as epoxy or
polyurethane, along with the use of a proper release agent, will make stripping easier and
allow more reuses of the material.

4.3.5 Strength Properties

ASD values for plywood are based on the strength properties and reference design values
for wood as determined by the U.S. Forest Products Laboratory. Recommended reference
design values and ASD adjusted design values for Plyform sheathing are included in Table
4.14 for the most commonly used formwork grade of plywood from APA V34SV. Design
values for other grades should be based on tables in APA DS10C-2011, "Panel Design
Specification; or other manufacturers' recommendations.
Table 4.14 includes the reference design values, usual adjustment factors for formwork
applications, and the adjusted design values for Class I and Structural I concrete form
plywood. Design values shown in Table 4.14 have already been adjusted for wet use as
recommended by the plywood manufacturers because form sheathing will generally
become wet when loaded with fresh concrete. For high-density overlaid plywood or
plywood coated on the job to make it impervious to moisture, higher design values are
permissible because the reduction for moisture no longer applies.
Plywood sheathing acts as a beam, but plies with grain running perpendicular to the
span contribute little to the bending strength and stiffness of the panel. Table 4.13 gives
the effective section properties for various thicknesses of plywood for two cases-face
plies parallel to the plywood span and face plies perpendicular to the span. For a given
thickness of plywood panel, I and KS are larger when the face grain is parallel to the span.
This is referred to as using plywood the strong way. Conversely, plywood with its face grain
perpendicular to the span is said to be used the weak way. Due to involved considerations
concerning properties of plywood, the effective moment of inertia I divided by distance to
extreme fiber c does not equal effective section modulus KS {Table 4.13). Therefore, effec­
tive section modulus, KS, as tabulated should be used for all bending stress calculations
and moment of inertia, I, should be used only for deflection calculation.

4.3.6 Bending Plywood to Curved Surfaces

Simple curves with radii not less than 24 in. can readily be made in plywood form
sheathing. Table 4.15 shows minimum radii for bending panels that are manually nailed.
Note that shorter radius curves can be obtained when plywood is bent across the grain.
Shorter radii than those tabulated may be developed by wetting or steaming, but this

MATERIALS, ACCESSORIES, AND PROPRIETARY PRODUCTS

Table Smallest radius (in.) for dry bending of plywood panels,
4.1 S: should be limited to exterior-type plywood.
nailed work Separation of grain fibers, known as
checking and grain rise, may be more
prominent with this method.
Best results in bending, for shorter radii,
are obtained when a continuous rounded
backing is used. In applications with abrupt
curvature change, secure the panel to the
shorter radius first. In critical bends, two
thin panels often work better than a thick
one.
Thick plywood, like solid timber, may also
be bent by saw kerfing the inside of the
curve. To get a smooth curve, the saw cut should not go through the last two plies next
to the face. Space kerfs so that at the correct radius the cuts will just close up. Therefore,
the finer the saw, the narrower the space on either side of the cut and the smoother the
corresponding curve. Power nailers and screwdrivers have extended the use of plywood
for complex curves where only steel or custom forms served in the past.

Materia ls
��J f>1���!Tt�:i�c:J'�!�r�!�g
The lumber industry has expanded production of reconstituted wood panels for economic
reasons as well as to conserve forest resources. Wood particle products generally make
more efficient use of trees than plywood, and they are made from younger or faster­
growing trees than those commonly used for plywood.
Some of the stronger reconstituted wood panel products are suitable for load-carrying
formwork sheathing. Properly backed with supporting members, the weaker ones may
be used as liners to impart a desired finish to the concrete. These products must be
purchased on the basis of physical properties, not just panel thickness. Only those mate­
rials specially manufactured for forming applications-with edge sealing and surface
treatment-can be expected to give durability comparable to concrete form plywoods.
Several categories of products are described in the following paragraphs, using the names
that appear most widely accepted. Some are not yet officially standardized.
Hardboard is a fibrous-felted board, usually made from wood fibers consolidated under
heat and pressure. Tempered hardboard, impregnated with materials such as drying oils,
may be used as a form liner or facing material.
Waferboard is a structural panel made from large thin wafers cut along the grain of
the wood, mixed with waterproof phenolic resin, interleaved in random directions in
thick mats, and bonded under heat and pressure. Its strength, uniformity, and weather
resistance make it suitable for many of the same uses as exterior plywood and soft­
wood lumber.
Oriented Strand Boord (058) is a panel product made of layers of thin wood strands cut
in the direction of the grain and bonded with waterproof resin under heat and pressure.
Strands of each layer are aligned parallel to one another, but perpendicular to those in
adjacent layers. A special-grade OSB has been developed for form panel applications,
and some grades of thicker OSB have been used as edge forms for non-elevated slabs.
Performance requirements for both OSB and waferboard are established by NIST PS 2-10,
"Performance Standard for Wood-Based Structural-Use Panels.�
Particleboard or fiberboard panels have limited applications for forming, but may be suit­
able as liners under some conditions.

4.4.2 Steel
Steel has long been an important material for the fabrication of special-purpose forms.
Steel framing and bracing are important in the construction of many wood and plywood
panel systems described later. Steel pan components for slab forming, stay-in-place steel
forms, steel braces, and vertical shores are widely used.
Standard lightweight structural steel members-channels, angles, 1-beams, and
others-are used in framing or supporting formwork, often permitting greater spans or
heavier loads than would be possible with timber members. A comprehensive list of steel
members available for this purpose will not be attempted herein, but several handbooks

CHAPTER4
Fig. 4.12: Trapezoidal tubular steel beam,
designed with cutouts to reduce weight, can ocr
as joist or stud support; plywood can be nailed
or screwed directly to the beam (Photo courtesy
EFCOCorp.)
Fig. 4.13: Adjustable steel beams for slab Fig. 4.14: Plate girder forms of steel have
formwork spanning between precast concrete strength and stiffness to form both the canti­
girders (Photo courtesy Ellis Manufacturing lever and the riser beam for this stadium project
Co., Inc.) without shoring (Photo courtesy EFCOCorp.)

or manuals will help form builders select steel members that

may be suitable for a particular project:
AISC 325-11, NSteel Construction Manualff;
AISI Dl00-08, "Cold-Formed Steel Design Manual"; and
SJI COSP-2010, Tode of Standard Practice for Steel Joists
and Joist Girders.ff
Manufacturers of steel systems often provide span and load
tables for their systems, particularly where specialized steel
shapes have been developed (Fig. 4.1 2). With reasonable care,
steel form framing members will be suitable for many reuses.
Adjustable-length telescoping steel beams as shown in Fig.
4.13, sometimes called horizontal shores, are manufactured for
use in formwork (see Chapter 11). Steel members are particu­
larly suitable for longer spans by providing considerable
savings in materials and labor that would otherwise be needed
for intermediate supports. An example of plate girder steel
forms is presented in Fig. 4.14.

4.4.3 Aluminum
The use of aluminum for forming and shoring applications has
increased because higher initial material costs can be offset by
reduced handling costs and longer service life. Design prin­
ciples for aluminum structures are provided in The Aluminum
Association's ADM 1-2010, "Aluminum Design Manual." Lighter­
weight aluminum formwork components produce individual
forming units larger than practical with other materials. For
example, welded aluminum basement forms can be made 50% Fig. 4.15: Aluminum form panels ganged into larger units (Photo courtesy
wider than conventional steel-framed plywood panels and yet Western Forms)
weigh about the same. Panels can also be assembled into large
units (Fig. 4.15). Aluminum wall forms are available with an integral pattern to reproduce
brick, stone, and other textures on the finished concrete wall.
Aluminum beams are produced with specially designed flanges (Fig. 4.16) to facilitate
their use as a joist, stringer, or wale. The bottom flange is slotted to receive heads of bolts
connecting it to other components. Top flanges can be shaped to hold wood nailing
strips, 2x2s, and flat 2x4s. Adjustable-length telescoping beams are also manufactured in
aluminum. Aluminum truss supports for flying forms make it possible to move lengths of
deck form in excess of 80 ft at one time. Tubular aluminum has been used for form bracing
and shoring frames.
Aluminum alloys 6061-T6 and 6063-T6, whose properties are given in Table 4.16, are
suitable for use as concrete forms. Initially, a mild etching takes place, and a layer of
oxidized aluminum forms on the form surface. This prevents any further reaction with
fresh concrete and also provides a relatively smooth surface for the concrete. Standard
form oils used to facilitate stripping of steel forms work satisfactorily on aluminum forms,
but an oleic acid-based release agent has been recommended for use on some cast
aluminum forms.

MATERIALS, ACCESSORIES, AND PROPRIETARY PRODUCTS

Table 4.16: Typical mechanical properties of aluminum alloys suitable
for formwork•
NQ(e;Values apply a( lou(ions farther than 1 in. from a weld
Fig. 4.16: Aluminum beam with specially
designed top flange shaped to hold wood
nailing strip and bottom flange slotted to
receive heads of bolts connecting other
components (Image courtesy Aluma Systems)
Fig. 4.17: Glass fiber-reinforced polymer forms
for one-wayjoisrslab
Galvanic action between aluminum
and other metals can occur in permanent
works, so unprotected aluminum forms
should never be used where they will
remain and become part of the finished
concrete structure.
10,000
4.4.4 Glass Fiber-Reinforced
Polymer
Glass fiber-reinforced polymer forms
10,000 (Fig. 4.1 7) are often described as plastic
forms or fiberglass forms, but neither
abbreviated term is completely correct.
They are truly a combination of mate­
rials, up to about one-third being glass
fiber and two-thirds being polymer. Such
forms have found increasing use because they are strong and lightweight, capable
of producing high-quality concrete surfaces, and generally last through numerous
reuses. They can be readily fabricated to complex or nonstandard shapes with little
capital investment.
A seamless surface with little limitation of size or shape is possible. Where greater
stiffness is required, wood or metal members are added, with layers of the fiber glass­
reinforced polymer coated over them to hold them in place. Complete encasement of a
lightweight core material such as balsa wood results in a sandwich construction of consid­
erable strength suitable for forming warped surfaces.
Thickness of the glass fiber-reinforced polymer part of the forms has varied from 1/8
in. with no external reinforcement to 5/8 in. for column forms with 3x4s as reinforcement.
Dome pans have been used successfully with a wall thickness of 1/8 in.
Repetitive shapes such as dome pans can be mass-produced by hot molding in matched
metal dies. For complex shapes made in small quantities. the forms are constructed by
the conventional hand lay-up method used for other reinforced polymers. First. a model
of plaster, wood, or steel is prepared to the exact dimensions desired. This piece is then
waxed, polished, and sprayed with a parting agent to prevent sticking of the resin to the
master pattern. Glass mat is then fitted over the model and thoroughly saturated with a
brush coat of polyester resin. When the resin has set and the heat dissipated, another layer
of glass mat and polyester resin is added. This process is repeated until the desired thick­
ness is obtained.
Another method of building up the forms is to use a spray gun to apply the resin to
which chopped strands of glass fiber are added as the reinforcing material. Often, a
combination of the two methods is used. Depending on the size and shape of the form, it
may be necessary to provide additional stiffening and support by means of built-up ribs,
wood struts, steel rods, or aluminum tubing.
If identical forms are required for a job, additional molds can be cast in plaster using the
first form prepared as a master pattern. The number of additional molds is determined
by the number of matching form units needed and by the production schedule. Where
numerous reuses are contemplated, an extra thickness of resin is molded into the contact
surface to prevent any of the glass fibers from separating and Nblooming• open at the form
surface.
With either method of making the forms it is possible to eliminate all joints or seams.
When special conditions dictate the building of a form in sections, it is possible to join the
units in such a manner that the several sections may later be sealed together at the job
site with additional applications of resin and glass fiber to produce a seamless mold.
4.4.5 Other Polymeric Form Materials
Several manufacturers have developed polymeric form sheathing panels. One of these,
recommended only for light construction, is a mixture of high-density polyethylene with
talc and glass fibers added to improve stiffness. It is manufactured in thicknesses from
3/8 to 1 in. Another manufacturer of a heavy-framed panel has developed a polymeric
panel material that is intended to eliminate the customary periodic refacing of the
panels. It consists of a foamed polypropylene core, faced on both sides with a sheet of
aluminum and overlaid with a synthetic thermoplastic material. (See also the section on
CHAPTER4
stay-in-place insulating polymer forms later
in this chapter.)
Because the polymeric and polymer­
surfaced form panels are impervious to
moisture and have smooth faces. concrete
may have more surface air voides than
that cast against absorbent form faces.
Careful selection of release agent and
good consolidation can minimize unde­
sirable effects. Manufacturers frequently
recommend that these polymer-faced
panels be used with a reduced amount
of release agent, sometimes without a
release agent. Most users find that a light
coating of release agent protects the
forms as well as facilitates stripping.
For damaged polymeric form surfaces,
repair kits and repair materials are available
for patching and polishing to restore the
smooth surface. Expansion is a possible
problem with polymer and glass fiber­
Fig. 4. I 8: Double-woven fabric mar forms for protection of reservoir sloping bank; flowing fine­
reinforced polymer forms. Prolonged
aggregate concrete was pressure-injected through the upper layer of fabric on 8 to 10ft centers
exposure to hot sun or the heat of hydra­
(Photo courtesy Synrherex)
tion of cement in massive members can
sometimes cause enough expansion to produce misalignment or faulty dimensions. The
designer who is aware of this possibility can detail forms to compensate.

4.4.6 Fabric and Parous Forms

Fabric bags, mats, and tubes have been effectively used as forms under special construc­
tion conditions. Burlap sacks, 6 in. in diameter and 24 in. long, are the basis of a stacked­
bag type of construction used for one- and two-story buildings. The bags are filled with
dry concrete, then stacked up like blocks. The wall is reinforced by short bars driven
through several layers of sacks. The sacks may be dipped in water before stacking or wet
down with a hose after being placed in the wall.
Larger bags of less-permeable synthetic fabrics are pumped full of concrete at the
Fig. 4.19: Expanded metal used to form a pile
point where they are assembled into dikes, retaining walls, embankment protection,
cap; a small amount of concrete paste seeps
cofferdams, and other structures. Double-walled fabric mats (Fig. 4.18), pumped full of
through the stay-in-place form, which is
concrete or mortar, are used for concrete slope protection, revetments, and linings along acceptable in locations not exposed to view
shores of lakes, waterways, canals, and harbors. Weep holes for relief of hydrostatic uplift (Photo courtesy Alabama Meta/Industries
may be incorporated into the fabric during the weaving process, and spaced openings Corporation, AMICO•)
may be provided to allow growth of vegetation. These heavy fabric forms are particularly
suited for underwater construction, but also have proved economical for certain dry-land
installations. Several aspects of fabric forming, including special weaving of some of the
fabrics, are patented. Fabric forms are also used to construct reinforced concrete jackets
that extend above and below the waterline for repair of deteriorated piles. Jacket sleeves
wrap around the pile with a zipper-like closure and are suspended by a steel ring during
concrete injection.
Coated nylon and polyester fabrics are also used to make inflatable forms of spherical,
ellipsoid, cylindrical, and free-form shapes. The form may be used to define either the
inside or outside surface of the structure, with concrete usually applied using the shot­
crete method. Domes 250ft in diameter or larger have been constructed with inflated
fabric forms.
Expanded metal stiffened by integrally formed ribs can be used as sheathing for forming
bulkheads, footings, pile caps, foundation walls, blindside walls, and in other applications
where the concrete surface will not be exposed to view (Fig. 4.19).1t stays in place, saving
the labor of stripping, and the rough surface bonds well to concrete cast against it later....s
The full concrete pressure reached in a normal placement is not attained when casting
against permeable or open mesh products, in part because of release of water from the
concrete through openings in the metal. Studies conducted in England�-6 show a lateral
pressure reduction of as much as 50% when compared to the same concrete cast against
impermeable forms.

MATERIALS, ACCESSORIES, AND PROPRIETARY PRODUCTS

 4.4.7 Form Lining Materials
In this manual, the term Hform lining" includes any sheet, plate, or layer of material
attached directly to the inside face of forms to improve or alter the surface texture
and quality of the finished concrete. Substances that are applied by brushing, dipping,
mopping, or spraying to preserve the form material and to make stripping easier are
referred to as form coatings and are described in a later section, although some of these
coatings can approximate a form liner in function.
Plywood, hardboard, and steel, all previously described, have application as form liners,
but emphasis in this manual is placed on other types such as the various polymers, rubber,
paper, cardboard, and fiberboard that have limited structural strength and depend on the
sheathing material for support.
Various thicknesses of the several lining materials have been tried, and various means
of attaching the materials to the forms are used. Some adhesives are suitable for attaching
liners to both wood and steel forms. liners may be tacked, screwed, stapled, or nailed to
wood forms.
Whether the liner is attached to a horizontal or vertical form surface also makes a differ­
ence. Thin sheets that can be used satisfactorily as base mats may wrinkle or sag when
attached to vertical forms. Thicker layers of lining material generally have greater rigidity
and consequently are more adaptable to vertical form surfaces. They are also less subject
to accidental damage from vibrators.
Extreme smoothness and relative imperviousness of some of the lining materials give
rise to a problem of eliminating air or surface air voids (also referred to as bug holes),
particularly when oil or grease is applied. Air bubbles seem to adhere to some of these
ultra-smooth surfaces and resist removal by vibration. Wood, plywood, and hardboard
form faces do not present this problem to the same extent because the oil or other parting
compound tends to be absorbed into the exterior fibers rather than forming a film on the
form surface.
Highly absorptive materials used as form liners have eliminated voids and air pockets
on the surface of the concrete and improved durability of the concrete surface layer.
However, increased cost and difficulties associated with the use of such materials have
prevented their widespread acceptance.

Polymeric Form Liners

A great variety of smooth and low-relief textured concrete surfaces can be produced
by casting concrete against polymeric form liners (Fig 4.20). Vertically ribbed or fluted
surfaces and reproductions of board and brick patterns are among the more popular
designs. The principal types of polymeric liners in current use are:
E/asromeric-Rubber-like polymeric formulations including urethanes and hot-melt
vinyl. These flexible polymers can be peeled away from cast concrete surfaces with slightly
undercut areas. They require good support and usually are adhered to form sheathing.
Elastomeric liners are sometimes sold prebonded to plywood sheets. However, peeling
capability is largely lost if the liner remains attached to a rigid backing. They are tough and
wear-resistant. With reasonable care, 100to 200uses are possible.
Rigid-Several formulations, including ABS and polyvinyl chloride (PVC ) sheets, are stiff
enough to be considered self-supporting. These liners are attached to sheathing by nails,
staples, or screws and are available in standard sheets up to 10ft long or on special order
up to 30ft long. Some manufacturers provide interlocking joints at the edges of the sheets
to maintain continuity of pattern. Rigid liners are particularly suited to ribbed or fluted
wall surfaces (Fig. 4.21 ).
Glass fiber-reinforced-These liners are similar in appearance and function similar to
other rigid polymers, but have longer potential service life. Better quality glass fiber-rein­
forced polymer liners have an extra gel coat of the polymeric resin at the contact surface
to keep glass fibers from blooming through the resin skin.
Foamed or expanded-Foamed polyurethane and expanded polystyrene can be readily
Fig. 4.21: Form liner is peeled away from
cut or shaped with hand tools to form unique concrete surface textures. Standard patterns
concrete surface, revealing fractured rib
are available in molded polystyrene. Raw cut edges of these polymers tend to bond to
texture as cast
concrete and are commonly removed by abrasion or chemical means. The molded poly­
styrene has a surface skin that can be coated with release agent for easy removal. These
liners are generally single use, although closed-cell materials can sometimes be recovered
for a sec-ond use. Careful handling is required to avoid damage. These liners are readily
dissolved by a number of common solvents.

CHAPTER4
 It is best to avoid temperature extremes with polymeric liners. Even though stan-
dard polymers are satisfactory up to about 140 to 150°F, they expand with temperature
increases on the job. A 10ft wide polymeric liner can grow about 0.006 in. for every 1°F
temperature increase. Installing the liners warm prevents buckling and pulling out of
nails or staples. Spraying with cold water before placing the concrete helps eliminate liner
bulges due to expansion. The ABS plastics have lower thermal expansion than some of the
other plastics, but they can become brittle and susceptible to damage at temperatures
below0°F.
A number of claims have been made about stripping plastic forms and liners without
using a release agent. Usually, this is possible when the liners are new, but it is preferable
to use a release agent to assure uniformity of the concrete surface and to protect liners
from deterioration.
Information on decorative effects attainable with plastic liners is presented in Chapter 14,
Architectural Concrete.

Rubber Liners
Neoprene and other types of rubber mat have been successfully used as base liners in
repetitive factory precasting work. Rubber liners are characterized by a long life and high
reuse value. Patterned rubber materials intended for other purposes, such as bus plat­
forms or industrial floor mats, have been adapted for lining purposes. liquid rubber can
be cast against intricately sculpted patterns and become the mold or form for ornamental
concrete. Pourable mold rubbers can be thickened for use in making brush-on molds.
The rubber is usually brushed in several layers onto a pattern that has been coated with
a release agent. To reduce the amount of rubber needed and to strengthen the form, a
secondary mold of plaster or glass fiber-reinforced polymer is used to support the rubber
contact surface that serves as a liner.

Vacuum Liners
Vacuum treatment removes water and air bubbles from the surface layer of freshly placed
concrete. It is sometimes specified to improve the resistance of a concrete surface to the
action of water flowing at a high velocity. The vacuum treatment also improves appear­
ance and durability, but it is generally too expensive to be justified for the latter purpose
alone.
The vacuum treatment is achieved on formed surfaces by using a special form liner
made of two layers of screen or wire mesh covered by a layer of cloth. The liner is sealed
with rubber or caulking material around the edges of the form panel or unit. A series I
of openings in the form panel backing is connected to the vacuum pump. Individual I
vacuum areas are usually several feet long and 12 to 18 in. high so that each area may be I Water extractN!J

I=�/�,.
_
quickly covered by concrete and the vacuum can be applied after concrete placement and
consolidation. One method of vacuum liner construction is shown in Fig. 4.22. I
I
Absorptive Form Liners I
I
At one time, there was keen interest in the use of absorptive materials for lining forms. I
Wallboard of various compositions, canvas and other cotton cloth, blotter-type paper, and 12-Wiremesh
muslin-covered chipboard were among the materials successfully used. The absorptive I
I
linings proved practical in eliminating voids and other common imperfections on concrete
I
surfaces, and also produced surfaces with greater durability and resistance to abrasion!.1
Several government agencies conducted extensive investigations•11and contributed 1----t-��
to development of various absorptive lining products. Millions of square feet of these
materials were used to line vertical or sloping forms for dams, powerhouses, spillways,
pumping plants, and other structural and architectural concrete. In spite of the real advan­
Fig. 4.22: One method of constructing o
tages obtained with absorbent form liners, the high cost, misuse, and difficulty in installa­
vacuum form lining
tion and removal discouraged their widespread use.
A 1970 reappraisal4-9suggested that the absorptive form liner technique was a useful
concrete casting method that might again be applied as materials technology evolved.
That prediction proved correct in the 1980s with the development of controlled-perme­
ability formwork using some of the improved geotechnical fabrics such as nonwoven,
thermally bonded polypropylene. Reports of some successful applications4-10•4-11 weigh the
advantage of more durable concrete surfaces and possible reduction of lateral pressure
against increased forming costs.

MATERIALS, ACCESSORIES, AND PROPRIETARY PRODUCTS


Fig. 4.24: Reinforcement is placed within the
ICF wall cavity; lateral bracing and worker
platforms are supplied for some systems or
conventional scaffolding is used (Photo cour­
tesy LiteForm Technologies)
4.4.8 Insulation and Insulating
Forms
Both thermal and acoustical insulating
boards made from glass fiber, wood fiber,
or foamed polymer are suitable for use
with concrete forms and the concrete cast
against them. No oil or parting compound
is required. The supporting formwork is
easily stripped and the insulating boards
remain in place, either bonded to the
concrete or held in place by form plank
clips. The supplier of these products should
advise the user of any possible effects on
curing of the concrete.
Some of the insulating board materials
are strong enough to serve as perma­
nent forms, replacing conventional deck
sheathing.A glass fiber form board, for

Fig. 4.23: Insulating concrete form unit with example, is sometimes used where the

interconnecting ties (Photo courtesy Fox Blocks)
Fig. 4.25: Wall and floor system cast in
polystyrene floor elements form shape of
joists similar to pan joists; engineering design
determines spacing for supporting stringers
and shores during construction (Image cour­
tesy Quad-Lock Building Sy5tems Ltd.)
roof deck is made of lightweight concrete.
Normal construction with this form board
involves placing the boards, finished face
down, on a system of subpurlins securely
welded to a steel structural frame.The
whole area is then covered with wire mesh
reinforcement and the lightweight roof
deck concrete is placed.
A development based on polystyrene
foam insulation is the growing use of
insulating concrete forms (ICFs) that stay
in place as a permanent part of the wall
assembly (Fig. 4.23 and 4.24).There are
two major configurations for stay-in­
place ICFs: either block or panel type.ln
Fig. 4.26: ICF system forming concrete joists
the block system, molded interlocking
and slab; shores and stringers below support
blocks of polystyrene are stacked to the
forms, placed concrete, and construction
desired wall height, with window and
loads (Photo courtesy lnsui-Deck LLC)
door openings blocked out, often with
wood or other materials that are left in
place to create nailing surfaces for installation of window and door components.Workers
set any necessary reinforcing steel before placing concrete in cavities in the blocks.The
resulting concrete structure may be post and beam, an open grid, or a solid waffle panel of
concrete, depending on the internal molded structure of the block forms. Face dimensions
of the blocks typically range from 8x 16 in.to 16 x 48 in.A typicai iCF block produces a
wall10 in.thick with 6 in.of concrete in the center.
The panel-type forms are larger than the block type. The units typically range from1x
8ft to 4 x12ft.The inside and outside faces of the form have flat edges, and are joined by
various patented connector ties that maintain the desired wall thickness and sometimes
aid in supporting reinforcing steel.Concrete placed in these forms becomes a solid, flat
concrete wall. The Insulating Concrete Form Association identifies a third type, the plank
system, similar to the panel system but generally with smaller face dimensions ranging
in height from 8 to 12in.and in length from 4 to 12ft. The planks are joined by plastic
ties as part of the erection sequence, while the larger panel systems are assembled into
units before setting into place. Exterior finish materials are applied over or attached to the
insulating forms.
ICF deck forms are also available for constructing either flat floors (Fig. 4.25 and 4.26)
or gabled roofs.Typically, these forms contain some embedded metal stiffeners, and they
usually must be shored to support the freshly placed concrete.
Foam insulation can also be integrated into concrete walls that are formed with conven­
tional systems.A tie/shear connector is used in one method to place several inches
of polystyrene insulation at the center of a concrete wall with 3 to 4 in.of concrete on

CHAPTER4
each side. The nonmetallic tie structur­
ally connects the two layers of concrete.
Another system places the insulation layer
against the inside wall form. Proprietary
plastic devices embedded in the insulation
layer extend into the concrete to make a
permanent connection.
Welded wire sandwich panels containing
a core of expanded polystyrene can also
serve as support for surfaces to which shot­
crete is applied. The core insulation remains
Fig. 4.27: Insulating concrete forms for walls
permanently in place. Conventional steel or
of a residence; forms were braced at intervals
wood framing is also used in combination
around the entire perimeter to ensure stability
with ICF construction as shown in Fig. 4.27.
and alignment during concrete placement
The Insulating Concrete Forms Construction
(Photo courtesy of Fox Blocks)
Manuatm provides step-by-step instruc­
tions for those planning to build with ICFs.

4.5 Hardware and Fasteners

4.5.1 Nails
Nails and spikes are the most common mechanical fasteners used in construction of
wood formwork and bracing, and their proper use contributes much to economy and
quality of the work. Forms must be substantial and their component parts held together BOX COMMON DOUBLE HEAD
securely, but the use of too large or too many nails should be avoided. The labor required
for fabrication, erection, and stripping of forms will be reduced by holding the number Fig. 4.28: Actual size of 16-penny nails
of nails to a safe minimum and by selecting the best types of nails for differing formwork
requirements.
Nails and spikes are available in a wide assortment of lengths, wire diameter (gauge),
and shapes (head, point. shank). Shanks may be smooth, bright, cement-coated, barbed,
etched, or galvanized. Regardless of these variables, wire nails and shorter spikes have
become standardized in "pennyweight"(d) sizes through usage, while the longer spikes
are measured in inches. The nominal length is customarily measured from under the head
to the tip of the point. Measurements of several types and sizes of nails are shown in Table
4.17, and Fig. 4.28 shows the actual size of several 16d nails.

Table 4.17: Nail sizes and measurements

MATERIALS, ACCESSORIES, AND PROPRIETARY PRODUCTS

'Cwdofosnotapplyto toenailsloadedinwithdr�w�l

Nail Types Used for Formwork

Double-headed nails are a must for nailing kickers, blocks, braces, and reinforcing for
wales-anywhere that considerable holding power is required and at the same time nails
must be removed readily when forms are stripped. Double-headed nails can be pulled
easily and quickly with a claw hammer or stripping bar without bruising or otherwise
damaging the lumber. The size depends on the material to be nailed and the load to be
carried. A spike with a removable head available from form hardware manufacturers may
be used where loads are heavy.
Common wire nails are used in assembly of form panels and other components for
multiple uses, or wherever nails need not be removed in stripping. Their holding power
makes them relatively difficult to remove, and their heads leave a more noticeable impres­
sion in the concrete than some of the special purpose nails.
Box nails, frequently used in nail guns, are used for assembly of form components or
for attachment of sheathing and liners. For built-in-place forms, box nails are desirable
because the shank is thinner than that of common nails and will pull loose more readily.
For attaching sheathing or lining materials to studs, nails whose heads leave the smallest
impression on the finished concrete are generally desired. The size needed depends on
the thickness of the sheathing. For nominal1 in. sheathing or 5/8 in. and thicker plywood,
6dnails are recommended. For panel forms, common nails of this size are better because
such forms must withstand considerable racking and abuse.
Where fiberboard or thin plywood liners are to be attached over sheathing, small nails
with thin flat heads such as 3d blue shingle nails are desirable. The heads of these nails
leave a very faint impression in the concrete, and the small diameter shank pulls out of the
sheathing material easily without pulling the head through the lining material.

Holding Power of Nails

The diameter, penetration, surface condition, and metal strength influence both the lateral
and withdrawal strength of nails. Another variable is the specific gravity of the wood
species into which the nails are driven. Tabulated design values are subject to adjustment
factors (Table 4.18) similar to those for lumber. Moisture and load duration adjustments
(Table 41
. 9) are the ones most frequently not equal to1.0 in formwork design.
Nailed joints are generally stronger when the nails are driven into the side grain
{perpendicular to the wood fibers) instead of into the end grain of the wood. The joint is
also stronger if it uses the lateral resistance rather than direct withdrawal resistance of the
nail. The AWC NDS requirements reduce strength for lateral resistance of nails in end grain
and prohibit loading in direct withdrawal from end grain. Thus,
C = 06
. 7 for lateral loads
<P
C =0 for withdrawal loads
<P

CHAPTER4
Table 4.19: Moisture and duration adjustment factors for nail, screw, and bolt connections

Equal to or less than 19%in both fabrication and service 1_Q

WITHDRAWAL LOADS

Equal or less than 19%in service,any content at fabrication 1.0

log screws and wood screws
More thon 19%in service,ony content otlobricotian 0.7
Equal to or less than 19%in both fabrication ond service 1.0
More than 19%in both fabrication and service 1.0
Nails and bolts
More than 19% in service,but equal or less than 19% ot fabrication 0.25

Equal or less than 19%ot fabrication but more than 19% in service 0.25

Max1mum cumulative Adtustment factor

load duration Example load C0
Up to10yeors Occupancy l1ve load 10

Snow load 1.15

7doys
I Construction load 1.25
10minutes Wind or earthquake 1.6
NOTE: No duration adjustment permitted lor impact load on connections
Note.BasedonprOVISIOnsofAWCN0S2012

Table 4.20: Withdrawal load reference design values, • lb per in. of penetra·
tion, for common wire nails, box nails, and common wire spikes

Comparisons of holding power may be made for softwoods with Tables 4.20 and 4.21,
which show reference design values for nailed joints subject to withdrawal and lateral
loads, respectively. Values tabulated are for one nail. When more than one nail is used, the
load-carrying capacity of the joint is the sum of the values of the individual nails used.
However, if nail installation causes splitting, nails in the split have no strength contribution
to the connection. The end distance and edge distance should be such that splitting does
not occur. Recommendations put forth by the AWC NOS Commentary for end and edge
distances depend on orientation of loading relative to wood grain and nail diameter. It is
not good practice to place nails in long rows in a tension splice.
Design values in Tables 4.19 and 4.20 are for engineered construction where structural
design depends on specific design values for each nail. The AWC NOS for Wood Construction

MATERIALS, ACCESSORIES, AND PROPRIETARY PRODUCTS

 ��
Table 4.21: Common wire and box nail lateral reference design
' values
(Z), lb, for two-member {single-shear) connections
Design values based on 10diameters (100) penetration of nail into the main member receiving the point. Minimum
penetration for any strength is 60. For penetration, p, between 60 and 100, multiply listed values by pflOD. No
increasefor penetriltion>lOD.

Nail length

Fig. 4.29: Toenailed connection is most effec­

tive when nail is driven at an angle of about
3D degrees

provides design rules used to determine

the strength of nailed connections such as
those in Tables 4.20 and 4.21.

Toenailing and Clinching

Connections involving withdrawal loading
on nails driven into end grain are prohib­
ited due to their low withdrawal resis­
tance. This makes toenailing an impor­
tant technique for form construction.
Toenailed joints, used in place of nailing
into end grain, are subject to the following
adjustments:
ct� = 0.67 for withdrawal loads
ern= 0.83 for lateral loads
The wet service adjustment factor is not
applied to toenailed joints loaded in
withdrawal.
Best installation results are obtained
when toenails are started at one-third the
length of the nail from the end of the piece
that the nail enters (Fig. 4.29). The nail
should be driven at an angle of approxi­
mately 30 degrees to the member. Because
of the need to take formwork apart readily,
clinching (bending down the ends of
protruding nails) is often not practical.
Where feasible, though, clinching can
increase strength of the joints although the
amount of increase is not defined.

Nails in Plywood
Nailing characteristics of plywood are
"N�il length is insufficient to provide 100 penetr�tion into m�in member. much the Same aS those Of SOlid WOOd.
Note: Based on data from AWC NDS-1011. Tabulated design v�lues must be mu�iplied by applic;�ble adjustment fact<><s(Tabl<>4.18) The advantage of plywood is its greater
resistance to splitting when nails are driven
near the edge. The resistance to withdrawal of nails in plywood is 15 to 30% less than that
of solid wood with the same thickness because the fiber distortion is less uniform than in
solid wood. Grain direction of the face ply has little influence on the withdrawal resistance
along the end or edge of a piece of plywood. When nails driven through sheathing into a
wood supporting member to create a diaphragm are subjected to lateral loading, Cd, = 1.1.
Additional design information can be found in AWC NOS for Wood Construction.

4.5.2 Wood Screws

Tables 4.22 and 4.23 show reference design values for a single wood screw in both
lateral and withdrawal resistance. For connections with more than one screw, the total

CHAPTER4
Table 4.23: Wood screw reference lateral design value (Z), lb, for single-shear (two-member) connections
Design values based on 10 diameters (100) penetration of screw into the main member receiving the point. Minimum penetration for any strength is 60. For penetration. p,
between 60 and 100, multiply listed values by p/100. No increase for penetration > 100.

design load is the sum of loads for the individual screws. However, if screw installation
causes splitting, screws in the split have no strength contribution. Lateral design values
are based on attaching a 3/4 in. wood side member to a thicker main member. Load values
are subject to adjustment factors given in Table 4.19 for duration of load and moisture
conditions. Note that withdrawal design values in Table 4.22 are given in pounds per inch
of penetration of the screw into the member receiving the point, while the lateral loads in
Table 4.23 are the total per screw. The calculation of a screw connection capacity is illus­
trated in Example 4.1.

I#Tiift1tjl4131§ IC.!.!.!Jgt!.!.if!Q
Three 3 in. long No. 10 wood screws are used to attach a 3/4 in. thick Hem-Fir
diagonal brace to a 4x4 S4S Southern Pine wood shore side face. Determine
the ASD capacity of the connection in lateral load due to wind under dry
conditions.
Required penetration= 10(0.190 in.)= 1.90 in.
Actual penetration= 3 in.- 0.75 in.= 2.25 in. OK.
From Table 4.23, Z= 86 lb/screw. Z'= ZC0CM= 86 lb(1.6)(1.0) = 138 lb/screw.
Capacity= 138 lb/screw(3 screws)= 4141b.
Select screw locations to meet appropriate end and edge distances to avoid
splitting.

MATERIALS, ACCESSORIES, AND PROPRIETARY PRODUCTS

 4.5.3 Bolts, Lag Screws, and Other Connectors
Bolts and lag screws are common joint fasteners for heavy formwork construction. lateral
and withdrawal design values for bolted and lag screw connections, for eight species of
wood, are presented in Tables 4.24 through 4.27. More comprehensive design tables are
given in the AWC NOS for Wood Construction.
Tables 4.24, 4.25, and 4.27 are only valid for situations where the bolt or lag screw bears
parallel (ill or perpendicular (_l) to the grain in main and side members connected. For
a two-member joint, the main member is the thicker of the two members. For a three­
member joint, the main member is the center member. In formwork, bracing members
are frequently placed at an angle as shown in Fig. 4.30, usually with the brace subjected to
axial load. The connection strength at an angle depends on the main and side members'
orientation in reference to grain. The strength values can be calculated by the Hankinson
formula as follows:

Fig. 4.30: Connection loaded at angle to grain For main member perpendicular to grain and side member parallel to grain
z1;z�J.
Z' (4.2)
& z; sin2 e + z�J. cos2 a
For main member parallel to grain and side member perpendicular to grain
zljz;J.
Z' (4.3)
a z1; sin1 e + z;.�_ cos2 e
Reference design values in Tables 4.24 through 4.27 are subject to adjustment factors
given in Table 4. 18. Spacing, edge distance, and member end distances of bolts or lag
screws have significant influence on the geometry factor, ell. For a multi-bolt connec­
tion, the allowable load is the sum of individual bolt strength values modified by the
group action factor, C g. Refer to AWC NOS for these adjustment factors. AWC NOS also
gives strength data for connections made with split ring and shear plate connectors for
heavy timber falsework. The calculation of a bolted connection capacity is illustrated in
Example 4.2.

lrtfiiffltt*l:ffl@li.!.i11§3![.]11£1!2J!U
A wall form constructed with vertical double 2x6 Douglas Fir-larch strongbacks is braced by 2x6 Douglas Fir larch braces attached
at an angle of 30 degrees by two 1/2 in. bolts, as shown in the figure. Assume load duration less than 7 days, normal ambient
temperature, and wet service conditions. Determine the maximum axial load that can be transmitted to the brace based on the
ASD connection strength.
The connection is loaded in double shear. The main member, the diagonal brace,
will be axially loaded so that Eq. (4.3) applies. From Table 4.25 with 1.5 in. main and
side members and 0.5 in. diameter bolts, z11 = 1050 lb and Zn = 730 lb. Review of AWC
NOS indicates that the connection can be assembled meeting requirements for edge,
end, and spacing distances so that ell= 1.0 and cg = 1.0. From Table 4.19, eM= 0.7, CD
= 1.25, and C1 = 1.0. Other possible adjustments listed in Table 4.18 do not apply and
can be taken as 1.0. Thus
Z11'= 1050 lb(1.25)(0.7)(1.0) = 919 lb Strongback _
z,J.'= 730 lb(1.25)(0.7)(1.0) = 6391b two 2x6s
(9191b)(6391b)
Z' BlSib
)0 (9191b)sin2(30)+{639lb)cos1(30)

For two bolts, the axial load that can be transmitted by the connection to the brace
ftp
Is
P= 2(8281b) = 16561b Brace supporting wall form strongback
The ability of wood braces to carry such loads will be discussed in later chapters.

CHAPTER4
�

�"' � ='¥§d-+
Table 4.24: Bolt reference lateral design values (Z), lb, for single-shear {two­
member) connections of sawn lumber or SCL with both members of the same
species
"'
II indicates value when bolt bearing in both members is parallel to grain.

�
sl_ indicates value when bolt bearing in side member is perpendicular to grain and in main member is p<!rallel to gr<tin

�"'
�
:ll
�
'il
';1
�
9
 Table 4.25: Bolt reference lateral design value (Z), lb, for three�member (double·
shear} connections of sawn lumber or SCL with all members of the same species
II indicate\valuewhen bolt bearing inboth members is parallel to grain.

sl .indicate\valuewhen bolt bearing in si de members is perpendicular to grain and inmainmember is parallel to grain
�::::::
ml.indicate\valuewhenbolt bearingin

�
�
Table 4.26: Lag screw reference withdrawal design values (W), lb per in. of thread penetration into side
grain of main member

4.5.4 Ties
A concrete form tie is a tensile unit adapted to holding concrete forms secure against the
lateral pressure of unhardened concrete, with or without provision for spacing the forms
to a definite distance apart, and with or without provision for removal of metal to a speci­
fied distance back from the concrete surfaces. Twisted wire and band iron are sometimes
used, but because of low strength and the labor of assembly and installation, they are
considered acceptable only for simple structures. A wide variety of ready-made ties, as
shown in Fig. 4.31, with safe load ratings ranging from 1000 lb to more than 50,000 lb, are
in general use. Safe loads, taken from manufacturers'recommendations, are based on a
safety factor of 2. Wedges, nuts, or other holding devices are shown schematically and
may vary from that pictured. The wide range of safe loads indicates that there are several
diameters, grades of steel, or different fastener details. Ties consist of an internal tension
unit and an external holding device and are manufactured in two basic types:
Continuous single member, in which the tensile unit is a single piece and a specially
designed holding device is added for engaging the tensile unit against the exterior of the
form. These ties may be rod, band, channel, or angle in cross section, and may be cut to
length on the job or completely prefabricated. Form-spreading devices are an integral part
of some of these ties. Some single-member ties may be pulled as an entire unit from the
concrete. Others are broken back at a weakened section and a predetermined distance to
facilitate snapping. Some are cut off flush with the concrete surface.
Internal disconnecting rype, in which the tensile unit has an inner part with threaded
connections to removable external members (bolts) that complete the tensile unit and
have varied devices for holding them against the outside of the form. This type of tie is
available with or without spreading devices. The internal member generally remains in
the concrete.
These two types of tying devices are often identified as form clamps, snap ties, he bolts,
she bolts, wedge damps, coil ties, or rod damps. Except for taper ties, the continuous
single-member type is generally used for lighter loads, ranging up to about 5000 lb safe
load. The internal disconnecting type of tie is available for light or medium loads but finds
its greatest application under heavier construction loads up to about 70,000 lb.
ACI 347R recommends a minimum safety factor of 2 based on the ultimate strength of
the assembly for all concrete form ties. This makes form tie safety more consistent with
that of other components of the formwork.ln the past, a safety factor of 1.5 was used and
may still appear in some catalogs. To comply with ACI 347R recommendations, use only
75% of any allowable loads that are based on a 1.5 safety factor. Where the ultimate load
rating for a tie is given, the form designer can use design loads based on any required
safety factor. However, in no case should the maximum load applied to the tie cause stress
equal to or exceeding the yield point of the steel.

MATERIALS, ACCESSORIES, AND PROPRIETARY PRODUCTS

 Table 4.27: Lag screw reference lateral design value (Z), lb, for two·member (single-shear) connections of sawn
lumber or SCL, with both members of same species
11 indicates lag screw load when both members are loaded parallel to grain.
s.l indicates value when lag screw bearing in side member is perpendicular to grain and in main member is parallel to grain.

m.l indicates value when lag screw bearing in main member is perpendicular to grain and in side member is pilrallel to grain.

�
�
 Flat Tie
Used to secure and space modular panel forms. Avail·
able in several configurations in both steel and fiber­
reinforced polymers.
Safe loads: 1SOO, 22SO, 3000, and3SOO lb

Loop Tie
Secures and spaces prefabricated modular forms.
Notched for a 1 in. breakback. Crimp is anti-turn
iitQ iQt feature.
Safeloads:2250and30001b

Snap Tie
Used for job-built forms. lighter construction. May have
cone spreader and waterseal washer. Notched for 1 in.
breakback.Aiso available in stainlesssteel.
Safeloads:2250;�nd33501b

Pencil RodTie
Mild steel rod available in IOor 20ft lengths or 600ft
coils. Safe working load dependent on tightened set­
screw and 90-degree bend of rod at each end.
S;�fe loads: 1125 to 3750 lb

Taper Tie
Used where specs require or permit complete removal
of tie from concrete.Tie is reusable.
Safe loads:7500 to 58,000 lb

Threaded Bar with Sleeve

Standard 20ft lengths cut to meet project require­
ments. Double nuts may be needed for higher load
capacities. Bar is reusable.
S;�fe loads:9000 to 68,000 lb

She-Bolt Tie
Heavy duty, with reusable end bolts. No internal
spreader,but e�ternalspreaderbracket available
Safe loads:4900 to 64,000 lb;
up to 155,000 in high-strength steel

CoiiTle wlthCone s
Designed for medium to heavy construction. With or
withoutcone spreaders.Boltsreusable
Safe loads:
two-strut. 3000 to 13,500 lb;
four-strut. 9000 to 37,000 lb

Fig. 4.31: Some common one-piece and internally disconnecting ties; safe loads are examples of ranges available, which vary by manufacturer
and grade of steel (Images courtesy Meadow Burke, LLC, and Williams Form Engineering Corp.)

MATERIALS, ACCESSORIES, AND PROPRIETARY PRODUCTS

 panels, and snap ties are joined into a wall­
forming system by proprietary combination
brackets and tie locks (Photo courtesy Symons
by Dayton Superior)
Fig. 4.32: Wedge shaped in profile. Tie wedge
slips over head of snap tie to provide greater
bearing area to distribute tie load to form­
work; tie head passes through round opening
at bottom and wedge tightens the connec­
tion as it slides down. Nails in holes prevent
wedge rotation and position wales. (Image
courtesy Meadow Burke )

(a) Tie end is nailed into slab form and then

stapled

(b) Tie end is rack-welded to flange underside

Fig. 4.35: Representative of the many special-purpose tying devices are these for attachmenr of
slab edge form to formed deck or structural steel members (Images courtesy Meadow Burke)

Regardless of the type of tie, the external holding device, such as those shown in Fig.
4.32 through 4.34, should have an adequate bearing area so that when the tie is loaded
to its maximum safe load, crushing of the wood or other bearing material would not take
place. This is further explained in the section on tie design in Chapter 7.
In some situations, ties are anchored to a slab form or to structural steel. Figure 4.35
shows examples sometimes used near the tops of beam forms, slab edge forms, and
wall forms.

Effect of Tie on Finished Concrete Surface

Wherever the concrete surface appearance is important, the proper type of form tie or
hanger that will not leave exposed metal at the concrete surface is essential. Architec­
tural concrete specifications often require that no metal be left closer than 1-1/2 in. to
the surface of the concrete. This requirement can generally be met with either type of tie.
However, it is possible that snap ties may not break off at the specified depth in spite of
the weakened tie section.
Where spreader ties are used for exposed work, the spreading device should be easily
removed with a minimum of damage to the concrete and leave the smallest practicable
hole for filling. Spreader cones of wood, plastic, or metal leave a uniform hole for patching.
Some plastic spreader cones used with snap ties also permit breaking back ties before the
forms are stripped.
A good patch over the tie end, well bonded to adjacent concrete, is essential. If any
moisture migrates to the tie end, rust stains will gradually appear on the surface of the
concrete. Greater depth of breakback or threaded ends of internally disconnected tie
units allows a better chance of bonding the patch that covers the tie. Although the patch
remains in place, it may shrink and leave fine cracks through which moisture and rust
products gradually seep. Special admixtures for the patching grout may improve moisture
resistance and adhesion of the patch. Nonshrink grouts or dry-pack mortar may also be
used. The glass fiber-reinforced polymer tie shown in Fig. 4.36, commonly referred to as

CHAPTER4
 Fig. 4.38: One of the several available anchors for
off-rock tying (Image courtesy Meadow Burke)

Fig. 4.37: Plugs designed to fill tie cone holes are

Fig. 4.36: Mechanical cone wedge gripper is available in mortar or plastic with colors either
used to hold a fiberglass tie (Photo courtesy matching or contrasting surrounding concrete;
RJD Industries, Inc.) plugs may be sized for flush installation if
desired (Image courtesy Dayton Superior)
a fiberglass tie, is noncorroding and can
(a)
be cut off flush with the concrete surface,
leaving no hole to patch.
Removable portions of ties should always
be removed unless the contract docu­
ments specifically permit them to remain
in place. It is not unusual to leave tie ends Setting bolt
protruding from a wall that will be hidden
below grade, but this practice provides
a rust channel along the tie that leads to
unnecessary deterioration of the structure.

Anchor bolt
Ties For Water-Retaining Structures
Where ties are permitted in construction Anchorage unit
of water-retaining structures, they should
be designed to prevent seepage or flow
(b)
of water along the embedded tie. What
constitutes a leak-proof tie varies with the
head of water retained and the resultant
pressure on the concrete surface. Under
some circumstances no ties are permitted
at all. If ties are used, they are not usually
pulled completely out of the wall because
the resultant hole is difficult to seal. The
ends of tie metal should be at least 1 in.
back from the wall face.
The process of breaking back or discon­
( • • •
necting tie ends may loosen the tie in
Fig. 4.39: Simple screw anchor: (a) showing unit assembled in concrete and individual parts;
the wall, providing a channel for water
and (b) several other types of anchorage units (Images courtesy Dayton Superior)
seepage. To overcome this problem, some
manufacturers have crimped or otherwise deformed the tie to improve bond and have
attached round metal or neoprene washers as waterstops at the middle of the ties. Plug­
ging tie holes with grout is helpful, but sealing them with epoxy resin injected under pres­
sure is more effective. Several manufacturers have developed rubber or other synthetic
compression plugs to minimize water seepage through tie holes (Fig. 4.37). Keeping the
ties free of oil helps maintain watertightness.

4.5.5Anchors
Form anchors are devices used to secure formwork to rock or to previously placed concrete
of adequate strength. Rock anchors are also used to support forms by off-rock tying (Fig.
4.38). The anchor unit is placed in a hole drilled in the rock. When the bolt or external
fastener is inserted, it expands the anchor, thus tightening it in the rock. Some rock anchors
are designed to be surrounded by grout in the rock cavity. Concrete anchors are normally
embedded in concrete during placement. A number of the various types of anchors avail­
able for embedment in fresh concrete are shown in Fig. 4.39. There are two basic parts:

MATERIALS, ACCESSORIES, AND PROPRIETARY PRODUCTS

 n i
n
Fig. 4.40: Hangers used to support forms from
existing structural members (Image courtesy
Dayton Superior)
Fig. 4.41: Round friction collar carries brackets
that adjust to support forms for construction
above. Load capacity may be 50,000 lb or more
per side; collars are also made ro fit rectan­
gular columns (Photo courtesy EFCO Corp.)
the embedded anchoring device, whose design varies with the load to be carried and
the strength of concrete in the structure; and the bolt or other external fastener that is
removed after use, leaving a setback hole for grout patching. The crimped anchor requires
an internally threaded bolt or nut connection; several shown require a coil-threaded bolt.
Safe working loads for these devices depend on the strength of concrete in which they are
embedded as well as the depth of embedment and the area of contact between the anchor
and the concrete. Working load data supplied by manufacturers indicate safe pullout loads
up to almost 40,000 lb for the screw anchor in 3000 psi concrete. The longer or more compli­
cated shapes of anchors to the right in Fig. 4.39 are suitable for use in lower-strength mass
concrete, where extra holding power is achieved by increasing anchor length.
Load ratings for anchors are commonly based on pullout loads. Design must consider
bending of anchors due to form loads. ACI347R recommends a safety factor of 2 or 3 for
form anchors, depending on project conditions. Safe working loads or ultimate strengths
of anchoring devices in shear and tension are often given in manufacturers' literature. The
tensile capacity of the anchor depends on the strength of the concrete in which they are
embedded, shape of the anchor and area of contact between the concrete and anchor,
depth of the embedment, edge distance to the anchor, effect of group behavior if there
are multiple anchors, and interaction with any shear force acting simultaneously. ACI
318-11, NBuilding Code Requirements for Structural Concrete," has methods for evaluating
strength of cast-in-place anchors. ACI318, Appendix D, Anchoring to Concrete, states
that its provisions are for in-service conditions, rather than for construction conditions.
However, the ACI318 provisions can provide helpful understanding of these strength­
reducing factors.
Many form anchors are set in the relatively low-strength concrete used for massive
structures, and development of adequate tension and shear capacity may be a limiting
factor in early reuse of the cantilever forms that the anchors support. Some manufacturers'
strength data for their anchorage products are based on tests in actual concrete speci­
mens at various low strength levels. Using data of this sort and the estimated compres­
sive strength of the concrete at early ages (3 to 7 days), tentative selections of anchoring
devices needed for a given job can be made {see also Chapter 16 on mass concrete).
Specific selections for any large job should be field tested under conditions anticipated for
the duration of the project.
4.5.6 Hangers
There are a number of ready-made devices for hanging forms from steel or precast
concrete structural members, as shown in Fig. 4.40. Such forming may be used for the
construction of a supported slab, for building the fireproofing required for the steel
members, or for construction of a slab composite with beam framing. Applications
of these and similar devices are shown in Chapter 11. Actual working loads vary with
dimensions and strength of the material used, as well as hanger design details, but some
representative values are: for the snap tie hanger, 3000 lb total load; for the threaded rod
hanger, 6000 to 13,500 lb total load; for the coil bolt with dual rods, 4500 to 15,000 lb
total load; and for the adjustable joist hanger, 3000 lb. These figures based on manufac­
turers' suggestions show a probable range of strengths for typical commercially available
devices; the user must verify the strength of their specific selection.
External holding devices are similar to those used for tie rods. ACI347R recommends a
safety factor of 2 for hanger assemblies. When checking manufacturers' safe load ratings,
note carefully whether suggested working load is given on a per leg basis or as the total
capacity of the hanger. Two-sided hangers must be loaded equally on both sides of the
supporting beam, or the hanger will not stay in the correct position. Form hangers should
also closely fit the flange or bearing surface of the supporting member so that applied
loads are transmitted properly.
Under some field conditions, use of a jack supported on the lower flange of the steel
beam may be preferable to hanging the forms. Several devices available for this purpose
may also be adapted for use with precast concrete girders.
4. 5.7 Friction Collars and Support Brackets
Vertical support for forms may also be provided by devices attached to columns or
bearing walls of the structure. Such hardware includes friction collars (Fig. 4.41) and
support brackets {Fig. 4.42) that are attached to columns or walls with through-bolts or
heavy embedded anchorages. Both the brackets and collars have adjusting screws to
CHAPTER4
 Fig. 4.44: Plastic-tipped bar form spreader for wall
forms that can be clipped to horizontal rein­
forcing bars to maintain correct spacing berween
the forms (Image courtesy Dayton Superior)

Fig. 4.42: Bracket attached to column or wall
supports slab form assembly without vertical
shores. This one has roller head to facilitate
movement of flying forms (Photo courtesy
Symons by Dayton Superior)
Fig. 4.43: Plastic side form spacers, designed
to snap onto reinforcing bars, are generally
pierced with large openings to facilitate flow
of concrete and minimize thermal expansion
of spacer (Image courtesy Dayton Superior)

make minor changes in form elevation before placing the concrete. Rollers on some of
these brackets facilitate horizontal movement of forms-for example, sliding out a flying
form assembly (see Chapter 11 ). Supporting a slab-forming system on such brackets may
make it possible to eliminate reshoring because most construction loads are transmitted
directly to walls or columns and not to the new slabs.

4.5.8 Spacers and Spreaders

Supports for horizontal bars have long been supplied by the reinforcing bar industry, but
providing spacers against vertical forms to maintain side cover and cross position has not
always been an industry practice. Various (sometimes makeshift) approaches have been
tried for maintaining cover on vertical bars, but the more positive approach of installing
side form spacers is seriously recommended.
A side form spacer is a device that maintains the desired distance between a vertical
form and reinforcing bars. Both job site-fabricated and factory-made spacers have been
successfully used, including wood and concrete blocks, plastic shapes, and the same
metal bar supports that are used for supporting horizontal bars. The metal spacers must
be wired or tied to the reinforcement, while the plastic ones (Fig. 4.43) usually snap onto
the bars. Wood spacers are easily made at the job site, but they must always be removed
as the concrete is being placed, and there should be a positive method of retrieving the
wood spacers such as attachment to a wire secured at the top of the form. Other advan­
tages and disadvantages of side form spacers are presented in detail in Reference 4.13.
Spreaders are used to maintain the wall form sides at the correct distance apart.They are
needed when the form ties do not include spreaders. One job-made spreader is a length of 2x4
cut to the wall thickness. The wood block is drilled and attached to a wire or rope so it can be
retrieved when the concrete placement reaches the level of the block. A manufactured spreader
device that can be dipped to the horizontal reinforcement and left in place is shown in Fig. 4.44.

4.5. 9 Steel Stropping

Steel strapping, 5/8 to 2 in. wide, is sometimes used for tying column forms (Fig. 4.45),
attaching nailing strips to steel form members, suspending forms for fireproofing struc­
tural steel, and tying low foundation walls. Either standard tensioning tools used for
packaging applications or special tools developed for forming applications may be used
to install the strapping. When forms are stripped, the straps are cut and discarded.
Steel strapping is held fast by a seal device that is closed after the strap has been placed
around the column or other member being tied. Because of variations in sealing devices and
Fig. 4.45: Steel strapping for this column form
only resists forces from form where there is
the tools used to attach them, it is wise to assume that the joint strength may be only about
a bend in the strap; strap is tightened and
70 percent of the strap strength, although some tool-seal combinations do give 100 percent
clamped under tension
of the strap strength in the joint. Consult strapping manufacturer recommendations for
technical data on joint strength.

MATERIALS, ACCESSORIES, AND PROPRIETARY PRODUCTS


Fig. 4.46: Hinged bar column clamp typical
of adjustable clamps produced by several
manufacturers. (Photo courtesy Ellis Manu­
facturing Co., Inc.)
Fig. 4.47: Form clamps with two adjustable
rigid corners, a hinged comer, and a locking
corner allow form to be stripped and moved
as a unit when attached to lumber studs and
plywood sheathing (Photo courtesy Gates
Concrete Forming Systems)
4.5.10 Column Clamps
Column clamps or yokes encircle column forms and hold them together securely,
withstanding the lateral pressure of the freshly placed concrete.lndividual parts of the
column clamp may be loaded in bending or tension depending on details of assembly.
Several designs are available in manufactured reusable column clamps that are adjust­
able to a range of column cross-section dimensions.Certain clamping devices are best
adapted to shorter columns of small cross section, while heavier devices are suited to
larger cross sections and the greater loads that may be imposed by the fresh concrete in
taller columns.
Figure 4. 46 shows a typical hinged bar column clamp. Two hinged units making up
each clamp have all fastening hardware permanently attached. The two parts are laid in
place around the column, lock castings are slid together, and the wedge is dropped into
the proper slot and tightened with a hammer.Where column forms are in tight quarters, a
single bar type made up of four straight members with attached hardware is used.
Clamps of the type shown in Fig. 4.47, or the single bar variation thereof, are available
for a significant range of column side dimension.The longer clamps have a thickened
cross section at midspan or are reinforced with attached channels.
It is advisable to examine carefully all of the manufacturer's suggestions and recom­
mendations for the use of these clamps. Aside from the obvious dimensional limitations,
there may be suggested limits on height and rate of placing concrete when a given type
of clamp is used.
For any unusual column framing, a check of proposed clamp spacing is desirable.(See
the column design suggestions in Chapter 7.) Care must be taken during design so that
bulges or bows do not develop in columns due to inadequate clamping. Column form
panels available in some of the heavy-frame panel systems can be assembled using bolts
through the frames at the corners, without any additional damps.
4.6 Prefabricated Forms
Main emphasis in this section is on the ready-made forms which are of more general
interest, as many of the custom-made forms are discussed in other sections of the book
covering the special types of construction for which they are intended. Prefabricated
panels made up by the contractor are discussed in Chapter 11.
Prefabricated forms and forming systems have become increasingly important to
the concrete contractor as a means of saving both material and labor cost through the
efficiency of mass production. Flexibility in financing offers some options to contractors
as the forms may be purchased outright, rented, or sometimes rented with an option to
purchase. Manufacturers of the forming systems frequently provide engineering layouts at
no additional cost or for a nominal charge. Supervision for erecting the forms may also be
provided.
Prefabricated forms are most advantageous where numerous reuses are expected, and
they are generally built with added durability to meet this anticipated reuse. However,
there are some prefabricated forms such as the fiber tubes and void forms intended for a
single use that are either used as stay-in-place forms or destroyed upon removal.Prefabri­
cated forms may be considered in two groups:
1. Ready-made forms. This includes the modular panel systems that are made in rela­
tively small, easily handled units that can be adapted to forming different structural
members. Standardized forms suitable for only one kind of structural member, such
as column forms or pans for concrete joist construction, are also part of this group.
2. Custom-made forms. This group includes special purpose forms built to order, such as
tunnel forms, cantilever forms for dams, or special forms for bridges.Although these
forms may be made for a single job, they are often reused many times on that job.
4.6.1 Panel Forms and Forming Systems
Prefabricated panel forms are manufactured in modular sizes, with 2 and 4 ft widths
and 2 to 8ft heights being the most common in the United States (probably because
of dimensions of available plywood). Panels from European manufacturers cover
these sizes and range up to larger dimensions-4-1/2 or 6 ft by 9ft for example-in
part because of heavier framing members designed to support panels when they are
assembled into gangs.
CHAPTER4
 Specialized hardware is a major compo­
nent of many panel systems. Clamps, such
as those shown in Fig. 3.5, 4.34, and 4.48,
join panels into larger units frequently
requiring only limited alignment members.
There are four basic panel system types:
1. Unframed plywood panels sometimes
backed by steel braces. locking and
tying hardware are essential parts of
the system, and the lock that holds
ties is frequently part of the waler
support (Fig. 4.33).
2. Hand-set panels with metal frames and
a plywood face, with or without metal Fig. 4.48: Steel-framed panel ganged with
bracing on the back.They are also quick-acting clamps for wall construction
available in both steel and aluminum (Photo courtesy Symons by Dayton Superior)
(Fig. 4.49) configurations.
3. All-metal panels, sometimes hand-set
depending on size, having a metal
face supported by a metal frame.
They are available in both aluminum
{Fig. 4.50) and steel (Fig. 4.51)
configurations.
4. Heavier metal-framed panels,
frequently having tubular metal
frames (Fig. 4.52 and 4.53) with facing
of plywood, steel, or full plastic.These
panels are suitable for greater loads.
They are often ganged together for
crane handling in large units with
limited external bracing and align­
ment members.
Although panel systems were developed
primarily for wall forming, many of them
are adaptable to slab and column forming,
and smaller ones have been successfully
used in forming beams. Users should
Fig. 4.49: Steel-framed plywood-faced panels,
carefully select a system, based on manu­ Fig. 4.50: Aluminum-framed panels with
2 ft wide and up to 8fthigh, have handles
facturers' data that is best suited to their aluminum or plywood facing are the basis
for convenience in carrying, not for tie-off
particular project conditions. Prefabricated for lighter-weight forming system strong
or attaching fall protection devices (Image
panels ofTypes 1 and 3 are most often used enough for commercial use (Photo courtesy
courtesy Brand Energy& Infrastructure)
for general and light construction where Western Forms)

walls range in height from 2 to 24ft, with

particular emphasis on walls ranging from 4 to 10ft.
On large jobs where cranes can work to advantage in handling forms, panel forms are
ganged-that is, joined together-to form a relatively large wall section. A crane erects,
strips, and then moves this large unit to another location for reuse.This is advantageous
for high walls where much labor is saved, as compared with repeated assembly and disas­
sembly of individual panel components.The size of ganged form units commonly ranges
up to 30x50ft.

4.6.2 Pans and Domes for Concrete Joist Construction

Concrete joist construction is a monolithic combination of regularly spaced joists and a
thin slab cast in place to form an integral unit with beams and columns.The joists may be
all arranged in one direction within a column bay, or they may be arranged in two direc­
tions to create a waffle-like pattern.This type of construction has been frequently formed
with ready-made steel pans or domes of standard size. Other materials, including hard­
Fig. 4.51:2x 4ftall-steel hand-set form panel
board, fiberboard, glass fiber-reinforced polymer, and corrugated cardboard, can do the
weighs about 51/b. With2x2fttie spacing,
same forming job. Some of the firms that supply these forms also subcontract complete
the manufacturer recommends it for pressures
erection and removal of the forms, with or without the supporting centering. Other
up to 1200 lb!ftl (Photo courtesy EFCO Corp.)
companies only rent or sell the forms.

MATERIALS, ACCESSORIES, AND PROPRIETARY PRODUCTS


Fig. 4.53: Heavy-framed panels ganged using
clamps that connect and align panels in one
operation, requiring few alignment members
outside the panels (Photo courtesy MEVA
Formwork Systems)
(b) Wide-module flange form; capable of
spanning some distance between shores
placed under bottom flanges
Fig. 4.54: Typical configurations of wide­
module steel long pan forms; other widths
and lengths are available (Images courtesy
CECO Concrete Construction, LLC)
Fig. 4.55: Glass fiber-reinforced polymer
domes used for two-way joist slab forming;
a range of sizes is available, including domes
for three-way joist systems (Photo courtesy
CECO Concrete Construction, LLC)
ready-made stock item,either for sale or for rent. The range of sizes for these reusable forms
is considerably greater than for steel domes. Clay tiles or lightweight concrete filler blocks
remaining permanently in the slab serve the same purpose as the removable pan and dome
forms. Expanded polystyrene insulating material,cut in blocks or molded to the required
shapes,has also been used to form one-way (Fig. 4.25 and 4.26) and two-way joists.
Joist depths and spacings for one-way
concrete joist construction were standard­
ized in 1932 by the U.S. Department of
Commerce on the basis of an industry
study by a committee of architects,
engineers,contractors, and steel form
suppliers. That standard has since been
replaced by ANSI A48.1-1986, •Forms for
One-Way Concrete Joist Construction;
which establishes standard shapes and
dimensions for one-way joist forms of all
materials. Standard form widths are 20,
30, 40,53, and 66 in., which correspond
to structural modules ranging from 2 to
6 ft wide. Standard depths areS, 10, 12,
14, 16, 18, 20, 22, and 24 in. However,
not all depths are manufactured in each
form width. Narrower filler forms and
tapered end forms are available locally to
fit varying floor layouts and sizes. Figure
4.54 shows two of the different types of
standard steel units available for forming
concrete joist construction.
Standard sizes for domes used to form
grid or waffle slabs are established by ANSI
A48.2-1986,"Forms for Two-Way Concrete
Joist Construction.• They are based on 2,
2-1/2,3,4,and Sft modules. The 2 ft size
dome forms 19 x 19 in. voids with Sin. ribs
between. The 2-1/2 and 3 ft size domes
form 6 in. ribs with 24 x 24 in. and 30 x 30
in. voids,respectively. The 4 ft module has
41 x 41 in. voids with 7 in. ribs,and the S ft
module has 52 x 52 in. voids with 8 in. ribs.
Standard void depths range from 4 to 16 in.
for the 2 ft module,and up to 24 in. for the
larger sizes. Filler forms are also available
for two-way systems.
Because this type of construction is well­
established with a long record of successful
use,it is suggested that the recommen­
dations of established manufacturers be
followed in using these forms. Erection
procedures for the support of pan and
dome forms are given in Section 11.8.3.
The design of these steel pans and domes
has been duplicated or approximated in
many other materials. One of the most
common is glass fiber-reinforced polymer
dome pans {Fig. 4.55) that are available as a

4.6.3 Void and Ducf Forms

A number of products have been developed for forming voids and ducts in both slab
and beam construction. Laminated fiber tubes equipped with end closures preventing
concrete flow into them are placed near the neutral axis to reduce structure weight (Fig.
4.56). The tubes are tied down with wire to prevent floating or lateral movement when the

CHAPTER4
concrete is being placed. These laminated
tubes are available in two types: one with
a weather-resistant ply designed for use in
cast-in-place construction in exposed areas,
and the other one for use where they are
completely protected from weather during
storage and use. Spirally wound steel ducts
are frequently used for large post-tensioning
tendon ducts and other applications where
cables or other material must be fed through
concrete structures after concrete place­
ment. They must be tied in place to prevent
floating and assure correct alignment.
Corrugated paper units, much like card­
board boxes, are used for forming voids in
stabs, brick ledges, blackouts, pockets, and
other shapes. The units are either left in
place or removed depending on the applica­
tion. Inflatable rubber tubing units have
been used for forming voids. The rubber
forms are laid in position and then inflated.
A loose wire coil is used to hold the tube in
place. Reinforcing mesh lain on top of forms Fig. 4.56: Slab and girder voids are often Fig. 4.57: One-piece glass fiber-reinforced
also helps keep them from floating. When formed by laminated fiber tubes equipped polymer round column forms that bolt or
the concrete has hardened, the form is with end closures and tied down with wire to clamp along a single joint can be reused
deflated and withdrawn through a bulkhead prevent movement during concreting (Photo many times
or edge form of the slab. Specially woven courtesy Sonoco Products Company)
nylon or cotton reinforcement governs the
way the tube contracts on deflation and thereby aids in breaking bond with the concrete.
For large-diameter sewer and industrial work, duct formers have been made of several
plies of rubberized fabric. The hose-like form is open at both ends to contain airtight
bulkheads through which the form is inflated. These large forms are inflated at low pres­
sure sufficient to maintain the shape and carry loads imposed on the form, but without
stretching the form material.
Expanded polystyrene has been frequently used as a void form material because it is
rigid, lightweight, easily handled, and easily cut on site. It is strong enough to withstand
usual concrete pressures, and because it is a closed-cell material, it does not absorb water
during storage or concrete placement. The material does not rot or decay and can remain
in the cavities. If it is necessary to leave the cavities hollow, the polystyrene can be cut out.

4.6.4 Column Forms

Standard forms for round columns are available in paper fiber, glass fiber, and metal as
complete units with no extra fastenings. The paper fiber tubes are single-use items and
require only a minimum of external bracing to keep them plumb. One-piece glass fiber­
reinforced polymer round column forms (Fig. 4.57) that bolt or clamp along a single joint
can be reused many times. They are flexible enough to be sprung off the column after the
concrete has hardened. Diameters range from 12 to 36 in. Column capital forms are also
available for some sizes. Rectangular glass fiber-reinforced polymer column forms are also
available, and ready-made panels are adaptable for some column forming.
The tubular fiber column form shown in Fig. 4.58is available for columns ranging from 6 Fig. 4.58: Fiber tube column forms require only
to 48in. in diameter. Standard lengths available are 12 and 18ft, but greater lengths may bracing to keep them plumb and a template
be ordered. Such forms have been successfully used for continuous placement of columns at the base for accurate positioning (Photo
40ft high. Fiber forms can be saw cut to the desired length, and the cut sections can be courtesy Sonoco Products Company)
adapted to forming half-round, quarter-round, and obround columns and pilasters. They
are also suitable for encasing steel pipe and other members with concrete. Where the
form cannot be slipped over existing piling, piers, or posts that are to be encased, a special
double-walled version that can be cut for installation is suggested.
Laminated fiber plies are spirally constructed and are available with wax-impreg­
nated inner and outer surface for weather and moisture protection. For exposed
columns, the inner surface is coated with polyethylene. If the appearance of the
columns is critical, a so-called seamless type is available in which fiber plies nearest

MATERIALS, ACCESSORIES, AND PROPRIETARY PRODUCTS

 the inner surface are deckled or scarfed and overlapped to minimize the spiral gaps or
seams on the column surface.
The laminated fiber tubes do not require clamps, ties, or form oil. Because there is no
reuse, there is no cleanup. If these forms are left in place, they aid proper hydration of
concrete without additional curing procedures. However, it is advisable to strip the forms
before placing any critical loads on the columns to detect any voids that may have formed
during placement that would weaken the member.
The fiber tube form can be stripped by making two vertical cuts with a power saw and pulling
the form off, or by making a vertical 12in. cut in the tube with a utility knife, then peeling spirally,
using a broad-bladed tool. With either methocl, care must be taken to prevent marring the
column surface.
Adjustable steel forms for column capitals are made for use with these fiber forms.
They are similar to the capital portion of the all-steel column forms and are generally a
rental item.
Ready-made steel column forms are assembled in sections, with necessary hardware
being provided with the form {Fig. 4.59 and 4.60). Ribs are built into the form so that no
column clamps are required. External bracing is needed only to keep the forms plumb
during concrete placement. The capital form is sometimes added to the standard form,
and is available in a limited number of depths and diameters. These forms are manufac­
tured in diameters ranging from 14 in. to 10ft, with vertical panels 1to lOft high. Some
forms have a built-in access ladder.
Fig. 4.59: One of several commercially avail­
able round and rectangular steel column
4.6.5 Stay-In-Place Farms
forms (right), and general appearance of
A number of materials used for formwork are left permanently in place, and some become
column after stripping (/eft) (Photo courtesy
an integral part of the completed structure. Generally described as permanent forms,
Meva Formwork Systems)
these may be of the rigid type such as metal deck, precast concrete, wood, polymers, and
the various types of fiberboard; or the flexible type such as fabric, reinforced water-repel­
lent corrugated paper, or wire mesh with waterproof paper backing. Some of these, such
as void forms, insulation board stay-in-place forms, and form lining materials, have already
been discussed.
Permanent forms serving as a deck for
construction are generally supported from
the main structural members. However,
they may require temporary intermediate
supports. The permanent form material
may be covered in the engineer-architect
specifications for the job, but if it is a
contractor's optional item, the manufac­
turers' specifications and recommendations
for use apply. If a stay-in-place form is to act
compositely with concrete, the engineer/
architect should design the form panel and
indicate what additional external support is
required for the permanent form.

Metal Deck
Ribbed or corrugated steel sheet is used
both as a permanent form for cast concrete
and as a combined form and reinforce­
ment. In roofs, it may be the permanent
supporting member for lightweight
insulating concrete fills. Any steel deck
Fig. 4.60: Two-piece steel round column form and two-piece capital form available in a variety
providing continuing support as reinforce-
of diameters (Photo courtesy EFCO Corp.)
ment should be galvanized. Steel forms
acting only as stay-in-place forms are generally"black" or uncoated.
Metal deck forms are used for concrete floor (Fig. 4.61) and roof slabs cast over steel joists
or beams and for bridge decks on both steel and precast concrete girders (Fig. 4.62). They
also may be used to form the top slab over pipe trenches or other inaccessible locations
where it is impractical and expensive to remove wood forms. Metal deck forms can be set
in short lengths between precast joists where shear connectors project from the top of the
precast members, or over several spans just as with steel members with no stirrups.

CHAPTER4
 When the forming material is installed,
it is usually secured by clips attached to
the top of the joist, by welding to the tops
of steel beams, or welding to inserts cast
in the concrete members. Varying gauges
Fig. 4.6 1: One type of stay-in-place cold­
and corrugation styles make these forms
formed steel floor deck; in this example,
usable on a range of clear spans depending
web indentations indicate it will become
on the number of spans over which the
composite by interlocking with the concrete
deck is continuous, slab thickness, concrete
to provide horizontal shear transfer (Image
unit weight, and construction live load.
courtesy CS/ and Oswald Design)
Frequently, the objective is to use a deck
depth, configuration, and gauge that can support the fresh concrete and construction live
load without placement of shoring under the deck to further reduce its clear span.
Some galvanized steel deck-forming materials combine form and positive reinforcing
in one piece. This is achieved by deeper corrugations and raised lugs on the corrugations.
Transverse wires welded across the corrugations in one such product take the place of
temperature steel reinforcing, whereas others require added temperature steel to reduce
the potential for shrinkage cracks. Regardless of manufacturers' claims, these products
cannot take the place of negative reinforcing bars (top steel) in continuous slabs over
beam, girder, or wall supports.
Wherever metal deck forms are to become a structurally active part of the permanent
structure, the engineer/architect should specify gauge, thickness, depth, physical dimen­
sions, and properties, as well as special shoring requirements, if any.

Precast Concrete
Precast concrete panels or units serve as stay-in-place or permanent forms for various struc­
tural elements (see also Chapter 14 on architectural concrete and Sections 7.4 and 7.7 of
ACI347R reproduced in the Appendix of this book). In some applications, these are exposed
aggregate panels that produce a specified architectural surface. Lightweight concrete dome
pans have been used as stay-in place forms for two-way concrete joist systems. The precast
Fig. 4.62: Corrugated metal forms that stay
units may also be used as self-supporting form panels or as form liners to produce a special
in place are shown supported on precast
surface on the concrete. For bridge decks, concrete form panels may act compositely with
concrete bridge girders (Photo courtesy CSI
the cast-in-place concrete and become part of the load-bearing structure.
and Oswald Design)
Glass fiber-reinforced concrete (GFRC) panels are also used as stay-in-place forms for
bridge deck soffits, beam and column sheathing, and in areas where an architectural
quality surface is desired. The GFRC is made of chopped glass fibers and cement mortar
combined in a spray-up process to a thickness of about 1/2 in. for formwork applications.

4.6.6 Special Purpose and Custom-Made Forms

Forms for special purposes are often constructed using special accessories or assembled
using standard components adapted to the special need. Stairways and stadium risers are
examples because of the various rise and run ratios encountered (Fig.4.63 and4.64).
Custom-made forms {Fig. 4.65) are built to order for special structures or special
construction conditions where ready-made form components or job-built forms are
not satisfactory.
Due to the high cost of field labor, increasing use of custom forms has been noted in
recent years. It is often economical to have a form custom-built even though it may be Fig. 4.63: Entrance steps formed using lumber
used only four to six times. Although economy is a prime reason for using custom forms, and proprietary accessories (Photo courtesy
dimensional integrity, speed, and safety are also important considerations. Symons by Dayton Superior)
Different types of formwork are intended for underground structures, mass concrete,
bridge work, or architectural ornament. Many of these forms are for specialized construction
techniques or are made of special materials; they are described Chapters 14 through 18.

4.7 Shoring
A number of shoring systems have been developed with features for adjustment, mating
members to be supported, and increasing productivity. Miscellaneous hardware is avail­
able for joining components; connecting braces; adjusting height; and leveling, releasing,
and lowering components when stripping.
When proprietary shores or methods of shoring are used, manufacturers' recommenda­
tions as to load-carrying capacity should be followed and checked that all recommenda­
tions are supported by test reports from a qualified and recognized testing laboratory.

MATERIALS, ACCESSORIES, AND PROPRIETARY PRODUCTS


Fig. 4.64:Adaptation of manufactured form
components as form work for placement of
stadium risers (Photo courtesy EFCO Corp.)
Before reuse, shores should be inspected
for damage that could have an effect on
load capacity.The user must carefully
follow the manufacturers'recommenda·
tions for bracing and working loads for
unsupported lengths. Bracing of shores
is recommended to provide safety and
stability to the entire formwork assembly,
even though it might not always be
suggested by the shore manufacturer.
To establish consistent and reliable
data on load capacities of manufactured
Fig.4.65:Custom-madeformfora curvedbox
shores, shore hardware, and shoring
girder(Photo courtesyUniversa/ForestProduas) frames, the Scaffolding, Shoring, and
Forming Institute has developed stan­
dard load test procedures and has made
load tests of shoring frame components assembled in relatively high towers. SSFI
SH300·07, "Standards for Testing and Rating Shoring Equipment,� provides testing
procedures, and ANSI/ASSE A 10.9·13, "Safety Requirements for Concrete and Masonry
Work; lists safety factors to be applied to the tested capacity in arriving at allowable
loads. For tubular welded frame shoring and tube and coupler tower shoring, a safety
factor of at least 2.5 is required. For metal single-post shores and for adjustable timber
shores, a safety factor of at least 3.0 is required.
4.7. 1 Single-Post Shores
There are several types of adjustable individual shores.The simplest of these, shown
in Fig. 4.66, is based on a clamping device that permits the overlapping of two 4x4
members. A portable jacking tool is carried by the workman from one shore to
another to make vertical adjustments. Special hardware for the top of these shores
facilitates joining them to stringers with a minimum of nailing. Manufacturers' recom­
mendations show allowable loads up to 6000 lb for an unbraced 11 ft shore, with
a safety factor of 3. Exact load ratings will depend on condition and quality of the
lumber as well as the unbraced length.
Metal shore jack fittings are available to fit over the end of 4x4 or 6x 6 wood shores,
thus transforming the piece of lumber into an adjustable shore. These devices (Fig.
4.67) develop full strength of the lumber, and have threaded adjusting members
capable of varying the shore height as much as 12 in.
All-metal individual adjustable shores, sometimes described as jack shores or simply as
jacks, have adjustable heights from about 6to 16ft. Figure 4.68 shows a typical line of these
shores.·Safe load ratings range from 2SOO to 9000 lb, depending on type of shore and the
length to which it is extended. Metal bracing brackets with holes for nailing wood bracing
are provided, and heads of different types are available. Heavy-duty single-post shores of the
same height range, from 6to 16ft, have allowable loads from about 8000 to 20,000 lb.
4.7.2 Shoring Frames
Tubular steel and aluminum shoring frames are often used for formwork support because
of the advantages of its modular assembly, potential height, and system of jacks for
leveling and adjusting elevations (Fig.4.69).
Basic components of a shoring frame tower installation are the end frames of various
designs and dimensions that are assembled with diagonal bracing, lock clamps, and
adjustable bases in shoring towers that may have flat top plates, U-heads, or other upper
members for attaching or fitting to the forms (Fig. 4.70).
Tubular steel shoring frames generally range from 2 to S ft wide, with frame heights
of 2 to 6-1/2 ft. Heights of 4 to 6ft are the most common, and tubular members of both
circular and square cross sections are used. Some typical frame configurations are shown
in Fig. 4.71. Frame shoring systems are usually divided into three categories, based on
allowable load capacity:
Hand-set or stationary systems, up to 15,000 lb per leg;
Intermediate strength, up to 30,000 lb per leg; and
Heavy-duty, carrying more than 30,000 lb per leg.
CHAPTER4
Fig. 4.66: Shores made of two pieces of
dimension lumber are joined by a proprietary
clamping device that permits length adjust­
ments. (Photo courtesy Ellis Manufacturing
Co., Inc.)
Fig. 4.67: Metal fitting slips over the end of a Fig. 4.68: One of the many designs of all­
4x4 or a 6x6, converting it into an adjustable metal adjustable shores; bracing can be
shore (Photo courtesy Ellis Manufacturing attached when needed with special clamps
Co., Inc.) (Photo courtesy EFCO Corp.)

At the upper end of the heavy-duty

category are ultra-high-load-capacity
shoring towers with allowable leg loads up
to 100,000 lb per leg. Extra attention must
be given to supporting sills when loads go
into this range (Fig. 2.3).
Aluminum shoring frames are also avail­
able with load capacities up to 20,000 lb
per leg. Handling and transportation labor
are reduced because of lighter weight. For
example, a 4x4 ft frame weighs about 171b
and a 4x6 ft frame 261b, compared with 45
and 70 Jb for comparable steel frames.
Full flights of freestanding sectional
shoring, with or without the supported forms,
can be moved from one bay to another by
skidding or by attaching casters for rolling.

Fig. 4.69: Shoring towers assembled for support of concrete bridge superstructure during place­
ment (Photo courtesy PERl Formwork Systems, Inc.)

MATERIALS, ACCESSORIES, AND PROPRIETARY PRODUCTS


Fig. 4.70: Shoring frames (8) assembled
with diagonal braces (C) in vertical and
horizontal planes to form a typical �shoring
tower,� with adjustable screw jacks (A and
0) at both ends of each leg; top plates vary
depending on supported member (Drawing
courtesy Ooko USA)
REFERENCES
4.1. Ross, R. J., Wood Handbook: Wood
as an Engineering Material, GTR-190, USDA
Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory,
Madison, WI, 2010, 509 pp.
4.2. Pepper, L., and Derrington, C. F.,
�Deleterious Effects of Form Lumber on
(a) Each tier includes two rigid frames
Concrete Surfaces; Technical Report No.
interconnected by X-braces or horizontal and
6-785, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways
diagonal braces as shown
Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS, 1967,
24pp.
4.3. Wood Reference Handbook, WRP0-
02, Canadian Wood Council. Ottawa, ON,
Canada, 2002.
4.4. Stalnaker, J. J., and Harris, E. C.,
Structural Design in Wood, second edition,
Chapman & Hall, New York, 1989, 426 pp.
(b) Each tier includes four telescoping shores 4.5. Hurd, M. K., E
� xpand Your Forming
interconnected by rigid frames on each side Options, � concrete Construction, V. 42, No. 9,
of tower Sept. 1997, pp. 725-728.
4.6. Formwork: A Guide to Good Practice,
Fig. 4.71: Makeup of shoring towers varies; two CS030, third edition, The Concrete Society,
example configurations of many are shown Surrey, UK, 2012, 299 pp.
(Images courtesy Brand Energy & Infrastructure) 4.7. VidaL E. N., and Blanks, R. F., �Absorp­
tive Form Linings, � AC/Journal Proceedings,
V. 38, No. 3, Mar. 1942, pp. 253-268.
4.8. "Tests on Concrete and Mortar Surfaces Cast against Various Types of Forms and
Form Linings.� Technical Memorandum No. 6-3:36, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Waterways
Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS, Feb. 1952, 68 pp.
4.9. Cron, F. W., �Effect of Absorptive Form Liner on Surface Durability of Concrete, � Public
Roads, V. 36, No. 3, Aug. 1970, pp. 53-68.
4.10. Harrison, T., c
� ontrolled Permeability Formwork, � Concrete Construction, Feb. 1991, pp.
198-202.
4.11. Marosszeky, M.;Chew, M.; Arioka, M.; and Peck, P., "Textile Form Method to Improve
Concrete Durability, N Concrete International, V. 15, No. 11, Nov. 1993, pp. 37-42.
4.11.1nsu/ating Concrete Forms Construction Manual, Portland Cement Association,
Skokie, IL, 1996, 150 pp.
4.13. Randall, F. A., and Courtois, P. D., "Side Form Spacers; AC/Journal Proceedings, V. 73,
No. 2, Feb. 1976, pp. 116-120.
5: LOADS AND PRESSURES
5.1 Notation for Loads and Pressures
Formwork for concrete must support all vertical and lateral loads that may be applied until
such time as these loads can be carried by the concrete structure itself. Vertical loads on
the formwork include the weight of reinforcing steel and fresh concrete, the weight of the
forms themselves, and various live loads imposed during the construction process. lateral
loads include fresh concrete lateral pressure, movement of construction equipment, wind,
and in some circumstances, seismic effects.
Several standards and guides must be referred to during formwork design; however,
notation across these sources is not uniform. For example, AWC NDS-2012, "National
Design Specification for Wood Construction,� defines C0as the load duration factor, while
ASCEJSEI 37-14, �Design loads on Structures During Construction,� defines C0 as the
construction dead load. To reduce confusion within this manual, the following notation
will be used for loads on formwork:
c," = lateral pressure of fresh concrete
CDI. = construction dead load-self weight of the formwork
c,Mt = fixed material load-vertical dead load of placed concrete and reinforcement
C,. = horizontal construction loads
C" = personnel and equipment loads-live load during placing and finishing operations
Cvr.tt = variable material load-concentrations of material placed on the form
E5 = earthquake or seismic load
W = wind load
Form design must consider conditions such as unsymmetrical placement of concrete,
impact from machine-delivered concrete, uplift, and concentrated loads produced by
storing supplies on the freshly placed slab. Rarely will there be precise information about
loads that will be on the forms, and the designer must make some safe assumptions that
will be true for conditions generally encountered. The following sections are a guide to the
designer for determining the loads on which to base form design for ordinary conditions
normally applicable to structural concrete. Form loads for tunnel linings and nonstandard
methods of construction or placement are discussed in later chapters.

5.2 Load Combinations

The formwork designer must determine the set of load combinations that cause the
greatest resultant forces in the individual form components. Some judgment is required
because all of the individual loads may not occur at the same time. For example, design for
maximum personnel loads on a form in combination with maximum hurricane wind loads
is not a credible combination. ASCE!SEI 37 provides example combinations to guide the
designer of temporary structures such as formwork. Both allowable stress design (ASD)
and load and resistance factor design (lRFD) combinations are listed. Final structure loads
are not included for typical formwork design situations.

5.2. 1 ASD Combinations

The following ASD combinations cover most situations in formwork design.

Cot+C,Mt+CVMI. (5.1)

cot+c,Mt +c
v.w, +CPf+c�� (5.2)

Cot +C,Mt +CVIo/1 +CP£+0.6W (5.3)

Cot +C,MI. +C_ +CPf+0.7fs (5.4)

0.6Cot+ (0.6W or 0.7£,) (5.5)

c" (5.6)

ASCE/SEI7-1 0, HMinimum Design loads for Buildings and Other Structures; calibrates
calculation of wind and earthquake loads so their load factors are 1.0 in lRFD combina­
tions. Thus, in ASD combinations, reducing factors of 0.6 and 0.7, respectively, are applied.
lateral pressure of concrete is indicated as a separate load without combination in Eq. (5.6)
as it does not combine with the other loads in most cases. However, there are situations
where lateral pressure can combine with other loads and these situations have to be
recognized by the form designer when this occurs. For example, if a freestanding concrete
wall must be cast without form ties, the external braces must resist not only the wind and
eccentric personnel loads on the work platform but also the concrete lateral pressure.
Some loads have a low probability of occurring at the same time. As noted in ASCE/SEI 37,
the most unfavorable effects from both wind and earthquake loads should be considered
where appropriate, but they need not be considered simultaneously. Similarly, CH need not
be assumed to act simultaneously with wind or seismic loads.

5. 2.2 LRFD Combinations

The following lRFD combinations cover most situations in formwork design.

1.4Cot + 1.2(,1>11. + 1.4(\'M( (5.7)

(5.8)

1.2cDt + 1.2C,I>II. + 1.4C- + o.5CI't' + 1.ow (5.9)

1.2CDt + 1.2(,"'1 + 1.4Cv.w1 + 1.6CI't' + 0.3W (5.10)

1.2CDt + 1.2C,Mt + 1.4Cv.w, +O.SCI't' + l.Ofs (5.1 1 )

0.9CDt + (l.OW or 1.0fs) (5.12)

1.3Cc, (if full liquid head is assumed) (5.13)

1.6Cc, (otherwise) (5.14)

CHAPTER 5
The load factor applying to eDt is 0.9 when counteracting wind or seismic loads, 1.4 when
combined with only construction and material loads, and 1.2 for all other combinations.
For LRFD, ASCE/SEI 37 provides arbitrary point in time (APT) factors of 0.3 that can be
multiplied by W (instead of 1.0), 0.5 by ePf (instead of 1.6), and 0.5 by eH (instead of 1.6)
in combinations where two or more variable loads appear. The effect of the APT factors
is seen in Eq. (5.9), (5.10), and (5.11). At least one of the variable loads must appear at full
value and the other variable loads, if not correlated to be their maximum at the same
time, are multiplied by their APT value. This reduction recognizes that maximum wind and
maximum personnel load will not occur at the same time when both are considered. A
combination involving o.sePf + 1.0W might govern for some components, while a combi­
nation involving 1.6ePf + 0.3W might govern in others, as shown in Eq. (5.9) and (5.10}.
lateral pressure can combine with other loads as discussed previously. Similary, eHneed
not be assumed to act simultaneously with wind or seismic loads.

5.3 Vertical Laads

Vertical loads on formwork include both dead and live loads. The weight of reinforced
concrete, eFMl' and the weight of the forms, eDt, are regarded as dead loads. Material
storage, eVML' and workers and their equipment, ew imposed during processes of construction
are regarded as live loads {Fig. 5.1).

5. 3. I Dead Loads
While concrete unit weight may range
anywhere from 40 to 375 lb/ft1, the majority
of all formwork is for concrete with a unit
weight of 140 to 150 lb/ft3. Minor variations
in this weight are not significant, and for
most cases 150 lb/ft3 including reinforcing
steel is commonly assumed for horizontal
formwork design.
Assuming a unit weight including an
allowance for reinforcing steel is reasonable
in most situations because the volume
of steel is often less than 1 or 2% of the
total concrete member volume. The use of
higher-strength prestressing steel typically
results in even lower steel volume. The rein­
forcing steel unit weight, 490 lb/ftl, is higher
but it also displaces its equivalent volume
of concrete. For formwork supporting
concrete with an unusually high concentra­
tion of steel reinforcement, adjustments to
account for the actual amount of rein- Fig. 5.1: Loads of material and equipment placed on the form during construction must be
forcing steel should be investigated. Rein- within the design limits of the formwork system
forcing bar properties are given in Table 5.1.
Formwork loads often vary from as little
as 31b/ft1 to about 151b/ft1• However, loads Table 5.1: ASTM standard steel reinforcing bars
of some steel heavy-duty forms for special
applications may approach 25 lb/ft1. For
0.375 0.11 0.376
design, a uniformly distributed load allow­
ance is often assumed for the formwork.
0.500 0.20 0.668
Formwork load is sometimes neglected 0.625 0.31 1.043
when its contribution is very small in rela­ 0.750 0.44 1.502
tion to the concrete load and the construc­ 0.875 0.60 2.044
tion live load. Whatever assumed formwork
1.000 0.79 2.670
load is used, it should be verified once the
1.128 1.00 3.400
final formwork has been designed.
Normalweight concrete, with a density 10 1.270 1.27 4.303
of 150 lb/ft1, will place a load on the forms II 1.410 1.56 5.313
of 12.5 lb/ft2 for each inch of slab thick­ 14 1.693 2.25 7.650
ness. Thus, a 6 in. slab would produce a
18 2.257 4.00 13.600
dead load of 12.51b/ftl x 6 in. or 7Sib/ft1,

LOADS AND PRESSURES

 neglecting the formwork load. If the same
slab were of lightweight concrete with a
density of 120 lb/ft3, the dead load would
be (1 20 lb/ft3/12 in./ft) x 6 in., or 60 lb/ft1•

5. 3. 2 Live Loads
ACI 347R- 14, �Guide to Formwork for
Concrete," recommends that both vertical
supports and horizontal framing compo­
nents of formwork should be designed for
a minimum live load, Cl'f' of so 1b/ft1 of hori­
zontal projection to account for workers,
runways, screeds, and other equipment
(Fig. 5.2). When motorized carts are used,
the minimum load should be 75 lb/ftl.
Regardless of slab thickness, the minimum
design value for combined placed concrete
dead load and personnel and equipment
live load for ASD should be 100 lb/ft1, or
125 lb/ft1 if motorized carts are used. For
LRFD, the minimum factored dead plus live
load from Eq. (5.8) should be 140 lb/ft1, or
180 lb/ft1 if motorized carts are used.
Table 5.2, showing vertical load on
forms for various kinds of slabs of varying
thickness, has been developed using the
minimum live load of 50 lb/ft1 recom­
Fig. 5.2: Live load includes concrete crew, placing equipment and finishing equipment which mended by ACI 347R, and neglecting
may be temporarily concentrated in small areas the formwork dead loads, which must be
added by the designer.
Where slab form members are continuous over several supporting shores, placing
concrete on one span of the form member may cause uplift of the form in other spans, as
shown in Fig. 5.3. Forms must be designed to resist such conditions. If the form members
are not secured to accommodate this uplift, such as by shore dips, they should be
designed and built as simple spans.
On slabs inclined no more than about

�
45 degrees, the sliding tendency of a
relatively thin layer of fresh, low-slump
concrete is resisted by internal friction
within the concrete and by friction between
the concrete and the form. However, the
slab form must be rigidly connected to its
supports. Where there is a significant head

:: "-. Uplift ! of concrete above the sloping form surface

(Fig. 5.4), horizontal concrete pressure must
Shore eli ( j,,1: :, Splice
be resisted by strengthening the connection
at the joints or by extra guying and bracing
::'" /' :! "'- of the shores. Backforms, also known as

:, Correct I., Incorrect

top forms, are required for rapidly placed,
steeply sloping slabs.
:•i j.i
5.4 Lateral Pressure of Fresh

� · "' 1 \ ,:1 � ; Concrete

loads imposed by fresh concrete against
wall or column forms differ from the gravity
� Shores load on a horizontal slab form. The freshly
placed concrete behaves temporarily like
a fluid, producing a liquid pressure that
5.3: Connection of shores tojoists and stringers should hold shores in place when uplift
Fig. acts laterally on vertical formed surfaces.
occurs due to nonuniform loading on the deck. Lacing to reduce the shore slenderness ratio Rapid vertical placement can result in a full
"Cj<,;,e<lin_<�)Gdirecrions liquid pressure for the entire depth. With

CHAPTER 5
Table 5.2: Vertical load for design of slab forms, lb/ft2

16

10

12

14

lniOJmolion on slob weights !Of other form sizes con be

developed from dolo provided by form manufacturers
For on increase Of decrease of 1 in. in slob thickness
16 above form, simply odd or subtract 12.5 psi/rom
tabulated values lor normolweight concrete

20

LOADS AND PRESSURES

 Top of lift slower rates of placing, concrete at the bottom of the form

r��
begins to stiffen and the lateral pressure is reduced to less
than full liquid pressure by the time concrete placement
is completed in the upper parts of the form. The effective
lateral pressure-a modified liquid pressure-has been
found to be influenced by the concrete density, rate of
1'.:--::-"--� placement, temperature of the concrete, the admixtures and
cementitious materials used, and effect of vibration or other
consolidation methods. How these factors affect lateral
pressure will be discussed briefly before considering the
magnitude of pressure to be used in form design. The lateral
pressure information in this chapter applies to formwork
that is stationary. For information on concrete lateral pres­
sure for slipform work, refer to Chapter 18.

5.4.1 Factors Affecting Lateral Pressure

Fig. 5.4: Simplified drawing of inclined slab form with supporting shores Weight of Concrete
shows diagonal bracing to resist lateral component of pressure The density of concrete has a direct influence because liquid
pressure at any point in a fluid is created by the weight of
superimposed fluid. liquid pressure is the same in all directions at a given depth in the
fluid, and it acts at right angles to any surface that confines the fluid. If concrete acted
as a true liquid, the pressure would be equal to the density times the depth to the point
at which pressure was being considered. However, fresh concrete is a mixture of solids
and water whose behavior only approximates that of a liquid for a limited time. The use
of lightweight aggregate reduces the density of concrete. However, at early stages of
placement, the effect of pore water pressure is not reduced. Thus, ACI 347R recommen­
dations include a unit weight coefficient, Cw, which reduces the calculated pressure for
lightweight concrete. Reinforcement included in the concrete does not increase the lateral
pressure. The density used in lateral pressure calculations is the concrete density, not the
average density of the combined concrete and reinforcement.

Rote of Placement
The average rate of rise of the concrete in the form is referred to as the rate of placement.
As the concrete is being placed, lateral pressure at a given point increases as concrete
depth above this point increases {Fig. 5.5). Finally, by consolidation, stiffening, or by
a combination of the two, the concrete at this point tends to support itself, no longer
causing lateral pressure on the forms. The rate of placement has a primary effect on lateral
pressure, and the maximum lateral pressure is proportional to the rate of placement, up to
a limit equal to the full liquid pressure.
-
Vibration
Internal vibration is the primary method of
consolidating concrete. It causes concrete
to behave as a fluid for the full depth of
vibration and results in temporary local
10 to
lateral pressures that are at least
20% greater than those occurring with
simple spading. Because internal vibration
is a common practice, forms should be
designed to withstand the greater pressure
and depth of vibration must be controlled
during concrete placement. Forms must
also be made tight at joints to prevent
leakage due to vibration.
Revibration and external vibration
are also accepted practices for certain
types of construction, producing even
higher loads on the forms than normal
internal vibration and requiring specially
Fig. 5.5: Pumping permits rapid placement of concrete but can increase lateral pressure when
designed forms. During the process of
forms are filled to full height before any stiffening of the concrete takes place

CHAPTER 5
revibration, the vibrator is forced down through freshly placed concrete into layers
that have stiffened. local total pressures up to 300 lb/ft1 per ft of head of concrete
have been recorded with vigorous revibration.
External vibration, also called form vibration, is performed by attaching vibrators to the
outside of the form (Fig. 5.6). The form itself is vibrated and in turn transmits this vibration
to the concrete. External vibration hammers the form against the concrete, causing wide
fluctuation in lateral pressure. The frequency and amplitude of external vibration must be
adjusted in the field to avoid damaging the forms, and yet be sufficient to consolidate the
concrete. Recommendations for selection and use of form vibrators are given in ACI309R-05,
"Guide for Consolidation of Concrete.�
The effects of revibration and external vibration have not been sufficiently investigated
to be expressed in a standard formula, and therefore pressure formulas in this manual are
limited to concrete vibrated internally at the time of placement.

Temperature
The temperature of the concrete at the time of placing has an important influence
on pressures because it affects the setting time of concrete. At low temperatures, the
concrete takes longer to stiffen, and therefore a greater depth can be placed before the Fig. 5.6: Use of external form vibrators results
lower portion becomes firm enough to be self-supporting. The greater depth of liquid in concrete lateral pressures that cannot be
head that develops in the form results in higher lateral pressures. It is particularly impor­ predicted by the AC/347R formulas (Photo
tant to keep this in mind when designing forms for concrete to be placed in cold weather. courtesy Vibco Vibrators)

Concrete Chemistry
Cement type, use of retarding admixtures, and use of fly ash or slag cement as a cement
replacement can all have a significant effect on lateral pressure. The chemistry coefficient
of ACI347R provides a way to quantify the effect of retarding admixtures, cement type,
and use of fly ash or slag cement on lateral pressure.

Concrete Slump
The slump of conventional concrete in a workable range less than 7 in. does not have
a major influence on the lateral pressure of concrete. Because data on conventional
concrete with slump greater than 7 in. indicates higher pressures can result, ACI347R
recommends a liquid head pressure for that greater slump range.
Self-consolidating concrete (SCC) consistency is measured by slump flow rather than
slump. SCC has some advantages for placement, but its high flow characteristic has an
impact on the lateral pressure. Studies of SCC have produced several different methods for
controlling its behavior and estimating its lateral pressure. However, because this is still an
area being advanced through active research, ACI347R continues to recommend the use
of a full liquid head unless project-specific understanding of the behavior is developed or
pressures are controlled by measurement to assure safety.

Other Variables
Other variables measured at various times that have been found to have an effect on lateral
pressures include amount and location of reinforcement, ambient temperature, pore water
pressure, maximum aggregate size, placing procedures, depth of placement, cross section
of forms, and smoothness and permeability of the forms. However, with usual concreting
practices, the range of these variable effects is generally small and is usually neglected.

5.4.2 History of Lateral Pressure Values for Form Design

After several years of discussion, laboratory tests, and field investigations,s.Hlo there is still
a lack of full agreement as to the relative importance of several of the variables discussed.
The question of lateral pressure variation may not be fully resolved because of continuing
evolution of placement methods and admixture technology. However, the formwork
designer must adopt safe design assumptions that have proved workable for most condi·
tions on a particular type of job, rather than try to outguess field conditions.
It should be understood that the pressure assumption will have an overall effect on
the entire form assembly, and that this assembly is subjected to local load effects quite
different from the assumed uniform pressure of the concrete-such as those imposed
by swelling of form members, uneven tightening of tie rod assemblies, unpredictable
construction activities, and perhaps even by carelessness of construction.

LOADS AND PRESSURES

 Some of the earliest work of ACI Committee 347, then designated ACICommittee 622,
was the development of an experience-based formula for lateral pressure.s.1 The formula
evolved into three equations presented in ACI347-63: one for columns and two for walls,
one covering placement rates up to 7 ftlh, and one for rates of 7 to 10 ft/h.
'
,
/ The limit of application of the formulas for walls was set at 10 ft/h because then-available
/ experimental data were insufficient to determine pressures at higher placement rates. The

�: ?·
EqUIIIillenl
llydro&ta!IC ,' same formulas were given again in ACI347-68 and ACI 347-78, with an equivalent liquid
head formula added in ACI 347-78 for walls with placement rates greater than 10 ftlh. These
.. documents restricted application of the formulas to mixture and placement conditions on
which the original formulas were based, and cautioned about other mixtures and placement
conditions without giving specific guidance for them.
Meanwhile, as admixtures and cement replacements proliferated, ACICommittee 347
recognized that a form-pressure recommendation with too small a margin of safety could
result in form failures, given current construction practices. Thus, in ACI347R-88, the basic
lateral pressure formula, Cc,=wh, with no controlling maximum or minimum was recom­
Fig. 5.7: Concrete lateral pressure distribution mended for all placements that did not fit the specific limiting conditions set for the original
formulas-Type Icement, unit weight 150
lb/ft1, no pozzolans or admixtures, slump 4
Table 5.3: Applicable lateral pressure equations for concrete other
in. or less, and normal vibration to a depth
than sec
of 4 ft or less. These same pressure recom­
mendations were repeated in ACI347R-94.
However, by that time, virtually no concrete
was being produced without admixtures
and a variety of cement types and cement
replacements such as fly ash and slag
cement were in active use so that only the
liquid head formula realistically applied. In
S.7in.
ACI347-01 and 347-04, ACICommittee 347
used accumulating data and researchs-9.s.lo
on lateral pressures to present revised
pressure formulas using chemistry and
unit weight coefficients to cover a variety
of mixtures. ACI347R continued the same
basic provisions but clarified the presenta-
tion of the recommendations.

5.4.3 Lateral pressure of concrete equations

The lateral pressure of concrete, Cc,_ {lb/ft2), distributed as shown in Fig. 5.7, should be
determined in accordance with the appropriate equation listed in Table 5.3. The set char­
acteristics of a mixture should be understood, and using the rate of placement, the level
of fluid concrete can be determined. For columns or other forms that can be filled rapidly
before concrete stiffening, h should be taken as the full height of concrete in the form or
the distance between horizontal construction joints when more than one placement of
concrete is to be made.
When working with mixtures using newly introduced admixtures that increase set time
or increase slump characteristics, such as SCC, Eq. (S.1 Sa) should be used until the effect
on formwork lateral pressure is understood by testing.

cc,=wh (S.lSa)

[9000R
Cc-=CcCw 1 5 0 +--
l (S.lSb)
T
with a minimum of 600Cw lb/ft2, but in no case greater than wh

C,_._. =CcCw 15O

[ 43,400 2800R l (S.lSc)
+ T + T
with a minimum of 600Cw lb/ft2, but in no case greater than wh where
c, = chemistry coefficient from Table 5.4;
c , = concrete lateral pressure, lb/ftl;
,
Cw = unit weight coefficient from Table S.S;
h = height of concrete placement, ft;

CHAPTER 5
R = rate of placement, ft/h; Table 5.4: Chemistry coefficient, Cc
T = temperature of concrete, °F; and
w = unit weight of concrete, lb/ft3.
None 1.0
I, ll, or Ill N one None
Included 12
ACI347R also recognizes that, alternately,
a method based on appropriate experi­
None 1.2
<70% <40%
mental data can be used to determine Included 1.4
Aoy
the lateral pressure used for form design None 1.4
?:70% 2:40%
or a project-specific procedure can be Included 1.5
implemented to control field-measured
'Retarders include any admixture, such as a retarder, retarding water reducer, retarding mid-range water­
pressures in instrumented forms to the reducing admixture, or high-range water-reducing admixture (superplasticizer), that delays setting of
maximum pressure for which the form was concrete.

designed. Researchers and contractors

have used pressure cells inserted through Table 5.5: Unit weight coefficient, Cw
the form face and load cells on form ties •ght of concrete, lb/ft3 Cw
with pressure based on tributary area as
W< 140 0.5(1+ (w/145)] but not lm thon 0.80
methods of measurements_,,
ACI 347R provisions for the chemistry
140::: ws 150 1.0
coefficient were developed based on use W> 150 w/145
of either fly ash or slag cement as a cement
replacement in the concrete mixture
but not both at the same time. Further research has not become available to indicate
combined effects and ACI 347R has made no recommendation on combined effects. Thus,
when both are used, it would be prudent to either apply the higher chemistry coefficients
corresponding to greater than 70% slag cement or 40% fly ash, or to limit the slag and fly
ash combination if applying the lower coefficients and verify the pressure magnitude by
measurement. The combination limit could be on the basis of the following interaction
formula if predictions are also confirmed by pressure measurement.

% slag cement + % fly ash

< l.O
70% 40%
When working with SCC, the lateral pressure for design should be the full liquid head
unless the effect on formwork pressure is understood by measurement or prior studies
and experience. The lateral pressures developed by SCC are determined by considering
the rate of concrete placement relative to the rate of development of concrete stiffness/
strength. Any method has to include a measure of the stiffening characteristics of the
SCC and should be capable of being easily checked on site using on-site measurements.
Laboratory tests are often needed as a precursor to on-site monitoring tests. Several
methods for estimating lateral pressure of non-vibrated sec have been proposeds.n-s.19
and continue to be developed as additional data become available. Experience with these
methods is presently limited. Thus, evaluation of estimated pressure on the basis of more
than one method is advisable until satisfactory performance is confirmed for the range
of parameters associated with the project. Measuring pressures during placement and
adjusting the rate of placement to control pressures within the capacity of the forms can
be a wise precaution when using untested SCC mixtures.
Although SCC placement pressures have the potential to reach full liquid head pres­
sures, generally they do not.s·12- s·19 However, there are site and placement conditions that
agitate the already-placed concrete in the form and cause form pressure to increase. Site
conditions that can transmit vibrations to the freshly placed concrete can cause it to lose its
internal structure and re-liquefy. Heavy equipment operating close to the forms and continued
work on the forms are possible sources of these vibrations. Dropping concrete from the pump
hose or placing bucket will also agitate the in-place concrete. Adjustment of the formwork, ties,
or bracing can also lead to increased sec pressure.

5.4.4 BoHom-Up Pumping of Concrele

Concrete pumped into the bottom of a form can create pressures higher than full liquid
head. The effect will vary with concrete consistency, size of form, and amount of reinforce­
ment. As the concrete flows through reinforcement cages, drag resistance of stiffening
concrete can increase the pressure above full liquid head. If concrete is pumped from the
base of the form, ACI 347R recommends the form should be designed for full liquid head
of concrete, wh, plus a minimum allowance of 25% for pump surge pressure. Pressures can

LOADS AND PRESSURES

Table 5.6: Base column form pressure for concrete other than SCC
be as high as the face pressure of the pump
Applyweightand<h""'""""ffi"''""
piston; thus, pressure must be monitored
and controlled so that the formwork design
pressure is not exceeded.

5.4.5 Column Forms

For purposes of pressure determination,
ACI 347R defines columns as elements
with no plan dimension exceeding 6.5 ft.
In many types of construction, column
forms are small enough that the concrete is
placed full height of the form in a relatively
short time. Vibration frequently extends
throughout the full height of the form, and
resulting maximum lateral pressures are
greater than for wall forms.lf the full height
of the column form is filled in less than the
time required for the concrete to stiffen
appreciably, the pressure is essentially
fluid-that is, it increases uniformly from
zero at the top of the form to a maximum
at the base.The basic pressure formula Eq.
(5.15a) covers this condition.
For other placements with concrete that
has a maximum slump of 7 in.and normal
internal vibration to a depth of 4 ft or less,
ACI 347R recommends Eq.(5.15b) for calcu­
lation of maximum column form pressure
to be used for design.
Because the lateral pressure on column
forms is comparable to liquid pressure up
NOTES: Abov� bold line. depending on coeflidem v�lueo;. the minimum of600C,.Iblft' may govt"rn
to the time concrete stiffens appreciably,
Dor.otuse pressurein e•cessofwll.
maximum pressure is assumed to increase
uniformly at w lb/ft2 per foot of depth

ftt1rt111tiid¥'ffCtttiM4'4'111Ji liliJMt§id§·'f1hi§i.t§·'II"·"'MfflM1M until the maximum given by Eq.(5.15b)

Assume concrete for a 2 0ft tall column is to be placed at a rate of 1 0ft/h.Concrete is reached.That maximum then remains
having a density of 145 lb/ft3 with a slump of 4 in.and a temperature of 60°F is made constant throughout the remaining depth
with a cement blend containing 3 0% slag, but no retarders.Internal vibration will of the form.Table 5.6provides basic pres­
occur in intervals less than 4 ft in depth. sure values for columns to be adjusted for
Applying a chemistry coefficient of 1.2, from Table 5.4, and a weight coefficient of the chemistry and density coefficients.With
1.0, from Table 5.5, in Eq.(5.1Sb) modern techniques of placing and intensive
9000R l vibration, it is possible with rapid rates of
C,....,.,.=C,Cw 15 0+--
[ filling forms to have concrete remaining
T
in a fluid condition for the full duration of

c,....,.,.=1.2( 1.0) 1SO+

[ 900 ° 1OJ
� ]
6
=1980lb/ft2; wh=145 lb/ft3 ( 2 0ft)= 2900lb/ft1 >
the placement, resulting in pressures at the
theoretical pressure limit wh. See Examples
5.1 to 5.3.

1980lb/ft2; therefore, the maximum of wh does not controi600Cw lb/ftl=600lb/ft2 ( 1.0)

= 600lb/ft1; therefore, the minimum of 600Cw does not control 5.4.6 Wall Forms
For purposes of pressure determination,
Alternately, for placement at 1 0ft/h and a temperature of 60°F, Table 5.6gives a ACI 347R defines a wall as a vertical struc­
base value of 1 65 0lb/ft2• Applying a chemistry coefficient of 1.2 and a density tural element with at least one plan dimen­
coefficient of 1. 0 sion greater than 6.5 ft.ACI 347R gives two
(,.....,.,. = 1 65 0lb/ft2 X 1.2 X 1.Q=1980lb/ft1 equations, Eq.(5.15b) and (5.15c), that can
be used for concrete having a slump of 7 in.
This can be compared to liquid pressure up to the time concrete begins to stiffen
or less placed in walls with normal internal
appreciably. Liquid pressure will exist at any point within ( 1980lb/ft1)/( 145 lb/ft3), or
vibration to a depth of 4 ft or less.
13.6ft, below the top of the concrete, and there will be proportionately less pressure
Eq.(5.15b) applies for walls with rate of
than the maximum, as shown in Fig.5.8(a).The 1980lb/ft2 maximum is used for
placement less than 7 ft/h where the place­
design throughout the remaining form depth of 6.4 ft.
ment height does not exceed 14 ft.

CHAPTER 5
 ift1tirt14*1!ft.!§·'
t!ftffllmtt1J14l'''"Jm:tmt'A6'3§· ·'if1'
For the same column as in Example 5.1 using the same concrete mixture at the same
temperature, but at a rate of 20 ft/h, the base value is 3150 lb/ft2 fromTable 5.6.
Applying the same coefficients as before results in

C,l'm<u= 3150 lb/ft' X 1.2 X 1.0= 3780 lb/ft2

but this is greater than wh= (145 lb/ft1 x 20 ft)= 2900 lb/ft1

so 2900 lb/ft1 is taken as the maximum, with the distribution as shown in Fig. 5.8{b).

ift1tirt1411if!!M1mtt1Ji4l''''4 ili!l@ff#l§
For a 10 ft column made with normalweight concrete with a slump of 4 in.
containing Type I cement, a retarder that is placed at 2 ft/h, a temperature of 70°F,
and is vibrated to depths less than 4ft,Table 5.6 gives a base value of4071b/ft2•
From Table 5.5, the density coefficient is 1.0 and the chemistry coefficient is 1.2.
Applying the coefficients

C,,.._ = 407 lb/ft1 X 1.0 X 1.2= 489 lb/ft2

This is less than the 600Cw lb/ft1 minimum specified for Eq. (5.15b), so 600 lb/ft1 will
be used. The pressure of 600 lb/ft1 will occur at a depth of (600 lb/ft2)/{145 lbfftl), or
4.1 ft, below the top of the concrete, and the 600 lb/ft1 value applies for all points
below this depth. The pressure envelope for design is shown in Fig. 5.8(c).

Eq. (5.15c) applies for all walls with a

placement rate of 7 to 15 ft/h, and for walls
placed at less than 7 ft/h, but having a
placement height greater than 14 ft.
Note that Eq. (5.15c) does not apply to rates
of placement greater than 15 ft/h. Pres­
ently available pressure measurements do
not support extending the formula to rates

§]
more than 15 ft/h.
Table 5.7 gives base values of the
expressions

[ 9000R l [
O 43,000 2800R
15 0 +-- an d 1 S +--+--
T T T
l
2
600 lbft
/
to which the chemistry coefficient and unit
weight coefficient ofTables 5.4 and 5.5 must
al h =20ft b)h=20ft c) h =10ft
be applied to get maximum pressure values
for form design. See Examples 5.4 to 5.6. Fig. 5.8: Example column concrete lateral pressure diagrams
Remember that the pressure given by Eq.
{5.15a) through (5.15c) and shown in Fig.
5.8 and 5.9 represent envelopes of maximum pressure exerted during the total time required to
fill the form.The figures do not show pressure distribution at any single point in time. Because
studs and wales are ordinarily uniform in size and spacing throughout their entire height. only
the maximum pressure value will be needed for their design. However, wale and tie spacings may
be increased near the top of the forms to take advantage of lower maximum lateral pressures
there.
Examples 5.4 to 5.6 are for placement conditions represented by Eq. (5.15c). lf wall place­
ment is faster than 15 ft/h, Eq. (5.15a) must be used. Equation (5.15b) can be applied for walls
where placement height is 14 ft or less, and the rate of placement is less than 7 ft/h. Base
values for Eq. (5.15b) are shown in the boxed-out areas ofTable 5.7. See Example 5.7.

5.4.7 Pressure on Sloping Surfaces

The lateral pressure of freshly placed concrete will cause uplift where top forms used
to confine concrete are sloping instead of vertical because the pressure acts at a

LOADS AND PRESSURES

 mmTfiMII�'ljllttmtiJIJ{Siii-
A wall form is filled with 70°F concrete placed to a height of 15 ft
at a rateR= 10ft/h. The concrete density is 145 lb/ft3, it contains
a retarder, is made withType I cement, and has a 3 in. slump. It
will be internally vibrated at intervals less than 4 ft. FromTables
5.4 and 5.5, the chemistry coefficient c, = 1.2 and the density
coefficient Cw= 1.0.The two coefficients are applied to the base
value of 1170 lb/ft1 fromTable 5.7
C,,_= 11701b/ft1x 1.2 X 1.0= 14041b/ft1
mmt11t¥$!1,!f111tff1tt1Qi¥!jlli§fti,fj
If a wall form 6 ft high is filled under the same conditions shown
in Example 5.4, the limit ofwh-that is, 1451b/ft1 x 6 ft= 870 lb/
ft2-applies because it is less than the 14041b/ft2 determined
mmt1141il$'f111tff1ttl4i¥i''''4 !Uij!ffU1Jtf-ffldl'i.1d*§l
Suppose a 50°F concrete is placed into forms for a 15ft tall wall
at a rate of 7 ftlh. The concrete density is 130 lb/ft3, concrete
slump is 5 in., it does not contain a retarding admixture, and the
cement blend contains 20% fly ash. It will be internally vibrated
to depths less than 4 ft. UsingTables 5.4 and 5.5, the chemistry
coefficient C,= 1.2 and the unit weight coefficient Cw = 0.95.
These two coefficients are applied to the base value of 1410 lb/
ft2 fromTable 5.7.
bA
2 2
870 lb/ft
a) h =15ft b) h =6ft c) h =15ft
Fig. 5.9: Example wall concrete lateral pressure diagrams
mmt114D'r'l'''tff1ttl4'41''4 iliijdt·tltff1Dd"·,'9'4'
Consider a 12 ft tall wall with concrete placed at 4 ftlh at 70°F.
The concrete will have a 4 in. slump and will be internally
vibrated to a depth of less than 4 ft. Suppose this is a normal­
weight mixture weighing 145 lb/ft3 with no admixtures or
cement replacements, so that both chemistry and density coef­
ficients are 1.0.Therefore, the base value of 664 lb/ft2 found in
the boxed-out area ofTable 5.7 is not changed by coefficients,
and will be used for design.
This is greater than the minimum of 600( = 600 lb/ft1 and less
..
than the maximum wh= 14Sib/ft3x 15 ft= 21751b/ft1. Because
this is comparable to liquid pressure up to the time the concrete
begins to stiffen appreciably, any point within (1404 lb/ft1)/(145
lb/ft3)= 9.7 ft from the top of the form will have proportionately
less pressure than the maximum.The 1404 lb/ft2 maximum
applies for design throughout the remaining bottom 5.3 ft of
the form, giving a pressure envelope shown in Fig. 5.9(a).
fromTable 5.7 with adjustment.The resulting pressure envelope
is presented in Fig. 5.9(b).
Camo..= 1410 lb/ft1 X 1.2 X 0.95= 16071b/ft2
This is greater than the minimum of 600Cw = 600 lb/ft1 x 0.95=
570 lb/ft2 and less than the maximum wh = 130 lb/ft3x 15 ft=
1950 lb/ft1. Because the pressure is considered comparable to
liquid pressure, any point within (1607 lb/ft2)/(130 lb/ft3), or 12.4
ft, from the top of the form will have proportionately less pres­
sure, and the pressure envelope will be as shown in Fig. 5.9(c).
right angle to the surface confining the
concrete. Forms such as for the foot-
ings or tank shown in Fig. 5.10 must be
D�
weighted or tied down to counteract this
uplift effect. For design, lateral pressure is
calculated the same as for vertical forms,
measuring rate of placement and pressure
head vertically, not along the sloping form
face.
For sloping wall or slab bottom forms,
the pressure at a right angle to the form
surface is the component of vertical pres­
6641b/ft
sure due to the weight of the concrete plus
the component of the concrete lateral pres­
d) h =12ft
sure, both taken normal to the surface.
Again, we consider that the pressure is comparable to liquid
pressure for a depth of (664 lb/ft2)/(145 lb/ft3), or 4.6 ft, from the
top.The maximum 664 lb/ft2 controls for the rest of the form
depth, producing a pressure envelope for design, as shown in
Fig 5.9(d).
CHAPTERS
5.5 Horizontal Loads Table 5.7: Base wall form pressure for concrete other than SCC
Forms and shores must be braced to resist
all anticipated horizontal loads, such as
from wind, cable tension and inclined
support attachments, and dumping of
concrete or other impact, such as starting
and stopping of equipment. Bracing should
be provided to withstand the sidesway
effects that occur when concrete is placed
unsymmetrically on a slab form. ACI347R
recommends that formwork exposed to
the elements should be designed for wind
pressures determined in accordance with
ASCE/SEI7 with adjustment as provided in
ASCEJSE137 for shorter recurrence interval.
Alternately, formwork can be designed for
the local building code required lateral
wind pressure but not less than 151b/ft1•

5.5.1 Minimum Horizontal Loads

ACI347R recommends that forms be
braced for the following minimum hori­
zontal loads, acting in any direction:
Wall and column forms: The applied value
of horizontal load due to wind and eccen­
NOTtS: Above bol d line. d epending on o
c efficient values. tl>e minimumof 600C.,Iblft' m�ygovern
tric vertical loads should produce effects Donotu.,.p<enureinexc enofwh.forR>lSftlh.usewh.

not less than the effect of 100 lb/ft of wall

length or column width, applied at the top.
Slab forms: The applied value of horizontal load due to wind,
conventional or inclined placement of concrete, and equipment
acting in any direction at each floor line should produce effects not
less than the effect of 100 lb/ft of floor edge or 2%of total dead
load on the form distributed as a uniform load per foot of slab
edge, whichever is greater.
The requirement based on 2%of dead load considers that the
shores may either be out of plumb in error or may have an inherent
eccentricity, as shown in Fig. 5.11.
For example, if h= 100 in. and 6 = 2 in., the equivalent restraining
force, H, to prevent shore overturning is

H= PMh = P(2 in.)/100 in.= 0.02P, or 2%of the vertical load.

In some situations, as illustrated with adjustable4 x4 wood

shores, the eccentricity may be greater. However, it would be
unusual to have all shores accidentally out of plumb in the same
direction or to have all eccentric shores turned in the same direc­
tion. When the out-of-plumb shores are opposing, the overturning
effects cancel out. Thus, 2%is deemed reasonable. Adjustable
wood shores of the type shown in Fig. 5.11 are usually required to
be installed in opposing pairs.
Table 5.8shows minimum lateral forces recommended for design
of bracing for wall forms. These values apply to forms where the
internal concrete pressure is carried by ties. If a single-side form is
used with concrete supported on the other side against earth or
existing structure, bracing or struts should be designed to carry
lateral pressure of the fresh concrete, as explained in Chapter 8.
The ACI347R minimum of 100 lb/ft historically has been inter­
preted as applying to walls 8ft tall or higher. Thus, only wind Fig. S. 10: Inclined forms such as for sloped footing or a tank with
load is considered in developing the minimums in Table 5.8for sloping walls below grade require tiedowns, weights, or other means
walls above grade less than 8ft tall. Walls below grade may not of resisting uplift of the freshly placed concrete
be subject to wind due to nearby ground shielding, and bracing

LOADS AND PRESSURES

 adequate to maintain alignment is generally sufficient for walls 8ft taU or
p
l p less. Wall forms below grade and more than 8ft tall should be designed
for the minimum horizontal force of 100 lb/ft or more if known hori­
---
--- > > zontal forces are greater. If nearby ground shielding is not present,wall

H H formwork should be designed for wind as if above grade.

Table 5.9 shows minimum horizontal forces recommended for design
of bracing for slab forms. Wind pressures on the system of forms,shoring,
and bracing may control instead of the minimums listed. If the slab
forming system is enclosed,the wind pressure is exerted on the gross
area of the exposed face rather than on the accumulation of individual
h form members.

5.5.2 Wind Loads

I I The consideration of wind on formwork as presented herein concen­
I I trates on providing a general understanding of principles and applying
I I
I I them to formwork for walls,columns,and elevated slabs. For specialized
I
H I H formwork configurations,tall support towers,complex surrounding
I
.(--- I -(--- terrain,and formwork applications in very tall structures,the formwork
I I
I engineer should consult the more detailed information found in ASCE/SEI
I
� <;-A ---'!>1 fl 7 and ASCE/SEI 37.
'
ASCE/SEI 7 wind speeds have been developed to represent the
p p long-term exposure of permanent structures with an expected service
life of 50 years or more to possible wind loads. Formwork has a much
Fig. 5.11: Shore eccentricity
shorter exposure,often a week or less for a single erection. As a result,
the probable maximum wind velocity that may be encountered is much
less. Thus,ASCEISEI 37 has a provision for multiplying the ASCEISE17 wind speeds by the
construction period factors shown in Table 5.10.
The construction period is defined as the time interval from first erection to structural
completion of each independent structural system. Thus,the construction period is the time
of use for a single erection of the formwork. not its total time in repeated use on a project or
multiple projects.

Basic Wind Speed

ASCEISEI 37 provides that the basic wind speed should be determined in accordance with
ASCEISEI 7 for a Risk Category II structure. ASCE/SEI 7 recognizes that applying a blanket
factor to wind loads does not reflect the actual variability throughout the United States.
The structure importance is recognized by establishing different wind contour maps for
different importance levels,each with a different return period. The ASCEJSEI 7 wind speed
map corresponding to Risk Category II is shown in Fig. 5.12 and designated for Occupancy
Category II buildings and other structures. Formwork is considered to be other structures.
The basic wind speed used in this section is based on Risk Cat�ory II. If the authority having
jurisdiction requires that the basic wind speed used in this section be based on Risk Cate­
gory Ill or Risk Category IV,then the basic wind-speed map in ASCE/SEI 7 for those categories
should be used. When projects are located in the Special Wind Regions,the specific provi­
sions of ASCEISEI 7 should be consulted.

Hurricane-Prone Regions
For construction between November 1 and June 30 (outside of the hurricane season),ASCEJSEI
37 permits a basic wind speed of 115 mph for structures sited near the Gulf Coast and Eastern
Seaboard where the mapped basic wind speed exceeds 115 mph. The 115 mph wind speed
is permitted to be reduced by the short Construction Period factors only for construction
between November 1 and June 30. If the construction activity shifts into the period between
July 1 and October 31,the design is to be reviewed and modified,as appropriate,to conform
to the requirements for construction between July 1 and October 31.
Between July 1 and October 31,a basic wind speed of 115 mph is permitted for struc·
tures sited near the Gulf Coast and Eastern Seaboard,where the mapped basic 3-second
gust wind speed exceeds 115 mph provided additional bracing is prepared in advance
and applied in time before the onset of an announced hurricane. During these months
and in these coastal regions the permitted 115 mph wind speed is not reduced by the
Construction Period factors for the short construction period. The additional bracing is to
be designed for the full wind load determined using the unreduced mapped wind speed

CHAPTERS
exceeding 115 mph. Because warnings
are generally available before the onset of
a hurricane, contractors disassemble and
secure some forms, such as wall forms,
rather than leaving them erected and
providing additional bracing.

Design Wind Speed

The construction period design wind
speed, � · is calculated by multiplying the
basic wind speed, V, by the appropriate
Construction Period Factor from Table 5.10.

Design Velocity Pressure

A5CE/SE1 7 provides an equation for
velocity pressure used in the calculation of
wind forces on structures and components
based on the basic wind speed. Using the
construction period design wind speed
instead, the design velocity pressure in lb/
ft1, qr is determined

(5.16)

where
K6 =wind directionality factor from ASCE/
SEI 7, typically 0.85 for structures
similar to formwork;
K, =velocity pressure exposure coefficient
from ASCEISEI7; refer toTable 5.11;
K" =topographic factor from ASCEISEI 7,
most typically 1.0 except when the
formwork is located on a hill top or
escarpment; and
"Wind l)lessure l)lncribed by ASCE/SE137 �fter <K!justment by 0.6W ASD multiplier i� used whenever it would require a lateral
Vc =construction period design wind force for d�ign gre�ter th.ln the ACI347R 1001blft minimum shown.
speed, mph.
'15 lblft' minimum applie1 if using local code wind pr�sure Insteadof ASCE/SEI37

Table 5.9: Minimum lateral force for design of slab form bracing Table 5.1 0: Construction period
factors

le5slhan6weeh 0.75
6weeh Ia I yeor 0.80
llo2 years 0.85
2to5 yeors 0.90

"Si a bthicknes§esgiven forcon<:reteweighinglSOiblf t';allowan<:eoflSpsf forweightolforms.For con<:reteof dif f erentweight

or for joim slabs and beam and s!.lb comb;nat;ons.determine average de3d l0<1d per ft', and work from de�d loadcolumn,
interpolating as neededonmaOghtline basis

NOTE: Oo not interpol�te in rar.gM th�t �in with 100 lb minimum lnad

LOADS AND PRESSURES

c

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$ f�g��
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.g�
� ffi
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� �H�
s 8;; .d'
i
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CHAPTER 5
 The velocity pressure exposure coefficient,Kris a function of the terrain surrounding
the site and the height above ground of the formwork in the structure. One criterion is the
surface roughness of the terrain:
Surface Roughness B: Urban and suburban areas,wooded areas,or other terrain with
numerous closely spaced obstructions having the size of single-family dwellings or larger.
Surface Roughness C: Open terrain
with scattered obstructions having heights generally less than 30ft. This category
includes flat open country and grasslands.
Surface Roughness D: Flat,unobstructed areas and water surfaces. This category
includes smooth mud flats,salt flats,and unbroken ice.
Exposure categories, defined for building height but relatable to formwork at a similar
height within a structure,are as follows:
Exposure B: For buildings with a mean roof height of less than or equal to 30ft. Exposure B
applies where the ground surface roughness,as defined by Surface Roughness B, prevails
in the upwind direction for a distance greater than 1500ft. For buildings with a mean roof
height greater than 30ft,Exposure B applies where Surface Roughness B prevails in the
upwind direction for a distance greater than 2600ft or 20times the height of the building,
whichever is greater.
Exposure C: Exposure C applies for all cases where Exposures B or D do not apply .
ExposureD: Exposure D applies where the ground surface roughness,as defined
by Surface RoughnessD, prevails in the upwind direction for a distance greater
than 5000ft or 20times the building height,whichever is greater. Exposure D also
applies where the ground surface roughness immediately upwind of the site is B or
(,and the site is within a distance of 600ft or 20times the building height,which­
ever is greater, from an Exposure D condition as defined in the previous sentence.
For a site located in the transition zone between exposure categories,the category resulting
in the largest wind forces is used.

5.5.3 Shielding from Wind Pressure

Shielding of Formwork by Surroundings and Obstructions
If the formwork is located in an area shielded from wind by an excavation,existing structure,
or other obstruction,the shielded portion of the formwork can be designed for the reduced
wind pressure. Any unshielded portion should be designed for the full wind pressure.
Formwork shielding is reasonable for a portion of formwork contained within a
shielding zone of an existing structure or obstruction. The Caltrans Fa/sework Manuaf'·XJ
defines a zone of shielding as the projected face reduced by a rate 1 inward for 2down­
wind of the obstruction, as shown in Fig. S.13. This zone of shielding applies to both
vertical and horizontal shielding.
An existing structure or obstruction is any freestanding structure that will remain
in place for the duration of the formwork system and can withstand the wind loads
imposed on it. This can include recently completed concrete work that has gained
sufficient strength to withstand wind loads. It can also include excavations or soil
mounds that obstruct wind flow from a specific direction. To be effective, the
obstructions must shield the form from all wind directions. Formwork within
previously constructed exterior walls and formwork within an excavation might benefit
from shielding by an obstruction. Any mobile obstruction,such as equipment, should
not be used as shielding.

Wind Shielding of Repetitive Obiects of Formwork System /""""''""'

Shielding can also occur when repetitive objects of a formwork system slow the wind and thus
reduce the pressure on the downwind objects. The objects of the systems may be individual
members,such as beams and shores,or assemblies of members,such as frames or trusses. The
effective area A, for repetitive objects is the projected area of an individual object,A��' for which
the specific cumulative shielding coefficient,11,.,. is determined. When different sizes,types,
spacing,or rows of repetitive objects are used,a force coefficient c, along with 11,.,. and A, are
determined for each scenario. A methodw has been applied for frames of heavy lifting equip­
ment,such as cranes and derricks,that is also reasonable for formwork systems.
A1 for repetitive objects subject to shielding due to alignment can be estimated from:

(5.17) Fig. 5.13: Wind shielding by an obstruction

LOADS AND PRESSURES

 m
T]m=1 +111+T]}+T]l+TJ"+ ... +T]l -11= � (5.18)
1-�
for up to nine objects (m :S 9)

The wind effect on objects after the ninth is assumed to be the same
as on the ninth

11m =�+(m-9}T]8 (5.18a)

1-�

for more than nine objects (m > 9)

M �I U �3 �4 �5 U �7 M 09 1�
r•AJI'A, except that ifT] = 1, 11m=m
where
a =spacing of objects;

·II lX1 [)(] I

A,= projected race areaorsingleobject
A.,= area boonded by singleobject
Fig. 5.14: Shielding coefficient for repetitive objects
A1 =effective face area of a group of repetitive objects or a single
object, if not repetitive;
Ah =projected face area of an individual object;
A =gross area of object or area bounded by object;
9
b =width of object;
C1 =force coefficient for individual object;
m =number of identical, equidistant objects;
11 =shielding coefficient from Fig. 5.14; and
11m =cumulative shielding coefficient.

The cumulative shielding coefficient 11m is applied to the projected face area A� for an
individual object in a series of repetitive objects. When latticed or trussed frames are used
in series and shielding is considered, then '1m is applied to the A6 value for one instance of
the latticed frame to determine the A1 for the group of repetitive frames.

5.5.4 Design Wind Load

The wind load on formwork systems, F.,., can be determined using Eq. (5.19).

F.. =q,GC,A, (5.19)

where
q, = design velocity pressure; and
G = gusteffect factor fromASCE/SEI7.

The gust effect factor G considers the flexibility of the structure. Flexibility of some tall
buildings and tall towers can magnify the wind effect. Formwork, however, is typically
rigid because it is generally short and heavily braced. For rigid structures, G=0.85.
ASCE/SEI7 provides C,values for several object shapes similar to those occurring in
formwork, including square or round chimney-like structures, lattice frameworks, and
trussed towers. (1 values for other individual member shapes used in formwork design can
be found in Reference 5.22.
Wind load should be determined in a minimum of two perpendicular directions, one of
which being the exposed face with the greatest projected area. For each direction of wind
loading, formwork should be designed to resist the full force of wind load calculated along
that direction as well as SO% of the wind load calculated for the perpendicular direction
acting simultaneously.

5.5.5 Wind Load on Wall and Column Forms

Wind load on wall forms can be determined based onASCE/SEI7 provisions for wind loads
on solid freestanding walls and solid signs and using the force coefficients provided therein.
For the practical purposes of this manual, a somewhat simplified but conservative approach
will be used as illustrated in Fig. 5.15.
Wind on a freestanding wall form can blow from any direction. Wind at an angle tends
to exert higher pressure at the windward end. Obviously, the angle can be the opposite
producing higher pressure at the other end. It is practical to design the entire length of
form for the highest pressure. The pressure magnitude will vary depending on the length
of the wall form versus the height or 8/h. ASCEISEI 7 provides force coefficients for many
variations. The (1 values are higher for larger 8/h; thus, the designer should consider using

CHAPTERS
the highest 8/h expected in the use of a particular form. Column
forms of typical heights can be considered as very short walls of
height, h, and width, 8, where wind eccentricity is minimaL The (1
values in Table 5.12 have been reduced from the more extensive
Elevation View Cross-section View
data in ASCEISEI 7 assuming the wall or column form extends
upward from a footing, slab level, or a previous wall or column
placement. It is possible that less conservative results can be deter­
mined by direct use of that reference for particular cases. Consistent
with ASCE/SEI 7, the force calculated is applied to the wall form
slightly above mid-height as shown in Fig. 5.15 because the wind
pressure is somewhat higher near the top of the wall than the
��
bottom. See Example 5.8. I Wind
Plan VIews
Wind \
5.5.6 Wind Loads on Elevated Slab Formwork Fig. 5. 15: Wind force configurations for wall forms
Elevated slab formwork typically has three features that accumu-
late lateral load from wind as illustrated in Fig. 5.16.
British Standard BS 5975s.1J provides a simplified method for shielding of repetitive
members of elevated stab forms and edge forms. This method multiplies the projected area Table 5.13: C1 for elevated slab
of the formwork by a factor depending on the orientation of the supporting members. (1 for
elevated slab formwork is determined from Table 5.13. This force coefficient applies to the ··=--����--·�·�
formwork

slab formwork only and acts through the midheight of the slab formwork. � Case 1 (Fig. 5_17) 2_0
For the slab formwork, A1 of the windward face of elevated slab formwork is
Cose2 [Fig. 5.18] 2.2
A1= d x length of formwork considered (5.20)

where
d =depth of windward face depending Mtf1rt1ftlj:IWHftiiff7tjffAWjllj.ii.1
on applicable case, as shown in Fig. 5.17 Assume the following condition for a wall form (as shown in the illustration):
and 5.18. Form height= 20 h, length= 60 h
The wind force calculated based on these i 5
C1 values is only considered to act on the �:�� :�:�:�==��; � �:�
s a rm not
- H +
windward face of elevated slab formwork located at the top of a hill in an special
and includes the cumulative effects on all wind region.
repeated joists and stringers of elevated Construction period < 6 weeks for
slab formwork. No additional shielding form single use
From the applicable tables and wind
information:
Construction period wind speed factor
= 0.75 (Table 5.10) 0.55h
Table 5.12: Force coefficients for Directionality factor K; 0.85
wall and column forms Terrain factor Kn: 1.0
Exposure Category: B, coefficient K, at
20 ft: 0.62 (Table 5.7)
Wind force acting on wall form and
Gust factor G: 0.85 for a rigid structure
Force coefficient C;. 2.08 for a free­ required minimum equivalent horizontal
standing wall with aspect ratio of 3
overturning force acting or rop of form
{Table5.12)
Substituting in Eq. (5.16) and {5.19):

q,= 0.00256K.K,ldV/ = 0.00256(0.62){1.0)(0.85)[(115)(0.75)]2 = 10.0 lb/h2

F.,= q,GCt\=10.0 lb/h1(0.85)(2.08)(20 h)(60 ft) =21,220 lb applied at 0.55h above

the base as shown in Fig. 5.15 and Fig A.

In an A5D calculation, the multiplying factor of 0.6 is applied to the wind force F.,.
This load can also be compared to the minimum of 100 lb/ft applied at the top of the
form by summing moments about the base of the form:

H (20 ft)= 0.6 (21,220 I b) (0.55)(20 ft)/60 ft= 2335 lb

H=23351b/20 h= 1171b/h > 100 lb/ft

LOADS AND PRESSURES

 --
-
coefficient is applied to joists or girders/stringers. The force coefficients for slab edge
forms can be determined from Table 5.14 with L..,and d, defined in Fig. 5.1 9.
The shores and bracing can be approximated as a plane lattice framework that is
repeated many times such that the windward lattice frames may provide shielding to
subsequent frames. Force coefficients from ASCE/SEI 7 for lattice frames are given in Table
5.15 as a function of ratio c of the face area of the lattice framework to the gross area of
the lattice framework. The shore A1 is the total projected face area of all shores in a plane
and the brace A1 is the projected face area of all braces in the plane exposed to the wind
direction. c, values corresponding to c :5 0.1 in Table 5.15 are often appropriate for this
situation. If consideration of shielding is not desired, the analysis for wind load on the
shores and bracing elements must assume that all shores and braces are subject to the full
wind pressure. See Example 5.9.
As noted in Example 5.9, the magnitude of '1m is an indicator of the benefit of shielding in
comparison to the number of objects. If there is very little shielding because the objects are far
apart and the actual face area is small, '1m will be about equal tom; little shielding occurs and
almost the full wind pressure acts on all objects in the series. However, if the actual face area is
Fig. 5. 16: Applicable force coefficients for larger and the distance between is small, more shielding occurs and '1.., may be much less than m.
elevated slab formwork

5.5.7 Starting and Stopping Equipment Loads

When unusual unbalanced loading from unsymmetrical placement of concrete is antici­
pated, or when impact from starting and stopping of unusually heavy equipment or
dumping of concrete can be anticipated, an analysis of the lateral forces generated should
be made.lf it is desired to investigate the effects of starting and stopping of a heavy equip­
ment mass m on the deck, the forces, CH' developed can be estimated using the expression

Fig. 5.17: Case 1: wind parallel tojoists

F=ma=Wa/g

where
a = average acceleration or deceleration of equipment, ftls2
F = average force, lb
g = acceleration of gravity, 32.2 ft/s2
W = weight of loaded equipment, lb
Fig. 5. 18: Case 2: wind parallel to girders/ In the notation of horizontal construction load, CH=F. See Example 5.10.
stringers
5.5.8 Seismic Loads
ASCE/SE137 states that earthquake loads need not be considered unless required by the
authority having jurisdiction and the mapped Risk-Targeted MCER' 5% damped, spectral
response acceleration parameter at a period of 1 s, 51, defined in Section 11.4.1 of ASCE/SEI
7 equals or exceeds 0.40. The area of the United States equaling or exceeding this acceler­
ation level is very small. Owners of facilities having structures built in areas of high seismic
Fig. 5. I 9: Slab edge form dimensions probability may impose requirements for protection of the public. An example might be
for bridge construction where traffic is being maintained under or immediately adjacent
to the construction. ASCE/SEI 37 provides guidance for determining seismic loads during
Table 5.14: C, for slob edge forms construction.

Windword 5.6 Other Loads

1.8
edge form Imposition of construction loads on the partially completed structure should not be
allowed except with the approval of the engineer/architect. If it is necessary to use
leeward edge 0.11 [(LJd,)- 3], where 0.0 s;
f�m c,:s: 1.s recently cast concrete areas for storage of materials and supplies, forms and shores or
reshores must be designed to carry the additional load without damage to the concrete.
Often, the critical limit on temporary construction loads will not
Table 5.15: Force coefficients c, for individual lattice be the strength, but avoidance of excessive deflection, cracking,
frameworks and inadequately developed bond for splice details of reinforce­
ment. Under additional loads, many shoring or reshoring systems
adequate to support the concrete and formwork will develop
negative moments in partially cured concrete areas where there
is no negative moment reinforcing steel. Resulting cracks may
be objectionable for the life of the building.These problems are
discussed in more detail in Chapter 7 on reshoring.

CHAPTERS
 Assume the following condition for a slab form similar to the l'")-0.75,m= 19,
system shown In Fig. 5.16:
Floor-to-floor height: 11 ft; slab thickness:8 in.; joist depth: Tlm = .!.:....!L +(m-9)T]8 for more than nine frames
1-�
7.25 in.; 3/4 in. plywood; stringer depth:61n.;
Slab form plan dimensions: 72 x 72 ft;
Jlm 1-0.759 1 0.075
Highest form elevation set up for fifth floor at 50 ft above = +(19-9)(0.758)= - +(10){0.10)
1-0.75 0.25
grade;
Shores 4x4 545 wood at 4 ft ole each way with five sets of 2x4 =3.7+1.0=4.7
X-braces on alternate lines of shores in each direction; Note that this means that significant shielding occurs
Braces overlay two shore spaces, as shown in Fig. 5.17; because there are 19 sets of lattice frames.
Basic wind speed:115 mph; (1- 1.9 from Table 5.11 for E=0.103; conservatively use 1.9
Exposure category B and form not located at the top of a hill because on borderline between 1.8 and 2.0.
in a special wind region; A,= '1mA6=4.7(68.8 ft2)=323 ft2
Construction period< 6 weeks for form single use. Substituting in Eq. (5.16) and (5.19)
From the applicable tables and wind information: Q,= 0.00256Kl,ldV/=0.00256(0.81)(1.0){0.85)[{115)
Construction period wind speed multiplier=0.75 (Table 5.10) (0.7S)J2=13.11 lb/ft2
Directionality factor K;. 0.85 F.=q,GC(',
Terrain factor K": 1.0 For edge forms, F=13.11 lb/ft2(0.85){1.8)(2)(0.67 ft)(72 ft)
Exposure Category B, coefficient Kr at 50 ft: 0.81 (Table 5.11) = 1930 lb

Gust factor G: 0.85 for a rigid structure For slab forms (Case 1), F=13.11 lb/ft1(0.85)(2.0)(1.17 ft)(72 ft)
=18801b
Force coefficient for edge form (Table 5.14):
For slab forms (Case 2),F=13.11 lb/ft2(0.85)(2.2)(0.67 ft)(72 ft)
windward C,= 1.8; leeward C,= 0.11i(Ljd1)- 3] =
=11801b
0.111(72 ft/0.67 ft)- 3] = 11.4, use 1.8 maximum.
For shores and braces, F=13.11 lb/ft1(0.85)(1 .9)(323 ft1) =
Force coefficient for slab form (Table 5.13):Case 1 C,= 2.0;
6838 lb (half in friction to slab below)
Case 2 C,= 2.2.
Total F=1930+ 1880+ (6838/2) =7230 Ib at slab form
Force coefficient for shores and bracing:
elevation (worst direction)
shore height=11 ft- 0.67 ft- 0.67 ft- 0.5 ft=9.2 ft; brace
Use ASD multiplying factor=0.6
length=(9.22+ 82)0·5=12.2 ft
Equivalent lateral force per foot of slab form edge H=
A,= 19 (9.2 ft) (3.5/12) ft+ 5(2)(12.2 ft)(3.5!12)ft/2= 51+
0.6 (7230 lb)/72 ft= 60 lb/ft
17.8= 68.8 ft2
Minimum lateral load=2% of dead load or 100 lb/ft. Assume
Used one-half of braces because on alternate lines of
forms weigh 10 lb/ft2 and concrete slab at 150 lb/ftl.
shores.
H,;,= 0.02[10 lb/ft1 + 0.67 ft (150 lbfftl)J(72 ft)=
A9=9.2 ft (72 ft)=662 ft2
0.02[110 lb/ft2](72 ft) =158 lb/ft. Controls.
c= A,/A9=68.8/662=0.103

For Fig. 5.14, alb=4 ft/9.2 ft=0.43

If stresses may be induced in a concrete

member before it is fully constructed, the
engineer/architect should review design A loaded concrete buggy, weighing 2500 lb,traveling at its maximum speed of
of the member in relation to the proposed 12 mph, is stopped in 6 seconds. What horizontal force is applied to the formwork?
formwork support. This condition may
buggy speed= 12 mph=(5280 ft/mi x 12 mi/h)/(60 min/h x 60 s/min)= 17.6ft/s
occur in heavy flexural members,such as
massive bridge pier struts,that are placed
average deceleration=17.6 ft per s/6 s = 2.93 ft/s1
in several lifts. When the first lift has been
cast and begins to develop strength, it CH = Wa/32.2 ftJsl
may become stiffer than the supporting
formwork and carry some of the load from CH=(2500 lb x 2.93 ft/s2)/32.2 ft/s2=227 lb
subsequently placed lifts.

LOADS AND PRESSURES

 REFERENCES
5.1. ACI Committee 622, "Pressures on Formwork,M AC/Journa/ Proceedings, V. 55,No. 8,
Aug., 1958,pp. 173-190.
5.2. Gardner,N. J.,and Ho, P. T.-J., Hlateral Pressure of Fresh Concrete,H ACI Journal Proceed­
ings, V. 76,No. 7, July 1979,pp. 809-820.
5.3. Gardner,N.J., HPressure of Concrete Against Formwork,H AC/Journa/ Proceedings,
V. 77,No. 4, July-Aug. 1980,pp. 279-286,and discussion V. 78,No. 3,May-June 1981,pp.
243-246.
5.4. Clear,C. A., and Harrison,T. A., "Concrete Pressure on Formwork," CIRIA Report No.
108,Construction Industry Research and Information Association, London, UK, 1985, 32
pp.
5.5. Gardner,N. J., NPressure of Concrete on Formwork: A Review," AC/Journal Proceedings,
V. 82,No. 5,Sept.-Oct. 1985,pp. 744-753.
5.6. Johnston, D. W.; Khan,K. P.; and Phillips,J. B., F
� ormwork Pressures in Tall and Thick
Concrete Walls,"Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, ASCE,V. 115,No. 3,
Sept. 1989,pp. 444-461.
5.7. British Cement Association,�Hi-Rib Permanent Formwork Trials," Report and Appendix
RE1.031.01.1 BCA,Slough, UK,Feb. and July 1992,22 and 9 pp.
5.8. Dunston,P. S.; Johnston,D. W.; and McCain,P. P., F
" ormwork Pressures in Tall Walls
with Extended Set Concrete," Concrete International, V. 16,No. 11,Nov. 1994,pp. 26-34.
5.9. Barnes, J. M.,and Johnston,D. W., "Modification Factors for Improved Prediction of
Fresh Concrete lateral Pressures on Formwork,"lnstitute of Construction,Department of
Civil Engineering,North Carolina State University,Raleigh,NC,Oct. 1999,90 pp.
5.10. Barnes, J. M.,and Johnston, D. W., F
" resh Concrete lateral Pressure on Formwork,"
Proceedings, ASCE-CI Construction Research Congress 2003,8 pp.
S.ll. Johnston,D. W., F
N ield Measurement of Concrete lateral Pressure in Form­
work,N Proceedings of the 2010 Construction Research Congress, ASCE,V. 2,May 2010,pp.
133S-1344.
5.12. Khayat,K. H., "Workability,Testing and Performance of Self-Consolidating
Concrete," AC/ Materials Journal, V. 96,No. 3,May-June 1999,pp. 346-353.
5.13. Billberg,P.; 5ilfwerbrand, J.; and Osterberg,T., NForm Pressures Generated by Self­
Consolidating Concrete," Concrete International, V. 27,No. 10,Oct. 2005,pp. 35-42.
5.14. lange, D. A.; Birch,B.; Henschen, J.; liu Y.-S.; Tejeda-Dominquez,F.; and Struble,l. J.,
NModeling Formwork Pressure of sec Proceedings of the 3rd North American Conference on
Design and Use of Self Consolidating Concrete (SCC2008), Chicago,2008,6 pp.
5.15. Proske,T.,and Graubner,C.-A., F
" ormwork Pressure Using Self-Compacting
Concrete,T
" echnische Universitat Darmstadt,lnstitut fur Massivbau,2008,25 pp.
5.16. Construction Standards Committee (NABau), "Frischbetondruck auf lotrechte
5chalungen (Pressure of Fresh Concrete on Vertical Formwork) DIN 18218:2010-01),"
Deutsches lnstitut fur Normung,Berlin, Jan. 2010, 19 pp.
5.17. "DIN Standard on Formwork Pressures Updated,� Concrete lnremotiona/, V. 32,No. 6,
June 2010,pp. 27-29.
5.18. Khayat,K. H.,and Omran,A. F., �Field Verification of Formwork Pressure Prediction
Models,"'Concrete International, V. 33,No. 6, June 2011,pp. 33-39.
5.19. Gardner,N. J.; Keller,l.; Quattrociocchi,R.; and Charitou,G., F
" ield Investigation of
Formwork Pressures using Self-Consolidating Concrete," Concrete International, V. 34,No. 1,
Jan. 2012,pp. 41-47.
5.20. Office of Structure Construction, F
" alsework Manual," State of California Depart­
ment ofTransportation, Jan. 1988,Revision No. 37, Aug. 2012,451 pp.
5.21. FEM 1.001, NRules for the Design of Hoisting Appliances,Section 1: Heavy lifting
Appliances; Federation Europeenne de Ia Manutention,third edition,Nov. 1998,pp. 2-28.
5.22. Shapiro, L K.,and Shapiro, J. P., Cranes and Derricks, fourth edition,McGraw-Hill,
New York,2011,688 pp.
5.23. BS 5975:2008+A 1:2011, C
" ode of Practice forTemporary Works Procedures and the
Permissible Stress Design ofFalsework,B
" ritish Standards Institution,london, UK,2011,206 pp.
6: SHORING AND FLOOR LOADS IN
MULTI-STORY STRUCTURES
6.1 Shoring of Multi-story Concrete Structures during
Construction
The construction of the concrete frame and slabs for multi-story structures is often
on the critical path of the construction schedule with subsequent activities following
closely behind, as shown in Fig. 6.1. In multi-story work, the formwork and shoring that
support freshly placed concrete are usually supported by several lower floors. Because
floors may be cast at rates as fast as 3 days per floor, the supporting floors may not yet
have attained adequate strength to support the construction loads from above. Even
if they have developed full design strength at the time of construction loading, the
lower floors very likely have not been designed to carry loads as great as those imposed
during construction or distributed in the same manner. Construction loads may exceed
design loads by an appreciable amount. Construction loads are usually the maximum
loads that multi-story structure floors will experience in their entire service life. There­
fore, shoring and reshoring should be provided for an adequate number of floor levels
to distribute the construction loads in such a way that the imposed loads are within the
strength capacities of the floors below without causing excessive stress, deflections, or
cracking. Figure 6.2 shows a building under construction with one level of forms and
shores at the top and three levels of reshores immediately below. Shores are the vertical
elements supporting the forms. Reshores are shores that are put in place after a level of
forms and shores has been stripped. Specialized types of shores called backshores and
drophead shores will be discussed later.
The contractor is faced with the need for economy and the constraints to maintain Fig. 6.1: Multi-story concrete building under
safety and quality. Economy is often driven by reducing the cycle time between cast construction
floors to a minimum and using a minimum number of formed floor levels and reshore
levels. Safety often requires a casting cycle that allows sufficient time for the floor to
Fig. 6.2: Shoring and reshoring elements for concrete floor construction

gain strength consistent with the load, as well as sufficient sets of forming, shoring, and
reshoring to distribute the load to enough floors. Quality may impose limitations on
deflection and cracking that can be aggravated by early loading of low-strength concrete
floors. Thus, the construction engineer must design a system of shoring and reshoring
satisfying these needs and constraints. ACI347.2R-05, "Guide for Shoring/Reshoring of
Concrete Multistory Buildings," provides information and analysis methods based on
research results and the experience of formwork designers.
Whether a formwork system including shores alone or a combination of shores and
reshores is used depends on the project schedule, project plan for reuse of materials, avail­
ability of formwork, and the overall design of the structure.
Shores in the lowest stories should be designed to carry the full weight of concrete, form­
work, and construction loads of all the floors above them prior to removal of the lowest story
of shores supported on the ground or other unyielding support. Once the first floor of shores
supported by the ground has been removed and replaced by reshores, the shores and reshores
must be designed to carry all loads transmitted from the slabs above. Because the building
slabs become part of the support system, the shoring/reshoring designer must consider their
ability to support or transfer loads to and from the shores and reshores and to the building
columns. ACI347R- 14, ffGuide to Formwork for Concrete,w states (Section 4.5) that the structure's
capacity to carry these loads should be reviewed or approved by the engineer/architect, while
the plan for shoring and its execution remain the responsibility of the contractor.
In preparing a shoring/reshoring system design, ACI 347R recommends that the analysis
should consider, but not be limited to, the following:
Structural design load of the slab or member including live load, partition loads, and
other loads for which the engineer of the permanent structure designed the slab.
Where the engineer included a reduced live load for the design of certain members
and allowances for construction loads, such values should be shown on the struc­
tural plans and be taken into consideration when performing the shoring/reshoring
system design;
b. Dead-load weight of the concrete and formwork;
c. Construction live loads such as placing crews and equipment or stored materials;
d. Specified design strength of concrete;
e. Cycle time between placements of successive floors;
f. Strength of concrete at time it is required to support shoring loads from above;
g. Distribution of loads between floors, shores, and reshores or backshores at the time
of placing concrete, stripping formwork, and removal of reshoring or backshoring;
h. Span of slab or structural member between permanent supports;
Type of formwork systems-that is, span of horizontal formwork components, indi­
vidual shore loads;

CHAPTER6
j. Concrete age and strength below which creep deflection is a concern; and
k. loads applied by post-tensioning transfer. OSHA 1926 Requirement for
It is difficult to recommend a single general procedure for shoring and reshoring multi­ safety:
story structures because the interrelationships of variables listed previously differ widely 701 (a) Construction Loads
from one job to another. However, there are some useful methods of analysis that take No construction loads shall be
into account different speeds and cycles of construction, different ratios of structural live placed on a concrete structure or
load to dead load, and different rates of concrete strength development. There are four portion of a concrete structure
analytical processes necessary in the design of the shoring/reshoring construction system. unless the employer determines,
1. Analyze the shoring and reshoring system proposed to determine slab, shore, and based on information received from
reshore loads at each step; a person who is qualified in struc­
2. Analyze the capacity of the slabs at the ages when critical loads are to be supported; tural design, that the structure or
3. Compare slab early-age strength to applied loads; and portion of the structure is capable
4. Desi gn forms, shores, and reshores for maximum loads applied during the of supporting the loads.
construction process.
This may be an iterative process in which the initially assumed number of levels to be
shored or reshored may have to be changed to optimize load or the cycle time may need
to be changed to yield required strength.

6.2 Shorin9 and Reshoring Loads in Multi-story Structures

6.2.1 Analyzmg the Loads
Several designers and researchers6·'-6.n have published proposed methods of analyzing
the loads on slabs supported by evenly distributed shores in multi-story buildings during
construction. As discussed in ACI 347.2R, analytical studies by some of the researchers
based on a simplified method verified its validity by comparing the predicted values with
field measurements. Field measurements have consisted of measured loads on shores and
reshores during the construction process. Most of the available field observations were
found to be in fair agreement with the predicted values. The assumptions and limitations
of the method have been investigated and the simplified method has been refined in
various ways: in construction methods and schedules, introduction of reshores, analysis
of short- and long-term deflections, and in structural reliability. Their results are in close
enough agreement, with sufficient verification based on field measurement of loads, to
form a basis for confidence in the analysis of construction load distribution.
Because of several factors that for the most part remain quantitatively unknown-creep
and shrinkage of concrete, technique of installing reshores, local load redistribution, and
degree of continuity in field-constructed formwork-a precise theoretical solution is
impractical if not impossible. For purposes of demonstrating a simplified analysis in this
manual, the following assumptions are made:
All previously cast slabs are identical and have equal stiffness;
Ground-level or other grade base support is rigid;
Shores and reshores are spaced closely enough to treat their reactions as a distributed load;
Shores and reshores are infinitely stiff relative to the slabs; and
Reshores are installed snug-tight without initially carrying any load.
These assumptions result in two important behaviors during the analysis. First, because
shores have infinite stiffness, slabs interconnected by shores and reshores deflect equally
when a new load is added and rebound equally when a load is removed. Second, because
the slabs have equal stiffness, when they deflect equally due to an increment of imposed
load, the slabs share the load increment equally.
To demonstrate the effect of slab stiffness, Grundy and Kabaila6.' first calculated slab and
shore load resultants assuming three supporting slabs of equal stiffnesses and then, for
comparison, calculated the effect of assuming different stiffnesses. Using different stiff­
nesses for the slabs corresponding toE at ages 7, 14, and 21 days, their results varied by
<
only S to 10% from results with assumed equal stiffness.
Obviously, the aforementioned five assumptions are not precisely true, but field
measurements reported thus far show that the effect of the differences is small enough to
make a useful analysis on this basis when the floors are of the same thickness and similar
reinforcement. However, if a floor is substantially different, as sometimes occurs for a first
elevated floor of a building due to differing occupancy, the effect of the variation in stiff­
ness should be considered. Research has indicated that use of compressible wood shores
causes support of loads to shih upward, increasing slightly on the most recently cast
floors. For additional information, consult References 6.1 through 6.12.

SHORING AND FLOOR LOADS IN MULTI-STORY STRUCTURES

 const. personnel & equip. load
dead load of fresh concrete
leveli
dead load of forms and shores
force in shores below level I

Shores

leveli-1

Shores

-4f !•r : =�=�:r:''=:;,�:j:;t• �F�,l : �:::. ��: �����;;� �

�
F�.1 "'force in shores applied to level i-2
levell-2 o e ab
i � �
CoR "' dead load of reshores
FB1.1 "' force In reshores below level i-2

Reshores FB1,2 ,. F�,2+ D- RF�: + C011

: F�� :force in reshores applied to level l-3

f�=:�;· =�==:i==:::i;=�·
D • dead load of concrete slab
levell-3

f �� : �:�� �:; ��=;�!�:�

� � ' -3
o
FB1� = force in reshores below level i-3
Reshores and F��= FB1�

Fig. 6.3: Representation of vertical equilibrium of each floor level in the system (the number of
levels varies with the number of shored levels and reshored levels)

The analysis is conducted by simple consideration of vertical equilibrium as shown in

Fig. 6.3, where two levels of shores and two levels of reshores are used and the sum of
vertical forces at each floor level and at each shore/reshore level must equal zero.
There are five operations associated with the construction of each floor slab:
1. Installation of shores and formwork followed by placement of reinforcement and
concrete for the upper slab;
2. Removal of the live load immediately following placement and gradual strength gain
of the slab;
3. Removal of lowest level of shores and formwork, allowing the slabs to deflect and
carry load;
4. Removal of reshores at the lowest interconnected level; and
S. Placement of reshores in the story from which the shores and forms were removed.
The reshores are placed snugly without initially carrying any load.
The sequence of these operations varies, depending on the number of levels of shores and
reshores. In practice, the use of more than one level of shores is rare and often not economical.
Several examples of load analysis following the listed assumptions are shown in the
following sections. A spreadsheet program, AutoReshore, developed by McGurl and
Johnston,6.11 has been used to calculate the resulting distribution of applied loads and
self-weights to the floor slabs, shores, and reshores. The spreadsheet has several tabs, each
corresponding to specific sets of shored and reshored levels, as follows:

Tab Formed/Shored Levels Reshored Levels

AutoReshore 1S-2R

AutoReshore 1S-3R

AutoReshore 25·1R

AutoReshore 2S-2R

AutoReshore 305 (Drophead}

CHAPTER6
AutoReshore is made available as a part of the package for this manual. The program is
limited to the listed analysis assumptions and the sequence of operations and load paths
indicated. The electronic supplements to the package can be found in the ACI bookstore
at www.concrete. org by searching for•Formwork for Concrete.·
As in ACI347.2R, the loads for analysis and resultants are expressed as a proportion of
the slab deadload, D. Forthecaseof an 8 in. thick slab of 150 lblft3 concrete, 0= 100 lb!ft2 so that
1.00= 100 lb/ft2 and a 50 lb/ft21ive load would be a load ofO.SOD. Inputs to AutoReshore
can either be in a proportion of 0 or actual loads such as kip/ft1 but must be of consistent
units. An example of a simple shoring load analysis with two levels of forms/shores and
one level of reshores simplified by considering dead load of the slab only is shown in
Example 6.1.1n Example 6.2, all loads are considered. In Example 6.3, all loads are consid­
ered with one level of forms/shores and two levels of reshores.

6.2.2 Comparison of Example Analysis Results

Maximum Slab Loads
Examples 6 .2 and 6.3 illustrate two systems with a particular set of load relationships.
Many systems are possible, such as:
One level forms/shores with two levels of reshores;
One level forms/shores with three levels of reshores;
Two levels forms/shores with one level of reshores; and
Two levels forms/shores with two levels of reshores.
From Examples 6.2 and 6.3, it can be seen that the slabs support the greatest loads in
the first series of steps after there are no longer shores/reshores extending all the way to
the ground. The maximum slab load occurs after the lowest level of shores or reshores is
removed from the ground level and there is not a direct load path to the ground when the
next slab is placed. Typically, the most heavily loaded slab in the system is the last slab cast
before shores at ground level were removed. In Example 6.2 with two levels of forms/shores
and one level of reshores, the maximum slab loads, in terms of slab dead load D, are:

Slab No. Step Slab load

Slab4 Step 6-A 2.0690

Slab 3 Step 5-A 2.0290

Slab2 Step4-A 2.1080

Slab 1 Step4-A 1.5830

In Example 6.3 with one level of forms/shores and two levels of reshores, the maximum
slab loads are:

Slab No. Step Slab load

Slab4 Step 5-A 1.6080

Slab 3 Step 6-A 1.6080

Slab2 Step 5-A 1.6080

Slab 1 Step4-A 1.6080

This suggests, perhaps contrary to initial thinking, that it is better to use only one rather
than two or more sets of forms/shores. Indeed, examination of many combinations has
indicated increasing the number of formed/shored levels increases the maximum slab
load. Increasing the number of reshored levels reduces the maximum load supported
by the slabs. As will be seen in the later analysis of load capacity and cycle interval, the
maximum load does not always control, depending on the relative ages of the slabs.
However, the combination of the greater load to be supported and the cost of providing
more than one set of forms/shores has made the option of one set of forms and multiple
levels of reshores the frequently selected solution.

SHORING AND FLOOR LOADS IN MULTI-STORY STRUCTURES

otmmt)iJ4i.Util.l.i!fiMt§ffltiMfiMmmc.m·m•®•mc·m•
m••*·Mifti?MiMtJ
This example, considering slab dead load only, demonstrates the
method as a learning exercise and does not consider construe- SHORINGAND RESHORINGANALYSIS

tion live load or the separate allowances for the weight of forms,
lmJ
ll
���;::;, :�� ����=�:! ���� ���=����: �� ; � ��! ; �:
a e s a a o o the
[I 2,_�-.:
-I
-:::J I-.- -
1 r 5 xa 0
considers slab weight, the only load at each slab level is 1.OD, and
CPE =CDf =CDR= 0. Analysis parameters are shown in the input
screen shown to the right for the case of two levels of forms/shores
and one level of reshores. The list of load factors= 1.0 indicates
that this analysis will be based on allowable strength design (ASD).
If the spacing of the shores and reshores is known, this informa­
tion can be entered but is not necessary for the load distribution
analysis.
The following AutoReshore spreadsheet screen captures show
Inputs for analysis presented in this example with loads expressed
intermsofD
how the method is applied with two levels of shores and one
level of reshores. (The AutoReshore spreadsheet is available for
download from the American Concrete Institute website. Search "Formwork for ConcreteM at www.concrete.org.) Several columns
are shown. The steps correspond to the five operations that are typically associated with the slab levels. Three columns indicate the
load carried by the slab at a particular level before that operation, the load change during the operation, and the load carried at
the end of the operation. The unit load carried by the shores is then indicated, for this example in terms of D. Next. an illustration of
the structure is provided showing the various slabs, shores, and reshores. Finally, a column provides the calculated total individual
shore and reshore loads for the spacing entered in the input screen. If the load carried by the shores at the end of an operation is
2.000 {meaning 2.000D) and the regular spacing is 5 ft in each orthogonal direction, the individual shore load would be 2.0D x 5
ft x S ft =SOD ft2 and for D= 100 lb/ft1 becomes 5000 lb. Knowing the shore spacing and reshore spacing is not required for the
analysis. Input of a unit spacing of 1.0 results in a unit shore load rather than a total shore load.
The analysis processes and AutoReshore screen captures for several example steps are described as follows:
1-A: Slab 1 is shored, formed, and placed. A fresh concrete slab cannot carry load. Slab dead load, D, is transmitted directly to the
ground.
F81 = C,MI.= l.OOD

1-B: In this example there is no live load, so the shore support is unchanged.
F81 = 1.00D

ltUJLUJ .
2-A: Slab 2 is shored, formed, and placed. Because Slab 1 cannot deflect, it transmits load but does not support load.
FB2 = c,MI = 1.ooo =FA,
FB, =FA,+ l.OOD= 1.00D + 1.000 = 2.000

2-B: In this example there is no live load, so the shore support is unchanged.

c::::::JHardenedslab
Story of shOJes
IIIII andlormwork
��
�, �, , , , Story of reshOfes
l.l.l..l.l Ofbackshores

CHAPTER6
 2-C: Forms and shores are removed from below Slab 1. The shore support of 2.00 under Slab 1 is removed, Slabs 1 and 2 deflect
equally, and the load each carries increases by 2.00/21evels= 1.OO.loads carried by the slabs are transferred to the columns.

"""

'

1
� � tt!HHlj'
·�

U IOO
0.�

0.000
' ·�

UXlO
0.000

1
:::"'"
,.....,..
�
2-0: Reshores are installed snug-tight to the Slab 1 soffit. As the reshares are placed, they carry no load, but are ready for the loads to be
transmitted from operations above. The load carried by Slab 1 remains 1.00 because the reshares are intentionally only snug-tight.

I I I I I I I
0.000 I I I I I I I 0

3-A: Slab 3 is shored, formed, and placed. Because Slab 1 is reshored to the rigid base, Slabs 1 and 2 cannot deflect, so all the new
load goes through shores and reshores to the ground.

§
'

'

�
'

"

3�C: Forms and shores are removed from below Slab 2. The shore support of 1.00 under Slab 2 is removed, Slabs 2 and 3 deflect
equally, and the load each carries increases by 1.00/2 levels= 050. Note that Slab 2 is supporting 1.50, its own self-weight, and
half the weight of Slab 3. The shore load on Slab 1 is removed so that the reshore load reduces to zero.

;=' ;
"

I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I 0

Rg i d
i support
3-0: Slab 1 reshores are removed. Because reshores were unloaded, there is no change in load supported by Slab 1. 7T77777T7atgroundlevel

=: Freshlyplaced
= slab

c:::::::JH ardenedslab

III!] Story ol shores

andlormwork

��
. ,�
, �,
, S toryofreshores
l..l.l..l. orbaekshores

SHORING AND FLOOR LOADS IN MULTI-STORY STRUCTURES

3-E: Reshores are relocated and installed snug-tight under Slab 2.

1111111
I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I

4-A: Slab 4 is shored, formed, and placed. Because Slab 1 is no longer shored to the rigid base, Slabs 1, 2, and 3 deflect equally under
the added load and carry an additional 1.00/31evels = 0.3330. Tracking the shore forces from the top downward
FB4= C,MI. = 1.00= FA3
F 83 =FA3 + 0-RF3 =1.00+ 1.00-0.8330= 1.1670 =FA2
F8 =FA2+ O-RF = 1.1670+ 1.00-1.8330= 0.3330= FA1
2 2
FB, =FA,+ 0-RF, = 0.3330 + 1.00-1.3330 =0.00 correctly corresponding to no shores or reshores under Slab 1.

�� �
7777777n Rigdi support
at ground level
N

I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I 8 c::::::JHardenedslab
I I I I I I I

.
IIIII Stor yolshOfes
andformwOfk

��
., �
, �
, S
, toryolreshores
Ul.l..l. or backshores
Analysis results for other steps are determined in a similar manner. Results for additional steps can be seen
by accessing the AutoReshore spreadsheet.

mtttmtJif4MMfi®Mf,
i.!.!i!.!. mtmmc.m;mmmc«Mftmm·'''*'
This example demonstrates the method with all loads consid­
ered, including slab dead load, construction live load, and sepa­
rate allowances for the weight of forms and shores and reshores.
All loads are expressed as a portion of the uniform load of the
floor slab, 0. Assume the slab is an 8 in. thick flat plate of normal­
, __ _
weight concrete weighing 150 lb/ft3 x 8 inJ12 inJft =100 lb/ft2•
Thus, the assumed loads can be stated as:
EmEl
Slab dead load 100 lb/ft2 1.000 �
Construction live load SOib/ft2 0.500

I
Form and shore load 10ib/ft2 0.100

Reshores 5 lb/ft2 0.050

Note that the reshore load assumed is small and is often much
smaller, perhaps only 1 or 2 lb/ft2, in practice. Thus, many form­
work engineers neglect the reshore load but it is included in this
example for completeness. Analysis parameters are shown in Inputs for analysis presented in this example with loads expressed
the input screen shown to the right. The listing of load factors= in terms ofD
1.0 indicates that this analysis will be for allowable stress design
(ASD) resultants.
The following AutoReshore spreadsheet screen captures show how the method is applied with all loads for two levels of shores
and one level of reshores. In the analysis, the load of the form and shores is assumed to be applied at the top of the shores. Simi·
larly, the load of the reshores is assumed to be applied at the top of the reshore. Examination of key steps should lead the reader

CHAPTER6
 to an understanding of the analysis process. The analysis processes and AutoReshore screen captures for several notable steps are
described as follows:
1-A A fresh concrete slab cannot carry load. Dead, live, and form/shore load is transmitted directly to the ground.
FBI= 1.000+0.500+0.100= 1.600

1-B: live load is removed at the end of placing and finishing operations.
FBI= 1.000 + 0.100= 1.100

tHJ1riu ,
2-A: Because Slab 1 cannot deflect, it transmits load but supports no load.
FB2= 1.000+0.500 + 0.100 = 1.600 = FA1
FBI= 1.600+1.000+0.100= 2.700

Rigid support
7777777
at gro und level

= Freshlyplaced
= slab

c:::::::J Hardened slab

2-B: live load is removed at the end of placing and finishing operations.
IIIII Storyof shores
a ndlormwork

FB2= 1.000+0.100= 1.100=FA1 �

. �
��
,, ,S
, toryofreshores
FBI= 1.100+1.000+0.100= 2.200 .l.J...l..ll
orbackshores

2-C: Forms and shores are removed from below Slab 1. The shore support of 2.200-0.100 form/shore weight under Slab 1 is
removed. Slabs 1 and 2 deflect equally and the load each carries increases by 2.10/2 levels= 1.050. Determine shore load
FB2= 1.000-1.050+0.100= 0.050=FAI
In this step, dividing the load from the removed support between the two slabs results in load of the forms/shores indicated as
partially supported by both the first- and second-level slabs. This anomaly is a result of the analysis assumptions. Some adhe­
sion of the forms to the underside of the upper slab can occur or a small gap can open between the forms and the upper slab.
This gap closes when other loads are applied. Because any error is small, it has been ignored in practice.

'�
1

�·'�'� �� �·= �
0.000 l.o&l l.o&l

0.000
I

2-D:Reshores are installed snug-tight. As the reshores are placed, they carry only their self-weight of 0.050, but are ready for the
loads to be transmitted from operations above.

'�
·
�'�'� ��
-··
-

1 l.o&l 0.000 I.O&l

'�

SHORING AND FLOOR LOADS IN MULTI-STORY STRUCTURES

3-A: Slab 3 is shored, formed, and placed. Because Slab 1 is reshored to the rigid base, Slabs 1 and 2 cannot deflect, so all new load
goes through shores and reshores to the ground.

l'*'Qtriedby ... D unit-GOiriedbylllaN

�CIIgclur

I "'

"'

3-B: Construction live load is removed with a consequent reduction in shore and reshore forces.

3-C: Forms and shores are removed from below Slab 2. The shore support of 1.1SO less form/shore weight of 0.100 under Slab 2 is
removed, Slabs 2 and 3 deflect equally, and the load each carries increases by 1.050/2 levels= 0.5250. The shore load on Slab 1
is removed so that the reshore load reduces to 0.050, its self-weight.

1111111
' ' ' ' ' ' '

777n77n �;��o:�����
' ' ' ' ' ' '

�=::�htyptaced
3-D:Reshores are removed from under Slab 1. Because they were originally installed only snug-tight and
Slab 1 is supporting all its self-weight, there is no change in the Slab 1 load. c:::::::=::JHardened slab
IIIIStory of shores
I a ndlormwork
�.�..�,�, Story of reshores
l...l.J.o..J..l rbact.shores

3-E: Reshores removed in Step 3-D are relocated and installed snug-tight under Slab 2. The load carried by Slab 1 increases by 0.050
tol.OSO.

1111111
I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I

4-A: Slab 4 is shored, formed, and placed. Because Slab 1 is no longer shored to the rigid base, Slabs 1, 2, and 3 deflect equally under
the added load and carry an additional 1.600/3 levels= 0.5330. Tracking the shore forces from the top downward
FB. = C"+ C,IAI. + C01= 0.500 + 1.00+ 0.100= 1.600= FA3

CHAPTER6
 FB3 = FA1 + 0- RF3 +COl'= 1.60+ 1.00- 1.0580+ 0.100= 1.6420 = FA1
FB1 = FA1 + 0-RF2 +CDR=1.6420+ 1.00- 2.1080+ 0.050= 0.5830= FA,
FB, =FA,+ 0-RF, = 0.5830+ 1.00- 1.5830 = 0.000 corresponding to no shores or reshores under Slab 1.

Analysis results for other steps are determined in a similar manner. As construction moves upward and further away from the
effect of the rigid ground level, the resultants for the cycle of steps begins to attenuate toward repeated values, as can be seen
in the extracted values shown for Steps 5-A, 6-A, and 7-A. Results for additional steps can be seen by accessing the AutoReshore
spreadsheet.

77777777' �i��o ���el

� �,r::nly placed
c:::::::J Hardenedslab
IIIII Story of sllores
andformwork
�.�
.�. ,�, Story of resllores

..!....l...l orbad<$hores

SHORING AND FLOOR LOADS IN MULTI-STORY STRUCTURES

mmmtJ¥41·!1!LflM@•
.!''·'· mMfimmm•mtnmmammtmtTtf·'''Mt
This example demonstrates the method with all loads including
slab dead load, construction live load, and separate allowances
for the weight of forms and shores and reshores. All loads are
expressed as a portion of the uniform load of the floor slab, D. I '"""- I I R·--·
Thus, the assumed loads can be stated as:

Slab dead load 100 lb/ft1 1.000

Construction live load 50ib/ft1 0.500

Form and shore load 10ib/ft1 0.100

Reshores 51b/ft1 0.050

Analysis parameters are shown in the input screen shown
to the right. The listing of load factors= 1.0 indicates that this
analysis will be for allowable stress design (ASD) resultants.
The following AutoReshore spreadsheet screen captures show Inputs for analysis presented in this example with loads expressed
how the method is applied with all loads for one level of forms intermsofD
and shores and two levels of reshores. In the analysis, the load of
the forms and shores is assumed to be applied at the top of the
shores. Similarly, the load of the reshores is assumed to be applied at the top of the reshore. Examination of key steps should lead
the reader to an understanding of the analysis process.
The analysis processes and AutoReshore screen captures for several notable steps are described as follows:
1-A: A fresh concrete slab cannot carry load. Dead, live, and form/shore load is transmitted directly to the ground.
FB1 = 1.000+0.500+0.100= 1.600

1-B: live load is removed at the end of placing and finishing operations.
FB1 = 1.000+0.100= 1.100

llUJJJJJ ,
1-C: Forms and shores are removed from below Slab 1. The shore support of 1.100- 0.100 form/shore weight under Slab 1 is
removed. Slab 1 deflects and the load carried by the slab increases to 1.00.

, 1·�1 ·�1 ·�1 I

1777//)77//)77))
I'=
1-D:Reshores are installed snug-tight supporting only their self-weight on 0.050.

llLUliU , � El
�i�� ����:
, I·� 1·� I, I
77777777? o et

��t:�hlyplaced
..

c::=::J Hardened slab

2-A: Because Slab 1 cannot deflect additionally, it transmits load but does not support load.
F8 = 1.000+0.500+0.100= 1.600= FA1
IIIII Storyol shores
a ndlormwork
1
FB1 = 1.600+1.000 - 1.000+0.050= 1.6SO
�,�
, �, �
, , storyofreshores
l...l...l..ll
orbackshores

�- 1
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I

CHAPTER6
 2-B: Live load is removed at the end of the placing and finishing operations.
FB2=1.000+ 0.100= 1.100=FA,
FB, = 1.100+ 1.000-1.000+ O.OSO=l.lSO
LM<l<arrio>db",'ola� Unit!OIId<arrio>db",'shore
�chgdur

2-C: Forms and shores are removed from below Slab 1. The shore support of 1.100- 0.100 form/shore weight under Slab 1 is
removed. Slab 2 deflects and the load carried by the slab increases to 1.000. Determine reshore load.
FB, =1.000-1.000+ 0.050=O.OSO

'�
1

@·�·� ��·
1.000 0.000 1.000

0.050
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I

2-D:Reshores are installed snug-tight under Slab 2. As the reshores are placed, they carry only their self-weight of O.OSO, but
are ready for the loads to be transmitted from operations above. Slab 1 cannot deflect and transmit the new reshore load
downward.
FB, =0.050+ 1.000-1.00+ 0.050 =0.100

'�
�·'
�··� �
0.050

, 1.000 0.000 1.000

0.100

3-A: Slab 3 is shored, formed, and placed. Because Slab 1 is reshored to the rigid base, Slabs 1 and 2 cannot deflect, so all the new
load goes through shores and reshores to the ground.

I
1111111
' ' ' ' ' ' '
. ' ' ' ' ' ' '

00 : : : : : :

3-B: Construction live load is removed with a consequent reduction in shore and reshore force.
�i��o������el
77777777?

��r:�hlyplaced
1111111 c::::::JHardenedslab
: : : : '' '' '' IIIII and Storyof shores
formwork

: : '' '' '' '' : �. ,��

, ,�, storyofreshores
l...l...l..l...
orbaekshores

SHORING AND FLOOR LOADS IN MULTI-STORY STRUCTURES

3-C: Forms and shores are removed from below Slab 3. The shore support of 1.1000 less form/shore weight of 0.1000 under Slab 2
is removed. Slab 3 deflects and supports its own weight. The shore load on Slab 2 is removed so that the load on the reshore
under Slab 2 reduces to O.OSO, its self-weight.

3-D:Reshores are removed from under Slab 1. Support of 0.100- O.OSO reshore weight is removed so that Slab 1 deflects slightly
under the increased load of O.OSO. Because the reshore cannot hang from Slab 2, there is the possibility of reshore separation
from Slab 2 unless spring dips are used or the reshores are resnugged.

3-E: Reshores removed in Step 3-0 are relocated and installed snug-tight under Slab 3. The load carried by Slabs 1 and 2 increases
by O.OS0/21evels= 0.0250.

; ..
'

4-A: Slab 4 is shored, formed, and placed. Because Slab 1 is no longer shored to the rigid base, Slabs 1, 2,
and 3 deflect equally under the added load and carry an additional 1.600/3 levels=0.5330. Tracking
Freshlyplaced
� slab

c::::::J Hardenedslab
the shore forces from the top downward
F84=C.ot:+CfMI.+(01'=0.500+1.00+0.100=1.600=FA3
IIIJI Story ol shores
andlormwork
F83 =FA1+0- RF1 +COl'= 1.60+1.00- 1.5330+0.050= 1.1170= FA
2 ��
. , �
, �
, , storyofreshores
FB2= FA2+0- RF2 +COR= 1.1170+1.00- 1.5580+0.050= 0.6080=FA1 l.ll.l.l orbackshores
FB1 = FA1 +0- RF1 =0.6080+1.00- 1.6080=0.000 correctly corresponding to no shores or
reshores under Slab 1.

lllllrT

�
' ' ' ' ' ' '
' ' ' ' ' ' '

' ' '

: : ' : ' ' : '

'

CHAPTER6
 Analysis results for other steps are determined in a similar manner. Results for additional steps can be seen by accessing the
AutoReshore spreadsheet. Extracted values for Steps 5-A, 6-A, and 7-A are shown.

Jllllll
' ' ' ' ' ' '
' ' ' ' ' ' '

: : : : : : :

1111111
' ' ' ' ' ' '
' ' ' ' ' ' '

' ' ' ' ' ' '

' ' ' ' ' ' '

1111111
'
: : ' : : : :
= Freshlyplaced

' ' ' ' ' ' ' = stab

' ' ' ' ' ' '

c:::::::JHardened slab

mrr a ndfro mwro k

storyofshores

�� ,�, Storyofreshores
l...!...l....Ll orbackshores
. , �
.

A second important observation in comparing Examples 6.2 and 6.3 is that the slab loads
in Step 4-A at the various levels differ significantly in Example 6.2 but are almost equal in
Example 6.3. When using only one level of forms/shores plus reshored levels, some form­
work engineers simplify the problem and assume that the total load in the system (live load;
fresh concrete weight; and slab dead load plus the weight of forms, shores, and reshores)
is simply distributed equally to all slabs interconnected by shores and reshores. Using this
approach in Example 6.3, Step 4-A:
Total toad= 4(1.000) + 0.500+ 0.100 + 2(0.050) = 4.700
Slab load supported at each level= 4.70013 levels= 1.5670
This result is similar to the range of 1.5330 to 1.6080 from the Step 4-A analysis and
certainly reasonable considering the uncertainty in estimating the applied loads. Again,
as will be seen in the later analysis of load capacity and cycle interval, the maximum load
does not always control, depending on the relative ages of the slabs.
When less stiff shores/reshores are used, analytical studies&.•AJAio have indicated a shift of
as much as 10 to 15% of the slab loads from lower interconnected floors to the uppermost

SHORING AND FLOOR LOADS IN MULTI-STORY STRUCTURES

 interconnected floors as compared to rigid shores/reshores. Some field measurements of loadso
suggest that the simplified method is accurate enough for practical use. ACI347.2R suggests that
loads at the upper floor may be increased to compensate for the error or that an analysis consid­
ering relative stiffness between the shores/reshores and supported slabs should be considered.

Maximum Shore Loads

The most heavily loaded shores in a stack of similar floors are those at ground level. Before
the structure begins to carry its own load, these shores will bear the full load of all stories
placed before the first shores are removed. For the sequence assumed in Example 6.2,
the maximum shore load is 2.7 times the dead load of concrete for one slab. A different
sequence in Example 6.3 gives a maximum of only 1.700.
The repetitive cycles shown in the tables are well-suited to computer calculations, and
many analyses are made starting from the simplified approach presented in this manual.
Others have added variations such as analyzing the shored/reshored structure in two
directions at right angles, instead of the single plane analysis given herein. Again, some
field measurements of loadsu suggest that the simplified method is accurate enough for
practical use. Other theoretical studies consider variable stiffness of the shores or aspects
of the slab-shore interaction. One studyu recommends a correction of S to 10% increase
be applied to maximum shore loads determined by the simplified methods.

6.3 Backshoring
Backshores are shores placed snugly under a concrete slab or structural member after
the original formwork and shores have been removed from a small area at a time,
without allowing the slab or structural member to deflect significantly. During this
process, the slab or other member does not yet support its own weight or existing
construction loads from above. The purpose is to retrieve the forms for earlier reassembly
at the next level, allowing a reduction in the schedule. Clearly, if a shore is removed locally,
the load it supported is transferred to other nearby shores and the backshore installation
does not relieve this load. As the process continues, previously placed backshores pick up
some load as other shores are removed. This causes the distribution of load among the
backshores to vary slightly. The process has been employed in practice successfully as an
alternate to complete shore removal and has the safety advantage of maintaining support
under the slab and delaying the time when the slab must be fully self-supporting. A disad­
vantage is that higher loads can accumulate in the lower interconnected floors.

6.4 Drophead Shores

Drophead shores have a retractable head that allows the form panels and beams in contact
with the previously cast concrete to be lowered and removed, as shown in Fig. 6.4. The shore
stays in place, continuing to carry the slab load without slab deflection. The slab only spans
the short distance between shores, allowing the forms to be stripped much earlier for reuse on
the next level in combination with an extra set of shores. The formwork engineer should check
that the new slab has reached sufficient strength to span that short distance, especially when
horizontal form members are removed before post-tensioning of the slab, which is a common
practice. The project specification may indicate a required concrete strength before removal
of the facing material. After re-erection of the forms and possibly placement of reinforcing
steel for the next level, the shores under the slab are lowered individually (Fig. 6.5), releasing
the shore load to activate the slab and then snugged to act as reshores prior to placement of
the newly formed floor. This procedure causes the distribution of load among the reshores to
vary slightly. The equipment and process have been employed in practice successfully as an
alternate to complete shore removal and have the safety advantage of maintaining support
under the slab and delaying the time when the slab must be fully self-supporting. More steps
are involved and the loads are applied in some sub-stages, but this generally allows work to
proceed earlier because peak construction loads supported by the slabs are lower.
For the first few floors, the construction operations or steps are a subset of the full set.
Fig. 6.4: Drophead shore with head lowered to
Once the shoring/reshoring is no longer extending to the ground, the full set of seven
remove formwork panels and beams (Pharo
operations associated with the construction of each floor slab is as follows:
courtesy MEVA Formwork Systems)
1. Erection of shores, panels, and beams for next level, i, and placement of reinforcing
and miscellaneous inserts;
2. Removal of forming live load from level i;
3. Activation of most previously placed slab at level i- 1 by releasing shores and re-snug­
ging to become reshores;

CHAPTER6
4. Placement of concrete for slab at level i;
5. Removal of the live load immediately following placement and gradual strength-
ening of the slab;
6. Removal of form panels and beams from level i; and
7. Removal of lowest level of reshores from under level i-2.
The process can be understood by reviewing Example 6.4.

6.5 LRFD Analysis

Traditionally, metal or wood shores and reshores have been designed based on allowable
stress design (ASO). However, introduction of load and resistance factor design (lRFO)
methods for metal and wood currently means that either ASO or lRFD might be used by Fig. 6.5: Release of drophead shores to
the formwork engineer. Evaluation of the structural strength of the concrete floor slabs is activate a slob without removing the shores
accomplished based on factored load analysis using the methods of ACI 318-11, 'Building (Photo courtesy MEVA Formwork Systems)
Code Requirements for Structural Concrete.�Thus, analysis considering load factors is also
needed, even if forms and shores are designed using ASO.
ASCE 37-14, "Design loads on Structures during Construction,wspecifies the following
load factors applicable to the shoring and reshoring during construction:

load Factor

Construction personnel and equipment live load, CPf 1.6

Construction dead load (forms, shores, reshores), CDI. 1.2

Construction fixed material load,(""' 1.2

Construction variable material load, CvMt 1.4

The variable material load, CVMt, could be fresh concrete during placement that has not
been fully distributed. Thus, the factor of 1.4 could be appropriate for design of the form
because it may be subject to a temporary localized greater thickness of concrete. However,
for the overall shoring/reshoring analysis, the distributed concrete is considered to be fixed
material dead load, c,Mt' with a load factor of 1.2.1n some combinations, ASCEISEI 37 indi­
cates a load factor of 1.4 on completed members of the structure whereas ACI347.2R uses a
factor of 1.2. Similar to C,Mt' 1.2 will be used in Examples 6.5 through 6.7.

mtftftjtjiJiiiiMftMMU1ft1Mintrt!lijfffijMLj1i.!iJ
This example demonstrates the drophead shore method with all
loads, including slab dead load, construction live load, and sepa­
rate allowances for the weight of forms and shores and reshores.
All loads are expressed as a portion of the uniform load of the
SM<• - - !R --
floor slab, D. Thus, the assumed loads can be stated as:
Slab dead load 100 lb/ft2 1.000 (includes
reinforcement and
misc.)

Reinforcing and misc. 10 lb/ft2 0.100 (prior to slab

placement only)

Construction live load 50 lb/ft2 0.500 (during

concrete placement)

Construction live load 20 lb/ft1 0.200 (during form

erection and reinf.
placing) Inputs for analysis presented in this example for drophead shores
with loads expressed in terms ofD
Form panel and beam load Slb/ft2 0.050

Shore load s lb/ft1 0.050

Reshores s lb/ft1 0.050

Analysis parameters are shown in the input screen shown to the right. The list of load factors= 1.0 indicates that this analysis will be
for allowable stress design (ASO) resultants.
The following AutoReshore spreadsheet screen captures show how the method is applied with all loads for one level of forms
and drophead shores and two levels of reshores (drophead shores after being released and re-snuggedl. In the analysis, the load of

SHORING AND FLOOR LOADS IN MULTI-STORY STRUCTURES

the forms and shores is assumed to be applied at the top of the shores. Similarly, the load of the reshores is assumed to be applied
at the top of the reshores. Examination of key steps should lead the reader to an understanding of the analysis process. The anal­
yses and AutoReshore screen captures for several of the steps are described as follows:
1-A: Forms and shores are erected and reinforcement placed. Form erection live, reinforcing dead, formwork dead, and shore dead
loads are transmitted directly to the ground.
FB, = 0.200+ 0.100+0.050+0.050 = 0.400

ULUlUJ .
1-B: Form/reinforcement erection live load is removed.
FB, = 0.400-0.200= 0.200

ULLULU .
1-C: Concrete is placed (the reinforcement load is replaced by the concrete slab load that includes the reinforcement).
FB, = 1.000+0.500+0.050+0.050= 1.600

· 1·-�·-1·-1 8 �tiill�IIII
1-D:Concrete placing live load, 0.500, is removed.

llU1UJ,I
1-E: Form beams and panels are removed without releasing shore load but reducing shore load by 0.050.
�i�� ��'::
7777777 o el

llUilU,I ��r:: hlyplaced

c:=:::J Hardened slab

Steps 2-A and 2-B continue in a similar pattern.

ITIII Sot ry of sh01es
andformwork

��
, , �,
l...l.J....L.!.
,�S
, toryolreshores
orbackshores

--Formworkpanels

2-C: Drophead shores under Slab 1 are released throughout the entire bay. Slab 1 deflects and begins to support load but cannot
deflect additionally after drophead shores are re-snugged to become reshores. The slab load increase is equal to the support

' �-·- �·� ffiHHl]

removed, F81 from Step 2-B less the shore self-weight or 1.250- 0.050= 1.200.

··-

';;;
1 0.000 1.200 1.200
• ; •
o__
..... ''.
�.- ; ;. ·. ' ;

2-D:Concrete and placing live load pass through shores and reshores to the ground because Slab 1 cannot deflect additionally.
FB� = 1.000+0.500+0.100= 1.600= FA,
FB, = 1.600+ 1.000 - 1.000+0.050= 1.650

CHAPTER6
 Steps 2-E through 3-F continue in a similar pattern.

1m ' 0.� ::I I I: I

'

�,.�,.� �� m·
·
·� R«no.oo2tldlloo<
-

:
1200 0.000 1.200 '

0 900 I I I I I I I

3-G:Reshores are removed from under Slab 1. Slab support of FB1 less the reshore self-weight, 0.900-0.050 = 0.850, is removed and
the load carried by the three elevated slabs increases by 0.850/3 = 0.2830.

;�3-'""""' �
0� ·�

:: " ' " " : :

I� �m: �
Freshlyplaced
�
slab

c::=::J Hardened slab

IJJII Storyof shores
a ndformwork

��
. ,�
,�, , Storyofreshores
�'�'
�: : � :orbackshores

--Formworkpanels

Resnugged
shores

Shore loads and slab loads can be tracked by summing forces in the vertical on each slab starting at the top and working down­
ward as in previous examples. Analysis results for other steps are determined in a similar manner. Aher Step 4-8, several steps have
been omitted but Steps 4-0 and 5-A are shown. For this example, the maximum slab loads of 1.6670 occur in Slab 3 at Step 4-D and
of 1.7110 in Slab 3 at Step S-A. The load of 1.6670 may control because it occurs at an earlier slab age. Results for additional steps
can be seen by accessing the AutoReshore spreadsheet.

SHORING AND FLOOR LOADS IN MULTI-STORY STRUCTURES

mtrtmtJ¥ttBt.J'41iJf!.!
-•mr.smmmmemJ1.!. .e.mmm•;m.l.li4
Selected results from the AutoRe-
shore spreadsheet for the system SHORING AND RESHORING ANAL.¥SIS
analyzed in Example 6.2.

I Form- - ! Reshcft--

• a
' '
' '

II
Inputs for LRFD analysis with loads expressed in terms ofD

Selected LRFD analysis results with two levels of shores and one level
of reshores with resultants in terms of D

-�=""-�
e ; � �·
-

· ·
.
2
111110 0000 111110

e ; �:·:::::: �:
-

· '
1200 0 000 1200

- ·
· � � -
·

:i�� ����e
7777777

� �r:�
o

hlyplaced
l
· = := := =
·

'
1200 ooeo 1no
c:=::::J Hardened slab
-
·
· .
IIIII Story ol shores
andlormwork

� �.�· �
. ,,�,�, storyolreshores
��
.l...l..l...l.. Orbaekshores

Example 6.5 shows selected results for a factored load analysis with the same basic loads
and shoring system, as used in Example 6.2. Only the steps identifying certain maximum
slab loads carried are shown.
Example 6.6 shows selected results for a factored load analysis with the same basic
loads and shoring system as used in Example 6.3. Only the steps identifying certain
maximum slab loads carried are shown.

CHAPTER6
 mtttmtt!ltf:i'·lM'Mf.tmmam.mmmJ1.1.1iJf•·•·•mmm•;m·'·'H
Selected results from the AutoRe-
shore spreadsheet for the system SHORING AND RESHORING ANALYSIS AutoReshore 1S·2R

analyzed in Example 6.3.

2 I

CuredslaD�t
FonM/lofe-igh1
...
....

LRFD analysis inputs with loads expressed in terms ofD for example with one level
of shores and two levels of reshores

LRFD analysis results with one level of shores and two levels of
reshores with resultants in terms of D
l-carriedbywt>

-::-1.-:1 �g ITJJTIIIJ .
� I B rliiHIII'
·� ·�
)/))))J/?J/JJ?))

EJ lmn>nnnJ '
.
8 lJJLllHJ
7777Rigid
777 support
a tground level
�
� �:�hlyplaced

�Hardened slab

IIIII Story of shores

a ndformwork
�, �
, �
, �
, , Storyof reshores
l....l...l.orbackshores

6.6 Shoring System Design

Once the load analysis for a proposed construction sequence is completed and a time
schedule tentatively selected, the calculated loads are compared with the predicted slab­
carrying capacity based on available concrete strength at selected times in the construction
cycle. If the anticipated loads exceed slab capacities, reshoring is required in the system to
distribute new loads among more levels of completed slabs. Properly placed reshoring will
be set snug enough to stay in place, but not so tight as to relieve part of the load on the
slab being reshored.lt should merely function as a strut to help distribute the next load
applied from a newly placed slab. Much formwork design continues to be done by tradi­
tional allowable stress methods, as reflected in the current National Design Standard (NOS)
for Wood Construction and in the examples presented in other chapters. Wood shoring and

SHORING AND FLOOR LOADS IN MULTI-STORY STRUCTURES

 reshoring are also designed by working stress methods. Other shoring is frequently chosen
on the basis of manufacturers' recommendations for allowable loads derived from load tests,
performance records, or both. More recent availability of LRFD methods for wood and metal
structures may gradually result in a change in the preferred approach.

6.7Determining Concrete Strength for Stripping and

Loading for Cyl
c e Times
In typical multi-story construction, each freshly cast floor slab is supported by shores that
are, in turn, supported on one or more previously cast slabs (floors). These slabs have
been cast at different ages and may have experienced different curing temperatures. The
concrete strength gain for each slab of a given concrete mixture is a function of the age
and concrete temperature history. Example strength gain profiles are shown in Fig. 6.6
assuming constant concrete temperature history.
Under present building structural design
practice, the building slabs that support the

II
,.... shores are designed for loads anticipated
during the service life of the completed
structure. There is little or no attention
11 given to loads that must be carried during
construction, often before slabs have
II attained their full design strength. The
form designer must evaluate the probable

v T mpertu ""'
load-carrying capacity of the structure
as construction proceeds and select a

m 1'60 shoring/reshoring plan and construction

i..T i " h
T mertu ,J,,
schedule that permit construction loads to
be safely supported.

rr I Ill I
Many multi-story buildings have been
built following a rule of thumb or local
10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
custom of using a certain number of stories
of shores and reshores, often progressing at
Concrete Age (Days) one story per week. However, construction
processes have become more mechanized
Fig. 6.6: Examples of concrete compressive strength development as a function of age and and often significantly faster at the same
concrete temperature. Form work designers should obtain job-specific strength development time that design practices are tending to
data for actual project conditions and concrete mixture used produce buildings without the margin of
extra strength once available. Under these
conditions, it is prudent to make a more
rational judgment of how many stories of shores and reshores are needed for a given rate
of construction. This is more important for structures where the live load to dead load
ratio is small (say, in the range ofO.S to 1.0). These structures have less reserve strength to
accommodate loads imposed during construction.
In planning for a multi-story project, it is necessary to determine the capacity of slabs
to support the loads that will be transmitted to them through shoring/reshoring systems.
Field measurements of shore loads during construction have shown fair agreement with
the simplified load analysis, which is widely used for preliminary planning. However, ACI
347.2R cautions that when more compressible (less stiff) shores are used, the system
tends to shift more of the imposed construction loads to the upper floors, which have less
strength. Thus, consideration should be given to the load resultant increases discussed
previously in Section 6.2.2.
Considering that the simplified method is based on loads acting at a single point, a
more rigorous analysis introducing actual stiffnesses of slabs and shores is advisable for
structures with low live-to-dead-load ratios or when fast cycling of formwork is desired.
One such study is the equivalent frame analysis by computer reported in Reference 6.10.

6.7. I Analysis and Design Process for Slob Sfrength

As work on a multi-story building progresses upward, some concrete slabs become part of
the total construction support system before they have reached their full design strength.
To design an appropriate shoring and reshoring system to accommodate the intercon­
nected slabs and shores or reshores, four basic steps are considered:

CHAPTER6
1. LOADS: Perform a shoring/reshoring analysis considering construction live load, form
load, and shoring load, in addition to the dead load of the slabs. A simplified method
has been presented, but a more precise analysis may be necessary for cases where the
slab's strength is marginal at the time of construction load application.
2. SLAB STRENGTH: Evaluate the amount of load that can safely be placed on the slabs
depending on their ages, available concrete strengths, and proposed rate of construc­
tion. This requires knowledge of the slab's structural design loads and any load reduc­
tions taken by the engineer/architect in preparing the design, as well as the concrete
strength development during construction.
3. SAFETY EVALUATION: Compare the expected applied construction loads with the slab
early-age capacities to be sure that the anticipated construction loads do not exceed
the available slab load-carrying capacities at any stage during the construction.
4. CHECK LOCAL PUNCHING SHEAR: Evaluate local punching shear in the slab under the
shore loads based on available concrete strength (more likely a concern with truss­
supported formwork where leg loads are more widely spaced).
The strength of a floor slab at an early age may be determined by one or more of several
available methods:
A. Structural analysis using methods of ACI 31 B to determine the floor load capacity
at the concrete compressive strength corresponding to the early age. This method
involves relatively long calculations but is accurate.
B. Slabs having concrete at less than the full specified compressive strength may
conservatively be assumed to have an ultimate load capacity in proportion to the
percentage of specified concrete strength developed at different ages. This method is
relatively quick but very conservative compared to Method A.
C. Slabs having concrete at less than the full specified compressive strength may conser­
vatively be assumed to have an ultimate load capacity in proportion to the square
root of the percentage of specified concrete strength developed at different ages. This
method is relatively quick and moderately conservative compared to Method A.
To show how these steps are applied, an example will be worked out for a multi-story flat­
plate structure using loads developed in the previous examples. This example is based on use
of steel shores that are uniformly spaced and uniformly loaded over the entire slab area. It is
also assumed, consistent with common U.S. practice, that forms and shores are removed bay
by bay, allowing the slab to deflect and carry its own weight before reshoring is installed. Some
project specifications require 70 to 7S% of the specified compressive strength to be devel­
oped before forms and shores are removed. Because strength development is slower at lower
temperatures, this may limit the rate of construction. For this reason, use of high-early-strength
concrete may be preferable for construction in cold climates. With appropriate engineering
evaluation of the slab loads, deflections, and required stripping structural strength, the percent
of specified compressive strength required can sometimes be lower and allow more efficient
and economical construction. The use of supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) can
alter the rate of slab concrete strength development, and mixtures containing SCMs may have
specified strength requirements at later ages than the typical
2B-day period.
The formwork engineer/contractor must select the method
to be used for determining strength of the floor slabs. As 100
discussed previously, Method A is based on ACI 31 B and any
additional information on its assumptions can be found in the
ACI 31 B commentary. Method B is based on the assumption
of linear relationship between concrete compressive strength
and slab capacity. The basis of Method C requires some expla­
nation to understand the basis from ACI 31B. Consider the
material strength relationships with concrete age, as illus­
trated in Fig. 6.7. The concrete tensile strength f, and modulus
of elasticity f< increase at a rate greater than the concrete
compressive strength f<. Both f, and f< are typically taken as
functions of ..J1: as follows
(6.1)
Time (days) 28
(6.2)
Fig. 6.7: Concrete material strength and stiffness rate of development

SHORING AND FLOOR LOADS IN MULTI-STORY STRUCTURES

 where a is a numerical constant; A= 1.0 for normal weight, 0.85 for sand-lightweight, and
0.75 for all-lightweight concrete; f, is compressive strength of concrete, psi; � is tensile
strength of concrete, psi; and w, is unit weight of concrete, lbfftl_
Evaluation of the load capacity of concrete slabs and beams involves consideration of
the following strength parameters:
Fig. 6.8: Flexural strength determination
Bond of the reinforcing steel for development and lap splices;
Shear of the slabs and beams; and
Flexure of slabs and beams.
The reinforcing steel is at its full strength, f,, except for the issues of bond for develop­
ment and lap splices. Review of ACI3 18 development and splicing provisions indicates that
splice and development strength is a function of .Jf:.
Shear strength of a slab is evaluated on the basis of beam shear at the faces of columns
and punching shear around the perimeter of columns. Beam shear is evaluated at the
faces of supporting columns. Both concrete and shear reinforcing steel contribute to the
shear strength. The contribution of the shear reinforcement at early ages is a function of
its bond development, a function of .Jf:. The contribution of the concrete, v,, beam shear,
and for punching shear may be determined by one of several formulas in ACI3 18, each a
function of .Jf: as discussed in ACI347.2R.
Flexure strength does depend on the
compressive strength of the concrete on
the compression zone, as illustrated in Fig.
6.8. However, the relationship is not direct
because although a relatively large change
in f, has a direct effect on the depth of the
///;<"// compression zone a, it does not have a

1'1// / great effect on the internal lever arm, d­

a/2. The flexural strength varies with the
Vf/ / concrete strength and the amount of rein­

!VI -r-FieJcure,p•O.S%
---F�uure,p•1.0%
forcing steel. Figure 6.9 illustrates this rela­
tionship for singly reinforced beams and
lj --Fiexure,p•1.5%
slabs for a range of reinforcement levels
-+-Fiexure.p•2.0%
�1------1 =�=:��:-�·pyndlilg) based on an assumed concrete strength
development curve. The results indicate
-[W1c28)"0.7
--compressiYI!sTencth that the proportion of flexural strength
gained is always greater than the propor-
tion of compressive strength or square root
of compressive strength gained, except at
strengths less than 30% of r; with a high
Fig. 6.9: Concrete structural strength development
percentage of reinforcement.
Example 6.7 considers the portion of a
flat-plate structure where slabs are essentially the same from one floor to the next. Addi­
tional steps would be necessary for many mixed-use buildings where lower floors may
be designed for retail, parking, public assembly, or other uses.
Timing of stripping operations requires careful consideration of the strength gain. The
formwork engineer/contractor will also need to evaluate the required time to erect the
forms for the next level and place reinforcing steel and embedded items to determine

Investigate a construction rate of one story per week at
a concrete temperature of 60°F. The 8 in. thick slabs were
designed for 100 lb/ft� self-weight, 20 lb/ft1 moveable parti­
tion dead load, 10 lb/ft1 ceiling and mechanical dead load, and
50 lb/ft21ive load. During the construction cycle, loads include
the 100 lb/ft2 self-weight of the new slab, 50 lb/ft1 construction
live load recommended by ACI347R, 10 lb/ft1 formwork!shore
load, and 5 lb/ft� reshore load on each reshored level.
Concrete structures are designed by a strength or ultimate
strength method. Under ACI 318 requirements consistent with
ASCE/SEI 7-10 NMinimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other
Structures,Nthe ultimate load capacity-the largest load the
structure was designed to carry based on specified concrete
strength-can be expressed as
U28 = 1 .2 0L + 1.6LL

CHAPTER6
 where LL is the design live load on the slab and OL is the slab the structure strength to be developed. If the 60°F concrete
weight, plus any superimposed dead load. Because load factors strength relationship in Fig. 6.6 was developed for the project's
have varied over the years, the formwork engineer/contractor concrete, the strength at 2 days is 35%, at 3 days is 47%, and at 4
must determine what load factors were used in design by the days is 56% of r;.
engineer/architect. Many jurisdictions require assumed live and Based on structure strength proportional to portion of
dead loads to be listed on the structural drawings for buildings. concrete strength gained (Method 8):
Any live or dead load reductions that may have been taken by U3 = 0.47(2.360) = 1.110 < 1.200 No good.
the engineer/architect also need to be determined. U� = 0.56(2.360) = 1.320 > 1.200 OK.
For the example structure, the ultimate factored load Based on structure strength proportional to square root of
assuming no live load reductions is portion of concrete strength gained (Method C):
U3 = (0.47)o.s(2.360) = 0.68(2.360) = 1.620 > 1.200 OK.
U18 = 1.2{100 + 20 + 101 + 1.6(501 = 236 lbtfe= 2.360
U2 = (0.3SJ0·5(2.360l = o.s9(2.360l = 1.4oo > 1.200 OK.
when the slab is at 28-day strength. Examining factored results
in Example 6.5, Step 4-A, it can be seen that Slab 2 would need
to support 2.5970 at 14 days, which is greater than the 28-day
strength. Thus, the system with two levels of forms/shores and
one of reshores is not acceptable.
Examining the factored results in Example 6.6, Step 4-A, Slab
3 would need to support 1.9070 at 7 days. This is less than
the 28-day strength but needs to be
checked for the 7-day strength by one of
SHORING AND RESHORJNG ANALYSIS AutoReshore 1S-3R
the reduction methods.
Method B: Based on structure
strength proportional to portion of
concrete strength gained at 7 days - -
from Fig. 6.6:

a a
U7 = 0.74(2.360) = 1.75 0 <
' '
' '
1.9070 No good. . .
Method C: Based on structure
strength proportional to square
root of portion of concrete
strength gained at 7 days from Fig.
6.6:
U7 = (0.74lo.s{2.360l = o.a6(2.36Dl
= 2.030 > 1.9070 OK.
Alternately, if structure strength evalu­
ation proportional to concrete strength Inputs for factored load onolysis results presented in the spreadsheet below.
(Method B) is preferred, consider the
system of one level of forms/shores and
three levels of reshores, as shown in
the figure to the right and the spread­ Factored load analysis with one level of shores and three levels of
sheet below. In Step 5-A, Slab 4 would reshores
be 7 days old, and the critical loading
during the process is 1.7300.
U7 = o.74(2.360l = 1.75 o >
1.73000K 1111111
Note that other older floors may be
subjected to slightly higher loads, but
evaluation considering their higher
concrete strength at 14, 21, and 28
days would find them adequate.
Although the construction cycle
between concrete placements may
be 7 days, reuse of the forms would
require stripping at an earlier age.
For example, in Example 6.6, the
factored slab load is 1.200 in Step
1-0. Achieving this strength requires 1.200/2.360 or 51% of

SHORING AND FLOOR LOADS IN MULTI-STORY STRUCTURES

whether the planned system, stripping time, and cycle time are workable. When the
casting day is shortly before a weekend, the weekend days can add to time and strength
gain before stripping. However, days lost to weather and other reasons make it difficult to
maintain a constant day of the week for casting.

6.7.2 Alternative Load Distributions

6.7 have been based on the simplified analysis using
All three methods in Example
equal distribution of construction load among interconnected slabs, as given in Examples
6.2 through 6.7. Some designers use other methods of determining the maximum slab
load-for example, a distribution based on the assumed relative stiffnesses of the slabs, or
a three-dimensional computer analysis that takes into account actual shore and slab stiff­
nesses. Others increase the uppermost slab load, if compressible wood shores are used, by
as much as 10or 15%. Whichever load distribution is chosen, comparisons may be made
in the same way as the three cases presented previously.
The method presented in this manual is suggested as a conceptual framework to be
adapted to local conditions. Each structure must be examined on its own merits, and the
formwork engineer/contractor should carefully check to see that all code requirements are
met and verify all assumed load paths. The form designer should verify, either from struc­
tural drawings or by contacting the engineer/architect, which load factors have been used
in the design and what live load reductions, if any, were taken in the design process.
The set of concrete strength development curves (Fig. 6.7) used to work out the exam­
ples should not be applied to other projects, as the curves will vary depending on several
factors, such as the concrete mixture design. Similar data for the concrete to be used for
the project should be secured. Then, it will be necessary to verify with tests of field-cured
concrete that strength developed in the structure is at least as great as that assumed in
planning the shoring and reshoring sequence. Individual shores must be designed to carry
their part of the total shore load as it is transmitted to the interconnected slabs.

6.7.3 More Concentrated Shore Loads

Example6.4 is based on use of closely spaced shores whose effect on the slab approaches
the uniform load condition for which buildings are generally designed. If high-capacity
shores are widely spaced, as in a flying form system or in certain scaffold-type shoring, the
concentrated load condition must be considered.
An exact solution would require detailed structural analysis of the concrete slab for the
anticipated concentrated loads. An approximate solution may be obtained by finding the
maximum moments and shears developed by the concentrated shore loads, then deter­
mining what amount of uniform slab load would induce the same maximum moments
and shears. Considering this as an equivalent uniform load and comparing it with the
developed carrying capacity of the slab at any given stage of the construction cycle will
give an approximation of the safety of the cycle being investigated. When applying this
solution to a two-way slab, remember that it is assumed that the slab carries the entire
load in a two-way distribution.

6.7.4 Structures Designed For Composite Action

Structures or parts of structures that are designed so that the concrete portions act
compositely with other materials or with other parts of the structure present special
forming challenges that should be anticipated in the design of the structure. Require­
ments for shoring or other deflection control of the formwork should be clearly presented
by the engineer/architect in the specifications. Where successive placements are to act
compositely in the completed structure, deflection control becomes extremely critical to
prevent preloading reinforcing steel before imposition of live load.
Shoring, with or without cambering of portions of the structure during placement and
curing of the concrete, should be analyzed separately for the effects of dead load of wet
concrete and for the effect of other construction loads that may be imposed before the
concrete attains its design strength.
Where camber is specified for previously installed components of the structure, allow­
ance should be made for the resultant preloading of the shores before application of the
concrete dead load.

CHAPTER6
6.7.5 Post-Tensioned Structures
Given the variability of design and construction methods, the formwork engineer/
contractor should plan the shoring and reshoring for post-tensioned structures in close
coordination with the engineer/architect. Information needed for development of safe
shoring and reshoring operations includes:
Members to be post-tensioned;
Design live loads and dead loads, including any allowable live load reductions used in
the structural design; and
Post-tensioning sequence and the magnitude of stressing at each stressing stage.
When a slab is post-tensioned, its shore load is relieved and the construction load
is transferred to the beams. If the beam is shored, the beam shoring should carry this
additional load. When the beams are post-tensioned, their shore loads are relieved and
the construction load is transferred to the girders or columns. Because of this load redis­
tribution that can occur, shores and reshores must be designed for the post-tensioning
stage as well as the concrete placement stage. More information is given in ACI 347.2R and
Reference 6.14.

6.8 EHect of Early Loading on Slab Deflection

Early loading of concrete floor systems can aggravate floor deflection. Calculation of
deflections is difficult due to cracking that normally occurs with flexure of reinforced
concrete. Even though the load durations are short, creep of early-age concrete can
increase the deflection. The combination of cracking and creep can also reduce rebound
of the floor slab upon removal of the construction loads. Serviceability requirements for
deflection imposed on the project should be understood by the formwork engineer/
contractor. Stringent deflection limits can require additional levels of reshores and a
greater cycle time that must be considered in the construction cost estimates and project
schedules. Coordination with the design engineer/architect is recommended by ACI
347.2R for checking deflections during construction. Unfactored slab loads from the
shoring analysis can be combined with methods available for calculating concrete slab
deflections such as those found in ACI 43SR-95, ucontrol of Deflection in Concrete Struc­
tures,� and as developed by Scanlon and Suprenant.�-��

6.9 Monitoring Early Strength Gain of Concrete in the Field

Several methods are available for determining early strength of concrete in the field. The
method required for removal of slab formwork or initiating critical steps in the shoring/
reshoring operations may be specified based on ACI 301-10, NSpecifications for Structural
Concrete," provisions for field-cured cylinders or alternate tests.

6. 9. 1 Field-Cured Cylinders
When removal of formwork, reshoring, or backshoring is based on concrete reaching a
specified compressive strength, concrete is presumed to have reached this strength when
test cylinders have reached the specified compressive strength. The test cylinders used for
this purpose are field-cured the same as the concrete they represent. Cylinders are molded
in accordance with ASTM C31/C31M, NStandard Practice for Making and Curing Concrete
Test Specimens in the Field,� and cured in the field under the same conditions for moisture
and temperature as the concrete they represent. At the planned test age, cylinders are
transported to the lab and tested for strength in accordance with ASTM C39/C39M, NStan­
dard Test Method for Compressive Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens.N

6. 9.2 Alternate Tests

Alternatively, when specified or permitted, several methods may be used to evaluate
concrete strength for formwork removal. Some methods require conducting tests, based
on concrete maturity, pullout tests, or penetration resistance using project materials,
and correlating the results with the compressive strength of laboratory-cured cylinders
or drilled cores. When these methods are specified or permitted, the correlation data on
the proposed alternative method for determining strength is submitted to the engineer/
architect

SHORING AND FLOOR LOADS IN MULTI-STORY STRUCTURES

 1.200

1.000 �T �
_.1- -=h
0.800 �
v
+ Cylinder test

Fig. 6.10: Variations of in-place concrete -Trend ine Fit

5 0.600
I
temperature with time

0.400

0.200 I
0.000
5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000
Concrete Maturity (°F-hrs)
Fig. 6.11: Compressive strength development as a function of concrete maturity

Field-Cured Cylinders Attached to Forms

Tests conducted in accordance with ASTM C873/C873M, "Standard Test Method for
Compressive Strength of Concrete Cylinders Cast in Place in Cylindrical Molds," are limited
to slabs with concrete depths from 5 to 12 in. Molds with a height equal to the slab thick­
ness are attached to the slab forms and cast with the slab concrete surrounding the mold.
At the planned test time, the cylinder is pushed out of the mold and taken to the testing
lab. The curing environment is well represented, but time involved for cylinder transport
and preparation for testing should be minimized.

Concrete Mah.Jrify
The maturity method can be applied in accordance with ASTM (1 074, NStandard Prac-
tice for Estimating Concrete Strength by the Maturity Method."The temperature of the
concrete is never a constant, as implied by Fig. 6.6. It is influenced initially by the tempera­
tures of the constituent materials, then by the heat generated by the chemical reaction of
the cementitious materials and water, and finally by the ambient temperature, as shown in
Fig. 6.10. Maturity is defined as

M= ! (T- T0)dt (6.3)

where
M is the maturity of concrete, QF-h;
T, is the temperature of concrete as a function of time, QF;
T0 is datum temperature, °F; and
tis the time at which maturity is determined, hours.
Essentially, maturity at a given time, r, is the area between the T,curve and the datum
temperature line, TO' from r = 0 until the elapsed time of interest.
Studies have shown that the increase in maturity of concrete can be reasonably corre­
lated with strength increase, as shown in Fig. 6.11. It is essential to first develop the corre­
lation between strength and maturity for the specific concrete mixture planned for use on
the project by testing compressive strength cylinders at various stages of maturity.
The usual method for measuring the concrete temperature is by embedment of ther­
mocouples in the concrete slab, often at multiple places. Several vendors have developed
maturity meters that connect continuously to the thermocouple wires, accumulate data
on temperature versus time, and compute the maturity for direct readout or download.
Another approach is embedding a sensor (Fig. 6.12) that tracks temperature and accu-

CHAPTER6
 Fig. 6.14: Device for determining strength by
penetration resistance

Fig. 6.13: Pullout test disc and failure cone

mulates maturity internally and can be connected to a readout device for maturity status.
Knowing the maturity and having a correlation curve for the project-specific mixture, the
strength of the concrete can be determined.

Pullout Tests
Pullout strength, in accordance with ASTM (900, NStandard Test Method for Pullout
Strength of Hardened Concrete,N can be used to determine field concrete compressive
strength. With this method, stems with discs are attached to removable plugs of form
plywood so the discs are embedded when the concrete is cast. At the time of the desired
test, the plug is removed and the stem is unscrewed from the disc. A pulling rod is screwed
into the disc, and a handheld pull machine applies a pulling force, eventually causing the
shear failure of a cone of concrete {Fig. 6.13).
It is essential to first develop the correlation between compressive strength and the
pullout values for the specific concrete mixture planned for use on the project by testing
cylinders and pullout specimens at various ages.
As seen in Fig. 6.13, pullout tests may result in some damage to the concrete surface and
may require surface repair. If the pullout insert is stressed to the level corresponding to
the minimum required strength without failure, the test may be stopped to avoid surface
repair and it may be assumed that the required strength has been reached.

Penetration Resistance
Penetration resistance measured in accordance with ASTM C803/C803M, "Standard Test
Method for Penetration Resistance of Hardened Concrete,N can be used to determine field
concrete compressive strength. An individual test involves firing three probes into the
concrete surface. The depth of penetration of each probe is measured and averaged. The
lesser the penetration, the higher the strength. Some systems provide the option of a
digital readout device for measuring penetration and indicating strength. Example testing
equipment is shown in Fig. 6.14.
It is essential to first develop the correlation between compressive strength of labora­
tory-tested specimens and the penetration values at various ages for all concrete mixtures
planned for use on the project.
Any of these methods, or their combinations, can yield compressive strength data
needed in the field to control the timing of shoring/reshoring process operations. Design
of the formwork, shores, and reshores will be discussed in Chapters 7 and 8.

SHORING AND FLOOR LOADS IN MULTt-STORY STRUCTURES

 REFERENCES
6.1. Grundy,P.,and Kabaila, A., ·construction Loads on Slabs with Shored Formwork in
Multistory Buildings,· ACI Journal Proceedings, V. 60, No. 12,Dec. 1963,pp. 1719-1738.
6.2. Blakey, F. A.,and Beresford, F. D.,•stripping of Formwork for Concrete Buildings in
Relation to Structural Design,·Civil Engineering (Transactions of the Institution of Engi­
neers, Australia),V. CE7, No. 2,Oct. 1965,pp. 92-96.
6.3. Agarwal,R. K.,and Gardner,N.J., ·Form and Shore Requirements for Multistory Flat
Slab Type Buildings,·ACI Journal Proceedings, V. 71, No. 11, Nov. 1974,pp. 559-569.
6.4. Gross,J.l., ·Implementation of Compressible Shoring Analysis for Multistory
Concrete Construction,·NBSIR 84-2964, National Institute of Standards and Technol09y,
Washington,DC,1984.
6.5. Gardner, N.J.,uShoring Reshoring, and Safety,� Concrete International, V. 7, No. 4,
Apr. 1985,pp. 28-34.
6.6.liu,X.-L.; Chen,W.-F.; and Bowman, M. D.,MConstruction Loads on Supporting Floors,�
Concrete International, V. 7, No. 12,Dec. 198S,pp. 21-26.
6.7. Gross,J. L., and Lew, H. S.,M Analysis of Shoring Loads and Slab Capacity for Multi­
story Concrete Construction.� Proceedings of Second International Conference on Forming
Economical Concrete Buildings, SP-90,W. C. Panarese, ed., American Concrete Institute,
Farmington Hills, Ml,1986,pp. 109-130.
6.8.liu,X. L.; lee, H. M.; and Chen,W. F., �Analysis of Constructionloads on Slabs and
Shores by Personal Computer,WConcrete International, V. 10, No. 6,June 1988,pp. 21-30.
6.9. Gardner, NJ.,and Muskati, A., wShore and Reshore Scheduling Using Microcomputer,�
Concrete lntemotional, V. 11, No. 8, Aug. 1989,pp. 32-36.
6.10. Stivaros,Y. C.,and Halvorsen,G. T., wShoring-Reshoring Operations for Multistory
Buildings,w AC/ Structural Journal, V. 87, No. S,Sept.-Oct. 1990,pp. S89-596.
6.11. Stivaros,P. C.,and Halvorsen,G. T., �constructionload Analysis of Slabs and Shores
Using Microcomputers," Concrete International, V. 14, No. 8, Aug. 1992,pp. 27-32.
6.12. Arafat,W. $., NAnalysis ofloads and Schedule for Multistory Concrete Frame
Construction Considering Maturity and Resources,NPhD dissertation, North Carolina State
University,Raleigh, NC,1996.
6.13. McGurl, M.P.,and Johnston,D. W.,WSpreadsheet Analysis of Load Distribution in
Shoring and Reshoring Systems,� Concrete Construction and Structural Evaluation: A Sympo­
sium Honoring Dov Kaminerzky, SP-285, G. M. Sabnis and P. C. Stivaros, eds., American
Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, Ml,2012,20 pp.
6.14. Bordner,R. H.,"Determining Shoringloads for Post-Tensioned Concrete Construc­
tion; Concrete Construction, Nov. 1987,pp. 945-948.
6.15. Scanlon, A.,and Suprenant, B. A., ·estimating Two-Way Slab Deflections," Concrete
International, V. 33, No. 7,July 2011,pp. 29-33.
7: DESIGN OF SLAB, WALL, BEAM, AND
COLUMN FORMS
This chapter covers the basic principles for designing bending members of slab, wall,
beam, and column forms. Chapter 8 will cover design of shores and braces required to
provide vertical support and overturning/lateral stability for these form systems.
When the materials for formwork have been chosen and the anticipated loading is
estimated as explained in Chapters 5 and 6, the form designer takes up the problem
of how to make the form strong enough to carry the anticipated loads safely, and stiff
enough to maintain the desired shape under the applied load. At the same time, the
builder or contractor wants to avoid overbuilding the form to keep costs down. In the
past, some form builders have operated on the basis of their considerable experience,
adapting designs from previous jobs to present conditions. This is, however, becoming
less common, as local jurisdictions are requiring shore designs to be performed by a
licensed engineer.
Because of the introduction of new materials and new formwork systems, coupled with
mounting demands for efficiency, economy, and safety, most designs are calculated on
the basis of known strengths of materials and realistic estimates of the loads to be carried.
ACI 347R-14, �Guide to Formwork for Concrete," refers to the engineer of the formwork
system or contractor in charge of designated aspects of formwork design and form-
work operations as the formwork engineer/contractor. Increasingly, local jurisdictions are
requiring that this person be a licensed professional engineer.
Although new materials and systems are periodically being introduced for forming, in
the majority of cases, basic support is provided by wood, plywood, steel, or aluminum
members, and the discussions of this chapter will be focused on the individual members
in traditional systems. However, the same general principles can be applied to other mate­
rials whose strength properties are known.
For heavy loads, for specialized types of construction, or where there is danger to life
or property, a complete structural design of formwork may be required. This chapter
in no way seeks to replace the engineer, experienced in structural design of formwork,
whose services should be sought when a more thorough design of formwork is indicated.
However, for usual formwork layouts, designs based on reasonable simplifying assump·
tions and basic structural design formulas are satisfactory. The formulas and assumptions
that are commonly used will be presented in this chapter and the necessary calculations
will be explained by means of examples.
As a further aid, the tables of Chapter 9 have been developed on the basis of these
formulas, and it is shown there how size and spacing of many form members can be deter·
mined directly from the tables without making extensive calculations. This design process,
where tables or charts are provided for many loading and member selection situations, is
similar to that used in design specifications for steel and wood building structures. These
design aids will also be useful in arriving at a preliminary design in those cases where a
rigorous structural analysis is deemed necessary.
Formwork is made of various materials, and ACI 347R recommends following standard
design practices for each material. The effects of cumulative load duration should be
considered in accordance with the applicable design specification for the material. Many
of the examples in this chapter are based on forms built of stress·grade lumber, and the
design guidelines of AWC NOS 2012, �National Design Specification for Wood Construe·
tion," are followed. Traditionally, most form design has been conducted in allowable
stress design (ASD). However, the AWC NOS has added load and resistance factor design
{LRFD) in recent editions, and many engineers have been educated in the use of LRFD
for steel design and factored load design for concrete structures. Thus, some of the
examples are presented in both ASD and LRFD. When materials are mixed, different
design methods may need to be considered. For example, when the concrete structure
becomes part of the form support system, as in multi·story buildings, the form designer
needs to understand the design methods used to determine the structure's behavior
and load capacity.

7.1 Notation
The following notation is used for design parameters in the subsequent text of this and
other chapters in addition to the parameters defined in Chapters 4 through 6.
A =area of cross section
b =width or breadth of beam cross section
C" =bearing area factor
Cao =concrete lateral pressure
CP =column stability factor
d =depth of beam cross section
d1, d2 =dimensions of rectangular compression member
£ =modulus of elasticity for deflection calculations, reference design value
£' =modulus of elasticity for deflection calculations, adjusted design value
£,.,. =modulus of elasticity for beam and column stability calculations, reference design
value
Emito' =modulus of elasticity for beam and column stability calculations, adjusted design
value
F0 =reference bending design value
F' =adjusted bending design value
F: =reference compression design value parallel to grain
F/ =adjusted compression design value parallel to grain
Fu =reference compression design value perpendicular to grain
F,J.' =adjusted compression design value perpendicular to grain
F,. =reference rolling shear design value for plywood
F' =adjusted rolling shear design value for plywood
F: =reference shear design value parallel to grain (horizontal shear)
F' =adjusted shear design value parallel to grain (horizontal shear)
( =actual bending stress
f, =actual compression stress parallel to grain

�J. =actual compression stress perpendicular to grain

f,. =actual rolling shear stress in plywood
fy =actual shear stress parallel to grain (horizontal shear)
h =depth of fluid or plastic concrete in the form
=moment of inertia (=b£13/12 for rectangular beam)

CHAPTER 7
 =span or length; normally measured center to center of supports, except for
plywood design,£ is the clear span,£<' when calculating shear.
=length of bearing at the supports
=dear span face-to-face of supports
=effective length of compression member as used in slenderness ratio
determination
£)d1_1 =slenderness ratio for solid column; for the pin-ended condition assumed for
shores, this is the same as £/d1 or £/d1
eu =laterally unsupported length of bending member
M""'"' =maximum induced bending moment
M, =nominal design {resisting} moment (=F�'S)
P =concentrated load or total concentric axial load
q =pressure or load

R8 =slenderness ratio for bending members

r =radius of gyration
5 =section modulus {=bcP/6 for rectangular beam)
s =spacing of members
V =shear force
V<1ft =minimum shear force required for design
V =maximum shear force
,...,
v, =nominal design {resisting) shear force
=uniformly distributed load
=unit weight (density) of concrete
=deflection
!!max =maximum deflection

7.2 Basic Simplifications

Engineered designs for any purpose must consider issues associated with production and
use. Production often benefits from a simple layout of repetitive components. Form use
may involve slight variations in loading from the design assumptions. Although there is a
need for accuracy in formwork design, too much time spent refining the design is often not
warranted. Absolute precision in calculation of bending moments, for example, is not neces­
sary when so many assumptions have to be made regarding loads, lateral pressures, material
properties, workmanship at the site, and other factors. Unless there is unusual control over
field conditions, the actual construction spacing of members will be more variable than
assumptions of office calculations, perhaps negating the designer's efforts toward high
precision.
The convenience of modular spacing may also operate to reduce the significance of
extremely precise calculations. If there is a 10ft length of slab to be supported, it will be
simpler from a construction point of view to divide it into five 2ft spans, even though
support spacing might be calculated to be 26 in. The commonly used large sheets of
plywood should be supported at panel edges, and spans are often adjusted to this
requirement rather than holding rigidly to a calculated spacing.
These two considerations-the approximate nature of many of the design assumptions,
plus simplified modular approach desirable for actual construction-justify a simplified
approach to form design. The following simplifications, with a few noted exceptions, are
used in the suggested form design procedure and in preparation of the form design tables
that follow in Chapter 9.
1. Loads are assumed to be uniformly distributed. The loads on sheathing, joists,
and studs are distributed loads (as opposed to point loads) but may not always be
uniformly distributed loads. Loads on wales, stringers, ledgers, and other supporting
members are applied at points where the studs or joists bear on them, but it is
convenient and generally sufficiently accurate to use an equivalent uniform load for
design so that the spacing and number of point loads can be neglected. If a prelimi­
nary design based on these assumptions appears marginal, it can be rechecked by
more exact methods. If the spacing of the series point loads exceeds one-half of the
span length between supports, fiber stress and deflection should be investigated for
the worst loading condition. Reference 7.1 presents formulas for shear, bending, and
deflection of 55 simple and continuous beams having a variety of continuous and
point loading conditions.

DESIGN OF SLAB, WALL, BEAM, AND COLUMN FORMS

 *p
Figure 7.1 presents example cases of

r
P a short simple beam where the shear

;&� .1, .1, .1, .1, .1, .1, .1,� case1 ! case2 and moment produced vary with the
location of point loads of equivalent
4ft 2ft 2ft
R1 I R2 R1 I< * 'I R2 magnitude to the uniform load.
These are worst-case conditions, but

LS
r r b
case3
LS
r r b
case4
they point out the need to check the
validity of simplifying assumptions.

2ft * 1.5ft >l 'ft 2ft

Differences between point load effects

o!,"lol< R2 R1 < 1 * *'ft•l R2 and the simplification of assuming

uniform loading are substantially less

w= 800 lbft
l
p = 600 lblft X 2ft= 1600 lb
when beams are continuous over
several spans or where spans are long
enough that multiple evenly spaced
Resultant Cae1 point loads occur along the beam's
Shear at R1, lb 1600 2000 1600 length.
Shear at R2 lb 1600 1200 1600 2. For continuous beams supported over
Maximum moment in.-lb 19 200 21 600 19,200 three or more spans, formulas for the
three-span condition may be used.
Fig. 7. I: Comparison of concentrated load and equivalent uniform load resultants
3. For beams continuous over two spans,
design values for simple spans may be used when deflection or bending moment
controls the design of the span. Although this condition prevails for many of the
load combinations common for formwork members, short heavily loaded spans are
frequently governed by shear and one- and two-span beams should be individually
checked using the formulas in Table 7.1.

7.3 Beam Formulas

Throughout this manual, the term formwork is used in the broad sense to include the total
system of support for freshly placed concrete rather than trying to establish and maintain
a division between formwork and fa/sework.
In general, formwork consists of sheathing to retain the concrete and supporting
members necessary to hold the sheathing firmly in place. Direct support for the sheathing
is provided by members called studs in vertical formwork for walls and columns and by
joists in horizontal formwork for slabs (Fig. 7.2 and 7.3). Studs are usually supported by
members called wales, and the joists by stringers. In most applications, the wales are
held in place by tension members such as tie rods or bolts, and the stringers by compres­
sion members such as shores or posts. The whole assembly may be braced by diagonal
Fig. 7.2: Basic components of slab formwork;
braces, struts, guys, or cables. There are many variations. For example, some wall forms
shores may be either wood or metal and typically
have sheathing support members called beams running horizontally and the beams are
have diagonal bracing for improved stability
supported by strongbacks running vertically.
Although these bask elements of formwork are referred to as sheathing, studs, joists,
wales, and stringers, all (except ties and shores) act structurally as beams. Some are hori-
zontal. some are vertical, and they have different kinds of support,
but only a few beam formulas are needed for their analysis. Many
other terms-lagging, girts, runners, rangers, soldiers, bearers,
strongbacks, and so on-are applied to these same form members.
A glossary of formwork terms is provided in Appendix C.
Table 7.1 shows formulas for shear, bending moment, and deflec­
tion for some of the beam conditions most commonly encountered
in formwork. These formulas are sufficient for the simplified analysis
proposed and explained in this chapter. For design conditions that
require more exact investigation, the AWC NOS and books on wood
design7-P.lare recommended.
Examination of the reactions for uniformly loaded multi-span
beams on vertically rigid supports reveals that the interior reactions
are greater than we. As a result, the load applied by the plywood
sheathing on joists and studs varies somewhat with location
relative to the sheet joints. Similarly, the load applied by joists on
stringers and by studs on wales varies. The reaction variations for
Fig. 7.3: Typical wall form with components identified; plywood several situations are summarized in Table 7.2.
sheathing is more common than board sheathing material

CHAPTER 7
 v<Nll =0.5wt

v"" =0.5wt-w ( �)
d+

wl'
M =
,..., a

5wl�
" =-­
"'" 384E'I

•
f''' '"' ' �' ' "' '"'"' ' ' 'l
b
Ra=R< =0.375wt

Rt>=1.25wt
___ ,

vr:::..-.... �v_
---l'
___ ,
v<Nll =0.625wl

vdr< =0.625wt-w ( �)
d+

r==--r--=1 M =
""'. a
we'

• =-=-c-=- -===.;:::=- "

wl'
=-­
,_, 185£'/

Ra=Rd =0.4wl

Rt>=Rc=l.lwl

V,..., =0.6wl

v"" =0.6we-w ( �)
d+

wl'
M
, ..,=
. w

Ra=Rn=O.SP

v<Nll =O.SP

v"" =0.5P

PI
M =
, .., 4
.

PI'
8,._=-

DESIGN OF SLAB, WALL, BEAM, AND COLUMN FORMS

Table 7.1: Diagrams and resultant equations for typical loading and span cases (cont'd)

V,_=wl
vdn=wt-wd
wl'
Mmox=
2

6 mox
wl'
=-
8£'1

R# =Rb=O.Swt
v,_ =O.Swt
V<�n=O.Swt-w d+� ( )
wel
M- =
8
6 moxob =�
384£'/

11IIIIIIIIIIIIIIItlI liQIIIIIIIII!! R,=w(e'-m')/21

v..... � v..
R,=w(l+m)'/21

"I----.. ·�-·]
vr=::-
vrnoxb<=wm
V<�nt><=O.Swm-w(d+O.Slb)

v
&<- «

v-�=w(l'+m')/21

IM � I M-=:i ::::;;;J I
V��=w[(t'+m')/21]-w(d+O.SI,)
wm'
-�
Mb="14

6�
I Y.l �
M_,. =

1--....L---Iflx
6,
9:e, (l+m)'(l-m)'
=2::u(t-2l1x1+lx1-2m1t+2m1x1)
ll�
a,=2:;.1( 4m1t-e+3m1)

As an example, the first interior support for plywood sheathing typically has a greater
reaction and receives greater load. However, in the case of a joist or stud, that supporting
member is not actually a vertically rigid support. When the first interior joist denects
slightly more, the plywood shifts some of the load to adjacent supports, making the reac­
tions somewhat more uniform than apparent in the vertically rigid support case. For this
reason, loads on joists and stringers in slab forms and on studs and wales in wall forms
with three or more spans are often assumed to be based on simple tributary width and
taken as l.OwE. Two-span situations may need special consideration.
Shores and form ties are relatively stiff in tension and compression and provide essen­
tially rigid support to stringers and wales. Procedures for calculating loads on ties will be
discussed further in this chapter, and loads on shores will be discussed in Chapter 8.
CHAPTER 7
7.4 Design Criteria for Wood Beams
7.4. 1 Stresses and Deformations
Structural properties for some of the common formwork mate­
rials are given in Chapter 4. The limiting stresses are based on
applicable design specifications governing use of the particular
material that include appropriate factors of safety for ASD or
provide load factors for LRFD. AWC NOS wood design require­
ments present reference design values for wood construction
that must be adjusted by numerous factors to arrive at adjusted
design values for ASD or adjusted design values for LRFD. These
adjustments are explained in Chapter 4 and detailed in the
examples of this chapter.
Established design specifications governing the use of
formwork materials, such as wood, steeL and aluminum,
6-spon example '-====;::====;::====;=:::j
J�
....., TR, ''l fo-
TRl
c____.J...___________ ___j
should always be followed. When fabricated formwork units
are used, manufacturers' recommendations for allowable
loads should be followed. These recommendations should be supported by standard
tests or by successful experience records.
Formwork is ordinarily thought of as a temporary structure because it remains in
place for only a short period of time. Limiting stresses recommended for the short-
term loads of temporary structures are often greater than those for the long-term load
duration and exposure of permanent construction. The form designer, in the interest
of economy, will want to take advantage of those greater limiting stresses whenever
possible. However, it should be remembered in the case of wood design that load dura­
tion is the cumulative duration at maximum load. Because some construction personnel
and equipment live loads are of short duration, the time at maximum load may also be
shorter than the time the form is in place. If a member or a panel is to be used many
times or if it might degrade somewhat with time even though not damaged, it is appro­
priate to assume longer load duration.

7.4.2 Bending
Design for bending is based on the adjusted bending stress design values for the mate­
rial being used. Reference design values for bending stress for various kinds of lumber,
plywood, and other materials are given in Chapter 4. From Table 7.1, maximum bending
moment for a simply supported single-span or two-span continuous beam uniformly
loaded is

Single span and two-span continuous M =

wl'2 (7.1a)
8
�·

and for a uniformly loaded continuous beam of three spans is

Three-span continuous M,., =

we' (7.1b)
W
where w is the uniformly distributed load; and£ is the span length. For most formwork
applications, the span length for bending moment calculations is considered the distance
from center to center of supports.

Bending in Wood Beams

The relationship between moment and stress at a particular location in a bending member is

(7.2a)

whereM is the moment; fb is the stress in the extreme fiber in bending; and 5 is the section
modulus of the member. The resisting moment capacity, M" is limited to the moment that
results in the limiting extreme fiber bending stress.

M, = F;s (7.2b)

Because the resisting bending moment must equal or exceed the applied bending
moment, the maximum allowable span length is determined by equatingM, toM""'' and
solving for£. Thus, for a one- or two-span uniformly loaded beam

DESIGN OF SLAB, WALL, BEAM, AND COLUMN FORMS

 F.' wtl
S-
-
• 8

f= �
{7.3a)
1 = 2.83 - '1{F;S
;;;

And similarly, for the three-span uniformly loaded continuous beam

e=3.16 v{F;S
--;- (7.3b)

The basic flexure formula, fb =M/5, can be used to check bending stress when all condi­
tions of span and loading are known. Where calculations in this chapter apply specifically
to wood members, the term Fb' is used in place of fb to indicate adjusted design bending
stress, in agreement with notation of the AWC NOS.

Adjusfmenf Facfors for Bending Srress

From Table 4.4, the ASO adjusted bending design value is calculated as follows

where CO' eM' c� cl. CF' chic, and C,are adjustment factors. Most of these terms are
explained in the Chapter 4 discussion of solid sawn lumber (Table 4.4), except for C1.
The beam stability factor Ct' given in the
Table 7 3· Lateral restraint conditions for beam stability C - 1 0 AWC NOS, is applied to reference design
values to obtain a reduced adjusted
d/b value Some lumber members (bxd) Type of restramt needed
ronge m g1ven ronge of d/b volues for C, = 1.0 bending stress based on the slenderness
ratio of each beam as installed. No reduc­
2x4, 4x4, 4x6, 4•8 and
d/bs2 No restraint required tion is required, however, where there is
any member used flatwise
sufficient lateral restraint to prevent lateral
2 < d/b$4 Ends prevented from lateral rotation
buckling. Table 7.3 shows how the NOS
Compression edge held in line ond
4 < d/b$5 2x10 defines this restraint based on a dlb ratio
ends prevented from lateral rotation
defined in terms of nominal dimensions of
Solid blocking, bridging, or cross
the beam cross section.
b-oeing at intervals nol exceeding 8 II,
5 < d/b$6 2x12 Formwork assemblies that meet these
compression edge held in line, ond
ends prevented from lateral rotation conditions can be designed with c, = 1.0.
Where these lateral support requirements
are not met, the beam stability factor can be
calculated using Section 3.3.3 of the AWC NOS and applied to the reference design values
along with other adjustment factors.

Concentrated Loads
The simplified design procedure developed herein is based on uniformly distributed
loads, although some form members such as wales, stringers, or ledgers actually support
a group of concentrated loads. This simplification is satisfactory for most cases, but if the
spacing of the series point loads exceeds one-half of the span length between supports of
the beam under consideration, a detailed analysis should be made for the worst loading
condition. This should be kept in mind particularly when designing heavy timber or steel
members at wide spacing.

Bending in Plywood
Calculation of plywood bending stress is similar to that for wood beam bending except
that
The direction of plywood face grain relative to plywood span direction determines the
selection of effective section modulus, KS, from Table 4.13; and
KS replaces 5 in the bending equation relationships.

CHAPTER 7
7.4.3 Deflection
The project specifications will define tolerances for formed concrete surfaces. This deter­
mines the maximum deflection that can be allowed in the forms. Forms must be designed
so the various parts will not deflect beyond these prescribed limits. Otherwise, wavy lines,
unsightly bulges, and possibly even cracks will mar the appearance of the concrete. Addi­
tionally, the amount of deflection can have a direct impact on the volume of the concrete
used, which affects the economy, weight, and performance of the finished concrete struc­
ture. The exact amount of deflection permissible depends on the desired finish as well
as the location. A small deflection that might not be noticeable on a rough textured wall
might be objectionable on a very smooth surface. If surfaces are near eye level, or can be
observed from short distances, less deflection can be allowed than in upper stories where
irregularities are not as noticeable. Special deflection problems for architectural concrete
forms are noted in Chapter 14.
Tolerances for the finished work must be considered in determining allowable deflec-
tion of formwork. The deflection must be kept well within the specified tolerance limits for
completed construction because deviations for other reasons must also be allowed for. In
the absence of job specifications to the contrary, an acceptable and frequently used value of
allowable deflection for structural concrete work is 1/240 of the span length of the formwork
member. Note that ACI 301-10, NSpecifications for Structural Concrete.w calls for a deflec-
tion limit of 1/240 of the span length of form sheathing for structural concrete, and 1/400
of the span length for all form components in architectural concrete work. Some designers
prefer to limit deflection to 1/16 in. for sheathing and 1/8 in. for other form members. Where
the span length of the form member is relatively long-S ft or more-1/4 in. deflection is
frequently acceptable. Deflection will govern design where depth of the member is small in
relation to span length, as is often the case with sheathing. Joists, studs, and other members
should also be checked for deflection. The adjusted modulus of elasticity, E; appears in the
deflection formulas that follow. Note in the discussion of the properties of wood that this
modulus of elasticity is different for various species and grades of wood; this means that for
the same load, span, and size of lumber, some wood members will deflect more than others.
The larger the£' values, the stiffer the wood, and hence the smaller the deflection.

Deflection of Wood Beams

From Table 4.4, the adjusted design value for modulus of elasticity is

E' = ECIIIC,C,

When wood becomes wet, as is often the case with form sheathing, it becomes more
flexible, and this loss of stiffness is reflected in the moisture adjustment factor, CAl' of 0.9
shown in Table 4.6. This adjustment should be applied to the tabulated reference value of
£'for board sheathing or any form members that will become wet during service.
While construction live loads should be included in all strength calculations, often the
calculation of deflection does not include construction live loads. Deflection is often calcu­
lated using only the load of the freshly poured concrete and weight of the form members
(where appropriate) because live load is present only during placing and finishing.
The maximum deflection for beams of various spans is

5wt•
Single simple span 6,..... = (7.4a)
384E'I

wl'
Two-span continuous = (7.4b)
.1.,.... 185£'/

Three-span continuous (7.4c)

.1.,....
=
1;:;.1
where 6 is the maximum deflection; w is the uniform load; and tis the span length.
,...
The deflection limit may either be expressed as a fraction of an inch (such as 1/16 in., 1/8 in.)
or a portion of the span length (such as f./180, £/240, f./360, f./400). As an example, if the
allowable deflection is €/360 for a three-span continuous beam, substitute that value for
6 and solve for£ to find the allowable span length
,_
l we•
360 145E'/

DESIGN OF SLAB, WALL, BEAM, AND COLUMN FORMS

 145£'1
l= J
360w

{=0.738 (; (7.5)

Similarly, for a simply supported single-span beam and again setting 8,.,. equal to
t/360, the maximum span length is determined using

t Swt
=
360 384£'/

which reduces to

l= o.s97 .WI
v-;- (7.6)

If a limiting deflection of 1/16 in. or 1/8 in. has been set, a check using Eq. (7.4a), (7.4b),
or (7.4c) can be made to see if that limit has been exceeded.

Deflecfion of Plywood
Calculation of plywood deflection is similar to wood beam deflection except that the
direction of plywood face grain relative to plywood span direction (Fig. 4.11) determines
the selection of moment of inertia,/, from Table 4.13. In most formwork applications,
deflection can be based on the bending deflection with f'taken as 1,500,000 psi from
Table 4.14 for the case without considering shear deflection and e taken as the center-to­
center of support span length. When it is desired to calculate deflection with more accu­
racy, consult APA V345V-2012, �concrete Forming-Design/Construction Guide; and APA
0510(-2012, �Panel Design Specification.wBending and shear deflection can be calculated
separately with a span length close to the clear span and separate E'values applying to
the two components of deflection.

7.4.4 Shear
In a loaded beam, there is a tendency for one part of the beam to move vertically with
respect to an adjoining part. This tendency for movement at right angles to the beam axis
is referred to as vertical shear. There is also a tendency for fibers to slide past one another
in a horizontal direction, parallel to the length of the beam, and this is called horizontal
shear. Obviously these terms were developed when viewing the beam as a horizontal
member, but by thinking of their direction in relation to the axis of the beam, they can
easily be applied to beams positioned vertically, such as the studs in vertical formwork.
At any point in a beam, horizontal and vertical shear are of equal intensity, acting at right
angles to each other. Uniform materials such as steel can resist either type of shear equally
well, but a fibrous material such as wood does not resist splitting or shearing between the
fibers (which are generally parallel to the beam axis) as well as it resists shearing action
across the grain. Because the horizontal shearing stress is more critical for wood, and
wood has long been one of the major materials for formwork, it is common when consid­
ering shear for wood member formwork design to speak in terms of horizontal shear.
The intensity of horizontal shear within the beam is calculated on the basis of vertical
shear force, V, at the section being considered. In designing formwork, only the section at
which Vis maximum needs to be considered. Maximum values of Vare shown for beam
loading conditions in Table 7.l. lf shear is being checked for other loading conditions, it
is helpful to remember that Vat any section is equal to the algebraic sum of all vertical
forces, both loads and reactions, on either side of the section.

Shear in Wood Beams

The maximum horizontal shearing stress in a rectangular wood beam is calculated by the
formula

f= _!i_ (7.7)
• 2bd

7-10 CHAPTER 7
where the shear-stress distribution is parabolic over the beam depth and f is the
maximum at the neutral axis. The theoretical maximum shear force at a su port of zero P
width is V"""' = O.Swe for uniformly loaded single-span beams, 0.625we for uniformly
loaded two-span beams, and approximately 0.6w€ for uniformly loaded beams continuous
for three or more spans (refer to Table 7.1).1t is not necessary to check shear perpendicular
to the grain in wood members because they will always fail in horizontal shear before
reaching the critical stress in vertical shear.
The maximum horizontal shearing stress, fy, must not exceed the adjusted design value
for horizontal shear, F;, for the species and grade of lumber being used. Adjustment
factors applicable for shear are as defined in Table 4.4.

F.'=F. CDCMC,CI
The resisting shear force is

v;
= 2F�bd
When calculating the shear force Vfor bending members, the design recommenda­
tions of the AWC NOS permit neglecting distributed loads within a distanced (depth of
the beam) from the face of the supports if the beam is supported by full bearing on one
surface and loads are applied on the opposite surface (Fig. 7.4). Thus, the equations for
maximum design shear in wood for distributed loads can be stated as

Single span V<�n =0.5wt-w(d+%-) (7.8a) Fig. 7.4: Dimensions for shear calculations in
wood beams near supports

Two-span Vn
d =0.625wt-w(d+%-) (7.8b)

Three-span V<�n =0.6wt-w(d+!t) (7.8c)

where eb is the length of bearing at the supports.

Concentrated loads within a distanced of the face of the support can be reduced by the
ratioxd
/ , wherexis the distance of the concentrated load from the support face. Both of
these reductions recognize that loads very near the support are carried to the support by
diagonal compression, as discussed in the AWC NOS commentary.
During the design process, the depth of the beam, d, and length of bearing may not be
initially known. The designer may initially neglect the benefit of the allowed reduction
in shear force and may only check further with the reductions if shear is found to control
in an effort to reduce the required size. Alternately, the designer may determine size first
based on bending and deflection and use the resulting required depth, d, when checking
shear.
Rearranging terms, Eq. (7.8) can be restated

(7.9a)

Two-span V<�n =0.625w[t-(1.6d+O.Stb)] (7.9b)

Three-span V<�n =0.6w[t-(1.67d+0.83tb)J (7.9c)

Substituting into Eq. (7.7), horizontal shear stress is then

s;ngle span ( = "·;!w[i-(2d+t,)] (7.10a)

DESIGN OF SLAB, WALL, BEAM, AND COLUMN FORMS

 Two-span (=
0
·::w[t-(1.6d+O.Bt0')] (7.10b)

Three-span . o
f= :dw[t'-(1.67d+0.83l;,)J (7.10c)

Solving for the maximum span length, e, in each case based on setting ( equal to the
adjusted design shear stress, F'.
Single span f= :�:+2d+l;, {7.11a)

d
Two-span t= F.'b +1.6d+0.8l;, (7.11b)
0.94w

d
Three-span l= F.'b +1 . 67d 0.83(" (7.11c)
0.9w
+

Shear stress may determine the size of member required where short spans are heavily
loaded. It is rarely the governing factor in sheathing but should be checked. Where
spacing of a series of concentrated loads is greater than one-half of the beam span length,
check shear on the basis of point loads, rather than using the equivalent uniform load that
is sufficiently accurate for much formwork design.

Sheoc in Plywood
Plywood panels are checked for rolling shear stress, f,, in the plane of the plies using the
formula

f=!'Q=� (7.12)
" lb lb(Q
where lb/Q is the rolling shear constant from Table 4.13. Note that Q, the first moment
of area, is not calculated separately and combined with band /when calculating shear
in plywood; rather, the tabulated values for the rolling shear constant must be used. The
shear force for plywood design is similar to that for wood beams except that the shear is
calculated at the face of the support rather than a distance dfrom the face.
Because shear is calculated at the face of the support, the clear span, e<' is typically the
basis of the shear-force calculation for plywood.

Single span Vdn =O.Swe. (7.13a)

Two-span v., = 0.62Swe, (7.13b)

Three-span Vdn= 0.6wf. (7.13c)

Solving for the maximum clear span based on the allowable plywood shear stress, F,'
Single span f,= F���:�o) (7.14a)

F;(Ib(Q)
Two-span f (7.14b)
< = 0_625w

(7.14c)

7-12 CHAPTER 7
The center-to-center span length,£, is the clear span plus half the total width of the
bearing member at each support

The bearing width,£11 of members supporting plywood is often either 1.5 in. or 3.5 in.

7.4.5 Bearing
Bearing stress or compression perpendicular to grain is a factor in design of timber
members of formwork. Joists rest on stringers, stringers may in turn bear on posts or
shores, and studs bear against wales. All these members must either have sufficient area
of bearing on their supports to prevent crushing of the grain of the timbers or a means of
adjustment to compensate for crushing. Otherwise, the formwork will settle out of posi­
tion or have undesirable cracks and openings. The bearing stress is
R
(,, =;;;- (7.16)

where R is the reaction load transmitted in bearing; and A0 is the bearing contact area.
When calculating the bearing stress at the ends of beams, no adjustment is made for
increased pressure upon the inner edge, compared with pressure at the end of the beam
due to bending. The average bearing stress is considered adequate for design.
Hardwood caps or metal bearing plates may be placed between vertical and horizontal
bearing timbers so that the concentrated pressure from the posts may be distributed over
a large area of the weaker side grain of the horizontal member.
The reference design values for compression perpendicular to the grain require adjust­
ment, as indicated in Table 4.4. The moisture and temperature adjustments were discussed
and tabulated in Chapter 4. The bearing adjustment factor C0 is a function of the member
dimensions and layout. When the bearing area is within 3 in. of the end of the member
being investigated or when the length of bearing is 2-: 6 in.

otherwise

C = lb +3/B"
• (7.17)
e,
where eo is the length of bearing in inches measured parallel to the grain direction of the
wood piece being evaluated. For round washers or bearing areas, use a length equal to
the diameter. Bearing must be investigated
for both a wood member transmitting the Table 7.4: Bearing adjustment factors, C.,
load and a wood member receiving the
load. The adjustment factors for lengths of Length of 6 or
bearing on such small areas as intersecting beormg, t, m. 1/2 1 1 1/2 2 2-1/2 3 3 1/2 4 more
wood members, plates, and washers are c.
shown in Table 7.4. Example 7.1 illustrates
the bearing stress calculations using ASD.

7.5 Form Design

Design of formwork involves a step-by-step analysis of sheathing and framing members.
The sequence of these design steps depends largely on the overall plan for the job. One
procedure is based on working outward from the sheathing to the various supporting
members, assuming that tie or shore support can be provided wherever the form
members need it. This procedure is reversed at times to meet particular job conditions.
The architectural appearance requirements might dictate particular tie spacings. In
another case, installation of ties in a wall might be difficult because of heavy reinforce­
ment or tight working space. To meet such a situation, the number of ties could be
reduced by selecting heavy ties at a wide spacing and designing other form members to
meet this tie requirement. Similarly for slab formwork systems, the material and size of
beams and joists chosen can result in either a closer spacing (as little as 3ft 2 in.) of low­
capacity shores or high-capacity shores that are spaced far apart (as much as 20 to 30ft). Some
slab formwork systems use heavy stringers or trusses mounted directly off the structural

DESIGN OF SLAB, WALL, BEAM, AND COLUMN FORMS

lfflitf.flfjili@lfti:IJ!i!.! fiii¥£!4§}1·
In the following examples, it is assumed that No. 2 grade F<l.' F<l. x cb 625 psix(€+3/8 in.)/€ 625x3-7/8 in./3·1/2in.
Douglas Fir-Larch lumber is used. Table 4.3 shows the reference = 692 psi
design value of F<J. {compression perpendicular to the grain
Contact area, AI>' and the corresponding bearing stress, fcJ..'
of the wood) is 625 psi. Assuming the lumber will be dry, not
between shore and stringer {Fig. C) are
incised, and below 100°F in service, the only adjustment to the
reference design value is for length of bearing. Note in Table 4.4 Ab = 2-1/2 in. x 3-1/2 in.= 8.75 in.2

that the load duration adjustment does not apply to F._c

f,J.= 3080 lb/8.75 in.1 = 352 psi
f.� =fcJ.CMC,C,Ct.
Bearing stress is therefore satisfactory at this point.
1. Check the bearing stress when ties loaded to 4000 lb have
Now, examine the bearing stress between joist and stringer
5 in, square washers supported against double 2x4 wales, as
(fig. D). Average load transmitted to stringer based on simple
shown in Fig. A. The reference design bearing stress value may
tributary area by a joist is 2 ft x 4 ft x 175 lb/ft1 = 1400 lb. length
be increased for any washers that are more than 3 in. from the
of bearing parallel to grain is 2-1/2 in. on joist underside and
end of the wales because the length of bearing is less than 6 in.
1-1/2 in. on the top of the stringer. The lesser (0 value corre­
We multiply the reference design value of compression perpen·
sponding to the longer bearing length is used and the adjusted
dicular to the grain by the factor cb= (€b+3/8 in.)/€b
design value is
F,J.'=625 psi x (5 in.+ 3/8 in.)/5 in.= 625 psi x 1.075 = 672 psi
F(.!.'= 625 psi x (€+3/8 in.)/€=625 psi x 2-7/8 inJ2-1/2 in.= 719 psi
This gives F<J.'the adjusted allowable compression perpen­
Contact area, A 1 and the corresponding bearing stress, fcJ.,
dicular to the grain. If the washer were within 3 in. of the end of 1
between joist and stringer (Fig. D) are
the wale, no adjustment would be permitted and the reference
design value of 625 psi would be the adjusted value. A0 = 2-1/2 in. x 1·1/2 in.= 3.75 in.1
The bearing area, AI>' is the contact area between the washer
f =
!!_ 14001b
and the 2x4s; remember, there is a 5/8 in. gap between the 2x4s. l. = =373psi
' � 3.75 in.2
Ab =2(5 in. x 1.5 in.)= 15 in.1
This bearing stress is also within the allowable 719 psi; thus,
and the actual bearing stress is the design is satisfactory with respect to bearing.

000 lb
f =..!!_= 4 =267 psi Totaldesignload•17Spsf
<J. -\ 15 in.2
2 � 6 S4SJoiats

This actual stress of 267 psi is

S, 24�o .e
well within the allowable adjusted
I :::1
compression perpendicular to the
grain. If it exceeded the adjusted
design value of Fu'• a larger washer
or other design change would be
needed.
Fig. A: Bearing length and bearing area of tie
2.1nvestigate bearing stresses 4x4shores
washer on wales 4'·0"o.c.
in the slab form shown in Fig. B at
points where three-span stringers
bear on shores and where three-span
Fig. B: Bearing ofjoists on stringers and
joists bear on 3x8 545 stringers, using
stringers on shores
No. 2 Douglas Fir-Larch.
First, examine the bearing stress
between joist and stringer. The load
on the joists is transmitted from
the plywood that may also involve
multiple spans. However, as discussed
earlier, it is reasonable to consider the
simple tributary loading on the joist Fig. C: Bearing length and bearing area on
and stringer. loading on the joist is underside of stringer
2 ft x 175 lb/ft2= 350 lb/ft and the
loading on the stringer is 4 ft x 175 lb/ft1 = 700 lb/ft. Because
the shores are essentially rigid vertically, the continuous stringer
will impose a larger reaction at interior support locations; R=
Fig. D: Bearing lengths and bearing area
1.1we= 1.1 x 700 lb/ft x 4 ft= 3080 lb. Length of bearing on
between joist and stringer
stringer is 3·1/2 in. and the adjusted design value is

CHAPTER 7
concrete columns so that no shores are
required.
If shoring support points are limited
by poor bearing or the need for large
open spaces in the work area, long-span
metal members-so-called horizontal
shoring-may be introduced, and other
components must be sized to fit them. If
shoring frames are used, their spacing may
first be determined on the basis of loading
to their recommended working limit; then
joists and stringers are selected to suit this
spacing. The latter approach will gener-
ally result in a design of heavier members
at wider spacings than the approach of
working outward from the sheathing.
Deciding to use certain materials or acces­
sories already on hand may save money,
but they will also influence design of the
other formwork parts that must be adapted
to them, and can potentially affect labor
costs. Fig. 7.5: Wall formwork constructed with plywood, wood vertical studs, wood horizontal
There are several possible starting points double wales, and snap ties
for wall and slab form design. The following
suggested design procedures cover these alternatives for various members. However, the
accompanying design examples are based on a single set of assumed job conditions, and
only one of the alternative courses is fully developed for each problem.

7.6 Wall Form Design

Wall forms are commonly built with the studs either running vertically or horizontally and
the wales running perpendicular to the studs (refer to Fig. 7.5). For the design procedures
and examples given in this section, it is assumed that the studs are oriented running verti­
cally and the wales running horizontally. A similar procedure may be used for designing
wall forms with studs and wales running opposite the direction assumed herein.
The design procedure described makes the simplifying assumption that the maximum
calculated form pressure is exerted on the entire member length. This assumption is
conservative for horizontal members and form ties, but may result in underestimating
shear, moment, and deflection for vertical members with three or fewer spans. For this
situation, a more accurate analysis considering the reduced liquid pressures near the top
of the form may be warranted.
Studs and sheathing are usually uniform throughout their entire height. Wale and
tie spacings may be increased near the tops of the forms to take advantage of lower
maximum lateral pressures. However, spacing of ties and wales is often kept uniform
throughout the entire wall height for convenience of construction and uniform appear­
ance aher stripping.
Following are the basic steps performed during a wall form design:
1. Lateral pressure for design-From the known conditions of the concreting opera­
tion, estimate the maximum design pressure, based on recommendations in Chapter 5.
NOTE: The sequence of the following steps has been arbitrarily selected. On one
project it might be entirely reversed; on another, the designer might preselect both ties
and sheathing, in effect working from both ends toward the middle of the suggested
sequence. The individual steps, however, are all needed, and the design following shows
how calculations can be made. The intended sheathing type and grade and the intended
wood species and grade are ohen decided in advance.
2. Sheathing thickness and spacing of its supports (stud spocing)-One of these will
be predetermined by the form designer, based on economic considerations of material
available for supply or reuse, or based on layout dimensional constraints, and the other
will be calculated.
BENDING CHECK
A. If sheathing thickness is known, determine its maximum allowable span length,
which is the maximum stud spacing.

DESIGN OF SLAB, WALL, BEAM, AND COLUMN FORMS

 B.If the stud spacing is fixed, calculate the required section modulus, 5 or K5, of
sheathing to carry the load, and select sheathing to meet this requirement from Tables4.2
or4.13.
DEFLECTION CHECK
A. If sheathing thickness is known, calculate maximum allowable span length that satis·
fies deflection requirements.
B.If the stud spacing is fixed, transpose the deflection equation to solve for the required
moment of inertia/.Then select sheathing material to meet this requirement using Tables
4.2 or4.13.
SHEAR CHECK
A.If sheathing thickness is known, calculate the maximum span length that satisfies
shear-stress requirements.
B.If the stud spacing is fixed, solve the appropriate shear equation for the required
cross-section area bd, in the case of board sheathing or for lb/Q (rolling shear constant) if
plywood sheathing is used. Select material to meet the applicable requirement (Table 4.2
or4.13).
3. Stud size and spacing of supports (wale spacing)-One of these will be predeter·
mined, and the other calculated to correspond with it.If stud size is known, the allowable
span length of studs will determine wale spacing.In some cases of light construction
where wales are omitted, the studs are supported directly by ties, and the stud span
length determines rie spacing instead.If the span length of studs is fixed by predetermined
tie or wale spacing, stud size will be selected based on calculation to carry the known load
on that span.
BENDING CHECK
A.If the stud size is known, calculate its maximum allowable span length, which is the
maximum wale spacing. Studs are usually assumed continuous over three or more spans,
but for low walls where only one or two spans are required, use the appropriate beam
formula.
B.If the stud span length is fixed by predetermined tie or wale spacing, transpose the
basic equation to solve for the required section modulus 5, and then select a member with
the required 5.
DEFLECTION CHECK
A.If the stud size is known, calculate the maximum allowable span length that meets
the defle<tion requirements.
B.If the stud span length is fixed by predetermined tie or wale spacing, solve the
deflection equation for/, and select a member to meet this requirement.
SHEAR CHECK
When a combination of stud size and wale (or tie) spacing have been selected on the
basis of deflection and bending requirements, investigate horizontal shear in the stud.If
this exceeds the allowable stress, either the size or span length must be modified.
4. Wale size and spacing of supports (tie spacing}-Required spacing of supports for
wales determines tie location.As in the case of other members, either wale size or support
spacing will be predetermined and the other designed to correspond with it.Wales are
typically made of double timbers to avoid drilling to accommodate ties.Double members
also offer better resistance to warping.Wales are actually loaded with a series of point
loads imposed by the studs, but as illustrated in Fig. 7.1, it is often sufficiently accurate
to design for an equivalent uniformly distributed load.In design of wales for known stud
spacing and tie spacing, the additional effort of applying stud loads as point loads instead
of equivalent uniform load is usually justified.With reusable panels composed of studs
and plywood, the tie spacing is often a multiple of the stud spacing, and wale size may be
determined for ties at one, two, or three times the stud spacing.
BENDING CHECK
A.lf wale size is known, calculate the maximum allowable span length, which is the
maximum permissible tie spacing.
B.If tie spacing is fixed, solve the equation for 5 and select wale or wales with this
required section modulus.If double-member wales are being used, note that 5 will repre­
sent the combined section modulus of the two parts.
SHEAR CHECK
A.If wale size is known, determine the maximum allowable span length to meet hori·
zontal shear-stress requirements.

CHAPTER7
 B. If tie spacing is fixed, solve the shear formula for bd, which is the required area of wale
cross section. Select a suitable pair of members to meet this requirement. Remember that
bd is total area of two wale members.
DEFLECTION CHECK
Deflection of wales is seldom critical but should be considered for one- and two-span
conditions and for cantilevers. A check may be made based on the beam formulas of Table
7.1.
5. Tie design-Base tie design on the total load as explained in Section 7.10.1.1f the
available tie material makes it necessary to space ties closer, wales may be redesigned for
this shorter span length between supports. In some cases, the tie to be used is chosen first
(for example, using materials already on hand), and tie spacings are then set to load the
tie to its safe capacity. Framing members can then be designed to fit tie spacing, in effect
reversing the design sequence outlined previously.
6. Check bearing stresses as recommended in Section 7.4.5.
7. Lateral bracing for wall for ms Based on methods presented in Chapter
-
5, find the
lateral force for which wall form bracing must be designed. Because the force may act in
either direction, single-side bracing must be designed to take either tension or compres­
sion. Bracing can be located on both sides of the wall form when fully erected. However,
bracing must be able to resist tension or compression for the stage when only one side of
the form is erected and reinforcing is being placed. Bracing design is covered in Chapter B.
The design of a wall form using ASO is shown in Example 7.2.
Several members of a wall form could alternately be designed using the LRFD method
but not presently all. Plywood design specifications are currently based on A5D only. Many
formwork hardware devices, such as ties, are rated for working (allowable) load capacity
and rating methods have not been established by ACI 347R for LRFD use. LRFD design
procedures are illustrated in Example 7.3 for the studs designed by ASD in Example 7.2.

mttm1tft4141il#ff1ttl•l§l.l,§·\i•
Design forms for a 14 ft high wall to be placed at a rate of 3 ftlh,
internally vibrated. Assume the normalweight concrete is made
with Type II cement, with no pozzolans or set-retarding admix­
tures, and that the temperature of concrete at placing is 60"F.
Slump is 4 in. The forms will be used only a few times and are
often stripped after 1 day, so short-term load duration adjust­
ments will apply.
Form grade 3/4 in. thick Class I BB Plyform sheathing is avail­
able in 4 x 8ft sheets, and 3350 lb {safe working load) ties with
2 x 6 in. wedge plates are on hand. Framing lumber of 545 No.
p • 600 psf
2 Douglas Fir-larch is to be purchased as required. The tenta­
tive plan is to use 2x4s for studs and wales. Form panels 8ft
Fig. A: Concrete lateral pressure distri­
wide and 14 ft high will be assembled with plywood face grain
bution in wall form
horizontal and studs aligned out-to-out at the two vertical
edges. Deflection of sheathing and studs is limited to the lesser
of E/360 or 1/16 in. CHECK BENDING, considering a 12 in. wide strip of plywood.
Step 1. Find Pressure. This concrete will have unit weight and Maximum allowable span length, by Eq. (7.3b) modified for
chemistry coefficients of 1.0, according to Tables 5.4 and 5.5. plywood. is

�
Therefore, the pressure CcP= 600 lb/ft1 given in Table 5.7 can be
used without further modification. The lateral pressure distribu­ l=3.16
tion is shown in Fig. A.
Step 2. Select Sheathing. The sheathing will be the same
thickness throughout the wall height, and supports will be From Table 4.14, the adjusted bending stress for Class I 88

uniformly spaced. Because 4x8sheets of plywood are to be Plyform, used wet, is 1933 psi. KS for 3/4 in. plywood, consid­

used, supports will be spaced to fall at the edges of the panels. ering a 12 in. wide strip, is 0.455 in.3 when face grain is parallel

Use plywood the·strong way�-that is, with face grain parallel to the plywood span (Table 4.13). Also, for the 1 ft wide strip

to the plywood span. In this case, it means placing the 8ft w=CCPx l.Oft = 600 lb/ft =50 lb/in.
dimension of the panel horizontally {Fig. 8). The panels will be
Then substituting to determine the maximum span length
continuous beams.

l=3.16
1933 psix0.455 in.J J
-3.16 17.s9 in.l =13.2 in.
50 lb/in.

DESIGN OF SLAB, WALL, BEAM, AND COLUMN FORMS

 Using Eq.(7.14c), find the maximum clear span
length for three�span continuous plywood sheathing

t, F� lb/0) 2
{ 72 psix7.187 in.
= = 17_25 in.
0.6w 0.6x50 lb/in.

At this point. the stud size may be unknown but is

-- --- r-----
frequently a 2x4 so that ib = 1.5 in. and thus, i =18.75 in.
SPACING OF THE STUDS: The span length based on
bending moment span length is the smallest so it
governs. Studs can be no farther than 13.2 in. apart. A
12 in. spacing of the studs is convenient for layout in
- -- -- r----- -· L Fig. 8, but because the 8 ft plywood sheets should have
studs for support at the joints, the first and last studs
for each panel will be drawn in 3/4 in. This will result in
a double stud at joints between adjacent panels.
Step 3. Stud Slu and Spacing of Wales to support
them (Fig. C). Assuming that 2x4 545 studs will be
used, find their maximum span length where the
lateral pressure is greatest-600 lb/ft2• Equiva·
Fig. 8: Wall form sheathing supported by vertical studs
lent uniform load w for design of studs will be the
maximum lateral pressure in pounds per square foot
This is the maximum allowable span length, center-to-center
times the stud spacing, s. The stud spacing is the selected
of supports, based on bending strength of the plywood.
span length of the plywood, and the stud load is based on the
However, deflection must also be checked.
simple tributary width.
CHECK DEFLEUION, considering a 12 in. width of the plywood
sheathing. Maximum allowable deflection of the sheathing is w(studs)= C0 x s = 600 lb/ft2 x 12 inJ12 inJft = 600 lb/ft=SO lb/in.
11360 of span length or 1/16 in., whichever is less. For a of €/360
Assuming the studs act as uniformly loaded continuous beams,
fromEq.(7.5) check allowable spans for bending, deflection, and shear.

(=0.738 � BENDING CHECK: First, determine allowable bending stress.

The reference design value for bending stress, F11 for No. 2
Douglas Fir-Larch is 900 psi(Table 4.3). Possible adjustment
For 6. of 1/16 in., substitute in Eq.(7.4c) to obtain
factors from Table 4.4 are:

(=1.735 � (A) C0 = 1.25 for short-term loading less than 7 days;

CM = 1.0 assuming the moisture content of the studs will not
exceed 19% for an extended period of time;
E'for the plywood is 1,500,000 psi by Table 4.14, and I for plies Cr = 1.0 because ambient temperature is unlikely to exceed
parallel to the span is 0.199 in.• (Table 4.13). w is 50 lb/in. as in 100°F during concrete placement;
the bending check. Substituting inEq.(7.5) CL = 1.0 from Table 7.3 and because nailing of plywood will
provide lateral support to the studs;
1,500,000 psix0.199 in.•
JSJ CF = 1.5 from Table 4.8;
t'=0.7 0.738 ?./5970 in.3 =13.4 in.
50 lb/in.

for l:J. = i/360

!-1ft-!.-1ft-!-1ft-!
Substituting in Eq.(A)

f=1.735 •
1,500,000 psix0.199 in.•(in.) -
�
1.735 5970 in.• =15.2 in.
SO lb/in.

forli= 1/16 in.

Refer to APA V345V and APA D510( for methods of calcu�
lating bending and shear deflections separately.
Both of the spans calculated to meet deflection requirements
are longer than the span length permitted for bending; thus,
bending still governs. However, a shear che<:k must also be made.
CHECK ROLLING SHEAR: From Table 4.14, for 3/4 in. Class I
Plyform with load duration< 7 days, the adjusted design value
for rolling shear, F,'= 72 psi. From Table 4.13 for strong direction
of use,/b/0= 7.187 in.l

Fig. C: Wall form vertical sruds supported by horizontal wales

CHAPTER 7
 C, = 1.15 from Chapter 4 because there will be three or more Increased wale spacing is theoretically acceptable near the top of
studs spaced s; 24 in. on center; the form because the maximum design pressure declines from 600
C,., does not apply because the studs are oriented for strong lb/ft1 at a depth of 4ft to zero at the top. In this form, the top wale
axis bending; and could be spaced at a greater distance than 34.4 in. from the adja­
C; does not apply because the wood is not incised. cent one. However, construction considerations often determine
The adjusted bending design value is the exact dimensions. The top and bottom wales are frequently set
approximately 1 ft from top and bottom of wall forms.
F: = FbC0C"'C,CtCfC,.,C,C,
With wales 12 in. from both top and bottom of the wall form,
F;= 900 psix1.25x1.5x1.15: 1940 psi 12ft or 144 in. remains for spacing the other wales,which can
be no more than 34.4 in. apart. Even measurements or modular
Use Eq. (7.3b) based on a three or more span continuous
dimensions are convenient for field assembly, so by trial and error
beam to determine the maximum stud span length with S =
we arrive at a selection of four spaces of 30 in. each and one of24
3.06 in.) for an S4S 2x4 from Table 4.2
in. (Fig. D). We place the smaller span length near the bottom of
the form where theoretically a higher pressure could occur if the
�=3 1940 psix3.06 in.
£ =3.16 ) 3.16.J118.7 in. 1=34.4 in. assumptions on placing conditions did not match those in the field.
v-:;- .16 50 lb/in. Step 4. Wale Size and Tie Spocing: Sketch the pressure
DEFLECTION CHECK: The allowable deflection !J. is required to diagram alongside the diagram of wale spacing, and determine
be less than the smaller of 1/360 of the span length or 1/16 in. equivalent uniform load per foot of wale. Assume that each
For the Douglas Fir-Larch 2x4, I= 5.36 in.' from Table 4.2 and E= wale carries load from the form for half the distance to each
1,600,000 psi from Table 4.3. Referring to Table 4.4 adjacent wale, a tributary width equal to the wale spacing. This
gives the equivalent uniform load per foot of wale.
E' = EC"'C,C,= 1,600,000 psi
Because 3350 lb (safe working load) ties are to be used, the
Using Eq. (7.5) fort.= f/360, the maximum allowable span tie spacing will be determined as noted in Step 5, which follows.
length is Wale design can then be developed using the calculated tie
spacing of 2ft. (Refer to Step 5,ne Design.)
e = 0.738 J£[_ = 0.738) 1,600,000 psix 5.36 in.' BENDING CHECK: Both span length and loading are known;
v-;; 50 lb/in.
thus, this is Case B. Substitute Fb'S forM,.,. in Eq. (7.1 b) and solve
for the required section modulus, S. (The equivalent uniform
= 0.738�171,SOO in.3 = 41.0 in. load is used although actual wale loading is point loading
applied where studs bear on wales.)
For .6,..,. = 1/16 in., substitute in Eq. (A) and solve to get F. ' : wt
s l
maximum allowable span length •
10
-'
r :-: --,-:-,-.,---:
--- -::-:-.,--,--;:--,-
.� 1,600,000 psix5.36 in.' (in.)
t=1.73s =1.73s • 5=� IBI
v� 50 lbfin. 10Fb'
The adjustments for bending stress in the wale are similar to
=1.735�171,500in.' =35.3 in.
those determined when checking the studs so long as we use
SHEAR CHECK: The reference design value for horizontal shear lumber 4 in. wide or less, except that the wales are not repetitive
of 180 psi fromTable4.3 is adjusted as follows (Table4.4) members because the spacing exceeds 24 in.

.'
f =F.C0C"'C,C1 =180 psix1.25=225 psi F;= 900 psix1.25xl.Sx1.0=1687 psi
When determining the center-to-center span of the studs,
length of bearing at the stud supports is often known or can be
anticipated. In this case, double S4S 2x4 wales would probably
-
.-.-·. � �:-:-·. �
·. •. [
be the minimum size so that the length of bearing is at least 1.5
in. at each end. For a three or more span continuous beam, the 02((:1U•6001'Z••U'• -� ,_,!'_,•_!.�... �
allowable span length from Eq. (7.11c) is
(800<.751•1,170 ..

� �-- - jO.i(jg �,-·

f=��!!+1.67d+0.83t'b=
-

225 psix1.5 in.x3.5 in.

+1.67x3.5 in.+0.83x2x1.5 in.=34.6 in.
0.9 x 50 lb/in.

SPACING OF THE WALES: Comparing the stud spans deter­

mined by allowable bending, deflection, and shear shows that
the span length based on bending strength is the shortest at 34.4 in.
The wales,which are the stud supports,can be spaced no more
than 34.4 in. apart where maximum pressure of 600 lb/ft2 exists.
Fig. 0: Spacing of wall form wales and rriburary loads ar each wale
level

DESIGN OF SLAB, WALL, BEAM, AND COLUMN FORMS

 The wale span length,e, is 24 in. and the maximum equiva­ TIES: In areas of maximum lateral pressure, maximum reaction
lent uniform load on the wales is determined from the simple at the tie is 1.1 x 125 lb/in.x 24 in., or 3300 lb. Assume the 2 x 6 in.
tributary width corresponding to the stud span length and wale tie wedge plate will have 2 x 3 in.=6.0 in.2 of actual contact

spacing,
s, of 30 in. with the double 2x4s that make up the wale (Fig. E) The length
of bearing, £11 is 2 in. and Cb= 1.19 from Table 7.4. Other adjust­
w(wale)=C" xs=600 lbtfe x� ment factors are either 1.0 or not applicable as before. From
12 in/ft
Table4.4
=1500 lb/ft=12Sib/in.
F,� = f.J._C,..C,C1Cb=625 psix1.19=743 psi
Substitute these values in Eq. (B)
The actual bearing stress is
125 lb/in.x 24 in.
( t
5 4_26 in.1 maximum reaction at tie 3300 lb
10x1687 psi 550 psi< 743 psi
bearing area 6_0 in.�
If a double-member wale is used, as is common to avoid drilling
of timbers, the computed 5is the required section modulus of
two members. Use Table 4.2 to select an appropriate size. Double
2x4s (S = 2 x 3.06 in.3= 6.12 in.1) meet the requirements.
5HEARCHECK: Use Eq. (7.11c) to check horizontal shear in the
proposed double 2x4 with the 2 in. wide tie wedge plate (Fig. E)
1Ylt in.
for bearing length and assuming equivalent uniform load

( Fv'bd + 1.67d + 0.83£b =

= 1%in.
0.9w

Bearing
2o: 25C.!:0:::
= ' .::1x.:. l .S::.::.: i, n;.:..x
2:..:
x:..: 5c: 1n
3c::
:.:: c:· +1.67x 3.5 in. +0.83x 2 in.=28.5 in.
0.9x125 lb/in.
Fig. E: Bearing area between tie wedge plate
When the series of point loads are spaced at intervals greater and double wale
than half the wale span length, a check using actual loads rather
than equivalent uniform loading is advisable. Review of the
similar cases in Fig. 7.1 where loads are spaced at half the span The actual bearing stress is within the allowable of 743 psi; thus,
length suggests that the 24 in. wale span length, with stud reac­ the bearing of the wedge plate on the wale is satisfactory.
tion point loads at 12 in. spacing, should be adequate. STUDS ON WALES: The bearing area between 2x4 studs and
StepS. Ti� Chsign: Assume that ties of 3350 lb safe working double 2x4 545 wales would be as shown in Fig. F.
load (allowable) capacity are available and will be used. Because
the tie provides rigid support, the load should be determined
1'Y:l in.
considering continuity of the wale at the first interior support.
When wale loading in lb per foot is known at the beginning of
Step 4, the tie spacing can then be calculated. Not all wales,
from form top to bottom, carry the same load. Tie spacing is
often designed for the heaviest loading and used uniformly 1%in.
throughout the form for concrete surface aesthetic consider­
ations and convenience in drilling plywood panels.
1Y<tin.
Maximum load on the wale is w=600 lb/ft1 x 2.5 ft=1500 lb/
ft=12Sib/in. The maximum tie load from Table 7.2 for a three­
Bearing
span continuous uniformly loaded beam is
area
Rb=R.=1.1wt

Setting the maximum reaction to the tie capacity and solving Fig. F: Bearing area between stud and wale
fore, the tie spacing

tie spacing= t�:��::i:: ����::/

=
1_1 in.
=24.3 in. Ab=2 x (1-1/2 in. x 1-1/2 in.)=4.5 in.2

Maximum load transferred from studs to wales is in the region

Use a 2 ft tie spacing. This agrees with the assumed tie of maximum lateral pressure. load transferred to the wale is the
spacing used to complete the wale design in Step 4. stud reaction on the wale.
St�p 6. B�a,ing ChKk: Points to be investigated in this
R&= R,== wi=50 lb/in. x 30 in.= 1500 lb
design would be bearing perpendicular to grain of studs on
wales and bearing between the tie washers or tie holders and Actual bearing stress is the contact stress between the stud
the wales. The reference design value for F<J. is 625 psi for No. 2 and the double wale and is compared to the allowable bearing
Douglas Fir-larch (Table 4.3). stress.

CHAPTER 7
 f .&_
1500 lb
= = A, 2 =333 P si
cl
4.5 in.
The allowable bearing stress must consider both the length of
bearing on the wale measured parallel to the grain of the wale,
ib=1-1/2 in., and the length of bearing on the stud measured
parallel to the grain of the stud, eb=2(1-1/2 in.)+ 1/2 in.=3.5 in.
In the latter case, there are actually two areas of contact that
are close together. Using the total length is a conservative
assumption because the cb factor is lower for greater bearing
lengths. From Table 7.4, Cb = 1.11 and the allowable bearing
stress is
Step 7. Lateral Bracing for this type of form is explained in
ChapterS.
Example summary:
Sheathing: 3/4 in. Class I BB Plyform;
Studs:2x4 No.2 S45 Douglas Fir-Larch spaced at 12 in. on
center;
Wales: double2x4 No.2 545 Douglas Fir-Larch spaced at 30
in. on center in maximum pressure region;
Ties: 3350 lb minimum capacity spaced at maximum of24
in. with2 in. x 6 in. wedge plate washers.

F.� =F<l_ CMC,C1Cb =625 psix1.11=694 psi

The actual bearing stress of 333 psi is within the allowable 694 psi;
thus, the design is satisfactory with respect to bearing.

•
iffmtftd@®IWjllmttlt!J1!.!.$!jlj
Use Eq. (7.3b) to determine the maximum stud span length as
As an example of LRFD design, the design for the span length of a continuous beam with 5= 3.06 in.3 for a S4S 2x4 from Table 4.2
the studs for Example 7.2 will be repeated using LRFD.
From Eq. (5.14), the factored lateral pressure becomes 1.6CCP fF:S=3.16 3016 psix3.06 in.3
t=3.16 v�
and with the 12 in. spacing of the studs based on the plywood solb/in.
maximum span length from theASD analysis J
=3.16 115.4in.1 =33.9 in.
w(studs) =1.6CcP x s = 1.6 x 600 lb/ft2 x 12 inJ12 inJft =960
SHEAR CHECK: The reference design value for horizontal shear
lb/ft = 80 lb/in.
of 180 psi from Table 4.3 is adjusted followingTable 4.4 and
BENDING CHECK: First, determine LRFD adjusted bending
Table 4.10 as follows
stress. Reference design value for bending stress Fb for No.2
Douglas Fir-Larch is 900 psi (Table 4.3). F;=F,C,�o�C,C, K, $,)..=180 psix2.88x0.75x0.9=350 psi
Possible adjustment factors from Table 4.4 are:
When determining the center-to-center span of the studs,
eM = 1.0 assuming the moisture content of the studs will not
length of bearing at the stud supports is often known or antici­
exceed 19% for an extended period of time;
pated. In this case, double 5452x4 wales would probably be the
C,=1.0 because ambient temperature is unlikely to exceed
minimum size so that the length of bearing is at least 1.5 in. at
1 00°F during a concrete placement;
each end. For a three or more span continuous beam, the allow­
Ct = l.OfromTable 7.3 and because nailing of plywood will
able span length from Eq. (7.11 c) is
provide lateral support to the studs;
C,=1.5fromTable4.8;
C = 1.15 from Chapter 4 because there will be three or more l= ��� +1.67d+0.83lb =
d
stu s spaced s24 in. on center;
350 psixl.S in. x3.5 in.
C��.o does not apply because the studs are oriented for strong +1.67x3.5 in.+0.83x2x1.5 in.=33.8 in.
axis bending; 0.9x80 lb/in.
C. does not apply because wood is not incised; Deflection of the studs must still be based on actual loads
K =2.54fromTable 4.10;
: rather than factored loads and therefore is calculated byASD as
$b = 0.85 from Table 4.10; and before.
>-=0.9. Comparing ASD and LRFD results for calculated span length
The selection of A is related to the duration of the dominant of the2x4 wall studs:
loads as discussed in Chapter 4. In this case, the value of 0.9 ASD LRFD
reflects the load duration less than 7 days.
Bending 34.4 in. 33.9in.

The adjusted bending design stress is Shear 34.6in. 33.8in.

F; = FocMc,c,c,cO\Jclc,K,c!\,A Deflection 4l.Oin. Same asASD

F; = 900 psi X 1.5 X 1.15x2.54 x 0.85x 0.9=3016 psi In this case, there is very little difference betweenASD and LRFD
results.

DESIGN OF SLAB, WALL, BEAM, AND COLUMN FORMS

7.7 Slab Form Design
Because conditions vary greatly from project to project, there is no single correct
sequence for slab form design. Once the load applied to the forms is calculated, design
may start at any one of several points. The general goal is a balanced form design-one
that loads all the parts at or near their safe carrying capacity. Often, the preliminary design
has to be adjusted to fit the module used in design of the structure, or it may be modified
to improve the "balance� and use materials more efficiently. Where labor costs are high,
changes may be introduced to save labor time instead of materials.
Following are the basic steps performed during a slab form design:
1. Design load-Determine the dead and live loads for which the forms must be
designed, according to provisions cited in Chapter 5. Deflection limits are primarily to limit
bulges in the formed concrete surface. Because the slab formwork members rebound
when the temporary live load of workers is removed, formwork designers sometimes do
not include live load in deflection calculations.
NOTE: The sequence of the following steps has been arbitrarily selected. On one project
it might be entirely reversed; on another, the designer might preselect both shores
and sheathing, in effect working from both ends toward the middle of the suggested
sequence. Each individual step, however, is needed, and Example 7.4 shows how calcu­
lations can be made. The intended sheathing type and grade and the intended wood
species and grade are often decided in advance. Plywood is assumed in the following step.
2. Sheathing thickness and spacing of its supports (joist spacing)-One of these will
be predetermined by the form designer, based on economic considerations of material
available for supply or reuse, or based on layout dimensional constraints, and the other
will be calculated.
BENDING CHECK
A. If sheathing thickness is known, determine its maximum allowable span length,
which is the maximum spacing of joists.
B. If the joist spacing is fixed, calculate the required section modulus KS of sheathing to
carry the load, and select sheathing thickness to meet this requirement from Table 4.13.
DEFLECTION CHECK
A. If sheathing thickness is known, calculate maximum allowable span length that satis·
fies deflection requirements.
B. If the joist spacing is fixed, transpose the deflection equation to solve for the
required moment of inertia/. Then select sheathing thickness to meet this requirement,
using Table 4.13.
SHEAR CHECK
A. If sheathing thickness is known, calculate the maximum span length that satisfies
shear-stress requirements.
B. If the joist spacing is fixed, solve the appropriate shear equation for the required
plywood rolling shear constant,/b/0. Select thickness to meet the requirement (Table 4.13).
3. Joist size and spacing of supports (stringer spocing)-One of these must be
selected arbitrarily and the other designed to correspond with it. In some cases, joists are
supported directly on shores, but the allowable span length of joists will generally serve to
determine the stringer spacing. Joists are often continuous over three or more spans. (In
slab and beam formwork construction, the joist may span between two beam sides with
one or no intermediate supports, in which case the appropriate beam formula corre­
sponding to the number of spans should be used for design.)
BENDING CHECK
A. If the joist size is known, calculate its maximum allowable span length. This span
length is the maximum allowable spacing of the stringers.
B. If the joist span length is fixed by other job conditions, transpose the basic equation
to solve for the required section modulus 5, and then select a joist with the required 5.
DEFLECTION CHECK
A. If the joist size is known, calculate the maximum allowable span length that meets
the deflection requirements.
B. If the joist span length is fixed by other job conditions, solve the deflection equation
for I and select a member to meet this requirement.
SHEAR CHECK
When a combination of joist size and span length (stringer spacing) has been selected
on the basis of deflection and bending requirements, investigate horizontal shear in the

CHAPTERl
joist. If this exceeds the allowable stress, a modification to either size or span length must
be made.
4. Stringer size and span length (shore spacing)-Depending on job conditions,
either the shore spacing or the size of the stringer will have been preselected. The
other must be designed to correspond. Stringers are actually loaded with a series of
point loads from the joists, but for most cases an equivalent uniform load is sufficiently
accurate for design purposes. In cases of heavily loaded short spans, a shear check using
point loads may be desirable.
BENDING CHECK
A. If the stringer size is known, calculate the maximum allowable span length. This
establishes a maximum spacing of the shores.
B. If the span length of stringer is fixed by predetermined shore spacing, transpose the
basic equation to solve for the section modulus 5, and select a member (or members} with
the required 5.
DEFLECTION CHECK
A. If the stringer size is known, calculate the maximum allowable span length that meets
deflection requirements.
B. If the span length of the stringers is fixed on the basis of shore spacing, solve the
deflection equation for I and select a member to meet this requirement.
SHEAR CHECK
A. If the stringer size is known, calculate the maximum allowable span length that can
be used to keep shear stress r. below the allowable.
B. If the shore spacing is fixed, this in effect determines the span length of the stringers.
Use the shear formula to determine the required stringer cross-sectional area bd.
When these three checks have been made, it will be obvious which criterion governs
stringer design. If shear governs, it may be advisable to recheck the design using point
loads on the stringers instead of equivalent uniform loads because maximum horizontal
shear stress may be significantly affected by the location of the point loads.
5. Shore design to support stringers is based on principles given in Chapter 8. Shore
design (both spacing and size) may precede selection of stringers, or it may be done after
other formwork components have been designed. If available shores are not suitable to
support stringers at the designed spacing, the spacing must be revised. This may neces­
sitate other design changes.
6. Check bearing stresses as recommended in Section 7.4.5, wherever loads are trans­
mitted perpendicular to the grain of a wood member.
7. Design lateral bracing for shores to carry minimum lateral force prescribed in Table
5.6. Design of bracing is explained in Chapter 8.
Several members of a slab form could alternately be designed using theLRFD method
but presently not all can. Plywood design specifications are currently based on ASD only.
Many formwork hardware devices, such as manufactured steel and aluminum shores,
are rated for working {allowable) load capacity and rating methods have not been estab­
lished by ACI 347R forLRFD use.LRFD design procedures for the joists designed by ASD in
Example 7.4 are illustrated in Example 7.5.

Design forms to support an 8 in. thick flat plate floor of normal­ Step 1: Estimate Loads
weight concrete, using construction grade Douglas Fir-larch Dead load concrete and reinforcing= CVMt= 100 lb/ft2
S4S framing members and steel shoring. Ceiling height is 8 ft 150 lb/ft3 x 8 inJ(12 inJft)
and bays are 15 x 15 ft. Shoring towers with a 5 ft leg spacing
Minimum construction live load on
each way are available and will be used so that the stringer
forms
spacing and typical span length will be 5 ft. Job conditions are
such that the wood joists and stringers will not be subject to Weight of forms, estimated eDt =Biblft1
wet service. Because the forms will have substantial reuse, do Total form vertical design load for q,=CDI. +Cw.te. +CI'£
not adjust reference design values for short-term load. Deflec­ strength = 1581b/ft2
tion of the sheathing is limited to the lesser of £/360 or 1/16 in.
Total form vertical design load for
between supporting form members and deflection of other
deflection
members is limited to £/360.Live load is temporary and need
The load of the fresh concrete can be considered as fixed
not be considered for vertical deflection.
material load, c,Mt' if it is placed without having temporary

DESIGN OF SLAB, WALL, BEAM, AND COLUMN FORMS

excess thickness. But it should be considered as variable mate­ The center-to-center span can be obtained by adding the
rial load, c_, if temporarily over-deposited in local areas. The width of the support bearing but it is dear that rolling shear
construction live load must be included in strength calculations does not govern.
such as bending, shear, and bearing. However, it is reasonable
not to include this live load in deflection calculations because
loads from workers and equipment are not present during the
setting of the concrete.
Step 2. Sheathing Design: Assuming 3/4-in. Structural I BB
Plyform sheathing is to be used as shown in Fig. A, determine its
maximum allowable span length, working with a 1 ft wide strip
for convenience in design.
Allowable plywood stresses can be taken directly from
Table 4.14, where plywood values are already adjusted for Fig. A: Slob form plywood sheathing supported byjoists
wet service, experience, and load duration

Fb'=1545 psi; F,.,'= 82 psi;£'=1,500,000 psi

The span length (23.3 in.)governed by bending is smallest.
Use plywood the strong way, with face grain parallel to However, selection of the actual span length must consider bay
span. From Table 4.13, select plywood cross-section properties sizes and the possible desire to divide bay dimensions into a
needed for design number of equal dimensions. Another factor is that plywood
KS=-0.464 in.1;/=0.202 in.•; lb/Q = 6.189 in.2 sheets need support from the joists at both ends. Dividing the
8 ft panel length into five spans of 1g.2 in. gives us the equal
CHECK BENDING: For design purposes, we can look at a 1 ft
spacing closest to the controlling 23.3 in. length. The 19.2 in.
wide strip of plywood. Uniform load on this strip is 158 lb/ft (1 ft
spacing is selected.
x design load of q, =158 lb/ft2)or 13.161b/in. By Eq. (7.3b)and
Step 3. Joist size and spacing of stringers to support the
with 5 = KS, the maximum allowable span length based on three
joists. Because the stringers will be spaced at 5 ft on center, the
or more continuous spans is
joist must span 5 ft. A three-span continuous layout will fit the
] 15 ft bay. Because the load is relatively light, we will check 2x4s
l=-3.16 {fJi=3.16 1545 psix0.464 in.
23.3 in. as joists. With construction grade Douglas-Fir-larch, the size
v-;- 13.161b/in.
adjustment factor for bending, C"" for a 2x4 is 1.0 from the Table

This is the maximum span length based on bending strength 4.8 footnote. (Notice that if this were No. 1 or No. 21umber, a

of the plywood. However, deflection frequently governs size adjustment factor from Table 4.8 would be applied and

sheathing design and it must be checked. A shear check is also would vary with depth.)Because the forms will be used repeat­

shown in the following, but it generally does not govern for edly, the cumulative load duration will be assumed >2 months so

sheathing with loads as light as this slab. thate0=1.0. From Table 7.3, (1=1.0 for a 2x4.1f a larger depth

CHECK DEFLEG/ON, considering a 12 in. width of sheathing. (2x6 or 2x8) is chosen, the joist ends will need to be restrained

Specified maximum allowable deflection I!. is the lesser of from rotation by full-depth blocking or other means fore1 to be

1/360 of span length or 1/16 in. Uniform load on this strip is 1 ft x

1.0.

design load of qd =- 1081b/ft2or 1081b/ft =9.0 lb/in. Substituting The bending reference design value from Table 4.3 is Fb

in Eq. (7.5)fort.. ....... =- £/36 O =1000 psi. Assuming the temperature is below 100°F, no
temperature adjustment for either bending or shear stress is

l=0.738
Jf£. =0.738 r:-=-:-::-:-:-:-:::c:-o-
1 1,500,000 psix0.202 in:
needed. Based on stated job conditions, eM= 1.0. The joists will
v-;; 9.0 lb/in. be oriented for strong axis bending, not flat use, soC"'= 1.0,
and the wood is not indicated as being incised; thus, (1 = 1.0.
= 0.738 �33,667 in.1 23.8 in.
=
Because the joist spacing iss; 24 in., there are more than three,
and they are joined by the sheathing diaphragm, the repeti­
and substituting in Eq. (A) (from Example 7.2)for l'l....,. = 1/16 in.
tive member factor can be considered, e,=1.15. The adjusted
bending stress is
l=1.735 £ 4� '/ n.)
�
=1.735 33,667 in: =23.5 in.
F;= Fbe DCMC,C1C,e��,C;C,

Maximum allowable span length on the basis of the deflec­ F;= 1000 psix1.15=1150 psi
tion limit of 1/16 in. would be 23.5 in. From Table 4.3, the reference design value for shear stress F. is
CHECK ROLLING SHEAR using Eq. (7.14c)for sheathing over 180 psi and forE is 1,500,000 psi. Because CD=1.0, eM =- 1.0, c, =-
at least three continuous spans. The maximum allowable clear 1.0, and (1 =1.0, the adjusted design values are
span length is
F;=F.C0CMC,C1 = 180 psi
t. _ F� b
( l / 0) _ 82 psix6.189 in.2 _
64.2 in. E' = EC, c,e, = 1,5oo,ooo psi
0.6w 0.6x13.161b/in.
The uniform load, w, on each joist using a tributary width
equal to the joist spacing, s = 19.2 in. is

CHAPTER 7
 for strength calculations Trying the second option just for the exercise with d=5.5 in.
1581b/ft' . . and i"=3.5 in.
w=q, xs= l e x19.2 m.= 21.11b/m.=253 lb/ft
144 in. jf
F:= 0:'[t-(1.67d+0.83t,)]
for deflection calculations
O.Qx2� lb/in'[
180 psi 60 in.-(1.67x5.5 in.+0.83x3.5 in.)]

bd= O.Qx21·1 l�/in.[60 in.-12.1 in.]= 5.05 in.2 <�.6 =8.25 in.2
1
For the 545 2x4s, bd=5.25 in.1, = 5.36 in.•, and 5= 3.06 in.3 180 pSI
(values from Table 4.2).
CHECK BENDING: Determine required size for a continuous In this example, shear does not control design of the joist, but
beam of three spans£= 5 ft. Combining Eq. (7.1b) and (7.2b), the advantage of being able to calculate shear at distanced
rearranging, and substituting from the face of the support becomes apparent if there is a case
where it does control.
we Comparison of the three limiting criteria calculated previously
F.'5= shows that bending governs design and the minimum required
•
10
size is a 2x6 S4S. Some formwork contractors might prefer a
Solving for the unknown section modulus 4x4 S4S {that also meets the section property requirements).
Even though the larger cross-section area results in more wood
w(1 21.11b/in.x(60 in.t
5= = 6.60 in.3 volume and material cost, it might provide net savings through
10F; 10x1150 psi reduced labor and reduced materials due to not needing lateral
CHECK DEFLECTION: For a continuous beam, with deflection support for buckling.
limited to 1/360 of the span length, from Eq. (7.4c) Step 4. Stringer size and span length. The stringers are

( w(4 spaced at s=5 ft. Each stringer spans 5 ft from shore to shore
and is three-span continuous, as shown in Fig. B. First, find the
360 145E'I
equivalent uniform load on the stringers:
Solving for the unknown moment of inertia for strength calculations

360wf3 360x14.41b/in.x(60 inY _ w =q, xs=158 psfxS ft = 790 lb/ft = 65.8 lb/in.
5.15 in .•
1
145E' 145x1,500,000 psi for deflection calculations

Before checking shear, examine which sections satisfy the 5 W=qd XS=108Ib/ft1 X5ft=540 lb/ft=45 lbjin.
and I requirements for bending and deflection. Comparing the This equivalent uniform loading is usually sufficiently accu­
2x S4S sections in Table 4.2, a 2x4 is insufficient; however, a 2x6 rate. However, if the stringer design selected is close to limiting
meets the requirements. 5=7.56 in.1> 6.60 in.1 and I= 20.08 in.• stresses or deflection, a recheck using point loading of joists
>> S.15 in.• on the stringers might be necessary. Rounding off span length
CHECK5HEAR: From Eq. (7.10c) with fv = Fv' values to get modular layout can result in extra capacity that
can offset differences due to the assumed load distribution.
Using construction-grade Douglas Fir-Larch S4S stringers,
F;= o:;[t-(L67d+O.S3t,)] adjusted design values will be the same as those for afore­
mentioned joists except that the stringers are not repetitive
Solving for bd directly is difficult because to fully benefit from members because their spacing> 24 in. Therefore, Fb'=1000
designing for the shear force at a distancedfrom the face of psi. Obtain cross-sectional properties by the same process as
the support, one needs to know the width of the supporting used for the joists.
stringer and the depth of the joist, which might not be known CHECK BENDING:
at this point. There are two options:
Ignore the benefit of the reduced shear force at distanced we 65.81b/in.x(60 in.)2
5= = 23.7 in.3
from the support face and see if shear does not control; or 10F; 10x1000 psi
Use the knowledge of a possible size based on bending and
deflection requirements, estimate ib based on experience, CHECK DEFLECTION: Working with a deflection limit of 1/360
and verify size when the stringer is selected. of the span length
Trying the first option:
'= 0.9wl 1 360wl1 360x451b/in.x(60 in.t •
F• 16.1 in.
bd 145E' 145x1,500,000 psi
CHECK SHEAR: Simplify the initial check by using the shear at
0.9wf 0.9x21.11b/in.x60 in.
bd the support to see if shear controls.
F; 180 psi
0.9x65.8 lb/in.x60 in.
= 6.33 in.1 <AM= 8.25 in.1 shear does not control bd- 0.9wf 19.74 in.
1

F; 180 psi

DESIGN OF SLAB, WALL, BEAM, AND COLUMN FORMS

 2x6S4SJoists
�19.2•o.c. R� =R, =l.lwl = 1.1x790 lb/ftxSft =4350 lb

The length of bearing,E,. is 11.5 in. and C�= 1.0 from Table
7.4. Other adjustment factors are either 1.0 or not applicable
4x8S4S \ as before. From Table 4.3, F,.�. =625 psi and with adjustments
s·-a·o.�.�
listed in Table 4.4
F.� =F..�.CMC,C1C� =625 psi x 1.0 =625 psi

>----- 3'-9"--flt---3'-9"- Actual bearing stress will be

'

f
= -- R -- = 4350lb =l
08psi
' .�.
4x4shofes
@60•o.c. bearing area 40.25 in.1

Fig. 8: Slab form stringers supported by shores
which is well below the A5D adjusted design value for F<.l.' of
625 psi.
Joist bearing on stringer: The two members are 1-1/2 and
3-1/2 in. wide. Contact bearing area is 3-112 x 1-112 =5.25 in.2,
as illustrated in Fig. D.

Consulting Table 4.2, the objective is to find a si2e that meets all
three requirements and will not have a lateral stability problem. 1'12 in.
A 4x8 S4S has the necessary section properties and with a d!b of
2 automatically satisfies lateral stability. Comparing properties
to those needed:

Srtq"d=23.7 in.3 S•xB = 30.66 in.3

1"'�"<1=16.1 in.• l.a=111.1 in.•

bdrtq"d= 19.74 in.2 A •. =25.38 in.2

,
A 16ft long 4x8 545 would be needed for three spans. The
weight, 16ft x 6.21b/h =100 lb,could be managed by two
workers but some formwork engineers might also consider
re·design using an aluminum beam with a 2x4 top nailer to
reduce the handling weight.
Step 5. Shore design: The shore layout was predetermined by Fig. D: Bearing area between joist and
the planned use of an available shoring system. A check would stringer
be made to verify that the shores can carry the load within their
rated capacity. Design of shores is discussed in Chapter 8. A
check of bearing stresses on the underside of the stringer will Average load transmitted by a joist to a stringer is

be made in the next step. joist spacing x joist span length x form load

Step 6. Check bearing stresses where stringers bear on

19·2 in. 60 in.
shores and where joists bear on stringers. x x158�=12641b
Stringer bearing on shore: Assume the head piece of the 12 in.jft 12 in.jft ft2

adjustable steel shore is 11·1/2 x 3-5/8 in. The 4x8 stringer is

The corresponding bearing stress is
actually 3-1/2 in. thick.
If the headpiece is placed parallel to the stringer as shown in
Fig. C,bearing area is 3-1/2 x 11-112 in.,or 40.25 in.2 Calculating
f,.�. = �.���� =241 psi

the maximum reaction at the stringer first interior support

Bearing at this point is also low relative to the 625 psi refer­
ence design value for F,.�.· Because actual bearing stress is so
low,there is no need to check for the Ct> adjustment for F:.�. that
could result from the short bearing length of 3-112 in. on the
joist and 1-1/2 in. on the stringer.
Step 7. Refer to Chapter 8 for design of lateral bracing for this
type of form.

Fig. C: Bearing area of stringer on shore U-head

CHAPTERl
 l#ittf1]tjlj@Hi1'itli!)ifflffl•l§!.!.¥!·!i•
For this example, the design for the span length of the joists for CHECK SHEAR: For purposes of comparison, calculate using
Example 7.4 will be repeated using LRFD. Fresh concrete can be the same two options considered inASD Example 7.4.Trying
considered fixed material load, c,Mt' if it is placed without having the first option(ignore the benefit of the reduced shear force at
temporary excess thickness. But it should be considered vari­ distance d from the support face)
able material load, CVMt' if temporarily over-deposited in local
areas.
f 0.9wf
•=
From Eq.(5.8), the controlling factored vertical load with CI"IAt bd
= 0 and CH = 0 becomes
0.9wf 0.9x30.71b/in.x60 in.
q = 1.2(01.+ 1.2(FMt + 1.4(vMt+ 1.6(1'£+ 1.6(H bd= = 5_33 in.1
= 1.2 X 8lb/ft2+ 1.4 X 100 lb/ft2+ 1.6 X 50lb/ft2 = 230 lb/h2 F; 311 psi
With the 19.2 in. spacing of the studs based on the plywood
Also trying the second option(estimating e�> based on experi­
maximum span length from theASD analysis
ence and verifying the stringer is properly sized) with d =5.5 in.
w(joists) = q x s = 230 lb/ft1 x 19.2 in./12 in./ft = 368 lb/ft
andeb= 3.5 in.
= 30.7 lb/in.
The bending reference design value fromTable 4.3 is F�>=
1000 psi.As inASD Example 7.4, ("' = 1.0, C,= 1.0, (1 =1.0, C, F;= :
o w
d
[ 1- (1.67d+0.831, )]
= 1.0, C,.,= 1.0, (1= 1.0, and C,= 1.15. FromTable 4.10, KF= 2.54
and ¢1�>=0.85. For significant reuse, take A= 0.8. 311 psi
0 9x
· 3�: lb/in
" [ 60 in.-(1.67x5.5 in.+0.83x3.5 in.)]

F; = F�>CMC,C,CrCtuC1C,K,4\,i. for LRFD

0·9x30·7 lb/in.
F;=1000 psi x1.1Sx 2.54 x0.85 x 0.8=1986 psi bd [ 60 in.-12.1 in.]= 4.25 in.1
311 psi
FromTable 4.3, the reference design value for shear stress, F""
is 180 psi. Because CM= 1.0, c,= 1.0, C1= 1.0, K,= 2.88, and$,= Deflection of the joists must still be based on actual loads
0.75, the adjusted design values are rather than factored loads and must be calculated byA5D as
before. ComparingA5D and LRFD results for calculated section
F:=F,C"'C,C1K,$,.A=180 psix2.88x0.75x0.8=311 psi
properties
BENDING CHECK: Determine required size for a continuous ASD LRFD
beam of three spans withe= 5 ft. The section modulus is the
Bending (5) 6.60in.3 5.56in.1
unknown to be determined. Combining Eq.(7.1b) and(7.2b),
rearranging and substituting Shear(bd) 6.33 in.1 5.33 in.1 based on vma.

' we Shear{bd) 5.05 in.1 4.25 in.1 based on vdn

F.• S =
10 Deflection (/) 5.15 in.� 5ame asA5D

In this case, there is some difference betweenA5D and LRFD

wf1 30.71b/in.x(60 in/ results, but it is not sufficient to change the required 2x6 545 size.
5.56 in.1
1oF; 10x1986 psi

7.8 Beam Form Design

Beam forms, like slab forms, carry a vertical load, and they are also subject to lateral
pressure of the fresh concrete just as wall forms are. Furthermore, where slabs frame
into beams, part of the load from the slab forms may be carried by the beam form to the
supporting shores. Because there are several ways of forming beam and slab intersections,
a review of the beam form construction methods in Chapter 11 will be helpful in under­
standing and applying the principles of design. It is important to note how and how much
of the slab load(if any) is to be carried by the beam form, and judging by the details of the
form construction(Fig. 7.6), how that load is transmitted to the supporting shores.
Following are the basic steps performed during a beam form design:
1. Beam bottom: Determine the load on the beam bottom, following principles
outlined in Chapter 5. Dead and live loads are estimated similarly as for slabs, but where
the beam is heavily reinforced, some allowance must be made for the extra weight of
steeL If the beam side is supported directly on the beam bottom, any additional load
transmitted from the slab through the beam side is also included.
After the loading on the beam bottom has been estimated, check for bending, deflec­
tion, and shear. The allowable span length of the beam bottom material generally deter­
mines the required shore spacing under the beam.
2. Beam sides:The beam side is subject to lateral pressure from the freshly placed
concrete, and may also carry vertical load from the slab forms framing into it. It is

DESIGN OF SLAB, WALL, BEAM, AND COLUMN FORMS

 Studs transmit slab loads to joists under beam

Fig. 7.6: Wood beam form elements

necessary to review the planned form layout to understand how the loads are transmitted
before working out a rational design. Some of the members are often selected on the
basis of experience and local or company practices may be reflected in the final design.
Considering vertical loads, one approach is to put blocking under the ledger at each
shore to safely transmit slab load via beam action of the ledger to the supporting
shores, as discussed in Example 7.6. Although these ledgers are nailed to the beam
sides. the strength of the nailed connections is neglected in this design approach.
Another approach, however, might use the nailed connections of the ledger to transmit
slab load to the beam side. This is practical only when the beam sides are stiff and
strong enough to distribute the slab load to the shores, which is not always the case
with typical plywood forms.
In considering the latera/loads on the beam sides, the general principles used in wall
design are applicable, but experience and local practices are important in selections
made. For shallow beams, a nominal size of sheathing or plywood is frequently chosen on
the basis of experience, rather than a calculated design. One designer reports using 3/4 in.
plywood with ledger attached, then adding vertical 2x4 Hstiffeners"for these beam sides
whenever beam depth is greater than 20 in. For beams up to approximately 2 ft deep, a

mtrtf!1tjlij:ttlJi!.!.
tttfl#®fl ¥·\it
The beam form shown at right for a 12 in. wide beam with a
total depth of 20 in. is to be used twice. Assume that no unusual
weight allowance for beam reinforcement is necessary-that is,
combined steel and concrete weighs 1SO lb/ftl. Form deflection
is limited to 1/8 in. between support locations.
Step 1. Beam bottom design: First estimate the loading:
12 in. x 20 in.
Dead load of concrete and steel= (150 lb ft)) =
/
250ib/ft /
144in.2 ft2

Dead load of form bottom=5 lb/ft2 x 1 ft=5 lb/ft

Personnel live toad at 50 tb/ft1= � x SO lb/ft1=SO lb/ft

12 in.j ft
Total uniformly distributed load for strength=30S lb/ft = 25.4
lb/in.
Beam form example problem layout
Total uniform load for deflection= 255 lb/ft = 21 .31b/in.

CHAPTER 7
 Design bottom of the beam form for this load by checking
for bending, deflection, and shear. Assuming that the beam
form bottom is made of a 12x2 S4S board of No. 2 Spruce­
Pine-Fir (SPF) running the length of the beam underside, find
the maximum distance it can span between shores or shoring
frames that support it. Because the actual dimensions of the
board are 11-1/4 x 1-1/2 in., a non-load-bearing filler of either
3/4 in. plywood or a 1x2 54S will be attached on one side.
Find the cross-section properties inTable 4.2. bd= 16.87 in.1; I
= 3.16 in.4; and 5= 4.21 in.30btain reference design values from
Table 4.3. For only two uses, the duration at maximum load can
be reasonably taken as.,:; 7 days because the live load portion
of the maximum load is of very short duration so that C0= 1.25.
The bottom board will be in direct contact with the concrete
and thus subject to wet service.The bottom board will be
oriented in weak axis bending or flat use so that C,.,= 1.2 from
Table 4.8. Considering other conditions, (1= 1.0, C,= 1.0, C,=
1.0, c,= 1.0, and (= 1.0. From Table 4.3, Fb=875 psi and from
theTable 4.6 footnote FbC,=875 psi so that C�,�= 1.0. Calculating
the adjusted design value for bending stress
F;=875 psix1.25x1.2=1310 psi
For horizontal shear, the reference design value of F. is 135
psi, and the wet service factor C�,� is 0.97, giving
For modulus of elasticity, only a wet service adjustment factor
C�,� of 0.9 is required.
E' = EC�,�c,c,= 1,400,000 psi x 0.9= 1,260,000 psi
The beam bottom will be continuous over several supports and
its maximum deflection between supports will be held to 1/8 in.
as required by the project specification.
CHECK BENDING: From Eq. (7.3b), the maximum unsupported
length will be
J¥
1310 psix4.21in.3 .
f=3.16 =3.16 . 46.5 ln.
25.41bfm.
CHECK DEFLEUION: Use Eq. (7.4c) to determine the maximum
unsupported length for a deflection limit of 1/8 in.
w i'
" =-�
""" 145£'/
�-------,,-
145x1,260,000 psix3.16 in.4 x in.
f=
l �4SE d....,
l g
\ �---:c :-::-::-;:-�--� =42·9 in.
2131b/; n.
CHECK SHEAR: From Eq. (7.11c), the maximum unsupported
length is
F.'bd
i=- +1.67d +0.83fb
0.9w
The supporting crossbeam size has not been determined but
based on experience, it is likely to be a 4x 545 section so that eb
would be 3.5 in. Substituting
DESIGN OF SLAB, WALL, BEAM, AND COLUMN FORMS
e 163 psix11.25 in.xl.S in.
+1.67x1.5 in.+0.83x3.5 in.=
0.9x25.4 lb/in.
120.3 in.+2.5 in.+2.9 in.=125 in.
Deflection clearly governs support spacing (42.9 in.) under this
beam bottom. For layout convenience, set shores 3 ft 6 in. apart.
Note that this should be conservative because support that
would be expected from nailing the side plywood sheathing to
the edge of the bottom board has been neglected.
An alternate approach to design of this beam bottom form
would be to select a convenient shore spacing first, then
determine what cross section (in terms of I, 5, and bd) would be
required to span the chosen distance.
Step 2, Beam side design: Assume that 3/4 in. plywood
sheathing and the 2x4 kicker have been selected on the basis of
experience. Shore spacing determined in Step 1 is 42 in., and the
construction plan as indicated in the sketch is to place blocking at
each shore to support the ledger. Using this setup, the ledger will
be continuous over several spans of 40 in., neglecting strength
of the nailed connection to the sheathing. If the ledger to be
used is also No. 2 grade SPF, what size ledger will be required?
Adjust reference design values ofTable 4.3 for shorHerm load.
Adjustment for wet service is not needed because anticipated
in-use moisture content is not expected to exceed 19%. Based
on experience, estimate that a 2x41edger in strong axis bending
may be adequate and confirm by analysis. For a 2x4, c,=1.5 from
Table 4.8 and Ct=1.0 fromTable 7.3.These adjustments must be
confirmed based on the final size selected or revised.
Fb'= 875 psi X 1.25 X 1.5= 1640 psi
f.'= 135 psi x 1.25= 168 psi
E'= 1,400,000 psi (no adjustments needed)
Loading must first be estimated. Although the joist loads
represent a series of concentrated loads, they may be simplified
to an equivalent uniform loading, w. lf the equivalent uniform
load was high, or if the ledger section selected were loaded at
or near its capacity, then a more precise check using point loads
would be advisable. Assume a slab form weight of 5 lb/ft1•
Ledger loading: On the right side of the beam, the ledger
carries a 4 in. slab plus assumed live load on a 2 ft width.There­
fore, for the right ledger:
slab load= 2 ft x (4 in/12 in./ftl x 150 lb/ft'= 100 lb/ft
form load= 2ft x 5 lb/ft1= 10 lb/ft
live load= 2 ft x 50 lb/ft1= 100 lb/ft
w (total on ledger for strength)= 210 lb/ft= 17.5 lb/in.
w (total on ledger for deflection)= 110 lb/ft= 9.2 lb/ln.
On the left side, the ledger carries a 2-1/2 ft slab width, so total
loading on left ledger is:
slab load= 2.5 ft x (4 in./12 in./ft) x 150 lb/ft'= 12S lb/ft
form load= 2.5 ft x 5 lb/ft1= 13 lb/ft
live load= 2.5 ft x 50 lb/ft1= 125 lb/ft
w (total on ledger for strength)= 263 lb/ft= 21.91b/in.
w (total on ledger for deflection)=138 lb/ft = 11.5 lb/in.
Use the larger left-side values to determine the required section
of the ledger.
BENDING REQUIREMENT will be determined by combining Eq.
(7.1b) and (7.2b) and solving for 5, the required section modulus
wt 21.9 lb/in.x(42 in. Y
5= 3
2 6 in.3
10Fb' 10x1640 psi
 DEFLEITION REQUIREMENT Based on the allowable deflection be used. The final size confirms the CF and C, factors used in the
I
of 1/8 in., solve Eq. (7.4c) for the required moment of inertia, calculations.
Step 3. Shore design requires a determination of the total
6=2.in. = _!!_{____ load at each shore head. In Step 1, shore spacing was deter­
8 145E'I
mined to be 3 ft 6 in. Shore load from concrete and live load is

From beam 3051b/ft X 3.5 ft =10671b

1_ wt ll.Sib/in.x(42 in. r From right slab (Step 2) 210ib/ft x 3.5 ft =73Sib
1.41 in:
6 x145E' 1/8 in.x145x1.400,000 psi
From left slab (Step 2) 263 lb/ft X 3.5 ft = 920 lb

Total on each two-post shoring assembly 2722 lb

SHEAR REQUIREMENT: Solving Eq. (7.11c) for bd and
neglecting the benefit of calculating reduced design shear force
at distanced from face of the support
0.9wl_ 0.9x21.91b/in.x 42 in. 1
bd= 4_93 in.
F.' 168 psi
Comparing the calculated required 5, /, and bd with cross­
section properties in Table 4.2, it is evident that a 2x4 with S=
3.06 in.3, I=5.39 in.•, and bd = 5.25 in.1, the smallest conven­
tional framing member, meets all these requirements and
would be the member selected to serve as the ledger. There
is no need to refine the shear analysis by using the reduced
design shear force because a 2x4 is the smallest size likely to
The load is transmitted to two post shores or a shoring frame via
a simple-span 4x4 beam member not designed in this example.
Because loads are not precisely symmetrical, it is reasonable to
divide the beam load so that each shore carries 533 lb plus the
slab load of 920 lb from the heavy side or 1453 lb. The side form
dead load must be calculated and added to this value. Assume
an unsupported length of 8 ft and design a shore based on
methods presented in Chapter 8 or select a shoring frame from
a manufacturer's catalog.
Step 4. Bearing check should be made following same prin­
ciples as for slab form Example 7.4.

single tie across the top, and/or knee bracing to the shore heads is considered satisfactory.
Slab sheathing may sometimes be framed into beam sides to contribute lateral support.
For heavier deep beams, ties designed for the full liquid head of fresh concrete are essen­
tial. Because of the comparatively heavy reinforcement in beams, interference with the ties
is more likely to occur than in walls, and more careful tie location planning is required.
3. Shoring: Shores for beam forms are generally spaced to meet beam bottom
support requirements. However, they carry dead and live loads not only from the beam
but also frequently from adjoining slab forms whose joists bear on the ledger fixed to
the beam side (Fig. 7.7 and 7.8). Determine the total load to be supported and design
these shores according to suggestions in Chapter 8.1f the slab on one side of the beam
is concreted ahead of the beam form and opposite slab, or if the slab on one side is
considerably heavier, the unbalanced load may cause rotation of the beam form. This
is one reason many designers use double-post shores or shoring frames under beam
forms. Concreting the beams first, placing a considerable
Beam shores support this part of the shore loading concentrically in advance of
slab load and beam load slab concreting, is another way to overcome the rotation
tendency.
4. Bearing and ties: Where heavy loads are involved,
bearing stresses may require investigation, as explained
earlier in this chapter. Ties may be required for deep beams,
and their design follows suggestions presented earlier for
wall form tie design.
Beam form design calculations using ASD methods are
shown in Example 7.6.

7.9 Column Form Design

The method selected for forming columns (fig. 7.9) on
a given project will be based on cost. previous experi­
ence, available labor and materials, column size, number
of possible reuses of the forms, and other factors that are
discussed under form planning (Chapter 3) and construc­
tion of column forms (Chapter 11).

CHAPTER 7
 If proprietary column forms or column clamps are used, Beam shores support this
the manufacturer's recommendations, based on load tests
I-­ slab load and beam load
I
or a successful experience record, should be followed,
I I I
so long as the equipment remains in good condition.
Although ACI 347R does not have a recommended safety
I
factor for column clamps, it seems prudent to use at least t j_ I
2.0, the same factor recommended for form ties. I I II
It is important to consider the manufacturer's recom­ I
J�
� �
mendations. For example, if there is a recommended limit I
on concrete placement rate, it should be strictly followed.
1 Slab lo d heavier
Faster filling will produce greater pressures that may cause
/ on this side
unsightly deformation of the finished columns or form
blowout due to clamp failure. "
There are several kinds of shop-built or job-built forms " //
made by contractors, for which the following design X. Double post shore
provides greater
suggestions are applicable. Because the amount of inter­ " stability when loads
action between sheathing and yokes or clamps varies // are unbalanced
considerably from one kind of construction to another, and
because the degree of rigidity of connections in clamps Fig. 7.8: Unbalanced load on shores due to thicker slab on one side of beam
and yokes is also variable, a simplified approach to design
is necessary as follows.

7. 9. 1 Types of Column Forms

Several methods of column forming are shown in Fig. 7.10{a) through {d), and the general
approach for analysis is indicated for each. Other methods of column forming are shown
in the chapter on form building, but it is impractical to develop design procedures in detail
for all of these methods. Due to smaller cross sections often seen in columns, it is possible
for pour rates {and resulting lateral pressures) in columns to be very high. Basic steps
necessary for design are indicated, and may be applied to other similar types of forms.
CASE 1. Braced plywood sheathing and steel column clamps {Fig. 7.10{a))
A. Check support requirements of sheathing.
B. Evaluate span of studs.
C. Follow manufacturer's recommendations for clamp spacing, as long as require­
ments for support of studs are met.
CASE 2. Braced plywood sheathing and tied double wales {fig. 7.1O{b))
A. Check support requirements of sheathing.
B. Evaluate span of studs.
C. Evaluate span of wales.
D. Determine tie size required to support wales.
CASE 3. Trussed sheathing, tied with steel strapping (Fig. 7.10(c))
A. Check support requirements of sheathing.
B. Determine span of studs.
Fig. 7.9: Job built plywood and wood form
C. Check hoop tension in steel strap.
with manufactured steel form clamps
CASE 4. Circular column form of steel, fiber-reinforced polymer, or paperboard (Fig. 7.1O(d))
A. Evaluate hoop tension, Th' for maximum pressure in column form of diameter D.

17.18)

B. Verify rated pressure; check joining bolt tension force, T, if sectional or seamed
for bolts at spacing sb.

(7.19)

7. 9. 2 General Design Procedure

Following are the basic steps performed during a column form design:
1. Determine design pressures: Determine the pressure on the form based on formulas
presented in Chapter S. The design pressure may vary linearly from a maximum at the base
of the column to zero at the top, or it may be a constant maximum throughout part of the
form height and then decrease linearly to zero at the top of the placed concrete height.
2. Select sheathing: Check the column form sheathing for deflection, bending, and
shear. A deflection of 1/16 in. in the sheathing span length between clamps or yokes

DESIGN OF SLAB, WALL, BEAM, AND COLUMN FORMS

Fig. 7.10: Column form of: (a) braced plywood and steel column clamps; (b) braced plywood
and double wales with external ties; (c) braced plywood and tied steel strapping; and (d)
circular steel, reinforced polymer, or disposable paperboard

is approximately as much as can be allowed in exposed columns, and calculations are

shown in the column form design example. Alternatively, the design tables for sheathing
in Chapter 9 could be applied instead of making detailed calculations.
Column sheathing design is similar to wall sheathing, but decreasing pressure toward the
top of the forms is considered in determining an increased spacing of yokes or clamps at the
higher levels. Conditions of span and support vary with the type of support framing used,
and for plywood it is important to note whether it is oriented in the strong or weak direction.
Design can be safely simplified by working up from the base of the column, assuming
that pressure is uniform between clamps (yokes) with an intensity equal to the pressure at
the lower clamp. Using this simplification, determine the support spacing required for the
sheathing support framing selected. Note that bending or shear may govern for part of
the distance, and then as loads decrease and spans lengthen, deflection may govern. This
spacing is the tentative damp spacing, subject to checking in Step 3.
3. Select yokes or clamps: Investigate strength and deflection of proposed yokes or clamps
if spaced to meet the support requirements of the sheathing. This means a check of shear
and bending moment (possibly combined bending and axial load) as well as deflection
{deflection seldom governs yoke design). Certain variations in this step will be caused by
different types of construction. For example, tension in tie bolts may be involved.
If yoke stresses are below the allowable limit, then spacing can be based on the
sheathing calculation. However, if the yokes are significantly under-loaded, it may be
advantageous to use a stronger sheathing material that will permit spacing the yokes
farther apart.
If the yokes are overstressed when their spacing is based on sheathing requirements,
then calculate yoke spacing throughout the column height on the basis of yoke strength.
For columns of large cross section, ties may be introduced to increase the yoke strength
and rigidity.

CHAPTER 7
 4. Select yoke ore/amp spacing: Compare spacing requirements of both sheathing and
yokes, and determine a yoke spacing that will meet both requirements and, at the same
time, add up to total column height in increments convenient for the form builder. The
uppermost clamp is usually a fixed distance below the top of the column, depending on
the type of construction. The bottom clamp is also spaced an arbitrary distance above
the column base, from 6 in. up to approximately 12 in. {a good rule of thumb is that the
distance below the bottom clamp should not exceed 1/3 the distance of the typical clamp
spacing). Thickness of the template used to position the form at the bottom {Fig. 7.9) may
affect the distance. If a cleanout door is used, the first clamp should be located to hold it.
Example 7.7 provides an illustration of the column form design procedure using
ASD methods. Determination of the bolt tension in a round column form is shown in
Example 7.8.

7. 1 0 Form Accessories
In general, the form accessory units should provide the strength to support reactions from
the framing members. The most economical tie is one that will fully develop the strength
of the form lumber when the tie is loaded to its recommended capacity. Normally, the
best balance is achieved by using the fewest units possible to safely carry the required

Assume that a 20 in. square column is to be placed to a height can be used. If stronger plywood was used, it might be possible
of 12 ft in 1 hour with concrete weighing 145 lb/ft3 and to use only three flat 2x4s.
assuming concrete temperature of 60QF. The concrete contains The two middle 2x4s are the most heavily loaded, and column
Type II cement and 25% fly ash without a retarding admixture. clamps must be located to support them. Assuming the pressure
Where beams or girders frame into the column, placement on a 6 in. tributary width of sheathing is transmitted to each of
height will be to the bottom surface of the lowest intersecting them, we can design the damp spacing to support a 2x4 with a
beam to allow subsequent placement of beam and girder uniform load of w= Ca X 0.5 ft. Because this design is for equivalent
reinforcement. Design the form for 10 to 20 uses, with 3/4 in. fluid pressure, we can calculate a linearly reduced pressure each
B-B Plyform Class I plywood sheathing supported by S4S 2x4s of time we move up the column to select another clamp location.
No. 2 Southern Pine {or equal) used flat and clamped with metal Allowable stresses for design will be calculated from reference
Mself-squaringM clamps. design values in Table 4.3, by applying appropriate adjust-
Step 1. Lareral pressure is determined from procedures in ment factors. For bending stress Ft>' apply the flat use factor
Chapter 5 based on ACI 347R recommendations C,v = 1.1. Because columns are usually stripped in 1 to 3 days,
the average duration at maximum pressure should not exceed
CCPmc• = CcCwflSO + 9000R;n = 1.2 x 1.0 [1SO + 9000(12/60)] =
approximately 2 days for each of the 20 reuses of the forms for
2340 lb/ft2
a total durations of 40 days s 2 months. Thus, take C0 = 1.15.
but not greater than No. 2 Southern Pine requires no size adjustment and the beam
(cp= Wch = 14S lb/ft3 X 12 ft = 1740 lb/ft2 stability adjustment, Cl' is automatically 1.0 for the flat use d/b
ratio. The 2x4s qualify as repetitive members making C, = 1.15.
The concrete in this example is placed rapidly and the equiva­
Wet-use conditions will vary with the site environment; assume
lent liquid head is assumed to vary uniformly from zero at the
wet service so CM is 0.8S for F"' 0.97 for F., and 0.9 forE adjust­
top to 1740 lb/ft2 at the bottom of the column.
ments. Incising and temperature factors can be taken as 1.0.
Step 2. Column form sides will be assembled as in Case 1 (Fig.
Applying the factors to determine the ASD adjusted design
7.10(a)). Note that the panels are detailed holding back the
values based on Tables 4.3 and 4.4
plywood 3/4 in. on one side only. This permits all panels to be
F;= FbCDC,WCICLCFCI'uC/C,
identical, and they fit together as shown in the drawing.
=1050 psi X 1.15 X 0.85 X 1.1 X 1.1S=1300 psi
Support requirements of the plywood must be met for the
maximum lateral pressure of 1740 lb/ft2• Use the same design F; = FvCDCMC,C1 = 175 psix1.1Sx0.97=19S psi
method as for wall form sheathing, or check a design table.
Assume that plywood panels are used vertically on the column,
E' = ECMC,C1 = 1,400,000 psix0.9=1,260,000 psi
making face grain perpendicular to spans (weak way) in the
column form. From Table 9.3, the allowable plywood span in the
weak direction is 5 in. with rolling shear as the control. Because
the 2x4s are used flat, as shown in Fig. A, the allowable span
shown in Table 9.3 can be increased by 2 in. due to the larger
bearing length (as indicated by the footnote). A visual check
indicates that bending and deflection would not control with
the increased plywood span. A 6 in. center-to-center spacing
Fig. A: Column farm face panel layout

DESIGN OF SLAB, WALL, BEAM, AND COLUMN FORMS

 Allowable deflection will be held to 1/16 in. For a 4x2 (the the base of the column as shown in the table below.
designation for a Oat 2x4), Table 4.2 shows To check spacing of Clamp 3, determine w (equal to 0.5 ft
times lateral pressure) at the1eve1 of Clamp 2, and assume that
I= 0.98 in.4; S= 1.3 1 in.1; bd = 5.25 in.2; and d= 1-1/2 in.
this is the uniform load for locating Clamp 3.
Working up from the column base, assume that the pressure
At 21 in. above base, Cc,= 1 7 40 lb/ft2- 145 lbfftl X 21 inJ12 inJ
is uniform between clamps and of intensity equal to that at the
ft = 148 6 lb/ft2
lower clamp. Assuming that the first clamp will be 6 in. above

w= 0.5 ft x 1486 lb/ft2/12 inJft = 61.9 lb/in.

the base, compute allowable span length to second clamp
USing (c,= 1740 lb/ft2 - (6 inJ12 in./ft) X 145 lb/ft1 = 16681b/ft2,
and w= s x C"=O.S ft x 1668 lb/ft /12 inJft = 69.5 lb!in. CHECK BENDING with w now 61.91b/in.
Investigate as a continuous beam, using the three checks­
bending, deflection, and shear-as in other formwork components.
I=3.16
�
� = 3.16
1300 psix1.31 in.l
16.s in.
CHECK BENDING using Eq. {7.3b) for maximum allowable span V 61.9 lb/in.
length

CHECK DEFLECTION:
t-
- 3. 16
r;;5 _- 3.16
v� 1300 psix1.31 in.) .
15 .6 ln.
69.s lbfin. f=l.HS• {f'i(in.)=1.735• 1,260,000 psix0.98 in.4(in.) 20_6 in.
v---;- 61.9 lb/in.
CHECK DEFLECTION substituting in Eq. (7.4c) for maximum 6 of
1/16in. CHECK SHEAR:

f= F.'bd +1.6 7d + 0.83fb

•(in.)
f = 1 _735 . [E'i(in.f=1_735• 1,260 ,000 psix 0.98 in. 20.0 in.
=

v----;;- 69.5 lb/in.

0.9w

CHECK SHEAR using Eq. {7.11c) witheb= 0 because the clamp

'-::';;'-'-;-,c:c:;c-;:-
2
19 5 p s ix 5 ·25 ;"c...
· + . 7
1 6 x 1. 5 in.=20.8 in.
thickness is small. Solve fore 0.9x61.91b/in.

F 'bd 195 l n.2

l= . +1.67d+0.83l psixS. S i +1.67x1.5 in.=18.8 in.
Bending strength governs the location of Clamp 3 because
b
0 . 9w 0.9x69.5 lb/in. the allowable span length calculated for bending is the shortest.
Set Clamp 3 tentatively 16 in. above Clamp 2 or 2 1 + 16 = 37 in.
Bending strength governs at this point, so Clamp 2 would be above the base of the column. Recompute C" at 37 in. from the
spaced tentatively 15 in. above Clamp 1 or 6 + 15 = 21 in. above base to get load for determining spacing to Clamp 4.
 C,,.=1740 lb/ft2-145 lb/ft3 X 37 in./12 in./ft =1293 lb/ft2 strength because this column is of relatively small cross section.
w =0.5 ftx 12931b/ft2/12 inJft =53.91b/in. The manufacturer's recommendations are generally satisfactory
in this regard, but find out, if possible, what deflection values and
To find the allowable span length between Clamp 3 and Clamp 4:
what lateral pressure values were used in arriving at the manufac­
CHECK BENDING, substituting as before turer's recommended spacings. For longer span clamps (4 to 7 ft)
without intermediate ties, it is a good practice to estimate clamp
_ f(S _ 1300 psix1.31 in.3 .
v --:::- - 3.16
deflection under load to check for objectionable bowing of column
e- 3.16 17.8 10.
53.9 lb/in. sides. In the absence of detailed information such as material and
section properties, this would necessarily be an approximation. For
CHECK DEFLECTION:

�
job-built yokes, steel strapping, and other methods of clamping, a
( = l.7JS f'/ {in.) 1,260,000 psi X 0.98 in.•in. general design layout is suggested by the cases shown earlier.
= l.l3S• ll.3 in. Step 4. Select yoke or clamp spacing:Compare spacing require­
w 53.91b/in.
ments of the clamp manufacturer with the tentative spacing
CHECKSHEAR: calculated based on support requirements for the side panels of

f= �bd +1.67d+0.83l't. =
F the column form, as summarized in the table on the previous page.
Step S. Final clamp location. Assuming that construction
0 9w
requirements place the top clamp 6 in. below the top of the
195 ps x .2
; 5 · 25 ;n'- column, convenient spacing of the clamps should be selected
-
::';;'-':-:-':-'c- ,_ + 1.67x1.5 in.=20.8 in.
0.9 x 53.9 lb/in. to equal or less than the maximum spans of the column side.
As the table shows, there is a reasonable agreement between
Bending again governs, and Clamp 4 will be tentatively spaced calculated and manufacturer's recommended span lengths.
17 in. above Clamp 3 or 37 in.+ 17 in.= 54 in. above the base. Figure B shows the final clamp locations adding to a total
Recompute lateral pressure at Clamp 4 as a basis for deter­ height of 144 in., arrived at after comparing the calculated
mining the spacing to Clamp 5. spacing for stud span to the clamp manufacturer's spacing
based on clamp strength. It is desirable to have some repetitive
CCP=1740 lb/ft2-145 X 54 in. /12 inJft. =1088 lb/ft2
spacings instead of having all different spacings. The final clamp
w= 0.5 ftx 10881b/ft2/12 inlft =45.3 lb/in. locations are within both the calculated maximum spacings and
the yoke manufacturer's recommendations.
To find the allowable span length between Clamp 4 and Clamp 5:
Remember that the calculations shown for wood span length
CHECK BENDING, as before were conservatively simplified by assuming pressure at a lower
clamp as the basis for computing the spacing to the next clamp.
l'=3.16 r;;5
v � =3.16
l300psix1.3 l in.)
19.4 in. Note that if desired, it is possible to go through another iteration
45.3 lb/in. using a slightly reduced value for CCI" where C0is the liquid pres­
sure halfway between clamps. This additional step may provide
CHECK OEFLEUION
slightly higher allowable spans, but will not be performed in this
example because there would be little benefit considering the
l'=1.735 . {E'i(ii1.)= .735.1,260,000 psix 0.98 in.•(in.) 223 in.
v----;- l 45.3 lb/in. spacings for clamp strength. A computer-based analysis with a
continuous beam over multiple supports at the various spans
CHECK5HEAR selected and with a ramp loading could also be used to provide an

f= ��:� +1.67d+0.83fb=
exact analysis of moments, shears, and deflections for verification.

,---- 6in
#8
195 psix 5.25 in.l
+ 1.67 x 1.Sin. =27.6in. 24 in
0.9 x 45.3 lb/in.
#7
Bending again governs, andClamp 5 will be tentatively spaced 19 in. 24 in.
aboveCiamp 4 or 54 in.+ 19 in.=73 in. from the base of the column.
Determine lateral pressure at Clamp 5 and continue calcula­ #8

tions in this way until the last clamp elevation is equal to or 20 in.
greater than the column height. As loads decrease, shear clearly #5
does not govern span length, so only bending and deflection 18 in.
checks must be performed. The remaining 18 in. space between
114
Clamps 7 and 8 is less than the allowable span length of 31 in.
16in.
Thus, further adjustment of clamp location can be made within
#3
the calculated limits. A spreadsheet with the various formulas 16in.
could be used to speed the entire calculation process. #2
Step 3. Strength of yokes or clamps should be investigated. In 14 in.
#1
this case, a manufactured device is used, and the manufacturer's '-- 6in.
suggested clamp spacing will be taken as evidence of clamp
Fig. 8: Layout of column clamps

DESIGN OF SLAB, WALL, BEAM, AND COLUMN FORMS

 mmrnm=•·nm!!rttrtlmttt:mlti§·H·!.!
A 30 in. diameter column form composed of four quarter sections is to be
assembled with bolts spaced at 8 in. on center vertically. Analysis of concrete lateral
pressure based on ACI 347R column procedures (Chapter 5) has indicated that the
maximum pressure will be 3600 lb/ft2• Determine the resulting bolt tension. From Eq.
(7.18)

rh = Ccp._D 12 = 3600ibjfe x 2.5 ft/2 = 4500 /

lb ft

and using Eq. (7.19)

Tb = Thsb = /
4500 lb ft x .j
8 inJ12 in ft = 3000 lb

maximum working loads from the framing. Compared to heavy formwork,light formwork
uses lighter form tying accessories and more of them.
ACI 347R recommends factors of safety for use by manufacturers in determining the
working capacity of formwork accessories. As shown in Table 7.5, ACI 347R recommends
a safety factor of at least 2.0 for all ties, anchors, and hangers. For anchorage of formwork
supporting weight of forms, concrete, construction live loads, and impact, a safety factor
of 3.0 is advised. Typically,these accessories are designed for tension,but the designer
must be alert to the possibility of bending or other loading conditions that may add to the
member's stress. Safety factors are based on ultimate strength with the additional provi­
sion that the yield point must not be exceeded under the working load.

7.10.1 Ties
When preliminary spacing of the ties has been determined based on requirements of the
framing members,this spacing will have to be checked against the load capacity of the
ties. Use the manufacturer's load rating,adjusted if necessary, to give the desired safety
factor. To get the total load on each tie,determine the tributary area of form as shown
in Fig. 7.11, multiply by the average unit pressure of concrete on the tributary area, and
adjust for the increased reaction due to span continuity {for example, multiply by 1.1 for a
three-span case).
If the equivalent uniform load on wales has already been computed, then merely
multiply this load times the distance between ties to get total load per tie and adjust for
continuity. For example

If the total computed load exceeds the capacity of the selected tie, at least one of the
following methods, whichever may be more economical for a given job, should be
employed to reduce load per tie:
Reduce tie spacing;
Increase tie rod size;

Table 7.5: Minimum safety factors for formwork accessories

Safety factor based on
Accessory Type of constructron ultrmote strength
Form ties All opplicotioM 2.0
FormwOfk. supporting form weight and concrete
2.0
pressures only
Form anchors
FormwOfk. supporting weight of forms, concrete,
3.0
construction live loads, ond impact

Form hangers All opplicotions 2.0

Anchoring
inserts uH!d os Pre<:osl concrete panels when uH!d os formworl< 2.0
form ties

NOTE: Ultimate strengtlls guarant� by reputable manufacturers maybe used in l�u of tests for ultimate str!'flgth. Working
toadsmusrnotexcH'Ciy; e ldpolntof materlai.Safetyfactorsglvenherein,andmanvfacturefs'load ratingsin gener.ll,arebased
onthe assumption tl\.att�sand ancllorsare loade-dintension.lf thetieor ancllor isusedin sucllawaytfl.atbendingorotller
suessesare introduced,tlle deslgnershould considerthe effect ofthe combinedstresses.

CHAPTER 7
 Reduce wale spacing;
Decrease the rate of concrete placement; or
Increase the minimum concrete temperature.
If plain rods, band iron, or unrated ties are to be used, the necessary size is computed as

(7.21)

where Ali< is the net cross-sectional area of the tie; Cc, is the average lateral pressure on the
form area being considered;A,.,.m is the contributing form area including effects of conti­
nuity; and F., is the allowable working stress for tie material. (21,500 psi may be used for
structural steel; for other materials, use manufacturer's rating; assure 2.0 safety factor.)

7. 10. 2 Bearing Plates or Washers

The form load is transmitted to the tie through an external holding device (variously
called a tie holder, wedge, form clamp, hairpin, or button) bearing on the stud or wale.
The area of this plate or wedge should be large enough that the allowable stress in
compression perpendicular to the grain of the lumber will not be exceeded. Otherwise,
the wood will crush and the movements may cause concrete dimensional tolerances to be
exceeded.
It is advisable to check bearing area at the end of all ties loaded to over 3000 lb.
However, the designer cannot always check this bearing stress accurately because many
Fig. 7. 11: Tributary area of form for tie design
holding devices are of irregular shape with no published information on area. Some are
covers half rhe distance from tie to tie in both
shaped so that maximum bearing area is developed only after initial crushing of the wood
directions bur should be adjusted for span
fibers takes place.
continuity (Photo courtesy of MEVA Form­
The manufacturer should design external holding devices in balance with the rated load
work Systems)
of the tie rod so that allowable bearing stresses in form lumber are not exceeded. Because
there is presently no industry-wide standard, the manufacturer may be using assumed
bearing stresses higher than those allowed for some species of wood used in formwork.
The formwork engineer/contractor should be alert to this possibility during form design
and when evaluating field performance.

7. 10.3 Hangers
Hangers that support the weight of forms and wet concrete plus construction load from
the already in-place steel or concrete structural frame (Fig. 7.12) may be checked in much
the same way that ties are checked. Preliminary spacing will have been calculated based
on formwork requirements for support.
Determine the area of formwork to be supported by each hanger (usually the distance
of beams center to center times the spacing of hangers along the beam) and multiply by
the total unit design load for the formwork. The weight of concrete forming any irregular
haunches, overhangs, or encasement for fire protection should be included in the analysis.
For non-encased structures, the load on the hanger may be determined by permissible
spacing of formworkjoists, rather than having hangers carry their maximum load.
If the load exceeds the capacity of the hanger tentatively chosen, then a heavier one
must be found, or spacing must be adjusted accordingly. If a higher safety factor than that
indicated by the hanger manufacturer is desired, adjust the load rating. ACI 347R recom­
mends a safety factor of 2 for all hangers. Caution in understanding load ratings is impor­
tant; for example, some manufacturers rate hanger load capacity per leg, whereas others
rate based on total capacity of both legs.
Care is required in design to equalize the loading
on the two legs of the hanger to avoid twisting of the Totaldesignload(Dead+Live)= 175psl
steel supporting beams due to unbalanced loading. For
example, in Example 7.7(a), if the slab span from A to B
were substantially longer than the span from B to C, the
load on the left side of the hanger at B would be heavier
than the load on the right, and there would be a tendency Beamsacldl�
for the beam to twist. When one-sided hangers are used,
they should be alternated from side to side if possible I _ ';·:::..____.! ___ •. � I
along the length of the supporting beam to counteract
the rotational effect. Forms for fireproofing steel beams Fig. 7. 12: Beam saddles support forms from the steel frame; load per hanger
often have to be braced to prevent shifting sideways until here is 1751blf� x 6ft x 2ft"' 21001b; typical safe working load for such hard­
concrete is placed on both sides of the web. ware is 1500lb or more per side

DESIGN OF SLAB, WALL, BEAM, AND COLUMN FORMS

 REFERENCES
7.1. Formwork: A Guide to Good Practice, third edition, The Concrete Society, UK, 2012.
7.2. Breyer, D. E.; Fridley, K. J.; Cobeen, K. E.; and Pollock, D. G., Design of Wood Srrucrures­
ASO/LRFD, McGraw-Hill, New York, 2014.
7.3. Wood Handbook: Wood as an Engineering Material, USDA Forest Products laboratory,
Madison, WI, 2010.
8: DESIGN OF FORM SHORES
AND BRACING
Shores are typically vertical members
supporting floor formwork (fig. 8.1) or
supporting previously cast floors in the role
of reshores or backshores. The loads are
usually the result of gravity, such as dead
and live loads. Braces are usually employed
to resist lateral loads such as wind on wall
(Fig. 8.2), column, or slab forms. Compres­
sion buckling capacity controls the design
of most shores and braces. The combina­
tion of low concrete strengths and high
construction loads during the early stages
of construction when shores are in place
makes the proper design and installation of
shores and bracing a critical operation.

8.1 Shoring ond Brocing

Members
A rational analysis should be used to deter­
mine the number of floors to be shored,
reshored, or backshored and to determine
the loads transmitted to the floors, shores,
and reshores or backshores as a result of
the construction sequence, as discussed in
Chapter 6. As recommended by ACI347R-
14, NGuide to Formwork for Concrete,Mthe

Fig. 8.2: Diagonal braces resisting wind lateral
load on wall formwork (Photo courtesy
Morley Builders)
Fig. 8.3: Installing adjustable wood shores to
serve as a reshore
overall plan for scheduling of shoring and reshoring should be prepared by a person quali­
fied to analyze toads and stresses induced during the construction process.
Where the construction of horizontal members is supported by many relatively small­
capacity, closely spaced, manufactured shores, it is generally sufficiently accurate to
assume that each shore or shoring frame leg supports a formwork area extending halfway
to the adjacent shore or leg on all sides.
Both dead and construction live loads must be included when calculating total shore
loads. The total combined dead and live load used for design should never be taken as less
than 100 lb/ft1, or 125 lb/ft1 if motorized carts are used to transport concrete.
ANSI/ASSE A10.9-13, NSafety Requirements for Masonry and Concrete Work,N requires
that certain types of manufactured shores and adjustable shores involving manufactured
components be load tested in accordance with SSFI SH300-07, NStandards for Testing and
Rating Shoring Equipmene For the load rating, ANSI/ASSE A10.9 requires a safety factor
of 2.5 for manufactured welded frame shoring, tube and coupler shoring, shoring towers,
rolling shore brackets, and flying deck forms. For manufactured single-post shores and
adjustable timber single-post shores (Fig. 8.3), the document requires a safety factor
of 3.0. For other shores, such as single timber posts, ANSI/ASSE A10.9 requires that unit
stresses for use in design be as set forth in ACI 347R, which recommends following AWC
NDS-2012, NNational Design Specification for Wood Construction," design procedures
for wood columns. At one time, shoring industry safety factors for manufactured shores
were lower-for example, 2.0 rather than 2.5-but were increased because of the typical
practice of using tributary area only to calculate shore loads. For continuous spans, simple
tributary area underestimates the load on interior shores. For example, in the case of a
two-span uniform load w over spans of length e, the center shore load is 1.2Swf rather
than wE. Thus, when selecting manufactured system shores that have been tested and
rated, it is acceptable to use simple tributary area to determine the load. However, when
designing non-manufactured shores, either continuity should be considered when deter­
mining shore load or the load based on simple tributary area should be increased 25%.
Braces are typically installed on an angle. They may be installed as single braces or in pairs
with opposite slopes on two sides of a wall form or as x-bracing for a floorformwork system.
When used in one-sided bracing, the brace design must consider both compression and
tension loading because most lateral forces can act in any direction. Even when two-sided
bracing is eventually planned, there is an intermediate stage in wall form construction when
only one form side is erected and the brace for that one side must resist wind from either
direction. When single-level X-braces are used in slab forms, the design can assume all lateral
load is carried by the brace in tension and the compression brace can be ignored. Alter­
nately, the design can assume that the load is resisted with one brace of the pair in tension
and the other in compression. Usually, due to the possibility of compression buckling, the
compression brace controls the design. The behavior of bracing in manufactured multi-tier
framed shoring towers is more complex and is often determined by load tests.
8.2 Solid Wood Compression Members
Wood shores and braces in compression, either rectangular or round in cross section, are
often designed as concentrically loaded solid columns. As in the design of columns of all
types, the load capacity depends on the slenderness ratio, K,Eir, where K, is the buckling
length coefficient, E is the unbraced length, and r is the radius of gyration of the compres­
sion member. Wood design calculations are based on effective length K.E rather than an
unbraced length. However, for the pinned-end condition with no translation assumed
for wood shores and braces, K, = 1.0 and the effective length is the same as the unbraced
length. If significant lateral movement of one end of the shore is permitted, detailed
recommendations of the NOS should be consulted. While concentric loading is a common
assumption in design, the formwork engineer should be aware that load eccentricity can
significantly reduce the axial capacity.
8.2.1 Slenderness Rafio
For solid rectangular compression members, r = d, where dis the cross-sectional dimen­
sion of the face under consideration. If the shore is unbraced, the lesser thickness of the
cross section is used in determining the ratio. This ratio is expressed as ijd, where t.. is the
effective length in inches and dis the net dimension in inches in the buckling direction
under consideration. For wood compression members, the AWC NOS normally requires
that f/d must not exceed SO. An exception is listed that during construction, Ejd must not
CHAPTERS
exceed 75; however, the higher limit is intended for components such as wood trusses
during their erection before final lateral bracing is installed.Thus, the limit ijd of SO is
appropriate for formwork compression members.
When shores are braced laterally in one or more directions (Fig. 8.4), or at different t,andt,•
Dlstancesbe-enpoin t s ol
points along their length, the slenderness ratio in each plane of lateral support must be lataralaupportolcolumnln
plan" 1 �nd 2
determined and the greater of the two ratios i/d1 or R.jd1 is used to compute allowable
loads. Figure 8.5 illustrates determination of the ijd ratio for a 3x4 shore with different
bracing plans.To be effective, such lateral bracing must be anchored to or bear against
some positive support such as permanent construction, securely placed stakes, or diag­
onal bracing. Lateral braces used only for the purpose of reducing unsupported buckling
length of formwork shores and braces are commonly referred to as horizontal/acing. The
AWC NOS does not have a provision for the required strength of lateral bracing to resist
buckling of wood columns. The AISC Steel Construction Manual has a requirement for
such braces to resist 1% of steel column axial compressive strength. Some designers have
used 2% as a "rule of thumb."
Round wood poles are sometimes used for shores in falsework.ln such cases, the R.jd
Fig. 8.4: Distances between lateral supports
ratio is determined using the d dimension of a square section having the same area as the and associated cross-section dimensions
round section.

8.2.2 Adjustment Factors For Solid Wood Compression Members

The reference design value for compression parallel to the grain F; like other reference
values, is subject to adjustment factors as defined in Table 4.4.

Chapter 4 provides adjustment factors for

temperature, size, load duration, incising,
and moisture. The column stability factor
CPmust be determined by calculation.
Because wood shores are generally used
repeatedly on projects and from project

J
to project, the cumulative duration of
maximum loading may be uncertain. Thus,
many form designers assume the cumula-

� �� ��r :���: t:��:�a��;:�� ���:t�;�

i r x s
= lnplaneparalleltonarrowface lnplaneparalleltonarrowface
��:l�e��ther lace is braced use
.
(ld= 7 .;�2 ) (fd• 5��)
adjustments are not usually required, so
the size and column stability adjustments
(ld= 1 ;�2 ) =36.0 "24.0
are the principal ones considered in shore : 72 0. lnplaneparallelto wlderface Inplaneparallelto widerface

design. The column stability factor CP (ld= 1 5��) =51 . 4 ;�2 )

fld .. 7.
depends on the slenderness ratio of the bracing. This.. ceedsi
l m�of501ob<eeinll =25.7
isneededinth ispla ne. ThelariJer ratiogoYernl.
shore R.jd as discussed previously, the
adjusted modulus of elasticity for column
stability of the wood, E'_, the adjusted Fig. 8.5: Determination of i/d ratio for a 3x4 545 with different bracing plans
reference design value of compression
parallel to the grain before the factor cp is
applied, and a parameter, c, determined empirically from tests of various wood materials.

(8.1)

where c O.B for sawn lumber; and F; = F, x all applicable adjustment factors, except C,..
=

= 0.822E.:W,
F
" (1,/d)' (8.2)

It is often convenient to calculate the value of (FjF,1 first, and then substitute the
resulting value into Eq. (8.1 ) .

DESIGN OF FORM SHORES AND BRACING

I#Ttlftit):ll·@l$tffllitfil�'@ftf.i.!.!(
Based on ASO, what load will a 4x4 545 No. 2 grade Douglas
Fir-larch shore carry if its effective (unsupported) length is 9 ft?
Assume not incised, normal temperature conditions, dry use,
and cumulative load duration> 2 months. From Table 4.3, the
reference value of Fe= 1350 psi and£,..,= 580,000 psi. Referring
to Table 4.4 and gathering applicable adjustments, C0 = 1.0 and
c,=1.15. Other possible adjustment factors are either 1.0 or not
applicable, such as Cr, which only applies to trusses. Deter­
mining adjusted values
£'-:£,..,eM c,c, Cr=580,000 psi (1.0) = 580,000 psi
F;= Frcoc/Mc,c,c,= 1350 psi x 1.15=1552 psi
(for F). K, 1.76 (for Emin), 41, = 0.9, $,-0.85, and A.- 0.8. The
selection of k is somewhat subjective. In this case, the value of
0.8 reflects the load duration greater than 2 months-some­
what similar to occupancy loads in permanent structures. Calcu­
lating the revised column stability factor forLRFD
E'mif>=E""" eM C,e, erK,$,= 580,000 psi (1.76) (0.85)=868,000 psi
F,. = F, eM C, e, (1 K,$,A.= 1350 psi (1.15)(2.4)(0.9)(0.8) = 2680 psi
0.822f� _ 0.822 x 868,000 psi
F 747 psi
" (l,/d)' ( 30.9 )'

]
F,/F,·=747 psi/2680 psi=0.279
With actual dimensions of 3-1/2 in. by 3-1/2 in., the cross­
section area is 12.25 in.l 1+(F./F;) _ 1+(�,/F;) ' -�,/�·
C, =
d
tj =(9 ft x 12 inJft) / (3-1/2 in.)= 30.9 2c 2c c

which is well within the limit of 50. Note that with the assumed
pin-ended column, e. is the same as the actual unsupported
length e. Find the column stability factor CP by solving Eq. (8.2)
and then substituting in Eq. (8.1) with c= 0.8 for sawn lumber.
F; = F,·cp = 2680 psi x 0.261 = 699 psi
0.822f� 0.822 x 580,000 psi
F 500 psi
" (l,jd)' (30.9 )' P u = F; A= 699 psi x 12.25 in1=8560 lb
FjF,·=500 psi/1552 psi=0.322 The ASD and LRFD results can be compared as follows.

]
Imagine a case where an elevated slab is to be cast. Because the
concrete could have temporary excessive depth locally during
1+(�,/F,')- 1+(�,/�') '-�,/F; placement, consider it to be CVIol, for design of the supporting
CP =
2c 2c c form members.Assume the forms weigh 5 lb/ft1, the slab
weighs 951b/ft1, and the personnel and equipment weigh 50 lb/
p 1+0.322 _
C =
1.6 1.6
]
1+0.322 1 _ 0.322

0.8
=0_297
ft1.ForASD

eDt +C,M, +c\'M, +CI'!+C��=

51b/ft1+ 0 + 951b/ft2 +50 lb/ft1 + 0= 150 lb/ft1
Applying this factor to the previously adjusted F;, one obtains Maximum area supported= 5645 lb/150 lb/ft1 = 37.6 ft1
an allowable Fe' of
ForLRFD
F,'=F,'CP=1552 psi x 0.297 = 461 psi
1.2(01. + 1.2CFML + 1.4(VML + 1.6(1'! + 1.6(11 =
The area of the shore times this allowable stress gives the 1.2(5 lb/ft2) + 0 + 1.4(95 lb/ft1) + 1.6(50 lb/ft1) + 0= 2191b/ft1
axial load capacity P of the shore Maximum area supported=8560 lb/2191b/ft1 = 39.1 ft1
P=F,'A=461 psi x 12.25 in.1= 56451b
In this particular case, the design byLRFD yields somewhat
Design tables showing precalculated allowable loads on various
greater capacity by 4% and thus some economic benefit.
qualities of wood shoring are provided in Chapter 9.
However, the results can vary in other cases depending on the
Based onLRFD, what factored load will the same shore
relative magnitude of the loads and theLRFD load factors.
support under the same conditions? Several additional factors
used only withLRFD must be defined. From Chapter 4, K,= 2.40

Other conditions being equal, theAWC NOS indicates square wood columns and round
wood columns of equal cross-sectional area will carry the same loads and have equal
stiffness. Therefore, a round wood shore can be designed by assuming a square column
for analytical purposes and then using a round shore of the same cross-sectional area. An
example of determining the load a wood shore can support is provided in Example 8.1.

8.2.3 End Bearing of Shores

If the wood shore bears directly against a joist, stringer, or other horizontal wooden
member it supports, the load will often be limited by bearing stress in the member being
supported, as explained in Chapter 7. This bearing stress is frequently the governing
design consideration. The total allowable load depends on the area of contact between
the shore and member being supported. The bearing area may be the full area of the

CHAPTERS
shore,or it may be considerably less if a narrow member rests on the shore,as shown in
Fig. 8.6. The shaded area indicates the bearing area between the supported member and
the shore. A narrow bearing area is less desirable,as it may be less stable unless blocking is
provided. Example 8.2 illustrates a check of end bearing stresses for a shore.
Table 9.12 gives ASD shore loads based on allowable stress perpendicular to the grain
of the wood member contacting the shore and full bearing. Metal or hardwood plates or Fig. 8.6: Shore bearing areas on members
fittings attached to the top of the shores may be used to increase the bearing length and perpendicular to grain
thus increase the load capacity above these bearing limits.

8.2.4 Splicing of Shores

Shore splices must be designed to prevent
buckling and bending as for any other struc­
tural compression member. ACI 347R states
that multi-tier shoring- single-post shoring
l:tJ.f¢!1Q!j:f4iffl#l:@li!.!.
Consider the 4x4 S4S shore of the Example 8.1. Suppose this shore is used directly
beneath a 2x6 S4S Douglas Fir-larch stringer and not within 3 in. of the stringer end.
The area of contact will be 1-1/2 in. x 3-1/2 in.,or 5.25 in.1,Fe.�. = 625 psi,length of

in two or more tiers- is a dangerous practice

bearing£b is 3.5 in.,and from Table 7.4, Cb= 1.11. Using ASD,the allowable stress F;_�
and is not recommended due to buckling = 625 psi x 1.11 = 694 psi because of the short length of bearing. This shore used in
this location would have a load limited to 694 psi x 5.25 in.1or 3643 lb,not the 5645
and stability issues. Figure 8.7 shows a shoring
lb shown in Example 8.1.1f the stringer is a 4x6,the full area (3-1/2 in. x 3-1/2 in.)
frame tower that is made stable by bracing
in two directions compared to unacceptable of the shore is in contact with the form member being supported,the allowable
bearing load would be 3-1/2 in. x 3-1/2 in. x 694 psi,or 8501 lb,but axial compres­
unbraced stacked single-post shores. ACI 347R
sion in the shore would govern and the ASD permitted load would be 5645 lb,as
recommends against using field-construaed
calculated in the previous example. LRFD can also be used in bearing calculations.
butt or lap splices of timber shoring unless
they are made with fabricated hardware
of demonstrated strength and stability. If
plywood or lumber splices are made for timber shoring,they should be designed to prevent
buckling and bending of the shoring. To avoid buckling,do not place splices near midheight of
unbraced shores or midway between points of lateral support. When multi-tier single-post shores
are used,OSHA 29 CFR1926 Subpart Q requires design of the system by a qualified designer and
inspection by an engineer qualified in struaural design. OSHA also calls for vertical alignment
splices to maintain alignment,and bracing in two mutually perpendicular directions at the splice
level. Diagonal bracing must also be installed in the two directions.

8.3 Tubular Steel Shores

Formulas for concentrically loaded steel columns may be used for the design of simple
tubular steel shores or for investigation of single parts of tubular steel shoring frames. For
adjustable shores,combinations of steel and wood,or other manufactured or patented
shores and shoring methods,manufacturers' recommendations based on load tests
should be used because varied connection,assembly,and screwjack adjustment features
make a precise theoretical analysis complicated, if not impossible. Damaged sections must
not be used because their remaining strength cannot be estimated. Frame shoring in
Towers brac:ed in

8.3.1 Slenderness Ratio

As in the case of wood shores,the slenderness ratio is a governing design consideration. For Fig. 8.7: Tall shoring must be fully braced in
tubular members,the slenderness ratio is expressed as KE!r, where e is unsupported length,in both directions; stacked single shores in two
inches; r is radius of gyration; and Kis effective length faaor. (K= 1.0 is used for steel shores,which or more tiers is dangerous
are conservatively assumed to be pin-ended.) For steel shores,KE!r should not exceed 200. The
radius of gyration,area, and material properties for standard sections are listed in AISC 325-11,
"Steel Construction Manual;' or available from the producers of the tubular sections.
Both longitudinal and transverse planes of support should be considered when checking
for£,the unsupported length used for design. For example,the maximum unbraced length
of member ABCD in Fig. 8.8 is 4 ft in the longitudinal plane,while the unbraced length is 8ft
in the transverse plane. The larger e value would be used in checking allowable stress.
In a tubular structure where bracing does not provide complete triangular rigidity,e
cannot be so readily determined by inspection. This case is discussed in more detail in the
section on steel shoring frames.

8.3.2 Compression Strength

For axially loaded shores of structural steel,the nominal compressive strength Pn is
Fig. 8.8: Bracing arrangement effect on shore
(8.3) unbraced length in orthogonal directions

DESIGN OF FORM SHORES AND BRACING

 where A is the steel cross-sectional area; and Fa is the critical stress.
Q=1 .67for
g
ForASD with the safety factor compression, the allowable capacity is

P, SP./0 (8.4)

For LRFD with the resistance factor $< =0.90 for compression, the strength capacity is

P,=V. (8.5)
When F� 0:: 0.44F,

[ ]
F.= 0.658f. F, (8.6)

and when F. < 0.44F,

(8.7)

where F1 is the steel yield stress, E is the steel modulus of elasticity, and

F=�
(8.8)

. (¥)'
When intermediate lateral braces, termed horizontal lacing in formwork, are provided
to reduce the compression buckling length of columns,AISC provisions require that
the braces, termed nodal braces in steel construction, must be able to resist 1% of the
required axial compression strength of the column. The requirements also include a
minimum provision for axial stiffness of the braces.An example of determining the load a
steel pipe shore can support is provided in Example 8.3.

8.3.3 Steel Shoring Frames

The design of tubular steel shoring is
lttt-tff!1fJ:''·''Mnamm,m••,.u,•
What total load will an HSS2.375x0.154 steel pipe shore (F, 50,000 psi, E
complicated by the fact that much of it
is assembled with bracing that does not
29,000 ksi) carry if its outside diameter is 2.375 in., wall thickness is 0.154in., A=
1.0 in.1, r=0.791 in., and unsupported length is 10ft?
afford complete triangular rigidity in the
structure, as shown in Fig. 8.9(a). Connec­
i is 10ft x 12 inJft, or 120 in.; thus tions of the bracing are of varying degrees

�=1.0(120 in. )=152:s;200

of fixity, and with some bending possible

0.791 in.
at the joints, the unsupported length e
r
cannot be accurately estimated.Assembly
of the frames in tower structures of varying
Considering Eq. (8.3) through {8.8) heights further complicates mathematical
nl(29,000,000psi) analysis. Cursory examination would indi­
F• 12,390
(152)'
psi cate an unbraced length in this longitudinal
plane of 4ft. However, because of the lack

O.«F, =0.44(50,000 psi = 22,000 psi> 12,390 psi

) of complete triangular rigidity and because
the degree of fixity of connections varies,
Thus deflection may be as shown in Fig. 8.9(b),
Fa =0.877(12,390 psi)=10,870 psi where the actual unbraced length is 8
ft instead of 4ft {including jacks). Other
P.=10,870ps;(1.0 ;n.')=10,870 lb deflection configurations are possible
for this same type of structure, making it
and the load capacity is impossible to accurately assign etrvalues.
forASD For structures of this sort, safe load capaci­

P..=10,870 lb/1.67=6500 lb ties can be determined by load tests, and

most reputable manufacturers are now
forlRFD conducting such tests and recommending
Pu =0.90 X 10,870 lb=9780 lb allowable loads on that basis. load tests
should be made under conditions approxi­
mating those of actual use as nearly as

CHAPTERS
 Hp
possible. The SSFI SH300-071oad test procedure, outlining duration, speed, and other loading
conditions, is an effort to help manufacturers develop uniform recommendations for allow­
able loads on sectional steel shoring components. The rated load capacity, or maximum I
working load, is determined by dividing by the ANSI/ASSE A10.9 required factor of safety.
I
I
:
The best practice in designing shoring frames is to use the load capacity recommended
by the manufacturer, on the basis of load rests conducted under standardized conditions.
Manufacturer's recommendations for bracing, assembly, and erection conditions should
be carefully followed. In many cases, engineering assistance is offered by the suppliers

't1, ,'r1'
or producers of these proprietary shoring devices. Example 8.4 illustrates how to use the I
I
manufacturer's recommendations to determine if a shoring frame is adequate.

Other Manufactured Shoring Devices (\

8.4
In addition to tubular steel shoring frames, there are other frame sections in both steel
\'
and aluminum. Single-post adjustable steel and aluminum shores are available with
various jacking and adjustment features, including some that are patented. Also, there (a) Longitudinal (b) Deflected
are adjustable shores made of wood and metal combinations, as well as clamping devices bracing structure
that, in effect, create an adjustable shore from two pieces of lumber. The more common of
Fig. 8.9: Typical longitudinal bracing for
these devices are described in Chapter 4.
shoring tower and potential buckling mode
When these shores or methods of shoring are used, manufacturers' recommended load­
carrying capacities should be followed if they are based on load tests conducted under
standard conditions, with a safety factor of 2.5 for frames and 3.0 for single posts used to
determine working loads. It is preferable that load tests be made by a qualified and recog­
nized testing laboratory. The designer must carefully follow the manufacturer's recom­
mended bracing and working loads for a given length of unsupported shore.

fl =!i!i.!.!i!.!.pMfltffl�!}!..f!.l.liMii*.,1mitG•H.
l#fflf@
For a typical shoring frame available for concrete shoring, the The load on a single leg is less than the manufacturer's
manufacturer recommends a maximum working load of 10,000 maximum recommended working load of 5000 lb. So, the
lb per frame, or 5000 lb on each leg under good job conditions shoring frames are adequate in these two areas.
(firm support under legs and height of assembly less than 14
ft). The frames are ordinarily assembled in "towers" consisting of
two end frames plus diagonal bracing between them.
Note that crossed lines in the plan drawing shown here do
not represent bracing location but are a typical schematic
convention for indicating a shoring tower in shoring layout
drawings. A single diagonal line on the plan drawings is another
typical schematic convention for indicating shoring tower loca­
tions. The actual bracing is in planes at right angles to plane of
the frame. This particular shoring frame is 5 ft wide, and adjust­
able bracing is available to allow frame spacing of 3 to 7 ft in 6
in. increments. The 10 in. thick slab and beams weigh 150 lb/ft3
and the formwork to be supported weighs 8 lb/ft1•
Assume that each leg supports the formwork area extending
halfway to the adjacent leg on each side.

Shaded Area {1)

10 in. slab load= 5 ft x 5 ft x 1251b/ft1 = 25 ft1 x 12Sib/ft1 = 312Sib

Formwork load= 25 ft1 x 8 lb/ft1 = 200 lb

Construction live load= 25 ft1 x 50 lb/ft2 = =

Load per leg= 457Sib
l><l Represents tower of Represents a
Shaded Area {2) tw o end frames
plusbracmg. I s1ngleencl
frame
10 in. slab load= 5 ft x 1ft x 125 lb/ft2= 5 ft2 x 125 lb/ft1 = 62Sib

12 x 27 beam= 5 ft x 3371b/ft= 1685lb Tributary areas for calculation of shoring tower leg
80ib
loads
Formwork soffit load= 2 ft x 5 ft x 8 lb/ft1 =

Formwork beam sides load= (2.25 ft + 1.42 ft) x 5 ft x 81b/ft2= 1471b

Construction live load 2 ft x 5 ft x 50 lb/ft2 = 10 ft2 x 50 lb/ft1 = .5..QQ...l.b.

���= =�

DESIGN OF FORM SHORES AND BRACING

 8.5 Support for Shoring
Sills of wood, concrete, or other material distribute shore loads to soil or other support. Sills
must be sound, rigid, and capable of carrying the maximum intended load without incurring
excessive settlements affecting the formwork structural integrity and stability, and without
deviating from the specified concrete elevation. Proper sills on pan joist or waffle slabs are
needed to prevent vertical shores from concentrating excessive loads on thin concrete
sections. When shoring rests on soil. it is necessary to know or conservatively estimate what
loads the soil can safely support with limited settlement. Using the larger mudsills required on
the basis of very conservative estimates may be less costly than obtaining new soil tests. Check
local code requirements for foundations, and check drawings to see what bearing values were
used by the structural designer.
If a testing laboratory evaluation of bearing capacity is not available, the shoring
designer must decide on the basis of boring logs or field inspection what the ground will
support. As a rough indicator, the weight of an average size man concentrated on the heel
of one shoe exerts a pressure approximately equal to 3000 lb/ft2• Consequently, if soil is
firm enough to walk on without indentation, it should be capable of supporting at least
this amount of load. The range of typical allowable bearing pressures on foundation mate­
rials is shown in Table 8.1. Allowable pressures may have to be modified for bearing areas
less than 3 ft wide in certain types of soil or to reduce settlement. References on falsework
design8·1-'.2 and standard texts on foundation design8·1 should be consulted.
Required mudsill area is determined by dividing the total load on the shore by the allow­
able bearing pressure. Sending stress and horizontal shear stress in wood mudsills should
be checked to assure adequate mudsill strength and uniformity in bearing pressure. Recog­
nizing the probability of some settlement, form designers usually set formwork a little higher
than grade or design elevation. Where soil support conditions are very poor or nonuniform,
it may be necessary to strengthen the soil or to use supports other than mudsills. A simple
expedient in some cases may be to place sills on top of form panels that have been placed
on poor soil to distribute load over a wide area and thus improve uniformity of bearing.

8.6 Brocing for Lateral Loods

Supplementary formwork members designed to resist lateral loads are most commonly in
the form of diagonal bracing-often referred to as lateral bracing because of their function
in resisting lateral loads.
Adequate lateral bracing is extremely important to stability and safety in formwork construc­
tion, but all too often it is treated carelessly or even omitted entirely. lateral bracing should
be provided to resist wind and the various lateral forces that may occur during construction
as described in ChapterS. The formwork system must be designed to safely transfer all lateral
loads to the ground or to completed construction.
Much of the diagonal bracing in use for formwork is erected on the basis of experience
and judgment of the superintendent or foremen on the project working with company-
developed guidance. While this may be
TABLE 8.1: Typical range of maximum allowable bearing pressures
satisfactory where capable and conscien­
tious workers are available, it is possible
Mossive bedrock 200,000 to take a more exact approach to design

Foliated or lominoted rock including soond of the lateral bracing under lateral load
40,000 to 80,000
limestone, Khisl, slate criteria established by ACI 347R using
ASCEJSEI 7-10, HMinimum Design loads
Sedimentary rock including shale ond
20,000to 50,000 for Buildings and Other Structures,H and
$0ndstone
ASCEJSEI 37-14, "Design loads on Struc­
Hardpon 16,000to 20,000 tures During Construction." Some possible
Soft or broken rock 10,000to 20,000 bracing layouts and design suggestions
are shown in the examples that follow and
Grovel soils 8000 Ia 20,000"
in Chapter 10. Any laterally braced system
Gravelly sends 6000 to 16,000' should be anchored adequately to insure
stability of the total system.
Sands 4000 to 13,000'

8.6. 1 Wall Form Bracing Loads

Sib and clay soils, inorganic, medium to stiff
Soft and organic deposits
1200 to 10,000
Braces for wall forms are either of two
basic types. The first and most typical
Values below 500 lb/ft2 ore common
are diagonal struts of wood, steel, or
aluminum placed on one side of the form

CHAPTER8
and designed to act in either tension or compression, recognizing that the wind can act in
either direction. The second are diagonal guy cables placed on both sides of the form and
designed to act only in tension because cables cannot resist compression. Several situa­
tions are shown in Fig. 8.10, whereH is the lateral load perfoot of wall form length. The
braces are spaced at intervals, z, along the length of the wall form.
Figure 8.1 O(a) represents a wall form with a uniform wind pressure, q, so thatH = qh. The
brace length is

(8.9)

The brace force, P, can be determined by statics assuming a hinge at the form base and
summing moments about the base.

1
(8.10)

Figure 8.10(b) represents a wall form where the ACI347R minimum applied at the top of
the form governs.

(8.11)

Figure 8.10{c) represents the situation when determining the wind loading using ASCE/
SEI 7 and ASCE/SEI 37, where the loadH is positioned slightly above the midheight to
(b)
better represent the somewhat nonuniform wind pressure.

(8.12)

Figure 8.10 {d) is similar to Figure 8.10 (a), (b), or (c) depending on the location of the
lateral loadH, except that the guy cable is in tension only and only one cable is active
depending on the direction of the wind.
For all of these cases, the vertical reaction R1 = P(y/L) and the horizontal reaction R, = P(x!L).
For Figure 8.10(a), (b), and (c), the brace may be in either tension or compression and R,
R,
may act either upward or downward on the anchor. For Figure 8.1 O(d), the brace is always
in tension and R1 will always act upward on the anchor. Brace slope is sometimes selected R,
(c)
to meet brace length or space limitations. low slope braces must be longer and have more

Jk
problems with compression buckling and bending due to self-weight. High slope braces
must resist more axial force and therefore may be more difficult to anchor. The determina­
tion of bracing loads and reactions for strut or guy wire bracing is shown in Example 8.5.

u
8.6.2 Design of Braces

· ·�
Braces may be of wood, steel, or aluminum. Steel and aluminum manufactured braces are
selected based on the manufacturers' working strength rating for the length of the brace.
Wood braces are designed to meet AWC NOS requirements. Due to the possibility of buck­
ling, the compression strength usually governs design. The design process is illustrated in
Ry .,.
Example 8.6 and parallels that of wood shores. Arriving at a starting size often requires a {d)
trial-and-error process and intermediate lateral support of the brace to reduce the buck·
ling length is sometimes needed. Consideration of combined axial load and bending is Fig. 8.10: Bracing afwall forms
needed for eccentric end connections and bending due to heavy brace self weight.

8.6.3 Bracing of Slab Forms Supported by Individual Shores

As discussed in the design information on shores, horizontal lacing is often necessary to
increase the load-carrying capacity of the shores. However, regardless of the ijd ratios of
shores, some diagonal bracing is desirable for all shoring systems. ACI347R recommends
lateral loads for analysis and minimum levels of lateral loads to be applied in design, as
discussed in Chapter 5. The bracing system must be tied to solid ground or permanent
construction unless it is multidirectional (Fig. 8.11) with sufficient X-bracing to give it
internal rigidity. Diagonal wood braces are designed for tension, compression, or both­
much like a wood shore. Braces are usually not needed on every line of shores and not
needed continuously along given lines of shores. Consideration to the movement needs of
workers and materials should be given in designing the bracing layout. The layout should
typically provide X-bracing in two orthogonal directions and provide the required lateral Fig. 8.1 1: X·bracingin orthogonal directions
strength in each direction. Because columns are often placed and stripped in advance forlaterol supporrofelevated slab forms

DESIGN OF FORM SHORES AND BRACING

 itt1ftftit:1f!i'·'
jj:JJWOII#ftttl$@1 lf
· ·@tgl!.!
fltml .t
Consider the necessary bracing for a wall form 14ft high, above
grade, where the controlling wind load has been calculated by
the ASCE/SEI 7 and ASCE/SEI 37 methods in Chapter 5 to be H
= 200 lb/ft after adjustment by the 0.6 ASD wind factor (Eq. (5.3))
and applied as shown in Fig. 8.1O{c). The equivalent overturning
load at the top of the wall would be 200 lb/ft (0.55)(14 ft)/14 ft or
110 lb/ft, a value larger than the ACI347R 100 lb/ft minimum.
Many wood members strong enough to carry this load in
compression will also be adequate in tension. However, the
strength of connections (nails and so on) must be adequate for
'
the tension load.
21 Guy Wire Bracing
If the guy wire bracing placed at 8 ft along the length of the
form is attached 2ft below the top of the wall and anchored to

1) Strut Bracjng the ground or a slab 12ft from the base of the form, a= 12ft , b
If wooden strut bracing is provided, strong enough to take =12ft, and L =17 ft. The guy wire tension force, from Eq. (8.12),

either a tension or compression load, then single-side bracing and reactions are

may be used. Nailed connections at either end must be strong
enough to transmit the tension load, and wales or other form
members must be strong enough to transmit accumulated
horizontal forces to the strut bracing.
If the wood bracing placed at 8 ft along the length of the form
is attached 2ft below the top of the wall and anchored to the
ground or a slab 9 ft from the base of the form, y= 12ft , x=9ft,
and L = 15 ft. The brace force, from Eq. (8.12), and reactions are
P=B ft(2oo lb/ft)(o.55)(14 ft)(15 ft)t(9 ftx12 ft)=1110 lb
R, =P(y/L)=1710 lb(12 ft/15 ft)=1370 lb
R, = P(x/L)=1710 lb(9 ft/15 ft)=10251b
P=a ft(2oo lb/ft)(o.s5)(14 ft)(17 ft)t(12ft)'= 1454 lb
R, =P(y/L)=14541b(12 ft/17 ft)=1026 lb
R, = P(x/L) =1454 lb (12ft/17ft)=1026 lb
With working strength of guy material known, guys can be
spaced to use their maximum safe load capacity. Stakes must be
securely placed to provide the reaction strength, and top wales
must be able to carry horizontal forces accumulated to each
point where guys are attached.
This same design approach would apply to 1 in. thick lumber
bracing be<ause it is practical only for tension loads, except in
short lengths of approximately 4 ft or less.

of the erection of the elevated slab formwork, the columns may contribute to the lateral
capacity if there is an adequately developed formwork diaphragm at the sheathing level
combined with appropriate X-bracing for shore stability.
Minimum loads used in designing components of this bracing are given in Table 5.9.
The loads from analysis may be greater than the minimum. Design must provide for the
force acting at the edge of the slab in either direction, and the intensity of the lateral force
depends on the slab width in the direction of the force. In applying Table 5.9, consider as
theMslabM only that part that will be placed at one time. Refer to Example 8.7.
For shoring systems comprised of steel or aluminum components, the recommenda­
tions of manufacturers as to strength of their bracing systems should be followed in
designing for the specified lateral loads.

8.6.4 Design of Wood Bracing Connections

Wood braces may be connected to other members by nailing, bolting, or use of
manufactured connectors-some being adjustable to facilitate plumbing a wall or
column form. Often, the metal connectors involve nailing to the brace and to the
member being supported. The nailed connection is frequently a single shear wood­
to-wood connection, as described in Chapter 4 and shown in Fig. 8.12. The design of
this type of connection is illustrated in Example 8.8.

8.7 Camber and Adjustment far SeHiement

It is frequently necessary to set formwork elevations before placing concrete to compen­
sate for the following:
Fig. 8.12: Brace connected to stringer with
Anticipated deflection or settlement of the forms and their supports.
double-headed nails in single shear
Anticipated deflection of the completed structure under load, from the time it begins
to carry its own weight. This may involve both instantaneous and long-term (or creep)
deflections.
Optical sag (the illusion of sagging in long members that are perfectly horizontal).

8.7. 1 Anticipated Deflection or Settlement of Formwork

Formwork deflection or settlement may be due to such factors as closure of form joints,
settlement of mudsills, shrinkage of lumber, dead load deflections, or elastic shortening of
the form members. A frequently applied rule of thumb has been to camber 1/4 in. per 10 ft

CHAPTERS
 mtmrtt:!M:M•1M1•1•
Design a wood brace in No. 2 Southern Pine to resist a wind
where the ASD load combinations results in an axial load
P= 1200 lb. The brace length is 12 ft, and K= 1.0. For the case _ 0.822E;.., _ 0.822 x464,000 psi _16
F.- 5 psi
of wind only, a load duration factor C0 =1.6 applies. Other '
(1,/d) ( 48 )'
load cases may need to be investigated if work platforms are
attached to the form, and those cases would involve a longer F,/F;= 165 psi/2048 psi =0.080
load duration. A check of

= 96 >
ijd for the full 12 ft with a 2 in.
nominal thickness strut would produce ijd= 144 inJl.S in.
50 limit. Thus, if a 2x6 brace is used, it will need to be C, =
l+(F.(F;) _
2c
1+(F.(F,') '
2c
] _F
.(F,'
c
braced laterally with horizontal lacing to resist buckling at mid­
length for ijd= 72 inll.S in.= 48 for weak direction and ijd=
144 inJS.S in.= 26 for strong direction. Both ratios are less than
the 50 limit. Try a 2x6 S4S brace with A= 8.25 in.2, b= 1.$ in.,
d= 5.5 in., and lacing to resist buckling at mid-length in the
weak direction. Applying this factor to the previously adjustedF,', we get an
Assume not incised, normal temperature conditions, and wet allowable F; of
use because, on this site, the braces will be stored in exposed :
F =F,' C,= 2048 psi X 0.079= 162 psi
conditions even when not in use. From Table 4.3, the reference
The area of the brace times this allowable stress gives the
value ofF<= 1600 psi and E,.,= 580,000 psi. Referring to Table
axial load capacity P of the brace
4.4 and gathering applicable adjustments, C0= 1.6, C,.,= 0.8, and
C,= 1.0 (refer to Table 4.3 footnote). Other possible adjustment ;
P=F A= 162 psi x8.25 in.2= 1336 lb
factors are either 1.0 or not applicable such as Cr, which only
applies to trusses. Determining adjusted values and applying in The lateral bracing could be provided as illustrated in the figure.
Eq. (8.2) and (8.1)
If the formwork engineer used 2% of the required brace axial
E',...,= Emln c,C1C1Cr= 580,000 psi (0.8)= 464,000 psi force as a ·rule of thumb" to determine the needed lacing resis­
tance, the lacing connection at each diagonal brace would need
to resist 0.02 x1200 lb or 241b. For
the layout shown in the figure, with
six diagonal braces the X-bracing for
2x6 brace (1yp.) 2x4 lacing
the lacing would need to resist 6 x24
lb or 144 lb applied along the line of
the lacing.
Based on preliminary design and
planned connections, evaluate
possible need to examine combined
axial load and brace bending.

Layout of wall form bracing and lacing

of span to take care of these deflections mtfflt):Q•ljf@j@l.tfflifj!jttttiti:l£'3111

A 60 x 90 ft slab (shown in plan at
and movements. However, it is possible to

D�
right), 8 in. thick, is shored at 4 ft
estimate required camber or adjustment
intervals in both directions. According
more closely in terms of individual project
to Table 5.9, H""" in lb/ft is 207lb/ft
conditions.
Deflection of individual form members
along the 60 ft edge (because width of
-
slab in direction of force is 90 ft) and

�
under load has already been explained
138 lb/ft along the 90 ft edge (width of
in Chapter 7. With good form design, this
slab in direction of force is 60ft).
deflection is minimized. Where beam
If the minimums govern and bracing -
bottoms, stringers, and other form compo­
is placed on alternate lines of shores
J!J!J!J!J!J!J!J!J!J!J
nents are supported at a number of points 1381b. per ft., acting in either
(8 ft apart), design load along the 90
along their length, camber for this small direction along slab edge
ft side would be 8 ft x1381b/ft, or
form deflection is generally not required. If
1104 lb per line of bracing. By spacing Example minimum slab formwork lateral
relatively long-span form members-such
bracing at every line along the 60 ft loads
as the so-called horizontal shoring-are
side, design load per line would be
used, camber to correct for form deflection
4 ft x207 lb/ft, or 828 lb.
is necessary. These manufactured members

DESIGN OF FORM SHORES AND BRACING

 usually have built-in camber, and they must
mmt¥1tj:l:l:ttttlj?ffi@i3.!.!.1§3tt.l·'•l4'1·!· be fully loaded to their design capacity
A series of 2x4 545 No. 2 Southern Pine X-braces are to resist lateral load for an to remove the camber and obtain a level
elevated slab placement. Analysis considering wind and minimum lateral loads on completed slab.
the slab formwork required by ACI 347R as discussed in Chapter 5 determined the Adjustment for settlement of forms and
ASD lateral load H= 158 1b/ft, applied at the level of the formed surface Bracing mudsills is not camber, strictly speaking,
lines are 8 ft on center with five sets of braces on each line. The braces are attached because it is a uniform amount at each
at the top to 4x6 stringers and to the base of shores, as shown in the figure. Braces support point, resulting merely in a level
were assumed to act in tension only and the compression brace is ignored for form slightly higher than indicated on the
strength due to its limited buckling strength; however, both braces in each pair are plans. Probable settlement of wood form­
necessary because the lateral load can act in either direction. Determine the number work can be approximated as the total of
of 16d double-headed nails needed for each end of the brace.
columnar shortening of shores plus•taking
The reaction force Pin each brace is determined as follows
up· and Nbiting· at joints. Shortening of
H,_ =Hxtributarywidth=158 lb ftx8 ft=12641b j wood shores may be computed by the

P=
No.
;-;;ac es
l b=
/ ���c�s 12.2 ft / 8 ft= 3861b
formula

"' = !!... (8.13)

c AE'
Table 4.17 indicates a nail length of 3 in. and a diameter 0= 0.162 in. After nailing
through the 2x4, penetration into the member holding the point will be 3.0 in.- 1.5 where 6, is columnar shortening, in.; Pis
in.= 1.5 in.< 100. Thus, the lateral capacity from Table 4.21 must be multiplied by the compressive force, lb; e is the length
p/100. of shore, in.; and E' is adjusted modulus of
elasticity, psi.
1.5 in. Assume a value of settlement for each
Z=154 1b =1421b
horizontal joint for•taking up� and an addi­
1.62 in.
tional value at each joint where end grain
The adjusted design shear strength of the individual nail from Table 4.18 is bears upon side grain for-biting• of end
grain into side grain. For normal carpentry
work, each assumed value may be taken
as 1/16 in.; where particular care is taken,
each may be taken as 1/32 in. For•take upN
at joints in metal shoring frame stack-ups,
1/32 in. may be used. The total estimated
settlement should be the combined total of
these plus columnar shortening, 6,.
It is preferable to plan falsework so
that settlements under full load will be a
Slab formwork bracing layout
minimum consistent with economy. Where
because no other adjustments apply. Take (0 = 1.25 for< 7 days load duration wood timbers are used, the number of hori­
because the lateral load considerations involve not only wind but also plumbness of zontal joints and particularly the number of
shores, personnel movement, and equipment operations; C.w= 1.0 because the loca­ joints where end grain bears on side grain
tion is sheltered; and C,= 1.0 for normal temperature conditions. should be kept at a practical minimum. The
compressive stress perpendicular to the
Z' =142 1b (1.25)(1.0)(1.0)= 1771b
grain should not exceed the allowable for
Number of nails required=386 lb / 177 lb/nail=2.2 nails or 3 nails. the kind of lumber being used.
With good construction practices, soil
under mudsills should be stable enough that
no appreciable settlement occurs. If this is not the case, an additional allowance for settlement
of the sills should be made. Frozen soil may be softened by heating under the forms or warm
concrete paste or water leaking from forms, resulting in settlement of sills that were apparently
secure when placed.
Camber or adjustment in elevation to compensate for anticipated deflection or settle-
ment of formwork would then be based on the following:
Estimated columnar shortening;
Allowance for take up or biting of wood;
Estimated settlement of mudsills, if any;
Calculated deflection of long span form members between supports; and
Anticipated shape change of supporting members before taking load, especially at
the ends of such members.

CHAPTERS
8.7. 2 Deflection of the Finished Structure
When supporting formwork is removed and the concrete structure begins to carry its own
weight, some deflection takes place. In the past, for structures of customary dimensions,
excessive deflections were rarely a problem. However, use of higher-strength materials and
more refined design methods allowing less conservative design results in members with
larger span-depth ratios. Flat-plate floor systems of long span and minimum depth are being
used more often for construction economy. Thus. deflection of finished structures is a more
common problem-one, however, that can be overcome by proper cambering.
The composite character of reinforced concrete, complicated by partial cracking of
the tensile zone and by creep, makes accurate deflection calculations difficult. Not only
is it difficult to predict deflection of reinforced concrete structures but there is also the
problem of deciding what net amount of deflection can be permitted. This is largely a
matter of judgment, and it is clearly the responsibility of the engineer/architect to specify the
amount and shape of camber desired to compensate for deflection of the finished structure.
The engineer/architect may also require additional camber for exposed long-span hori­
zontal members to overcome the effect ofNoptical sagN
. Advances in methods to calculate
deflection of concrete floor slabs have been developed (refer to Reference 6. 4).
Where camber requirements may become cumulative, such as in cases where beams
frame into other beams or girders at right angles, and at midspan of the latter, the engi­
neer/architect should specify exactly the manner in which this condition is to be handled.
Cast-in-place structures that are to be post-tensioned present special problems with
respect to camber, because tensioning of the tendons will produce an upward deflection
in the member being prestressed. The engineer/architect should determine and consider
those movements in specifying any camber to be built into the forms to compensate for
deflection of the concrete structural system.

8.7.3 Total Allowance for Camber and Adiustments

Forms should always be built to provide necessary compensations for both: (a) anticipated
deflection or settlement of the formwork, and (b) anticipated dead load and creep deflec­
tion of the finished structure. During and after concrete placement, the contractor or
builder should continue to check form elevations to be sure that desired camber is being
maintained. Appropriate adjustments should be made by promptly jacking and wedging
before initial set of the concrete takes place.
The contractor is expected to set and maintain forms so as to ensure completed work to the
camber specified by the engineer/architect. within the tolerance limits specified. Satisfactory
performance is generally judged on the basis of elevation after settlement or deflection of the
formwork and before forms and supports are removed. The contractor is nor responsible for
immediate or creep deflection of the structure after shoring has been removed.
Some attention must be given to screeding the surface when forms have been cambered
to compensate for deflection of the finished structure. Such a slab or beam should not be
finished level. Its top surface should be curved upward to maintain a uniform thickness
over the cambered form surface. When the structure deflects as it becomes self-supporting,
the top surface is level, not dished. This cambered upper surface can be reasonably well
achieved by using screed chairs of uniform height set on the cambered sheathing.

8.8 Anchorage of braces

Braces for wall and column forms are typically anchored at their base to a ground stake, to
a surrounding slab, or to a temporary surface deadman or buried deadman. The anchoring
element must be able to resist the horizontal and vertical components of the brace force
simultaneously.

8.8.1 Deodmen
Deadmen may either consist of a precast concrete block sitting on the ground surface and
frequently reused or a buried concrete mass usually cast in place and frequently aban­
doned when no longer needed. A precast deadman is illustrated in Fig. 81 . 3. Although
they may have any dimension, a1ydl block (3ft x 3ft x 3ft) weighing approximately 4000
lb is popular. The case of brace tension usually governs for evaluation of the deadman.
Static equilibrium is straight forward and a factor of safety of1.5 on overturning, uplift,
and sliding is often applied.
Fig. 8.13: Forces of equilibrium on o concrete
(81
. 4) deadman

DESIGN DF FORM SHORES AND BRACING


Fig. 8.14: Increase in brace load when brace is
inclined
(8.15)
(8.16)
where� is the coefficient of friction for the surface upon which the deadman sits.
The excavation for a buried deadman is often done with an auger or an excavator hoe and
thus the shapes and sizes vary substantially. Analysis of the strength depends on the weight
of the concrete cast, dimensions of the deadman, and properties of the soil. Vertical strength
for uplift is provided by the concrete mass supplemented by soil friction around the sides.
lateral resistance to sliding and overturning are primarily provided by passive earth resis­
tance. Appropriate factors of safety for the uncertainties involved should be applied.
8.8.2 Concrete onchors
Braces are frequently attached to slabs-on-ground and elevated slabs. Anchor types
include expansion anchors placed in drilled holes, driven anchors, and anchors cast in the
slab. Almost all are commercial devices and the manufacturer's recommendations should
be followed for installation. ACI 318, Appendix D, provides design guidance on anchoring
to concrete for many types of applications; however, the strength reduction factors and
load factors in ACI 318 may require adjustment to provide safety levels appropriate for
temporary construction.
8.8.3 Ground anchors
Ground anchor devices may be as simple as a substantial stake to which a brace is attached
or a manufactured ground anchor device. Variations in soil type and condition make analysis
of ground anchors and stakes beyond the scope of this publication. If a manufactured item is
used, the manufacturer's recommendations for load capacity should be expected to vary by
soil type and strength. If ground stakes are used, some means of testing or strength evalua­
tion and processes for consistent installation should be implemented.
8.8.4 Anchors
Form anchors secure formwork to rock or previously placed concrete of adequate strength.
They must have not only sufficient tensile strength to carry the load imposed upon them but
they must also have enough embedment in the concrete or rock to develop that holding
strength. Sufficient length of embedment is particularly important because anchors are
often placed in the low-strength concrete used for massive structures, or in concrete that will
have only part of its strength developed when the anchor is acting.
Calculation of the loads to be supported by these anchors depends on the details of
the form under consideration; they are usually used for cantilever forms, and for sloping
surfaces more than one row of anchorages may be necessary. MTiedM cantilever forms are
supported by a row of anchorages at the face of the concrete, plus additional ties from the
top of the form inclined down to anchors embedded in the top of the previous lift. This is
discussed more fully in Chapter 16 on mass concrete formwork. When the anchorage unit
supports a cantilever form at the face of a previous lift, the bolt portion of the unit carries
the weight of the forms as well as a tension or pullout load.
Although the load on the tie or anchor may be calculated in a horizontal direction, the
embedded anchor is often inclined. In such a case, it is necessary to increase the load on
the anchor as shown in Fig. 8.14. For example, if the anchor rod is inclined 55 degrees from
the horizontal, 1741b of load for every 100 lb of calculated horizontal pull must be used in
design of the anchor rod.
REFERENCES
8.1. Fa/sework Manual, State of California Department ofTransportation, Division of Engi­
neering Services, Structure Construction, Sacramento, CA, 1988, revised 2012.
8.2. Grant, M., MScaffold Falsework Design,M Cement and Concrete Association, Wexham
Springs, Slough, England, 1978.
8.3. Bowles, J. E., Foundation Analysis and Design, fifth edition, McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
New York, 1996, 1175 pp.
8.4. Borden Jr., C. W., MFailures of Slender SteelTubular Frames,M Proceedings, National
Safety Congress, 1960, pp. 6-12.
9: DESIGN TABLES
To facilitate the design process, tables following the principles presented in Chapters 7
and 8 are provided in this chapter. The tables include a summary of frequently used design
equations for maximum span in simplified form. Based on the equations, safe spans for
many wood and plywood formwork components have been calculated and arranged
in tables for use by the form designer. Calculations cover single-span beams, two-span
beams, and beams continuous over three or more spans carrying a uniformly distributed
load. The span tables are applicable for uniformly loaded form members where the design
simplification of using equivalent uniform loadings in place of point loads is regarded as
sufficiently accurate. The tables may also be used to develop a preliminary design for cases
where a rigorous structural analysis is required before finalizing the formwork design.
All span tables in this chapter are based on allowable stress design (A$0) with adjusted
design values.

9.1 Equations for Calculating Safe Span

The expressions used to calculate the safe support spacings {spans) are given in Table 9.1.
Two versions are provided. Table 9.1a presents a summary of maximum span formulas
assuming consistent units for all variables. Some of these are the same equations derived
in Chapter 7, and others were derived similarly. In past editions of this manual, many equa­
tions were presented with a mixture of pound, inch, and foot units in the same equation.
Specifically, the numerical coefficients within the equations included a factor of 12 so that
the uniform load could be substituted in units of lb/ft while all other parameters were
substituted in pounds and inches. For those who may wish to continue to use mixed units,
similar equations are provided in Table 9.1 b; however, caution is advised in their use. For
the purposes ofTable 9.1b equations and this chapter, W is a uniform load in units of
lb/ft. Equations from the two tables yield the same result if used correctly. As an example,
consider the three-span beam with a deflection limit of l!. ....... = 1/8 in. Assume:
Table 9.1 a: Expressions for calculating safe support spacing for uniformly loaded wood and plywood,
where w is load expressed in lb/in.

!l
�
= __!____
400
1.=0.577 � 1.=0.774 � �
1.=0.713

6
�
._!___
360
1.=0.598 � f.=0.801 � �
l=0.739

6
-
._!___
240
1.=0.684 � 1.=0.917 � 08 �
1. = . 46

6_,•1/16;n. 1.=1.48
� w
( =1.8 4
� w
�
l=1.74

!l-� .. 1/8 in. l=1.76 � l•2.19 � �

l•2.06

!l-� • 1/4 in. l•2.09 � w

1•2.61
� �
1•2.45

Bending l=2.83 !!! (= 2.83!!! !=3.16!!!

Horizontal shear l=
1.33F;bd
w
+2d+lo l=
l.OlF.'bd
w
+1.6d+0.8 l0 t= :,. +1.67d+0.83l0
u 'bd

Rolling shear, plywood only l= :

2F;( /O)
+I.o 1.=
1.6F;[Ib/0]
w
+lb �
I.= 1.67F Ib/O)
+lo
•
Note.lls spacong of supports. ln./Is moment of 1neft1a.m. . b IS w;dth of se<:tron,ln, dts depth of se<:t1on, on. w IS unlfO<m loild,lblin. 5 IS se<:tron modulus. ln. . lb/0 S ?
I roll<ng shear constant In ; t,
Is bearing length. in.; E' is modulus of elasticity, psi; F; is allowable bending ml'Ss. psi; F; is allowable shear mess. psi; and F� is allowable rolling shear stress. psi.

E' = 1,500,000 psi

I= 20.8 in.4
w= 20 lb/in.
w = 2401b/ft

Substituting from Table 9.1a,

I• 2.06 .� = 2.06• 1,500,000 lb/in.1x20.8 in.' (in.) .�

2.06v1,560,000 in. . =72.8 in.
v� 20 lb/in.

Substituting from Table 9.1b,

l=3.84,
!_'l (in.} =3.84, l,SOO,OOO lb/in.1x20.8in.4{in.) ��
J.B4�l3o,ooo;n . • n.g;n.
(
W ftjin. ) 240 lb/ft ( ftjin. )

The answers are the same except for numerical round-off.

In the deflection equations in Table 9.1a, where the criterion is a dimension (such as
1/16, 1/8, or 1/4 in.), the units (in.) in the numerator result from the substitution of the
dimensional limit into the deflection equation. Similarly, the units (ft/in.) in the denomi­
nator of equations in Table 9.1b results from substitution of the unit's conversion (1.0 ft/12 in.)
into the equations.
Span tables have been prepared using four sets of allowable stresses (adjusted design
values) with ranges as shown in Table 9.2. These values correspond to long-duration and
short-duration loading for formwork made of No. 2-grade Southern Pine and Douglas Fir­
Larch; and of No. 2 Spruce-Pine-Fir and No. 2 Hem-Fir. Long-duration loading for formwork
is when the design loads occur for a cumulative duration greater than 2 months but less
than 10 years; short duration is when the design loads occur for a cumulative duration
not exceeding 7 days. Adjusted design values are indicated in each table, and the spans

CHAPTER9
Table 9.!.lb: Expressions far calculating safe support spacing for uniformly loaded wood and plywood,
where W is load expressed in lb/ft
. . . . . . . . . . . .

dm•• =
f
400
f=1.32 � f=l.77 � f=l.63 �
6
�
=..!....
360
f=1.37 � f=1.83 � f=l.69 �
6
-·
=..!....
240
f=l.56 � f=2.10 � f=l.93 �
6.""'" • 1/16 in. f=2.75 � W(ft/in.)
f=3.43 � W(ft/in.)
f- 3.233'
-
�
W(ft/in.)

6.max • 1/8 in. f=3.2B � Wft/m.

f=4.0B � f=3.84 � W(ft/in.)

6.ma• • 1/4 in. f=3.9 � f=4.85 � f=4.577' �

w(ft/in.)

Bending f=9.so J Wft

F;5
( /in.)
f=9.BO � Wf( t/in.)
f=l0.95 � W(ft/in.)

16f..'bd �.Bf..'bd +1.6d+O.Bf.� 13. 3F'bd

Horizontal shear f.:
W(ft/in.)
+ld+f.� f.=
W(ft/in.)
f.=
W( tt/in.) +1.67d+0.83(�
Rolling shear,
24F;(tb/Q] 19.2F;(tb/O] _ 2oF; [tb/0]
f= +f f= +f, f +f
plywood only wf( t/in.) • Wft/
( in.) - wf( t/in.) ,
1
Note. f os sp;�eong of supports, on,/" moment of onertoa, on. , bos w1dth of section. 1n .. dIS depth of sectoon. on .. W os unoform load, lb/fi:,S os section modulus, on. ;1/J/Q os rollong shear constant. on • f,
is bearing length, in.;E' is modulus of elasticity. psi; f; is allowable bending stress. psi; f; is allowable shear mess, psi; and f� is allowable rolling shear stress. psi

therein may be used for any lumber whose adjusted design values equal or exceed the
indicated values.
The design tables are in four groups:
Plywood sheathing;
Joists, studs, stringers, or any other beam components of the formwork where single
framing members are used;
Wales or other formwork components where double members are used (two pieces
side by side that share loads equally); and
Shore loading and bearing checks.
Nominal lumber sizes are shown in the tables but all calculations are based on lumber
finished on all four surfaces (545). Actual thicknesses are shown for plywood. Each table

Table 9.2: Adjusted design value ranges for selected species

Logd durtJtton Bendtng fb', pst HortzonttJI shegr f.', pst Modulus of eloshctty f', p$1 U$e for No. 2 lumber of tndtcoted spectes

>2months 800 to 1485 175 1,400,000to 1,600,000

Southern Pine and Douglas Fir·Lorch

S7doys 10001o 1855 220 1,400,000 lo 1,600,000

>2monlhs 940to 1400 135 1,300,000

Spruce-Pine-fir and Hem·Fir
<;]days 1170to 1750 170 1,300,000

DESIGN TABLES
, _0 1 +
shows whether the safe span is controlled by deflection, bending, or shear. Design exam­
ples demonstrating the use of the tables are presented following a brief description of
-·- -·-·- allowable deflection, ASD adjusted design values, and loading conditions for each group

U
of tables. Tables 9.3 through 9.13 are provided at the end of this chapter.
4x2
9.2 Sheathing Design: Tables 9.3 to 9.5
2 X 4 Tables 9.3, 9.4, and 9.5 are applicable to plywood sheathing for columns, walls, and
elevated slabs. They cover plywood supported as a single-span beam, two-span beam,
Fig. 9.1: Strong and weak bending axis or a beam continuous over three or more spans. Theoretical deflection of spans based
designations on these tables is limited to the lesser of 1/16 in. and €/240, where e is the spacing of
supports. For spans less than 15 in., t/240 governs and deflection will be less than 1/16 in.
To obtain allowable spans with deflection limited to €/400, multiply tabulated spans by
0.84. To obtain allowable spans with deflection limited to €/360, multiply tabulated spans
by 0.87. This approach will be somewhat conservative when bending or shear previ­
ously governed but safely covers situations where the governing allowable changes to
deflection.
Tables 9.3, 9.4, and 9.5 were calculated using the section properties for B-B Plyform Class
I concrete form plywood, as given in Table 4.13. However, plywood acting as a beam is
stronger when its face grain is parallel to the span than when its face grain is perpendic­
ular to the span. Therefore, two divisions are necessary-one for spans with the face grain
parallel and the other for face grain perpendicular to direction of plywood span.
Calculated spans are based on adjusted design values given in Table 4.14 for B-B Plyform
ClassI. The allowable stresses are based on wet use, modified by the APA-recommended
experience factor of 1.3. In Tables 9.3 to 9.5, stress values are shown for both short-term
loading duration (C0 = 1.25) and normal load duration (C0 = 1.0). Deflection calculations in
these tables include the bending component, but do not include the shear component.
Consult the manufacturers' recommendations if shear deflection values are needed.
Plywood span limits controlled by rolling shear have been calculated assuming bearing
length t� = 1.5 in. When t� is known to be larger, the difference can be added to the tabu­
lated span. For example, if e� "" 3.5 in., 2 in. can be added to the spans controlled by rolling
shear to obtain the center-to-center span, provided that bending does not become the
controlling criteria.

9.3 Joists, Studs, and Beams: Tables 9.6 to 9.8

9.6 to 9.8 are applicable to joists, studs, or any other formwork members that are
Tables
loaded uniformly as a beam. They may also be used to approximate spans for members
that carry a series of point loads by converting those point loads to an Nequivalent uniform
loading.N(Where loads are heavy and spans are short in relation to spacing between the
point loads, this approximation may not be sufficiently accurate. Refer to discussion of this
matter in Chapter 7.) Other cases not included in these tables that should be specifically
analyzed include non-uniform loading, beams with cantilevers at one or both ends where
the cantilever exceeds 25% of the length of the adjacent span, or beams on multiple spans
where adjacent spans differ in length significantly (for example, one span is less than half
the length of the adjacent span).
Theoretical deflection for beam spans given in these tables is limited to €/240, but not
to exceed 1/4 in. For spans less than 30 in., deflection is less than 1/8 in.; for spans between
30 and 60 in., deflection will be from 1/8 to 1/4 in., depending on the span. For spans over
60 in., theoretical deflection is 1/4 in. Thus, deflection is held to about 1/8 in. or less in the
range of the more commonly used spans.
To obtain allowable spans with deflection limited to e/400, multiply tabulated spans by
0.84. To obtain allowable spans with deflection limited to €/360, multiply tabulated spans
by 0.87. This approach will be somewhat conservative when bending or shear previ·
ously governed but safely covers situations where the governing allowable changes to
deflection.
Tabulated values of span controlled by horizontal shear neglect the benefit of thee�
term in the span equations. When the value of eb is known (for example, eb"" 3.5 in.), and
span length is governed by shear, that value of eb can be added to the spans tabulated for
single-span members and 0.8tb can be added to spans of two-span and three-or-more­
span members to obtain the center-to-center span, provided that bending does not
become the controlling criteria.

CHAPTER9
 Note that the uniform load value shown in Tables 9.6.1 to 9.8.4 is not the form pressure,
but is an equivalent uniform loading, generally computed as uniform pressure on forms
2
(lb/ft ) times the spacing (ft) between members being considered.
Tables 9.6.1 through 9.6.4 are for beams continuous over three or more spans using the
adjusted design values (allowable stresses) shown in Table 9.2.
In developing adjusted design values from reference design values for No. 21umber,
it has been assumed that moisture content is 19% or less, temperature is 100°F or lower,
and the beam stability factor is 1.0 (refer to the discussion in Chapter 7). Bending stress
adjustments were made for size and flat use where appropriate. Repetitive use benefits
have been neglected. Because of the temperature and moisture assumptions, modulus of
elasticity values (shown as adjusted values) are the same as the reference design values.
The first set of design values in Table 9.2 can be used to check spans of No. 2 Southern
Pine and Douglas Fir-Larch under long-term loads. The second set of design values is for
the same lumber under short-term load. The third set of design values can be applied
for No. 2 Spruce-Pine-Fir and No. 2 Hem-Fir, with long-term load. The fourth set applies
to short-term loading of these same species of No. 2 lumber. The design tables can be
applied to other lumber with strength characteristics approximating or exceeding those
used. Check Table 4.3 in this text for typical reference design values, or consult Tables 4A
and 4B of the AWC NDS-2012, �National Design Specification for Wood Construction; for
greater detail.
Tables 9.7 and 9.8 are similar to Table 9.6, except that span lengths are calculated for
two-span continuous and simply supported single-span beams, respectively.
Notice that beam sizes are given in the conventional fashion with b or width of beam
face to which load is applied given first and the second number indicating d or depth of
beam. Thus a 2x4 (nominal size) is used in strong axis bending and a 4x2 (nominal) is the
same member used flat in weak axis bending, as shown in Fig. 9.1.

9.4 Double Members: Tables 9.9 to 9.11

Tables 9.9 to 9.11 are similar to Tables 9.6 to 9.8 in terms of assumptions, adjusted design
values, and general layout, but they cover double members that are commonly used
for wales and sometimes used for stringers. Spans are calculated on the basis of using
these members side by side with their larger cross-section dimension as the depth of the
beam. Uniform loading is assumed, but in practice these members are more likely to be
supporting point loads and may need further analysis if the point loads are not closely
spaced, as discussed in Chapter 7.
Tabulated values of span controlled by horizontal shear neglect the benefit of thee,
term in the span equations. When the value ofe, is known {for example,e, = 3.5 in.) and
span length is governed by shear, that value of e, can be added to the spans tabulated
for single-span members and 0.8fb can be added to spans of two-span and three or more
span members to obtain the center-to-center span.

9.5 Wood Shores: Tables 9.12 and 9.13

Tables 9.12.1 and 9.12.2 show allowable concentric loads on wood shores for some of the
more commonly used timber sizes, with base values of compression parallel to the grain
F, ranging from 1300 to 1650 psi, with E...., values ranging from 470,000 to 580,000 psi.
The reference design values used to calculate the values in Table 9.12.1 are for No. 2 grade
Southern Pine, Hem-Fir, and Douglas Fir-Larch. Table 9.12.2 reference design values apply
for construction grades of the same species. Before determining the tabulated loads,
the reference design values of compression stress parallel to the grain shown in Tables
9.12.1 and 9.12.2 were adjusted for column stability according to Eq. (8.1) and for size. Size
adjustments are not required for construction-grade lumber. No adjustment was made for
duration of load because wood shores are commonly reused many times. The tabulated
values are for the case of K = 1.0 and actual unsupported length equal to effective length
(fu = f) , as discussed in Chapter 8. Some shores require lateral bracing in the weak direc­
tion, as indicated in the tables. The shore tables indicate load values where f/d does not
exceed the normal limit of SO.
Where the shore is in direct contact with a wood member being supported, the allow­
able load based on unsupported lengthe must not exceed total permissible load based
on bearing stress in the member being supported. Table 9.13 indicates total allowable

DESIGN TABLES
Use the design tables to make a preliminary selection of
stringers, joists, sheathing, and shores (see Chapters 7 and 8)
suitable for forming a flat slab with dead plus live load of 200 lb/fe
supported on shores spaced 4ft on center in both directions.
The clear height between floors is 11 ft. Assume that No. 2
Douglas Fir-Larch is selected based on availability. The form will
have substantial reuse so CD will be taken as 1.0.
From Table 4.3, the reference design values are: Fb=900 psi; F.=
1BO psi; and E=1,600,000 psi. As e xplained in Section 9.3, Tables
9.6.1, 9.7.1, and 9.B.1 are developed with adjusted stresses that
can be applied for No. 2 Douglas Fir-Larch or Southern Pine under
long-term loads and dry service, with conditions as stated. The
short-term load adjustment is not taken in this e xample because
the forms are intended for many reuses. Note that bending
stresses vary with the member size and orientation.
Stringers
With shores spaced 4ft on center both ways, the stringers will
be 4ft apart and have a span of 4ft between supports. They will
be designed as continuous beams (three or more spans) with
an equivalent uniform load equal to the distance between the
e 7 in.
stringers (ft) times the uniform load on the formwork (lb/f ):
2
W =4ft x 200 lb/ft =BOO lb/ft, thus w=BOO lb/ft / 12 inJft=
66.71b/in.
Use Table 9.6.1, since the stringers will be continuous over
three or more spans and C = 1.0. Enter Table 9.6.1 at the left
D included as part of the design loading.
on the 800 lb/ft load line and note which Douglas Fir-larch
members can be used for stringers having a 48 in. span. Among
the smaller members that are suitable are the 2 x 10 with an
allowable span of 51 in. and the 4x6 with a span of 56 in. The
2 x10 provides the necessary span with the least lumber but
would require adequate lateral buckling restraint because its
dlb ratio is greater than 2. The 4x6, with dlb=1. S :S 2.0, auto­
matically meets lateral buckling requirements and may provide
better bearing contact with the shores. local supply conditions
or construction constraints may dictate the selection. Also, note
that if job-site conditions are such that one or two span condi­
tions might also arise, these members would need to be sized
using Tables 9.7.1 and 9. 8.1.
Sheathing
Shore spacing places the stringers 4ft apart, and this 4ft then
is the span of the joists. How the joists are spaced depends on
requirements of the sheathing. Assume 3/4in. Plyform Class I
or equal-quality plywood is used with its face grain running in
the direction of the span. Because sheathing will be continuous
over several spans, refer to Table 9.3. The right side of the table,
with Fb'=154S psi, applies because in this case CD has been
assumed to be 1.0. From the column for 3/4in. thickness with
n r
��;; ��� �:��!� :� �� ��; � ;;��: �:���::::�f;�:���
s t f
i
_
efficiently and permit edge support for the plywood panels, five
equal spaces of 96/S=19.2 in. can be used.
Joists
This 19.2 in. becomes the required joist spacing, and joist span
has already been fixed at 4ft. What is the required joist size?
Joist loading=joist spacing {in feet) x load on forms {neglecting
weight of joist):
2
W =200 lb/ft x 19.2 in. / 12 inJft=320 lb/ft, thus
w=320 lb/ft /(12 inJft)=26.71b/in.
Using Table 9.6.1, for joists continuous over three or more
spans, a 2 x6 loaded at 300 lb/ft has an allowable span of 59 in.
and at 400 lb/ft has an allowable span of 52 in. By inspection,
the 2 x6 appears to be the lightest joist that would be satisfac­
tory on a 48 in. span, but also consider the 4x4 that has an
allowable span of 54in. at 400 lb/ft. The 4x4is often selected
for this type of form because its shape provides inherent
lateral stability.
In some cases, a closer appro ximation of the span would be
required for loads not given e xactly in the tables by interpola­
tion. For e xample, to work out this case more precisely:
1. The span difference for the 400 lb/ft and 300 lb/ft loads is
59 in.- 52 in., or 7 in.
2. Actual load of 320 lb/ft e xceeds 300 lb/ft by 20 lb/ft, which
is 20/100 or 2/10 of the difference between 300 and 400
lb/h.
3. Take 2/10 of the span difference:
x 2/10=1.4in.
4. Subtract this from the allowable span at 300 lb/ft:
59 in.- 1.4in.= 57.6 in. allowable span (span is shorter
than span for 300 lb/ft because actual load is greater.)
The 2 x6 selected weighs less than 1% of applied load. Where
the joist is heavy relative to applied load, its weight should be
Shores
Selection of the shores is a function of the shore load and
length. If 2 x6 joists and 4x6 stringers are used, their actual
depths plus the plywood thickness is 5.5 in.+ 5.5 in.+ 0.75 in.,
or about 1 ft. Thus, the shore effective length is about 11 ft- 1 ft,
or 10 ft. The load should be determined considering continuity
of the stringer and the higher reaction e xpected at an interior
support. Because the stringer is continuous over three or more
supports in this case, the stringer reaction is determined to be:
R=R�=Rc=1.1w£ =1.1 x 800 lb/ft x4ft=3520 lb
Tabulated shore capacities for No. 2 Douglas Fir-larch are
found in the upper section of Table 9.12.1. On the line for
a 10 ft effective length, the 4x4 shore has a listed capacity
of 4670 lb. Although a laced rough-sawn 4x3 shore has a
capacity of 3B70 lb and requires less shore material, the cost
of the lacing required to brace the shores in their weak buck­
ling direction and the limited regional availability of the 4x3
rough size make its choice less likely.
Bearing
A check of bearing stresses where joists rest on stringers and
where stringers rest on shores is advisable. This is e xplained
in.
in Chapter 7. From Table 4.3, Fe.!= 625 psi for No. 2 Douglas Fir­
larch. For the 4x6 stringer bearing on the 4x4shore, full contact
2
of 12.25 in. is made between the two members. Table 9.13
indicates an allowable bearing capacity of 7700 lb, even without
increasing the design value for bearing length adjustment, cb.
Thus, bearing is adequate between the stringer and the shore.
CHAPTER9
 Find a trial spacing of column clamps (yokes) on a 12 ft tall
column where maximum lateral pressure is expected to be 1800
lb/ft2 at the base of the column decreasing uniformly to zero at
the top (see Chapter5 for procedure to estimate lateral pressure
and Chapter8 for example layouts). Plan that vertica12x4 studs
will be used the strong way (not flat) to provide the support
for 3/4 in. Class I plywood with face grain oriented horizontal.
Find maximum spacing of 2x4s to support the plywood and
maximum spacing of clamps needed to support the2x4s.
The plywood face grain is parallel to the span. Assume the
plywood will be continuous over three or more spans and
substantial reuse of the forms is planned (C0 = 1 .0). UsingTable
9.3, enter on the 1800 lb/ft2 pressure line.The plywood requires
supports spaced 6 in. on center. Note that horizontal shear
governs at this loading level.
As explained in the column design example of Chapter 7 ,
column clamp spacing can be determined by working up from the
base of the column, assuming that pressure is uniform between
clamps or yokes and of intensity equal to that at the lower clamp. If
the first clamp is placed 4 in. above the base, the lateral pressure is:
ccp= 1800 lb/ft2- (4 in. / 12 in./ft )(150 lb/ft3) = 1 750 lb/ft2
The load on each vertical2x4 at this point is equal to the pres­
sure times spacing of the2x4s:
W = 1 750 lb/ft2 x 6 in. / 12 inJft =875 1b/ft
If No.2 Douglas Fir-Larch is used with three or more spans
and (0 = 1 .0,Table 9.6.1 applies. EnterTable 9.6.1 on the left,
with a uniform load of875 lb/ft (between the800 and 900 lb/ft
lines]. By inspection, we see that the2x4 studs require support
spacing of about20 in. Use this distance to locate the second
clamp, which is 4 in.+ 20 in., or24 in., above the base.The
lateral pressure at this level is:
CCP = 1800 lb/ft2- (24 in. / 12 in./ft){150 lb/ft3) = 1500 lb/ft2
tively placed23 in. above No.2, or24 in.+ 23 in.- 47 in. above
the base. Determine lateral pressure at this point and repeat the
procedure, going up the column until the total clamp spacings
equal or exceed the desired column height of 12 ft.
The tentative clamp spacings based on stud strength and
stiffness should then be checked to see that column damp
strength is not exceeded.
Using plywood in its weak span direction.The example thus far
is based on using vertical2x4s to support plywood sheathing
with the face grain horizontal.This is the�strong way• of the
plywood and of the2x4s, but it would require three pieces of
4 ft wide plywood for each side of the 12 ft tall form.
Suppose the column is sheathed with the same Class 1 3/4 in.
plywood, but with the face grain of plywood running vertically, and
with2x4 studs used flat and running vertically.This requires only two
pieces of plywood, one8 ft tall and the other 4 f t tall, for each column
side. If the maximum lateral pressure is 1800 lblft2, what clear
distance is permissible between the supporting 4xls for a multi-use
form? If plywood is used with face grain vertical, the grain is then
perpendicular to the span being considered or�weak way· of use.
At the design load level for this column form, plywood spans
are short and the continuous beam condition ofTable 9.3 will
apply. Use the table columns for face grain perpendicular to
the span. Reading at the 1800 lb/ft2 1evel, we find a 4 in. span,
center- to-center of supports. However, this is in an area where
rolling shear governs and spans are based on supports 1 -1 /2 in.
wide. With flat2x4 studs, 2 in. could be added to center-to­
center spans, to total 6 in., if rolling shear continues to control.
As advised in the footnote toTables 9.3, 9.4, and 9.5, a calcu­
lated recheck of spans for bending using the equations found
inTable 9.1 a or 9.1 b suggests a maximum span ofS in. For this
short span and wide support bearing, however, using the full
moment based on center-to-center span would be very conser­
vative since the plywood clear span between2x4 edges is only

The vertica12x4 at the level of Clamp No.2 has a load of:
W = 1500 lb/ft2 x 6 in. I 12 in./ft = 750 lb/ft
EnteringTable 9.6.1 with this load, read a value of23 in.
(halfway between 7 00 and800 lb/ft). Clamp No. 3 can be tenta-
2.5 in.Thus, the 6 in. center-to-center spacing of the2x4s is still
reasonable. Column clamp spacing would be determined by
following the method described previously usingTable 9.6.1
with a 4x2, and would also result in tighter on-center spacing
because the vertical2x4s are used flat.

load based on bearing stress when the full shore area directly contacts the wood member
it supports.

9.6 Form Design Using the Tables

Examples 9.1 to 9.4 illustrate the use of the design tables in typical formwork designs.
Example 9.1 demonstrates the preliminary selection of stringers, sheathing, joists, and
shores for a flat-slab structure. Example 9.2 illustrates use of the tables to determine
column clamp spacing. Example 9.3 shows how to use the tables to determine the shore
spacing for a beam bottom form.The selection of sheathing, studs, and wales for a wall
form design is illustrated in Example 9.4.

DESIGN TABLES
if!ttt®@ll:mttl:f,jjj,j,,
Suppose 2 in. (nominal) boards of No. 2 Spruce-Pine-Fir or equal are
to be laid longitudinally for a beam bottom that is expected to have
a single use. What spacing of shores is required if the beam bottom is
22 in. wide and carries a total load of 500 tb per foot of beam?
The load per foot of beam can be converted to a load per
linear foot of boards laid flat to form the beam bottom. If 6x2
boards are selected, four will be required to make the desired
width, and the load on each board will be
W= 500 lb/ft /4 or 1251b/ft
Assuming the beam bottom will be continuous over several
spans, use Table 9.6.4, with stresses appropriate for the Spruce·
Pine-Fir subject to short-term loading ((0=1.25). This solution
will be approximate because Table 9.6.4 has been developed for
lumber under dry conditions of service.
utrtttfifJIIWijll§.!i1t?
Use the tables to determine spacing of wall form members,
assuming C = 1.0 for substantial reuse of the forms and No. 2 grade
D
Douglas Fir-Larch or equal lumber, with sheathing of 1 in. Plyform
Class I plywood. Design a 10 ft tall wall form for a maximum lateral
2 2
pressure of 6001b!tt , assuming no reduction of pressure near the
top of the form.
Sheathing
Assuming that the plywood is used with face grain vertical, the
face grain will be perpendicular to the plywood span between
the studs, and the plywood will be continuous across several
spans. The Table 9.3 columns for C = 1.0 apply because the
D Pine. For example, if double 2x6 wales are used, the spacing
lower stress levels are recommended when forms are designed
for substantial reuse, and the column for 1 in. thickness under
face grain perpendicular to the span matches to conditions.
2 might help in confirming the wale selection. If the double 2x6 were
Entering the table at the 600 lb/ft 1evel. we find a span of 14 in.
It is decided to set the studs 12 in. on center so that they can be
uniformly spaced and also support plywood at the panel edges.
Stvds
2 1.1 x 600 lb/ft
With the vertical studs 12 in. apart, the load per ft is 600 lb/ft
12 in. I 12 inJft, or 600 lb/ft. Assuming that studs are continuous
over three or more spans, refer to Table 9.6.1 for choice of span
and member. Entering table at left on the 600 lb/ft load line, the
3x4 stud has an allowable span of 37 in. Support for studs {wales
or ties) would be needed at about 3 ft intervals. Placing top
and bottom horizontal wales 6 in. above bottom of form and
6 in. below top of form would permit use of four wales spaced
3 ft apart. A heavier stud selection of course could be made to
reduce the number of wales required.
A 6x21oaded at 100 lb/ft can span 53 in.; with a load of 200 lb/
ft. the span is 42 in� a difference of 11 in. Because we have a load
of 12Sib/ft, interpolation will decrease the 53 in. span by 25/100
of the 11 in. difference between span values, so that a resulting
approximate span is
53 in.- 25/100 x 11 in.=50.25 in.
The beam bottom will be wet in service and the table indi­
cates deflection controlled. For an exact calculation, f would
require adjustment for moisture of CM = 0.9, as indicated in
Table 4.6. Noting in Table 9.1a that the span for deflection is
either a 3rd or 4th root off' so that the maximum change is
if09=0.965times the 50.25 in. span, or 48.5 in. This maximum
allowable span for the beam bottom limits shore spacing, but
practical considerations might suggest some smaller module as
a convenient spacing. A spacing of 48 in. would be practical.
Wales
Double wales are often used with the tie placed between each
member of the pair and the tie washer plate bearing on both. If
double wales are SJ?aCed 3 ft apart, the equivalent uniform load
per foot is 600 lbtft x 36 in./12 inJft, or 1800 lb/ft. Assuming
three-span continuity of wales, Table 9.9.1 would be used to
determine spacing of wale supports.
Entering the table from the le ft on the 1800 lb/ft load line, a
convenient span and double member combination may be chosen
from the le ft side of the table where adjusted bending stresses are
applicable for long-term loading of Douglas Fir-Larch or Southern
between ties that support the wales can be a maximum of 31 in. or
30 in. for convenience. A check of the load capacity of available ties
used with supporting ties spaced at 30 in., the tie load, considering
continuity at an interior reaction location, would be
R=R0=R.= l.lwf=
2
x (30 in. /12 inJft) x (36 in. /12 inJft) = 4950 lb
x
A tie with a safe working load of 5000 lb should be selected.
If double 2x6 wales were used with a tie spacing of 24 in. (less
than the maximum allowed by Table 9.9.1), then the tie load
could be reduced to
�.� =·6��1, �ift2 x (24 ln. /12 ln.ift) x (36 ln. /12 ln.ift) = 3960 lb
This solution would have the advantage of being a multiple of
stud spacing and plywood panel dimensions, but presents the
disadvantage of using many more ties.
CHAPTER9
Table 9.3: Safe spacing, in inches, of supports for B·B Plyform Class I plywood sheathing, continuous for
three or more

D Deflection controls D Bending controls

NOTE: Sp;tns a� 9iwn c�nt�Ho·c�nt�r of supports. assuml"9 t, •1·112 in. for �ns controlled by s�ar. If support width is 9r�at� than 1·112 ln. th� differ�nc� c�n be added to the spad"9 when
rolll"9 shear controls but bendi"91lnd defle<tion maximum span must be Yefi�ed not to control for the rf!Sulti"9 spad"9

Ma�imumdeflectlon:ll240of span,but notmore than1/16in.

DESIGN TABLES
Table 9.4: Safe spacing, in inches, af supports for B-B Plyform Class I plywood sheathing, continuous for
two

D Deflec:tioncontrols D Bending controls

NOTE: Spans ar� giYfll Cl!ntl!f·IO·C�ntt'fof suppOfiS, assuming t0"' 1·112 in. IO<Sj»ns controlled by shear. If support width is greatt'fttlan 1·112 in.. th�differern:e can be added to tM spa<:ing w�n
rolling shear conuols but bending and deflf!'Ctlon ma�imum SJ»n must be ,.,ified not to control for t� resulting sp.lCing.

Maximum deHe.:tion: 1/240of span, but not more than 1/16 in.

CHAPTER9
Table 9.5: Safe spacing, in inches, of supports for B·B Plyform Class I plywood sheathing, with single simple

D Oeflecti oncontrol5 D Bending controls

NOTE: Sp;1n1 �·� gl�n c�m�r·to·c�ntt'f of suppofl'>. �ssumlng t, K 1·1121n. fot spans comroll!'d by >hear. If suppo<t width is g•ute< th•n1-112 in. thedifferenceun be ;oddl!d 10 the •�ing when
rolling sh@ar controls but bending aflddeflection maximum span must bl!verif>O<I not to control for the resulting sp.><;ing.

Maximumdt'fl.e<;tion:1/24Ciofspan,b1Jtnotn\Ofe than1116in.

DESIGN TABLES
 9.6.1: Safe spacing, in., of supports for joists, studs, or other beam components of formwork, continuous over
or more spans, CD = 1.0

only. No�dju�tme<ot IO< repetit;ve

memberf..::torO<wetservi<:e.
A�'illmedlaterallyrestrained
(Tablo!7.l)sothatC,•t.Oand
cumulativeloadduratio<>>2
month�sothatCa•1.0.
'
sp;�nslistedinthis section
are conservatiwfor Dougl�s

Ma•imum deflectio<>:1/240of
span.butJ"IO tmore thanll4in
Be�ring stressmu�t betvaluated

�
�
�
Table 9.6.2: Safe spacing, in., of supports for joists, studs, or other beam components of formwork, continuous over
three or more spans, C0 1.25
=

Not.,.:Dry�rvi<e.F,adju<ted
for sizefactorandflat usefactor
only.Noildjustmentfor repetitive
memberfanor or wet service.
Assumedlaterally r"'trained
(Table7.3)sothatC,=l.Oand
��� u ratioo:<>7dayssothatC0

Maximumdefle<tion:1/240o
f
span.butno\morethanl/4in
Bearingstressmustbe evaluated
 Table 9.6.3: Safe spocing1 in.1 of supports for joists1 studs1 or other beam components of
formwork1 continuous over three or more spans1 C0 = 1.0

onty.Noitdjustmemforr�litive
membeffactor orwet se.vice.
Assumed�terallyrestrained
tT�ble 7.3)sothatC, .. t.OJnd
cumulativeload duration>2
monthsso thatC0•1.0.

"spansliltedare conse.vative for

Hem·Fifwlwnbendingorshear
conlfolsand forSPfuce-Pine-Fir
when deflection controls.

Ma�imum deflection: 1{240 of

span,but notmo<e than1{4in
8earingstrenmustbeevaiU<tted
at supports.

�
�
..
�
� Table 9.6.4: Safe spacing, in., of supports for joists, studs, or other beam components of
formwork, continuous over three or more spans, CD 1.25
�
=

I!!
:::

·spansli�tedan�,on�vati�fO<
Hem-Fir when bf!onding Ot shear
controlsandforSpnxt·Pine·fir
when deflection controls.

Ma•imumdellection:1/240uf
span,butnotmorethan1/4in
 Table 9.7.1: Safe spacing, in., of supports for joists, studs, or other beam components of formwork, continuous over
two spans, C0 = 1.0

�
�
"'
Table 9.7.2: Safe spacing, in., of supports for joists, studs, or other beam components of formwork, continuous over
two spans, C0 = 1.25

�\IV 4� <H ..JO ..JI UY IU..J ..JU I..J U<l ..J4 IU Ill 0..,1 lUI I..JU ..JO "� 4..,1 Notes:Dryservice.F.adjusted
300 37 55 47 25 56 84 41 59 52 28 62 91 70 83 107 31 34 36 forsizefactorand�atusefactor
41 22 49 73 45 24 54 79 72 92 27 29 32 only.Noadjustmentfor repetitive
400 32 48 35 52 60
..,.., �· "- ' 0_., ..,, ..,._ ">O memberfactororwetservice
�"" ...,., ,., ,.., ...,,.., ,, �� -,1 '"- ,, ,0 ..,,..
 Table 9.7.3: Safe spacing, in., of supports for joists, studs, or other beam components of
formwork, continuous over two spans, CD = 1.0

�
.,

�
"'
Table 9.7.4: Safe spacing, in., of supports for joists, studs, or other beam components of
formwork, continuous over two spans, CD = 1.25
 Table 9.8.1: Safe spacing, in., of supports for joists, studs, or other beam components of formwork, single span, CD= 1.0

�
.,
;;1
"'
"'
 Table 9.8.3: Safe spacing, in., of supports for joists, studs, or other beam components of
formwork, single span, (0 = 1.0

�
�
"'
Table 9.8.4: Safe spacing, in., of supports for joists, studs, or other beam components of
formwork, single span, C0 = 1.25
�
'"
�
:::
 only.Noadjustmemforrepetitive
memberf�ctororwetservice
Assumedlaterallyrestr�ined
(Table7.31sothatC,"l.Oand
cumulative load durat>on>2

·
spanslisted�re comervativefor
Hem-Firwhenbendin-gor shear

Ma•imumdeflection:1/240of
span,but notmoreth�n 1/4in
Bearin-gstressmustbeevaluatecl

�
�
"'
 only.No�djostmentforrepetitive
memberf�ctor orwetservice.
Assumed l�ter�lly rew�ined
(Table7.3)sothatC1=1.0and
cumulahveloadduration>2
monthsso thatC�•l.O
"
spanslistedare con�rvati,..for
Hem·Firwnenbendingorshear
controls

Muimumdenection:l/240of
span,but notmore than1/4in
Bearir>eJWess mustbe evaluat!'d
at supports

�
�
"'
 j_Sheorcontrols

Notes:Ory service.F.adjusted
forsizefactor �ndfl�tuse f�ctor
only.Noadjustmentlor repetitive
memberlactororwet service
Assumed laterally restrained
(Table7.3)wtllatC,'"l.Oand
load durations7days so t llatC0
=1.25.
·
sP<lnslistedare conservativefor
Hem-Firwllenbendingorsllear
controls

Maximumdeflection:1/240of
SP<ln.butnotmoretllan1/4in
Bearingstres.must be evaluated
NOTI:S; Size �djust�t applied to No.2gr�des. Values are for cumulative load duration>2months_ C0" 1.0. The dimension uS«! in determining tid is that shown first i
this is the large< di�sion.trn.column must be laced (or bra<ed) in the othef direc:tion so that tid in that direc:tion is equal to or less th.ln that used when calculating trn.loads shown. For tile
4x2s,la<iJ19 in the plane of the2-in. dimensiO<l must be at intervals not greater th.an0.4times the unsupported length. For4x3s, la<:ing in the pl�ne of the 3 ln. dimension must be at intervals not
moreth.ln0.7timestheunwpportedlength.

CHAPTER9
Table 9.12.2: Allowable concentric axial load, lb, on construction-grade wood shores of indicated
and

DESIGN TABLES
10: FORM WORK DRAWINGS
Formwork drawings constitute the shop drawings of the formwork contractor. They may
include line drawings, shoring drawings, reshoring/backshoring drawings, and drawings
for vertical formed elements such as walls or columns and may be prepared by the form
supplier, the formwork contractor, or a combination of the two. The drawings are the
guide to how the forms will be fabricated off- or on-site and then assembled in the field.
Development of the drawings is a major effort of the formwork engineer/contractor. It is
not unusual for the number of sheets defining the temporary formwork structure to be
greater than the number of sheets defining the concrete structure being built.
Before constructing forms, the formwork engineer/contractor may be required to
submit detailed drawings, design calculations, or both of proposed formwork for review
and comment or acceptance by the engineer/architect or approving agency. If such draw­
ings are not accepted by the engineer/architect or accepting agency because they are not
in conformance with the contract documents, the formwork engineer/contractor should
make such changes as may be required and resubmit for comment or acceptance before
the start of construction of the formwork. Federal OSHA regulations for construction
require, in Subpart Q 1926.703(a)(2), that drawings or plans for the formwork, including all
revisions, are to be available at the job site.
The review, acceptance, or both of the formwork drawings does not relieve the
contractor of the responsibility for adequately constructing and maintaining the forms
so that they will function properly. All major design values and loading conditions should
be shown on formwork drawings. As related to form use, these include formwork design
values of construction live load. allowable vertical or lateral concrete pressure, weight of
moving equipment that can be operated on formwork, required soil-bearing capacity,
material specification, camber required, and other pertinent information, if applicable.

1 0.1 Preparing Effective Drawings

After the form design has been prepared on the basis of the contract drawings and
specifications, formwork design information must be given to the workers at the project
 site or formwork shop so that they can
I I I !
- �-
I
build the forms. Much time and expense
- ---- _ldJ can be saved in the office, shop, and on

: j I :Ij
E!J- the job site if simple, clear, and complete
drawings are prepared. The ideal drawings
I I
I I I 1 contain essential notes and instructions for
I I I
constructing the forms, but they are not
I I
I I cluttered with unnecessary lines, marks,
I I symbols, or dimensions.
I I
I I
1
I 1 I In addition, the quantities of form mate­
I I
- �: ------ -:G:J rials, components, and hardware must be
determined so that needed items can be
It I I

���:�: �� ���� ��:: � :;�;� ��� ��

1 n o s n v -
I I
--+- e b u f
shipment to the project site to arrive in
(a) Structural plan drawing (b) Formwork line drawing time for use but not so early that storage
requirements exceed limited site space
Fig. 10.1: Comparison of structural plan drawing ro formwork line drawing available. Methods for developing the
bill of materials vary. In some cases, it is a
manual process; in other cases, the formwork contractor or form supplier may be using a
computer-aided design (CAD) program or a building information modeling (BIM) program
to model the formwork that can automatically tabulate the quantities needed.
Items that are standard practice with the contractor are sometimes omitted to simplify
the drawings, but this requires designers, draftsmen, CAD operators, and a field force
thoroughly familiar with the contractor's established procedures. With frequent changes
of personnel the rule rather than the exception today, it is much safer to include a sheet of
standard details and notes or to insert those in each applicable drawing.
A formwork drawing is more than a picture of the proposed formwork; it is a definite
order to workers to perform certain operations in a specified manner and should be
complete. With this thought in mind, the presentation can be materially improved by
following these simple rules:
1. Issue orders as commands- uchamfer column corners with 1 in. skewback,w rather than
uthis column is to be chamfered at the corners.u
2. Make all notes brief, clear, and explicit, leaving no chance for misunderstanding.
3. Make all drawings large and bright-a scale of 3/8 in.= 1 ft or larger is desirable-with
lettering large and clear enough so the drawings will still be legible after repeated
handling, folding, and fading of prints. Dimensions must be carefully checked and
legible: avoid decorative computer fonts that can become muddy or confusing.
4. Use easily recognized standard symbols and abbreviations for all projects; symbols may
be tabulated on one of the drawing sheets.
5. Standardize layout of drawings.
6. Use a standardized, large, clear title block with plenty of space for full identification of
the part of the structure for which formwork is to be used. If possible, number form­
work drawing sheets in order of their use on the project.
Judicious use of isometric views, particularly where new methods are being tried
or new shapes are being formed, will help workers visualize the specific form detail
required more rapidly.

1 0.2 Line Drawings

Many formwork contractors prepare line drawings defining the form faces against which
the concrete is placed. The line drawings are helpful in resolving the exact locations and
sizes of the concrete structure edges, members, openings, thicknesses, and elevations. The
drawing usually includes both plans and sections. Just as ceiling drawings by an architect
show the lighting and ceiling grid in a "reflected plan," the formwork line drawing typically
shows a reflected plan of the structure layout-essentially the edges of the formwork
when viewed looking down on the forms. Figure 10.1a shows a part plan of a simple struc­
turallayout in which the beams appear as hidden (dashed) lines. Figure 10.1b shows the
formwork line drawing.
Line drawings are often submitted to the engineer/architect as a part of the form­
work shop drawing review process with requests for information on dimensions and
locations that may be unclear or undefined in the structural drawings. Figure 10.2

CHAPTER 10
shows an example plan from a set of formwork line drawings of a parking garage
prepared for review.
Line drawings are revised based on the review response, resubmitted for approval as
necessary and, when approved, issued for field use. The forms are fabricated and assem­
bled or built in the field to the dimensions shown in the line drawings.
Several observations are important when interpreting the drawing.
Locations are dimensioned from the reference fines. These lines should never be
assumed to be center lines of columns, beams, or walls. While they may locate the
center of some members, note Column C1 and the beam along Line A3 between Lines
1 and 2 that are not centered on the reference lines.
Top of slab elevations are shown adjacent to many columns. The top of slab slope is
assumed to be linear between those points. Note that there are not only slopes for
the up and down ramps but also crosswise slopes from the exterior columns to the
interior columns for drainage. While drain types and locations may be found on the
mechanical and plumbing drawings, details for slab slopes, depths, and allowable
opening sizes must be found or coordinated with the structural and architectural
drawings.
Beam sizes are indicated in inches as W x 0, with the depth measured from the top of
slab to the beam soffit. Considering that the top of the slab is sloping, this means that
many beams are also to be constructed with a slope.
A construction joint is located at the end of Level P2, Pour 2, which also defines the
beginning of Level P3, Pour 1. Note that this joint is neither at the middle nor the
face of a beam where there would be great interference with reinforcement. Rather,
it is located at approximately the bending point of inflection for the beams and slab.
Project specifications or contract drawings should provide locations or specific guid­
ance for proposing joints in the structure. Where joints are not located, submit joint
locations to the engineer/architect for review and acceptance.
Several section marks are shown. Each section mark indicates the sheet where the
section can be found (for example, FS1, FS2, FSS) and the section number on that
sheet (for example, 1, 2, 4). These sections are not provided herein.

1 0.3 General Layout and Detail Drawings

As in presentation of architectural and structural drawings, the formwork design is gener­
ally a series of plan, section, and elevation views with dimensions, callouts of information,
and notes. In this chapter, several examples showing possible methods of presentation are
discussed. It should be understood that these are partial examples and all details are not
shown. Different formwork engineers will have different approaches to the presentation of
information defining their design, although there are many similarities across the industry.
Chapter 11 also contains example details extracted from project drawings.
Figure 10.3 shows the formwork X-bracing layout for the parking garage presented in
the line drawing {fig. 10.2). Each NXH in the plan represents the location of an X-brace. Each
X is shown rotated from its actual vertical orientation to horizontal in the plan. Sections
(Fig. 10.4 and 10.5) are used to define the sheathing, joists, shoring, reshoring, lacing, and
bracing. A study of the sections reveals the member materials (plywood, aluminum, and
wood), member sizes, and nailing requirements. The form designer has used HSYPHto refer
to Southern Pine, which is sometimes called Southern Yellow Pine. The exact species and
grades of wood for each member are defined in notes shown elsewhere in the drawings.
Additional requirements are shown in notes and se<:tions not reproduced herein.
Figure 10.6 shows wall formwork illustrated with a section and partial elevation. This
form is designed with plywood, wood vertical studs, double wood wales, and wood
braces. Various accessories such as ties, wedge plates, and brace end connectors are called
out. An additional detail shows requirements for splicing of the wales. Only a general
view of the attached work platform is shown because details of this design are shown
elsewhere in the formwork drawings. The notes include directions controlling concrete
placement rate as a function of concrete temperature to control lateral pressure within the
assumed design pressure.
Figure 10.7 shows wall formwork designed with ganged panels of plywood, horizontal
aluminum beams, vertical double aluminum (-channels, and steel pipe braces. The wall to
be formed includes columns, called pilasters, integrated into the wall thickness. Various
hardware accessories are designated in callouts and in notes.

FORMWORK DRAWINGS
 P2 LEVEL LINE DRAI"'IN6
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Fig. 10.2: Formwork fine drawing ofparking structure (Drawing courtesy United Forming, Inc.)

CHAPTER 10
 FOR APPROVAL

FORMWORK DRAWINGS
 - (4)SETS OF X-6RAC-E5 PERRO�.
- ROI'iS 11 I0'-6'o.�. MAX

X-BRACING LAYOUT PLAN

Fig. 10.3: Formwork lateral bracing layout plan for parking strucrure (Drawing courtesy United Forming, Inc.)

CHAPTER 10
 SEE F<li<MI't::li<K LINE D!W<IN65 FOR PLAN DETAILS
PLAN- 15 FOR iSfNERAL GONCEPT AND X-flRACIN6 LAYOJT ONLY

FORMWORK DRAWINGS
Fig. 10.4: Formwork shoring for example bay of parking structure (Drawing courtesy United Forming, Inc.)

(1}1116 M EACH----t+-----;;o:<f
INTER5EC.TION
OF X-eRAGI'

IMSTN...l.. 4x4 SY'P Rf5HORES

• 42'o.c:. MAX ()(' • 21'o.c:. MAX
rt£RE (2) ROI15 OF SHORJN6
FN...l..rt1THIN24'MA.X.

Fig. 10.5: Example section view of formwork shoring and bracing for parking structure
(Drawing courtesy United Forming, Inc.)

CHAPTER 10
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�, Fig. 10.7: Wall formwork example drawing for aluminum beam ganged panel derails (Drawing courtesy United Forming, Inc.)

0
 WIRE HEAD ( CABEZA. DE CANASTA) T-HEAO (CABEZA.ENT)

,..
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Means of attaching shores to stringers

Minimum Cross Sectional Areas for Shores

J �
RUNNER NOTES:
1) J:rE�=;;��iPERFOR.W:D TEmiC*CLAMPS

'f" 2) ==AND T-HEADS ARE ATTACHED TO STRINGER

3) Pt.YWOOD SCABS I<ND WIREHEADS ARE ONLY FIXED TO STRINGERS
...._ TO FACI.ITATE CONSTlUJCllON.

•)=H�����n:=:�����s�
RUNNER JOINTS SPECIFED ON SPECIFIC PROJECT DETAILS.

Fig. 10.8: Shoring and flat slab formwork connection and bearing details (Drawing courtesy R.H. Bordner Engineering Co.)

Figure 10.8 shows a form designer's standard details for installation of adjustable wood
shores with a specific manufacturer's hardware. The acceptable alternate types of shore
head-to-stringer connections for different situations are indicated as well as minimum
shore-bearing contact. In some designs, joists are referred to as Hrunners.u A detail indicates
the required minimum bearing lengths of the 4 x 4 runners on the 4 x 6 stringers. Note
that some wording is also indicated in Spanish.
Figure 10.9 shows a plan layout of steel shoring frame towers to support forms for a slab
and beam floor system (Fig. 10.10). Notes and standard symbols used in the drawings are
shown in Fig. 10.11. A diagonal line is drawn between pairs of shoring frames in the plan. This
diagonal line is not a connecting brace but rather a plan view schematic symbol indicating a
tower assembly. The bracing is either a part of the frame (Section A) or field- connected tube
X-braces (Section B). Adjustable leg and top jacks are indicated with their maximum exten­
sions. Aluminum stringers, aluminum joists, and plywood sheathing are the main components
for the deck. The beam side forms are constructed of wood with plywood sheathing to fit the
beam dimension. Reshoring requirements are referenced to other drawing sheets.
If panel forms or other prebuilt form components are to be used for an entire project,
or for a major part of it, an assembly or layout drawing showing the location of panels is
essential. Such a drawing can be a mere skeleton or outline, showing only major dimen­
sions needed for locating formwork components. Each panel should be given an appro­
priate identifying mark to aid in positioning it when the forms are erected. Panels of the
same size and shape should all bear the same mark. By means of subscripts or other iden­
tifying numbers, the order in which panels are to be used can also be indicated if desired.
To supplement the layout drawing, a detail or·make-up" drawing of each panel or form
component must be prepared, showing all essential dimensions so that shop and field
personnel need not refer to the engineer's or architect's drawings. The detail drawing should

FORMWORK DRAWINGS
 I---6
- '-0"-l----6'-0"-l----6'-0"-l----6'·0"-l----6'·0"----l

PLAN VIEW- SHORING LAYOUT

Fig. 10.9: Partial plan of form layout supported by shoring towers for slab and beam floor
system (Drawing courtesy Atlas Construction Supply)

indicate the mark number corresponding to the basic layout drawing, and indicate the
quantities of each unique unit required. Various additional details are needed to show how
to handle intersections, corners, bulkheads, inserts, and other special conditions. Details are
frequently shown on the same drawing with the layout and other components, but it simpli­
fies shop work if a single sheet is prepared for each panel or other component to be built.
When non-standard, complex items are required, the designer or detailer can often help
speed the work by giving the form carpenter a simple pictorial sketch to supplement the
conventional plan and elevation. For standard elements such as rectangular beams and
columns, some contractors have found that printed sheets with prepared outlines of beam
and column parts (Fig. 1 0.12) are helpful in giving the workers in the shop or field instruc­
tions on the fabrication and placing of form parts. The designer simply pencils in dimen­
sions, details, and necessary notes on the printed outline drawing. The shop foreman or
project superintendent can then use these sketches in directing the workers. These sheets
may also be made up to include a bill of materials required.

CHAPTER 10
 T �
.

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/loSP!'IIMNIYWEM&ER

Fig. 10.10: Section views of shoring cowers, stringers, and beams for slab and beam floor
system (Drawing courtesy Atlas Construction Supply)

1 0.4 Checklist of Details

In addition to specifying types of materials, sizes, lengths, and connection details,
ACI 347R-14, �Guide to Formwork for Concrete,� recommends formwork drawings
@ ".oECI<POSTWIIlROPHEAO

should provide applicable details, such as:

Procedures, sequence, and criteria for removal of forms, shores, reshores, and back­
@ EXT....·DECI<P06TWIO.H

C::::::C():::::::J "·DECI<GIROER"-OE:CICJOIST
shores and for retracting and resnugging drophead shores to allow the slab to deflect
and support its own weight prior to casting the next level;
2. Design allowance for construction loads on new slabs when such allowance will
affect the development of shoring, reshoring schemes, or both;
3. Anchors, form ties, shores, lateral bracing, and horizontal lacing;
4. Means to adjust forms for alignment and grade;
5. Waterstops, keyways, and inserts;
6. Working scaffolds and runways;
7. Weepholes or vibrator holes. where required;
Fig. 10. 1 1: Example notes and symbols for
B. Screeds and grade strips;
shoring tower supported forms (Drawing
9. location of external vibrator mountings;
courtesy Atlas Construction Supply)
10. Crush plates or wrecking plates where stripping can damage concrete;
11. Removal of spreaders or temporary blocking;
12. Cleanout holes and inspection openings;
13. Construction joints, contraction joints, and expansion joints in accordance with
contract documents (also refer to ACI 301);

FORMWORK DRAWINGS
 <>
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BEAM FORM S COLUMN FORMS

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Fig. 10. 12: Example standardized sheets used by some contractors to simplify instructions for making beam and column forms

CHAPTER 10
14. Sequence of concrete placement and minimum elapsed time between adjacent
placements;
15. Chamfer strips or grade strips for exposed corners and construction joints;
16. Reveals (rustications);
17. Camber;
18. Mudsills or other foundation provisions for formwork;
19. Special provisions, such as safety, fire, drainage, and protection from ice and debris at
water crossings;
20. Special form face requirements;
21. Notes to the formwork erector showing size and location of conduits and pipes
projecting through formwork; and
22. Temporary openings or attachments for climbing crane or other material-handling
equipment.
The actual content of the formwork drawings can vary depending on project contrac­
tual agreements. For example, if the formwork is a subcontract and the formwork subcon­
tractor is not responsible for supplying or installing waterstops in walls or mechanical
inserts for floors, those items would not be shown on the formwork drawings.
Major design values, loading conditions, and pertinent tolerances should be shown on
formwork layout or erection drawings or accompanying notes. These include assumed
values of live load, maximum rate and order of concrete placement, temperature of
concrete, allowable unit weight of concrete, assumed values of dead and live load, weight
of moving construction equipment that may be operated on formwork, foundation
pressures, design stresses, grade and type of form materials, camber diagrams, and other
pertinent information. A list of required ties and other accessories showing the manufac­
turer's name, load capacity, and so on may also be shown on the drawings. Several of the
example drawings illustrate some types of information that are frequently included in
these notes. Such information may not be required on the detailed make-up drawings or
sketches used by workers in building individual prefabricated form parts.
For projects involving elevated floors, definition of shoring/reshoring criteria is critical.
The drawing views or notes should define:
The number of floors of shores and of reshores;
The sequence of shore/reshore erection and removal;
Minimum concrete strength for stripping and acceptable methods of field strength
determination, as required by the engineer/architect;
Minimum time required before stripping (if also or alternately specified), as required
by the engineer/architect;
Stripping sequence for post-tensioned floors;
Any restraints on operations while stripping or reshoring is underway; and
Specific directions for releasing shore dropheads, retracting shores, and snugging reshores.
i er
th !�:�:�� :� � :;����: �� �:��
f b 1-'"'"-1-'"'-'+-''L'"+-"----l""-'"+--"'-+-"'-+=-
'
' +-"--
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'· -+"'..,· '+-'9
structural elements may be prescribed by
the engineer/architect to compensate for
deflection of the structure and is created
-
by setting the formwork to produce the
specified elevations. Camber in members
of the formwork system may also be
needed based on the form design to
compensate for form settlement, take-up
of contact parts, and elastic deformation
·�
of the form components. The portion of
the camber required by the engineer/
architect must be defined in actual dimen­
sions because the behavior of the struc­
ture cannot be predicted by the formwork
engineer/contractor. An example method
..
·.
.
of indicating camber for a timber truss
supporting formwork for part of an arch
bridge is shown in Fig. 10.13.
Fig. !0.!3: One method of indicating camber on formwork drawings. In this example for a
timber truss, for which ordinates are shown, supporting forms for a concrete arch ·

FORM WORK DRAWINGS

 I O.S Recheck for Agreement with Structural Drawings
Contract structural drawings and specifications are the formwork designer's major source
of information concerning the project being formed. A number of items in the foregoing
checklist are derived directly from the contract drawings, and when the formwork plans
have been completed, a final recheck for agreement with the contract documents is advis­
able. The following are important items to cover:
1. Number, location, and details of all construction joints, contraction joints, and expan­
sion joints that are required or permitted.
2. locations of and details for architectural concrete; any special architectural patterns
specified.
3. Intermediate supports under permanent forms (such as forms of metal decking,
insulation board, and so on), supports required by the structural engineer's design for
composite action, and any other supports.
4. Specified location and order of erection and removal of shores for composite construc­
tion. The same type of specification may apply to shell structures where a proper
decentering sequence is necessary for the structure to assume its proper stress pattern
and loaded shape.
5. Essential provisions for specialized construction techniques.
6. Location and amount of camber specified to compensate for deflections in the
completed structure.
7. Requirements for embeds, built-in frames for openings, holes through concrete, and
the work of other trades to be attached to or supported by formwork.

1 0.6 Drawing Review

Although the safety and adequacy of formwork is the responsibility of the contractor,
the engineer or architect may, in certain cases, wish to review the formwork design. If so,
provisions for such review and comment, acceptance, or approval must be included in
the project specifications, and formal comment, acceptance, or approval of each drawing
should be obtained.
The review and comment, acceptance, or approval of the formwork drawings in no way
relieves the contractor of the responsibility for adequately constructing and maintaining
the forms so that they will function properly. However, such review and acceptance or
approval indicates that the assumed design loadings in combination with design stresses
shown; proposed construction methods; placement rates, equipment, and sequences;
the proposed form materials; and the overall scheme of formwork are deemed capable of
producing the desired concrete in an acceptable manner.
Drawing review for acceptance or
approval may be required for unusually
complicated structural shapes; for designs
that are based on a particular method of
construction; for structures in which the
forms impart a desired architectural finish;
or for folded plates, thin shells, and long­
span roof structures. Well-organized notes
on form design values and assumptions
simplify checking and generally speed
acceptance or approval of the formwork
plans.
At each stage of drawing development,
the drawing status should be clearly indi­
cated. For example:
During initial development before
outside circulation: Design Development
Only or Preliminary- Not for Construction.
At time of release to engineer/architect:
For Review.
When all corrections have been made
Fig. I 0. 14: 8/M virtuo/3-0 drawing of foundation pit formwork (Drawing courtesy Klarman and approved: For Field Use or For
Construction) Construction.

CHAPTER 10
1 0.7 BIM 3·0 Graphical
Views af Formwork
The graphical capabilities of BIM are gradu­
ally being realized in concrete formwork
applications. Figures 10.14 through 10.16
show how the components of formwork
hardware accessories, form members,
bracing, and shoring can be integrated
to produce not only 2-D drawings but
also 3-D drawings. Individual parts could
be modeled by the formwork engineer/
contractor. However, individual proprietary
parts can also be modeled by manufac­
turers and suppliers for the use of form­
work engineers/contractors in assembling
the model of the formwork. The ability to
visualize the formwork structure during
design development provides the oppor­
tunity to recognize situations that may
have been missed and would cause delay
in the field. With increasing portability of
computing laptops and tablets, the 3-0 Fig. 10.15: 8/M virtual 3-D drawing of shoring towers and partial floor system formwork
models can also help field crews under- (Drawing courtesy Klarman Construction)
stand the formwork design intent by
rotating the model to view from multiple
angles. Figure 10.17 shows the drawings for
a deck table form constructed of plywood,
1-joists, and lumber components. Because
BIM can also track each component, the
form bill of material has been tabulated to
assure all needed parts can be available.
The deck table form can be moved as a unit
and placed on shoring frames, as shown
in Fig. 10.16. The beveled plywood edges
10.17
indicated in the Table Side View of Fig.
facilitate stripping by forming a fillet at the
re-entrant corner between the beam and
the slab.

Fig. 10.16: 8/M virtual 3-D drawing of shoring frames, beam, and slab formwork for parking
structure (Drawing courtesy Klarman Construction)

FORMWORK DRAWINGS
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11: BUILDING AND ERECTING THE
FORMWORK
How formwork is built and erected depends on many factors-the materials available
or required, the skills and cost of the local labor supply, and demands of the project for
accuracy and perfection of finish (Fig. 1 1 .1). For most formwork projects, there is no single
correct forming system; rather, there are several workable alternatives, and a choice
among them depends on cost comparisons, local customs, and contractor preferences. At
times it may be preferable to use the system and approach familiar to the available crews
rather than try to train them for a new system.
The techniques presented in this chapter are not the only way to do a given project,
but they do represent ideas that have wide current acceptance or have proven particu­
larly valuable to experienced form builders. Following descriptions of the necessary shop
or yard facilities for form building and safety considerations, the discussion centers on
various formwork components in the following divisions:
Footings;
Slab-on-ground and paving;
Fig. 11.1: Formwork des,igned with board
Walls;
s.heathing for placement of complicated
Columns;
concrete roof s,tructure of a mus,eum (Photo
Beam and girder forms;
courtes,y PERl Formwork Systems,, Inc.)
Elevated slabs; and
Shoring.
Because formwork for architectural concrete, bridges, mass concrete, tunnels and shafts,
and special techniques are treated separately in Chapters 14 through 18, major emphasis is
given to conventional formwork construction in this chapter.
Sizes and spacing of form members shown in the examples are typical of good forming
practices, but they cannot be copied without making a careful analysis for conditions
peculiar to the individual project. The formwork engineer/contractor is in no way relieved
of the responsibility of checking their unique project requirements and choosing forming
 members on the basis of design standards
listed in Chapter 2 and theory explained in
Chapters 4 through 8.

11.1 Form Fabrication

As apparent in the many drawings and
photographs in this book, formwork is both
manufactured for general use and built
specifically for individual project needs.
Even when the project is primarily using
manufactured components, there are many
situations where portions of the formwork
Fotmassemblyandfloished are built, usually in wood, for project details
fom1storageareas
that do not lit available manufactured
components. For all but very small projects,
it is customary to have a form shop (Fig.
11.2) where form parts or entire forms may
be efficiently fabricated and moved to the
site for assembly and erection. Where to
put the shop, how large to make it, and
Fig. 11.2: Typical form shop layout for large project, including enclosed shop and outdoor what equipment is needed all depend on
assembly platform and storage areas for materials and equipment; framing jigs such as that the size and conditions of the individual
shown in Fig. 11.29 should be set up for any form panels that are built in large quantity project. How much of the formwork can be
prefabricated and how much must be built
in place help determine the size of shop required. For special formwork shapes, contrac­
tors also turn to specialty fabricators for prefabrication off-site (Fig. 11.3).
Formwork contractors operating in a particular geographical area may locate the shop
in their main yard and haul fabricated forms to project sites. This provides the advantage
of having on-hand stock from previous projects that will reduce the use of new lumber.
Where distances are great, or where hauling is excessive, the shop will probably be set up
on the project site. Obviously, a small project will not require a pretentious shop; a saw
and a bench roofed over but not enclosed may be all that is needed. However, for the
larger projects, the shop requires careful planning. Adequate working space should be
organized for an efficient flow of materials and parts in process to take advantage of the
benefits of assembly line techniques. Consideration should be given to safety and comfort
of the workers as an aid to maintaining high productivity.
Although each project has its own special requirements determined by local conditions,
consideration of some of the general requirements that apply to most larger projects will
aid in planning the shop, storage, and project office facilities (Fig. 11.4 and 1 1 .5).

11. 1. 1 Location of Shop at Proiect Site

Generally, the shop should be placed as dose as possible to the work under construction,
but space must also be allowed for storage of finished forms. Availability of power supply
and consideration of material flow to the shop and fabricated forms to the job are impor-

Fig. 1 1.4: Prefabricated and secure metal
containers are often used for tool storage
and checkout (Photo courtesy CECO Concrete
Construction, LLC)
Fig. 11.5: Formwork project office space for
formwork contractor provides for drawing
layout, CAD access, training, and site super­
vision (Photo courtesy CECO Concrete
Construction, LLC)

CHAPTER JJ
tant. If a large percentage of form lumber passes through the shop, it should be located
near the material receiving point or storage point. If very little form lumber passes through
the shop, the shop can be located closer to the construction work. The space available and
location of the building site in relation to adjoining streets will influence shop layout. If at
all possible, the shop should be located so that the operation is progressive from the point
where lumber is received to the place where finished forms are delivered to the erection
crew. Similar considerations affect the interior layout of the shop. An opening is often posi­
tioned at the end of a radial arm saw bench so long material can be fed from the outside.
If the building occupies an entire site, and there is no adjoining vacant land, the shop must
often be strung out along the building site on the sidewalk. A space 10 to 12ft wide, long
enough to accommodate all equipment, is required. The shop should be placed next to the
street to allow delivery of materials without interfering with pedestrians. A covered walkway
for pedestrians is then placed between the shop and the building, and a fence is erected on
the street side to protect workers from traffic. For multistory building work, it is often desir­
able to place the shop inside the building, particularly if exterior space is limited.

11. 1.2 Storage of Materials and Finished Parts

The storage space required for incoming lumber and manufactured components depends
on project size and whether materials can be had on short notice in small lots or whether
carload lots will have to be stored. The receiving yard should be convenient to fabrication
and erection areas to reduce handling of material.
Materials should be organized by size and type as soon as they are received to allow
the workers to quickly find what is needed. On Very large projects, it may be desirable
to label piles to help form builders find the desired stock quickly with a minimum of
cutting and waste. Lumber and other materials should be palletized for mass handling
whenever conditions warrant. Next to the shop and as close as possible to the lifting
equipment, space should be provided for storage of completed or partially assembled
forms ready for erection.
Lockers should be available for special tools and for personal tools belonging to
workers. Well-organized storage for nails, screws, and formwork accessories is required.
Form oil storage racks and steel storage racks to hold rods, bars, and angles should be
provided. Within the shop there should be storage bins for scrap pieces that may be used
for such items as cleats, shims, and wedges, as well as a rack for long items such as rustica­
tion, chamfer, or grade strips.
The typical form shop layout for a large project in Fig. 11.2 shows how these storage
areas may be arranged together with the other components of the shop.

11.1.3 Equipment and Layout

The well-equipped form shop for a large project may require all or part of the following:
cut-off saw;
table saw;
panel saw;
radial arm saw;
planer;
band saw;
drill press; and
portable drills, saws, routers, sanders, and nailers.
The saws in the shop should be capable of handling at least 4in. thick material, and adjust­
able to cut at any angle. If there is to be considerable ornament, a band saw will reduce the
amount of handwork. Roller conveyors to facilitate handling long or heavy pieces to the
power tools may be desirable.
The shop should have a roof to protect the equipment and workers, but the sides
should be as open as climatic conditions will permit. Good lighting, either artificial or
through skylights, and adequate ventilation are essential. A clear space of 4to 5 ft around
the table saws with extensions is sufficient. There should be 3 to 4ft wide aisles between
benches so workers will not interfere with each other.
A smooth, flat, level platform for form assembly is frequently placed just outside the
shop. For some large formwork components, outdoor assembly is absolutely necessary
because of their size. Adjustable assembly benches that can be quickly reconfigured are
better than permanent benches. Inclement weather may halt work if the assembly area

BUILDING AND ERECTING THE FORMWORK

 is not under cover. If it is under cover, a
few extra workers in the erection crew can
often make up for time lost.
The shop area should be kept free of
sawdust and shavings. A dust collector may
be desirable to carry dust and chips from
the shop. An outdoor collecting point for
scraps to be hauled away may be required.
An organized, clean shop area improves
production and reduces fire danger.
Adequate fire extinguishers or other fire
protection should be provided. All power
tools should have all required guards in
place and in working order.

11.2 Formwork Erection

Safety
As mentioned in Chapter 2, requirements
for worker safety are defined in OSHA 29
CFR1926, NConstruction Industry Regula­

Fig. I I .6: Safery railings at floor edges and sides of outrigger platform; safery net for foil protec­ tions." A complete coverage of applicable

tion at end of an outrigger platform allows lang material to be landed (Photo courtesy MEVA OSHA provisions will not be attempted

Formwork Systems) here. However, several items are of partic-

ular note for project site safety during
building and erection of formwork.
Personnel protective equipment required for form crews includes:
hard hats;
eye protection;
protective footwear;
gloves; and
ear protection.
The exact items required will vary with the task. Most companies have standard project
requirements.
Fall protection features and devices include:
secured ladders;
railings and safety nets at elevated edges (Fig. 11.6) and floor openings;
railings on work platforms and stairways;
fall arrest systems, including harnesses, anchorage points, snap hooks, and lanyards
for use when exposed to falls and in leading edge areas of erection (Fig. 2.2);
positioning devices, including harnesses and snap hooks that limit fall distance (Fig.
11.7);
warning lines and controlled access zones; and
items such as toe boards to protect against falling objects.
These features and devices must meet the specifics of the regulations as to size, strength,
and other stated characteristics.
OSHA safety requirements for tool features and use include the following considerations:
Fig. I 1.7: Safetyhornesses with snap hooks tool guards;
secured to locations of adequate strength hand and power hand tool features and safe use;
limit fall distance of workers woodworking tool and abrasive wheel features and safe use;
ratchet, screw, and hydraulic jack operation and maintenance; and
ground fault systems, ground insulated tools, or both.
Regulations related to trenching and excavation safety can be a factor in preparing
formwork for foundation construction. Considerations include:
depth of excavation where form assembly is being done;
type of soil and protective system (sloping, shielding, bracing); and
means of egress and distance to points of egress.
The handling of large formwork segments must be consistent with OSHA requirements
for materials handling, storage, use, and disposal. Considerations include:
chain, wire rope, fiber, and web sling load rating and condition;
shackle and hook load ratings and condition;
anchors and attachments;

CHAPTER 7 7
 placement and stacking of materials Table 11.1 : ACI 117·recommended tolerances for formed foundations
(Fig. 11.8), passageways, and distribu­ for buildings
tion of loads; and
removal of nails from used lumber. Deviation from location of os-<:ost edge
Providing training in these and many Where foundation pion dimension is 8ft or more :t:2 in
other applicable requirements of OSHA is Where foundation pion dimension is 8Ft or less Greater of :t:2% of spe<::ified dimension or 1/2 in.
Foundations supporting mos.onry lesser of :t:2% olloundotion width or :t: 1/2 in
part of the process of establishing a safe
workplace. Generally, it has been found Deviation in horizontal crosrse<:tioncl dimensions -1/2 in., +2 in.t
that a clean safe workplace is a more Deviation in thickness -5% of spe<::ilied thickness
productive workplace.
•Appliestoconcre(eo nly,notto relnforcingb.Jr sordowel s
'Fmunforme<ifootings,horizontaldimension positivetolerancesrangefrom3to6in.. with1/2in.n"9•tivetolerance
11 .3 Footings
Principal construction requirements for
footings are sound concrete and correct
position to match column and wall plans.
Tolerances for formed footings, based on
ACI 117-10, #Specifications for Tolerances
for Concrete Construction and Materials,w
are given in Table 11.1. Because the footing
is below grade and appearance is rarely
important, any sound old or used mate-
rial may be used for forms. When casting
concrete directly against soil without forms
(Fig. 11.9 and 11.10), additional concrete
side cover for the reinforcement is required.
When casting concrete directly against
earth, it may be desirable to form the top 4
in. of the footing.
layout methods vary. On some proj­
ects, a total station surveying instrument
may be used to locate each founda-
tion element. On other projects, batter
boards are set up outside the limits of
the excavation and marked to locate
Fig. 11.8: Placement and stacking of materials Fig. 11.9: Carefully excavated trench will serve
building reference lines. A string or wire
and form components must be stable and as form for footings to be placed without side
supported by the batter boards is then
have adequate passageways (Photo courtesy forms
stretched along the reference line, as
CECO Concrete Construction, LLC)
shown in Fig. 11.11. Points below and at
intersections of the strings are located
with a plumb bob. A convenient height
should be selected for the batter boards
(an even number of feet above or below
some horizontal feature of the proposed
structure such as the finished footing
elevation) so they can be used for tempo­
rary benchmarks.
For most projects, general excavation is
first done to the subgrade of the slab-on­
ground. In cohesive soils that stand up well,
the footing outline is cut by hand or by Fig. 11. 10: Cast unformed footing with beams
specialized mechanical equipment to the spanning over the footing to support a
exact size and depth. lf the soil is porous or template for the reinforcing bar dowels

non-cohesive, the rough footing excavation

proceeds to the bottom of the footing, and used planks, built-up panels, prefabricated
metal forms, or other available material can be used to form the sides of the footing. Fig. 11.11: String or wire supported by batter
boards is set in the plane of the building line
1 1. 3. 1 Wall Footings
Because wall footings are generally shallow, lateral pressure from the fresh concrete is
relatively small and the required bracing is simple (Fig. 11.12). The panels or planks for
one side of the form are adjusted to line and grade and staked into position. After one
side is set, the other side is aligned by spreaders and held in position by stakes placed

BUILDING AND ERECTING THE FORM WORK


Fig. 1 1. 12: Low footing form for wall can be stake
braced. No ties are required, and wood spreaders
across the top hold sides at correct spacing
Fig. 1 1.14: Construction of simple formwork
for footing stepped down longitudinally
because of sloping subgrade
(a) Ground stakes with braces
Fig. 1 1. 15: Two methods of forming column footings; number of braced stakes or strongbacks
per side varies with plan dimensions of footing (Images courtesy United Forming, Inc.)
--�s -·_�'m""' _____ ...l!fr$ �
Addit;ooal slake,
�
....;·."..··"7
!1'
d
·- -
!! Brace
�Jj' ;!
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fj
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Fig. 1 1. 13: Alternate bracing systems for flat footings. Footings of greater depth may require ties
about every 6ft. If the holding power of the stakes is poor because of ground conditions,
the forms can be braced as shown in Fig. 11.13. Sometimes earth can be used as a brace
by simply backfilling around the forms, although this is a disadvantage when forms are
stripped. No ties are needed for shallow forms.
Deeper wall footings or grade beams (in non-cohesive soil) require more bracing or ties
to withstand concrete pressure and are constructed much like wall forms.
Stepped footings are used when the supporting ground slopes and the bottom eleva­
tion of the footing needs to vary longitudinally. To avoid a tendency of the footing and
wall to slide, the footing bottom and top are stepped longitudinally with formwork as
shown in Fig. 11.14.
11. 3. 2 Column Footings
The forms for simple, rectangular column footings are bottomless boxes. There are many
ways to construct these boxes. Fig. 11.15 shows two examples having cleats at the corners
with nails in shear. The number of braces or strongbacks will vary with length of side and
the number of ties will vary with footing thickness. Because the correct top of concrete
elevation can be marked with a nail, it is not necessary to cut the side to exact height. The
horizontal 2x4s need not be cut to exact length to facilitate reuse. Stakes should be set
to maintain the correct position of the form. A template for positioning dowels or anchor
bolts can be attached to the form box (Fig. 11.1 Sa) or supported by stakes beyond the
form sides.
For small shallow column footings, the ties are usually omitted and wood braces are
nailed across the top of the form box. Round footings may be formed with short lengths of
the fiber tubing used to form round columns.
If the entire footing is to be cast monolithically, top forms for the space between the
steps may be needed to keep the concrete from pushing out, depending upon the
(b) Strongbacks and form ties
CHAPTER 11
concrete slump. When the area between
the steps is covered, the entire assembly
must be weighted or tied down to resist an
upward pressure on the top forms from the
freshly placed concrete.
Combined or strap footings are used to
transfer part of the load of one footing to
another or to support two columns on a
single footing. If two columns bear on one
footing, the combined footing form is built
in the same way as other spread footings. If
the load of one footing is to be partly trans­
Fig. 11.16: Ribbed expanded metal used as
ferred to another, a strap or beam must
stay-in-place sheathing for pile cap and
be constructed between the two footings.
grade beam form; to provide lateral support,
Tie beams to distribute lateral loads to pile
external vertical bars are tied by drilled
groups and grade beams to support walls
boards across the top of the tie beam and
have similar configurations (Fig. 11.16).
tied to transverse reinforcing of pile cap
If the beam or strap is to be cast after the
(Photo courtesy Alabama Meta/Industries
footings, the beam forms are supported
Corporation, AM/co•;
by the previous placement. If the footing
and beam are to be cast monolithically, the
boxes for the footing forms are built with a
cutout for the beam, if necessary, and the
top form for footing portions are weighted
or tied down.
Sometimes footing bottom elevations
are set at greater-than-typical depth
because of soil conditions or stepping
down toward the elevations of deeper
nearby elevator pits or partial basements.
Depending on the conditions, it may be
necessary to protect the workers in accor­
dance with OSHA trenching and excavation
requirements. Figure 11.17 shows the use
of a trenching shield coated with release
agent to the top elevation of the footing
and used as both the protective system and
the side form. An excavator is used to lift
the shield when stripping.
For large mats and slab foundations,
neither through ties nor connectors
over the top of the footing work well.
Sometimes, half ties are connected to
the reinforcing steel for side form lateral
support. Often, edge forms are braced as Fig. 11.18: Thick slab footing formed with small hand-set modular panels supported laterally
shown in Fig. 1 1.18. Forms for other large with kickers and adjustable diagonal braces (Photo courtesy Symons by Dayton Superior)
footings are described in Chapter 15 on
bridge formwork.

11.4 Slab·on·Ground and Paving Work

Concrete forming on ground is relatively simple. The compacted earth or other base
material serves as the bottom form, and only simple edge forms are required. Thorough
compaction of the base is essential, particularly so in paving work or where heavy loads
are to be carried. Frequently in building construction, a plastic film or sheet is laid over the
compacted base as a vapor barrier.

11.4.1 Slabs-on-Ground
Plywood, boards, and metals are common materials for edge forms. They are held in posi-
Fig. 11.79: Braced wood edge forms for
tion by stakes or braces (Fig. 11.19), much the same as simple footing forms. Occasionally,
concrete slab-on-ground placement
other materials such as concrete masonry units or plastic form components may serve as
edge forms, or the already-cast walls of the building may become the edge forms.

BUILDING AND ERECTING THE FORM WORK

Unless sawn, ed9e to 118" radius
before removmg bulkhead

..--1....,.,..=-o./

Metal key Woo<l key Premolded

{preferred) key
Fig. I 1.21:Boxoutfordiamond-patternisolation
joint at column; diamond pattern allows joints
Fig. I I .20: Methods of forming keyed construction joints in slabs 6 in. and thicker. ACI in slab ro be sawn on cenrerlines of column and
Committee 302 considers these joints suitable only for /ow-traffic floors, where some load avoids notching slab at column corners
transfer is needed

ACI 302.1 R-04, uGuide for Concrete Floor and Slab Construction; has recommendations
for contraction, construction, and isolation joints-the latter to isolate floors structurally
from other building elements and thus accommodate differential movements and plastic
deformations. ACI 302.1 R recommends construction joints with dowels for load transfer
rather than keyed joints where heavy traffic is present. Keyed joints like those in Fig. 11.20
can be used for low-traffic areas where some load transfer is required.
Because columns and slabs settle differently, isolation joints are typically placed around
columns, frequently in a diamond pattern so that slab contraction joints will intersect
the point of the diamond. This also avoids binding of the slab on the column as the slab
shrinks. A slab blackout form is shown in Fig. 11 .21.

11.4.2 Highway and Airport Paving

Slipform paving equipment (see Chapter 18) produces pavement of a quality equal to that
produced by equipment operating on side forms, frequently at substantially lower cost.
Nonetheless, there are still many applications for stationary metal paving forms. The stan­
dard metal forms are simple in principle, but must be sturdy in practice because they serve
not only as an edge form, but also as support for heavy automatic spreading, screeding,
and finishing equipment (Fig. 11.22). Several firms specialize in the manufacture of many
variations of these forms and numerous accessories.
The metal side forms for highway and road paving are usually L-shaped and stiffened by
diagonal channel braces that are welded
or riveted at about 3ft intervals. The braces
are punched with holes to serve as guides
for steel stakes that pin the form to the
subgrade; wedges are used to lock the form
at desired elevation. In contrast to street
curb and gutter forms, the base is broad
(Fig. 11.23) to provide necessary bearing for
the weight of equipment as well as stability.
Although special sizes are available, forms
are generally made in 10ft lengths and are
joined with a sliding lock wedge joint. This

Fig. 1 1.23: Typical prefabricated edge form

for highway paving; wedges or keys in stake
Fig. 1 I .22: Edge forms for airport concrete pavement also support screeding machine (Photo
pockets permit vertical adjustment (Photo
courtesy Metal Forms Corporation)
courtesy Metal Forms Corporation)

CHAPTER 11
joint should be free of play or movement in
any direction to maintain correct alignment
of succeeding sections. It should be easily
disconnected for stripping.

1 1 .4.3 Curb and Gutter Forms

The curb and gutter common in city street
paving are of various sizes and shapes. They
may be formed in wood; however, they
are commonly built with ready-made steel
forms (Fig. 11.24) and may also be built
Fig. 1 I .24: Flexible curb and gutter form Fig. I 1.25: Prefabricated metal form for
using slipform techniques. The curb and
(Photo courtesy Metal Forms Corporation)
gutter forms are similar, but lighter than combined curb and gutter where division
the ones used for highway paving. Typical combined curb and gutter form is shown in plates are used (Photo courtesy Metal Forms
Fig.11.25, and similar assemblies are available for casting curbs only in roll, batter, vertical, Corporation)
and other shapes. Form manufacturers can also supply a full line of comparable fixed
radius and adjustable radius forms for curved curb and street work.
One common construction sequence is to place the curb and gutter as a unit using
metal forms, then pave the roadway between with the already-cast curb or curb and
gutter serving as the edge form. In such a case, after the grade line has been set for the
outside (back) curb form, the forms are set in position on the ground and a stake placed
in each pocket. Stakes are driven when the form is precisely located; then the form can
be raised on the stakes to correct elevation and wedges driven to lock the stakes. Then, a
second form member is loosely connected to the first, staked, raised to line, and locked.
When all the back forms are in, or after each form is locked up, the division plates are
hooked into slots along the curb form at desired intervals, and then front forms (either
gutter form or curb face form if only a simple curb is being cast) may be set. The free ends
of division plates are hooked into the opposite front form, the forms squared up, and the
stakes driven. The front form can then be raised to grade line and locked with the wedging
device. This completes the sequence if only a curb is being cast.
If a combined curb and gutter is to be cast, curb face forms are next mounted on the divi­
sion plates and locked into position with wedge-shaped keys. Division plates, which form
the control joints, are made in a number of shapes to accommodate various curb designs.
If division plates are not used, the curb face form may be supported by skeleton division
plates {also called auxiliary support plates) or adjustable
hangers mounted on the back of the outside curb forms.
For installations without division plates, large curb forms
may require diagonal braces or support at their midpoint
with adjustable spreaders to prevent bulging.
Curb face forms are removed about 2 hours after
casting, and the division plates can then be lifted
out, and finishing completed. Side forms are usually
removed 12 hours or more after placing concrete.

11.5 Wall Forms

1 1 .5. 1 Job-Built Forms
Wall forms (Fig. 11.26) are constructed from live basic
parts: 1) sheathing to retain the concrete until it
hardens; 2) studs that support the sheathing; 3) wales
to support the studs and align the forms; 4) braces to
support the forms against construction and wind loads;
and 5) separate spreaders and ties or tie-spreader units
to hold the forms at the correct spacing under the
pressure of the fresh concrete. However, all systems
do not involve all of these parts. Some systems for low
walls involve special tie brackets holding a single 2x4
horizontal wale directly supporting the plywood. In this
single-waler method, 2x4 vertical strongbacks attached
with damping devices align the wales vertically.
For job-built formwork, practical aspects of sequence
Fig. 1 1.26: Schematic drawing of wall form shows typical components. Alternate

and worker access must be considered. The usual practice sheathing materials are indicated

BUILDING AND ERECTING THE FORMWORK

 - -
is to build one form face, insert wall ties in the first
face, place reinforcement for the wall, and close the
wall by building the second form face. Unless the
wall is unusually thick, workers do not have access
within the wall space when the second form is built.
Trying to erect studs first is awkward and access is
not available to nail sheathing to studs on the closing
side. Thus, job-site prefabrication is usually necessary.

,������.
The reinforcing setters may have a problem with the
�=����=�=� ties being inserted before reinforcing steel placement

L--
1 __ __,I ._
1 __ ____,1
_
as the tie ends stick out the wall thickness plus about
8 in. from the face of the form. Inserting the ties may
(a) Template as kicker (b) Template as sill
for panel have to be delayed until the reinforcement is placed
for panel
and then adjusted as required to put the ties in the
Fig. 1 1.27: Wall formwork panel alignment on footings and slabs correct locations followed by closing the wall with
the second form face.
The first step in building a wall form is often to attach a sill or template to the footing
as a base or kicker for formwork panels. The sill or template may be attached to preset
anchors, powder-actuated shot anchors, or inserts drilled into the concrete. Care must
be taken in aligning this strip because it will determine the line of the wall. It is set out
from the proposed line of the wall a distance equal to the thickness of the sheathing.
Several example arrangements are shown in Fig. 11.27. The detail shown in Fig. 11.27(b)
requires that the panel be fabricated with the sheathing edge projecting the thickness
of the sill, which may expose it to additional damage during handling. The arrangement
in Fig. 11.27(c) can be used if the resulting bottom wall formed edge surface is accept­
able, otherwise the framed panel can be set as shown in Fig. 11.27(a). Panels sitting
on the sill are usually nailed to the sill after alignment (Fig. 11.28); however, wall ties,
rather than the nails, resist the concrete lateral pressure. A strip of closed-cell rubber or
PVC foam tacked to the bottom of the sill has proved effective in minimizing concrete
leakage during vibration.

Building the Panels

Fig. l 1.28: Framed modular panel nailed to
aligned sill
Fig. 1 1.29: Framing jig or template speeds
building when a number of panels are to
be mode alike; elevated position makes
work easier and permits carpenters to crawl
beneath panels if necessary (Photo courtesy
Gates & Sons, Inc.)
Some contractors find that they can build their own panel systems for less than they can
buy or rent the ready-made ones. Accessories manufacturers sell hardware designed
specifically for this purpose. The frame is first assembled, often in a jig (Fig. 11.29) designed
to speed up production. Care is required to get accurate layout of frame members to
assure square corners and straight edges. If any panel is not square and true to dimen­
sions, it will throw other panels out of alignment when the forms are assembled.
Partially prefabricated panels consisting of the sheathing and edge studs can be
assembled in a horizontal position. The sheathing is nailed to the inside of the edge studs
after alignment in a squared unit. The reduced weight of the partially prefabricated panel
allows workers to erect larger panels manually (Fig. 11.30). Fully prefabricated panels are
also assembled either at the job site or in a form shop off-site.
When nominal 1 in. sheathing lumber is used, it is usually nailed from the inside face
with two 6d or 8d nalls at each stud. Plywood sheets 5/8 in. and thicker are nailed with 6d
nails at 12 to 16 in. intervals. Remember that the manufacturing tolerance for plywood
sheets is +0 and -1/16 in., which may lead to significant accumulated deviation from the
expected length in long walls. When thin plywood and hardboard liners are nailed over
the sheathing, small nails with thin flat heads, such as 3d blue shingle nails, are desirable.
While still in a horizontal position, the form face is coated as necessary with release agent.
The panels are tilted and lifted into place and then secured by temporary bracing or, if
the panel is a closure form, secured to the first form. The bottom edge of the sheathing
is set on the highest point on the foundation and leveled accurately to establish vertical
and horizontal alignment. If the footing is uneven or stepped, the space between the
first sheathing unit placed and the footing may be filled with specially cut pieces to
make a tight joint if appearance is important For partially prefabricated panels, studs
are then placed and attached for position at the top and bottom. To save time and mate­
rial, studs may be left extending above the top of the form rather than cutting them off
evenly (Fig. 11.30).
Plywood sheathing is frequently predrilled. Tie holes must be located at the proper
elevation so the ties will thread through or between the wales when they are installed.

CHAPTER 11
 Wales may be installed as soon as the
panel is in place. Wales are attached to
the outside of the studs and held in place
by nails, dips, brackets, or proprietary
devices. When wales are constructed of two
members, this saves drilling for ties. Special
hardware like that shown in Fig. 4.33
facilitates the use of single-member wales.
In long wales, the joints between members
should be staggered. If double wales are
used, there need be no transverse joint
completely through the wale.
Permanent bracing can be installed
after the wales are in place or as the form
is plumbed (fig. 11.31). These braces
may be attached to either studs or wales
and extend to the ground or other solid
support. Ground support may be by nailing
to a 2x4 wood stake or metal stake if the Fig. 1 1.30: Partially prefabricated job-built panel with remaining studs to be set in place
brace force to be resisted is small and the
soil is adequate. Anchors, selected based on the brace force, are sometimes drilled into a
concrete slab. When a slab is not available, concrete deadmen either placed on the ground
surface or cast into an excavated hole may be used for attachment.
Due to the sequence of erection, forms are normally braced on only one side and the
braces must resist both compression and tension.Therefore, fastenings at each end of the
brace must have adequate strength to resist the expected forces. Proprietary devices are
available for attaching the brace and adjusting its length after it has been installed. If the
braces are designed to act in tension only, they must be located on both sides of the form
and securely attached at each end. A cable is well adapted to this type of bracing.Tension
braces are required on both sides when the first form face is erected.The cable length can
be adjusted during the plumbing of the forms by a turnbuckle or other device.
Plumbing is the final operation in building a wall form. Ties are usually installed and all
permanent bracing placed before plumbing begins so that the form will not need to be
disturbed after it has been plumbed. Many bracing systems have devices for adjusting
the braces to facilitate the plumbing operation.lf the braces are non-adjustable, the form
must be plumbed as the braces are installed. No time should be spent in plumbing both
sides of wall forms because the second form to be built will be automatically plumbed if
Fig. 1 I .31: Wall bracing adjustment simplified
internal spreaders are used.
with ready-made turnbuckle device arrached
After the form for one side of the wall has been built and braced, work can begin on the
at the end of ordinary wood brace
second form. The ties must be threaded through the predrilled holes, generally by probing
from the first side if the tie is a single unit.
When both forms have been erected and reinforcement has been placed, the ties are
tightened. If ties with spreading devices are not used, the forms must be held apart at the
correct spacing with spreaders that can be removed as the concrete rises in the forms. A
Wire through off­
wire attached to the bottom spreader, running through all spreaders above, and anchored center holes in
to the top of the forms will aid in their removal and avoid leaving any spreaders in as the remaining spreaders
concrete rises in the forms (Fig. 11.32). Ties and spreading devices are discussed in more
detail in Chapter 4.
Where through-the-wall tying is impossible or prohibited by specifications, as is the case Tie at each pair
for some water-retaining structures, external bracing must be provided on both sides to of wales
resist the lateral pressure of the fresh concrete (Fig. 11.33).

Low Walls Wire looped around

In building low wall forms, wales are sometimes omitted and the forms are braced by bottom spreader
members attached to the studs. Because the form panels have less weight, they may be
preassembled with all studs attached. The general sequence of wall form construction
just described applies to this light construction, except for the attachment of the wales.
Fig. 1 I .32: Wire attached to bottom spreader and
Another consideration in this type of construction is the anchorage of the form ties.
passing through upper ones is used ro withdraw
Because wales are not used, the ties must be anchored to the studs.
spreaders as concrete rises in the form. This
system prevents loss of spreaders in concrete

BUILDING AND ERECTING THE FORM WORK


Fig. 1 I .33: Heavy external bracing of wall
forms resists lateral pressure of freshly placed
concrete when ties cannot be used (Photo
courtesy EFCO Corp.)
Fig. 11.34: Strongbacks support and align
horizontal wales in tall wall
Fig. 11.35: Wall form system of manufactured
precut and predrilled parts (Image courtesy
Gates & Sons, Inc.)
High Walls
When high walls are formed full height, greater form rigidity is obtained by using
stronger members and adding vertical wales or strongbacks (Fig. 11.34). These vertical
wales are designed to support and align the horizontal wales. The method of construction
for high wall forms is similar to that for normal one-story walls, but the design may specify
more elaborate bracing or other details. High walls are more frequently built by raising the
forms vertically in panel units.
11. 5. 2 Prefabricated Panel Systems
Manufactured panels for wall forming are frequently used. Such panels are durable
enough for many reuses and simplify and reduce the labor required at the project site.
Studs and sheathing are preassembled in units that can be conveniently handled. The
panels are set into position and tied together. Braces, wales, and ties are then attached or
inserted as needed to complete the wall assembly. For light construction, the design may
not require wales.
There are a number of ways to build the panels, and various materials are used-wood,
metal, plywood with metal bracing, plywood with wood bracing, or glass fiber and plastic
over wood or plywood. A number of ready-made systems described in Chapter 4 are avail­
able usually on either a purchase or rental basis.
Kits of precut and predrifled components using laminated veneer lumber are produced
including hardware, enabling workers to bolt frames together and then attach the
plywood face (Fig. 11.35). Color coding of the components simplifies assembly by rela­
tively unskilled workers on a framing jig (Fig. 11.29).
The sheathing for panels, whether plywood or metal, must conform to the outside line
of the frame. Otherwise, shallow fins will be formed in the concrete at the joints between
the panels. Because this type of form is usually designed for many reuses, the sheathing
should be attached to the frame much more securely than for normal wall form sheathing.
Provision must be made for attaching panels to one another. A variety of clamps and
ties are available for this purpose. If they require holes through the frame, the holes must
be accurately located so they will match up when the panels are erected.
The single-water system is a variation of the panel approach in which plywood sheets
serve as the basic panel (Fig. 11.36). The sheets are drilled to accept the snap tie pattern.
Then manufactured brackets are used to secure the wales at the ties, and clamps connect
strongbacks for vertical alignment.
Erecting the Panels
Panels-either contractor-made or ready-made-are erected in basically the same way as
job-built wall forms except that the separate erection of studs and sheathing is eliminated.
Some systems with rigid panel frames and connections eliminate the use of wales (Fig.
11.37). An accurate line must be marked on the footing for the alignment of the panels.
They are then set into position, and adjacent panels are joined and braced. Other details
such as setting the wales, permanent braces, ties, and plumbing the form are similar to
those for job-built forms.
When proprietary panel systems are purchased or rented, the supplier frequently
prepares layout drawings and provides erection instructions. Sometimes trained supervi­
sors familiar with a given system are sent out to aid the contractor in proper erection.
11.5.3 Ganged Panel Forms and Climbing Forms
With greater demand for massive placements, and with frequently available cranes and
other mechanical methods of transporting forms (refer to travelers, Section 18.6), the use
of ganged forms and climbing forms for high walls has become common. Ganged wall
forms (Fig. 11.38) can be as large as 30 x SO ft. Their size is limited largely by the mechanics
of handling. A steel form of this size weighs about 25,000 lb. Large panels can be assem­
bled flat on the ground where it is easier to work, and tools and materials are close at
hand. Delay and lost motion are also avoided in stripping because the large forms are
stripped as a unit.
Materials for the large form units could be engineered in wood much the same as
job-built panels, except for extra bracing required to withstand the handling stresses.
However, they are more typically assembled from manufactured steel panels. These large
form units are frequently used in high wall construction as jump forms that are moved up
by crane and re-attached for one lift after another.
CHAPTER 11
Fig. 11.36: Framing and assembly of
contractor-built single-wale panel for wall
forming using ready-mode formwork hard­
ware (Image courtesy Meadow Burke)

The same benefits of the large forms

can be obtained by ganging or grouping
small panels together to form larger units.
They are joined with special hardware and
braced with strongbacks or special steel
frames that maintain the stability of the
unit during handling. After the small panels
Fig. 11.37: Framed lightweight aluminum
have been joined and attached to the
formwork panel designed so that wales are
frame, they are lifted into place as a unit.
not needed in many applications (Photo
Such a unit may have a number of reuses courtesy Western Forms)
and then be dismantled for use as indi­
vidual panels on other projects. The ganged
panels are also frequently used as climbing
forms, moving up for successive lifts of a
high wall.
Climbing forms are systems, often
including work platforms, which maintain a
degree of attachment as they are advanced
upward for the next concrete placement.
They are used on exposed faces of struc­
tures such as exterior shear walls, elevator
and stair shafts being constructed in
advance of the floors, tall bridge piers, and
other towers. After a lift has gained suffi­
cient strength, the face form is retracted. A
crane is used to raise the form to the next
lift elevation and the exterior face form is
moved back into position.
Self-climbing forms are similar except
a crane is not required to raise the form
(Fig. 11.39 and 11.40). After a lift has
gained sufficient strength, the face form is
retracted. A rail is extended vertically and
attached to a cast-in insert near the top
of the most recent lift. Hydraulic systems anchors; the form can then be raised to the
Fig. 11.40: The combination of self-climbing
or electric screw-jack systems, mounted next casting position by hydraulic systems or
formwork for walled cores and climbing
on the form and being part of the total electric screw-jack systems (Image courtesy
protection panels around the typical floors
mechanism, raise the form and the exterior Doka USA)
provide site personnel safety (Photo courtesy
face form is moved back into position. This
PER/ Formwork Systems, Inc.)
process repeats before each new concrete

BUILDING AND ERECTING THE FORM WORK

 lift and should not be confused with slipforming, which is a continuous form raising and
concrete placing process (see Chapter 18).

I I .5.4 Blind Side and Single-Side Wall Forming

When it is necessary to place a new concrete wall against piling, an existing wall, or
excavation into rock or earth, one-sided wall forms may be used. Where there is a limited
amount of space between old and new construction, two-sided wall forms are sometimes
used. leaving the form on the back or blind side permanently in place. Single-sided forms
can be supported by ties or anchors attached to the piling. rock. or existing concrete.
Where ties are not permitted, the lateral pressure of the concrete can be resisted by
heavy timber or metal bracing to a solid foundation or other construction {Fig. 11.41). The
Fig. 11.41:Heavyextemalbracingof wall
choice of method depends in part on how much access room is available for workers and
forms resists lateral pressure of freshly placed
construction equipment.
concrete when ties through the wall would not
Various forming accessories can be adapted for single-side forming. Figure 4.38 shows
develop adequate strength in anchoring mare­
a coil tie supported from a rock anchor drilled into concrete. Figure 11.42 shows a method
rial (Photo courtesy MEVA Formwork Systems)
of tying one-sided formwork to sheet piling using a coil tie attached to a steel channel. In
Fig. 11.43, an angle tie bracket welded to steel piling permits adjusting the anchor in situ­
ations where the tie may not be perpendicular. Attachment to steel sheet piling by stud
welding methods is also possible. Tie loads may be limited by strength of the welds or
material in which an anchor is placed as well as by the capacity of the tie itself.

I I .5.5 Square Corners

Handling of wall forms at corners is critical as continuity of sheathing and wales is broken,
making this a potential weak point in the formwork. Corners must be drawn tight to mini­
mize concrete leakage. Leakage here is particularly objectionable, as patching to a square
edge is difficult, and chipped, weathered, poorly patched corners are particularly notice­
able. Chamfer strips should be used on all outside corners unless specified otherwise.
lateral pressure of the concrete, which tends to open the corner joint, must be resisted
Fig. 11.42: Coil tie attached to a steel channel
by ties or suitable connections between the wales of the wall forms on either side of the
that can be welded to sheet piling. Alterna­
corner.
tively, channel may be slipped through a hole
One method of making a tight corner is shown in Fig. 11.44. The wales overlap and two
drilled in the piling, and the tie pulled back
vertical kick strips are provided at the intersection, against which the wales are wedged
to use channel as a bearing anchor (Image
to tighten the corner. Another method of securing corners in formwork (Fig. 11.45) uses a
courtesy Dayton Superior)
diagonal tie across the corner. Special corner damps and ties are available from formwork
hardware suppliers.

I I .5.6 Pilasters
Figure 11.46 shows a wood pilaster form. Note that the edge grain of the form sheathing is
either covered or is located so its imprint will not be visible from the front of the building.
The front panel of the pilaster form laps the side panels so that if a fin is formed, it can be
removed without touching the face of the pilaster. The sides of the pilaster form should

-c"""'oc'
assembly

- �:::�:;,
-Tie

Fig. 11.43: Angle bracket welded to sheet piling

or other meta/surface contains a central pivot
pin through which tie is threaded. The tie can
then move in a range of 45 degrees or more leh
or right of center, eliminating unsafe bending
l
Fig. 11.45: Two of the various comer-tying
of plates or rods in the field (Image courtesy Fig. 11.44: Formwork corner using overlap- devices; hardware fits between double-member
Williams Form Engineering Corp.) ping wales held by a nailed vertical kick strip wales so that cutting or drilling is not required

CHAPTER 11
Fig. 11.46: Plan of pilaster form where projec­
tion is greater than the depth of the studs;
sheathing for wall face laps over corners

not be nailed to the wall stud sides because nailing from two sides will make the studs
difficult to strip without tearing them apart. The blocks between the wall and pilaster
Fig. 11.48: Panels ganged for setting by crone
wales should be slightly loose so that when the ties are tightened, they will pull the face
on long-radius circular wall (Photo courtesy
form tight.
EFCOCorp.)
Often, pilaster forms are integral with the wall formwork, so the pilaster is not stripped
as a separate form. This can be accomplished if there is a side draft created so that the
pilaster is wider at the wall than at its face. Many designers incorporate this in their design,
and the formwork builder should investigate whether or not it is possible, even if it is
not part of the design. A draft as small as 1/2 in. per side is often sufficient to remove the
pilaster and wall form in one operation, and is visually indistinguishable. Other systems
that hinge at the outside corners also exist for pilasters. Proprietary accessories are also
available to assist with pilaster forming.
Pilaster formwork pressure can be transferred to the nearest wall tie by means of a yoke
or offset wale that straddles the pilaster, or by passing a tie through the pilaster itself. A
system of forming pilasters should be selected based upon the formwork type being used
for the walls, the features of the pilasters with regard to the building's architecture, and the
intensity of reinforcing steel at pilaster locations that can make it preferable not to have to
pass ties through these elements. Fig. 11.49: Template for assembly of outside
form segments into a specific radius by
11. 5.7 Curved Walls and Round Corners adjustment of flange strap bolts (Photo cour­
Rounded corners or curved walls of radius greater than 4 ft can be formed with plywood tesy EFCOCorp.)
attached directly to studs. Horizontal sheathing boards can be used for curves with a
radius of 18ft or larger, and vertical board sheathing is sometimes used for smaller radius
curves. Rectangular prefabricated panels, with narrow or flexible fillers added, are often
used on long radius curves. Short radius curves frequently require a smooth lining mate­
rial backed up by narrow vertical members. Thickness of sheathing and details of construc­
tion vary with the radius of the curve. Several of the many forming methods are described
in the following paragraphs, and information on the radius of bend for several common
materials is given in Chapter 4.
Most of the methods involve use of form ties as in straight walls. However, a few
systems, when used in a dosed ring resisting the hoop tension, function without ties. The
articulated wales act as a tension ring on the outside and as a compression ring on the
inside. Vertical wood members provide direct support for the contact face of the form.
Controlled placement of concrete, evenly distributed in shallow layers around the full Fig. l 1.50: Temp/ere for assembly of inside
perimeter of the form, is necessary. This approach is desirable when ties are not allowed in form segments into a specific radius (Photo
circular water-retaining structures. courtesy EFCOCorp.)

Long-Radius Curves
Long-radius curves, about 10 ft or longer, are easily formed with prefabricated panels (Fig.
11.47 and 11.48}. Special filler panels and accessories, as well as suggestions for erection,
are available from panel manufacturers. The assembly process varies with the system.
Support template jigs, cut to the desired outside and inside radius, are often used for effi­
cient assembly in ganged panels, as shown in Fig. 11.49 and 1 1.50.
Long-radius curves may be formed with plywood or horizontal board sheathing in much
the same way straight wall forms are erected. After the wall line curve has been marked

BUILDING AND ERECTING THE FORM WORK

 on the footing, a template of short blocks
is nailed down to set the line for the form.
Because wood wales cannot be bent to

�
the curvature of the wall, short straight
sections with shim blocks or curved
cut PLAN
sections cut from wider boards (fig. 11.51)
from standard lumber are used to span four to six studs according
to the curvature of the wall. The installation
of ties and external bracing and plumbing
ELEVATION of the form (fig. 11.52) is similar to that for
straight wall forms. More external bracing
Fig. 1 1.51: Arc segments cut from standard lumber sizes maybe laminated to form a rigid may be required for this type of form than
curved piece for wales for normal straight walls because of the
short wales.
Steel wales rolled to a range of defined
circular radiuses are used in some systems
(Fig. 11.53). Wood studs are attached to
the curved wales and then the plywood
sheathing is curved by attaching to the
studs. Adjustable radius manufactured
wales of several different designs are avail­
able to simplify building of curved form­
work. They are based on rigidly connecting
short wale segments to become chords
of the desired curve. Vertical studs and
sheathing are added to assemble the
completed form. Proprietary all-steel
forming systems are also available for
building circular structures. They have
steel plate contact surfaces with attached
vertical stiffening and support members.
Horizontal stiffeners provide adjustment of
the radius through a variety of connection
systems (fig. 11.48). These all-metal forms
can be adjusted to radiuses of 10 to SOft or
larger.

Shorf-Rodius Curves
Vertical board sheathing is frequently
Fig. 1 1.52: Assemblyof formwork for curved and flared retaining wall (Photo courtesyUniversal used to support the lining for short-radius
Forest Products) curves. Curved wall forms with vertical
sheathing require curved horizontal ribs
fabricated to support the sheathing. These
ribs are usually cut from wider stock; they
can be made of single or double segments.
Straight wales are then oriented vertically.
Figure 11.54 shows a short-radius corner
formed with hardboard or plywood lining.
Yokes are cut to the required curvature
from 2 in. stock and spaced about 30 in.
apart. The yokes are sheathed with vertical
2x2 dressed strips. The lining is then nailed
securely to the 2x2 backing. Because the
lining material will tend to spring back to
its original flat shape, it must be nailed at 6
Fig. 1 1.53: Steel wales rolled to curves of 6
in. intervals in both directions.
ft or forger radius, combined with plywood
Two or more thin sheets of form material
sheathing and stud lumber used flat (Photo
Fig. 1 1.54: Typical detail for small-radius comer may be used rather than one thick sheet
courtesyGates & Sons, Inc.)
form using hardboard or plywood liner (Image because they can be bent to a smaller
courtesyParr/and Cement Association) radius. Figure 1 1.55 shows one way of
using double plywood for corner forming.

CHAPTER 11
 ·""
t]llf f:..::: �.� """'
-.:-- -
:,··:.
�.
JA'-08
.
2-;i!;ockwhlcn
lot otn•cpoe<>ong

Fig. 11.55: Small-radius corner formed with

two thin sheets of plywood supported on
curved horizontal member5 (Image courtesy
SilL
Portland Cement Association)
Fig. 1 1.57: Form derails for sill, jamb, and
head of window (Image courtesy Portland
Cement Association)
Fig. 11.56:8oxforming adoor opening in a wall

The corner sheathing is brought out beyond the spring line to form tighter joints where
it abuts the wall sheathing. The sheathing is supported by horizontal members cut to the
curvature of the corner.

11.5.8 Wolf Openings

The forms for window and door openings must be made rigid so they will not distort
under the pressure of the fresh concrete. The box forming the opening {Fig. 11.56) should
be made of at least 2 in. nominal thickness material, well-braced, to give adequate
strength and prevent deflection so that the door or window frame will fit properly in the
rough opening. If reuse of the opening form is needed, details that make the form easily
removable, such as a slope or draft on the sides, may be helpful.
Any strips required to form the recess to receive the sash are securely nailed to the 2
in. boards forming the frame. Cross braces should be provided in large window forms.
The cleats should be not more than 24 in. apart unless there is an inner frame of 2x4s. The
frame for the opening is supported by nailing to the form sheathing.
Except for windows with very steep sills, it is necessary to be able to get to the sill to
finish it and to work the concrete into place properly. For these reasons, the sill of the form
may be omitted altogether, as indicated in Fig. 11.57, or the sill piece made in two sections
for easy removal.
Door opening forms are larger and distortion can occur without proper bracing. The
opening is made in much the same way as the forms for window openings. Wales running
across the opening will help prevent twisting of the frame.
Small openings in walls can be formed by attaching rigid cellular plastic blackouts or
box frames to the forms to block out the concrete. The box should be rigid or braced so
that it will not deform from the pressure of the concrete. It should be lightly tied to the
face of the form so the form can be stripped leaving the box in place in the hardened
concrete. Kickers to resist the uplift action of the fresh concrete may be required.

11.5. 9 Joints
Vertical Construction Joints
Vertical construction joints are formed with a bulkhead placed in the forms at the end of
the proposed concrete placement. Because the reinforcing bars continue through the joint,
some provision must be made to allow them to pass through the bulkhead. Bulkheads may
be made of short pieces of wood, placed horizontally, cut to fit between the two faces of
the wall form, vertical boards (Fig. 11.58), plywood, or expanded metal (Fig. 11.59). Rein­
forcement is passed through holes made by notching, punching, or drilling the bulkhead
material. If holes are drilled in boards or plywood for the reinforcement to pass through, a
saw cut through the center of the holes will allow the bulkhead to be stripped. Form acces­
sory manufacturers provide various"form saver" systems that eliminate the need to have
the reinforcing steel penetrate the bulkhead. These systems use a mechanical splice of the

BUILDING AND ERECTING THE FORM WORK


Fig. 11.58: One merhod of bulkheading a wall form, showing strip for
keyway attached to bulkhead
Fig. 11.59: Bulkhead form of expanded metal
can be readily cut to permit wall reinforce­
ment penetration and can be left in place
(Photo courtesy Alabama Meta/Industries
Corporation, AMICO•)
Fig. 11.60: Form-saver splicing devices ovoid
reinforcing bar penetrations of the form
sheathing by allowing a mechanical splice
after stripping
reinforcement at the face of the concrete joint so that the
form sheathing is not penetrated (Fig. 11.60).
The bulkhead resists the pressure of the fresh concrete
by various methods. When using wood forms, cleats can
be attached to the inside face of the forms, outside of the
bulkhead sheathing. For low wall placements, short pieces
forming the bulkhead are lightly attached to these cleats
to hold them in place until the concrete is placed. However,
for taller concrete placements, the formwork engineer/
contractor must recognize that pressure on the bulkhead
will be substantial, varying the same as that on the form face.
The lateral force to be resisted by the bulkhead increases
with wall thickness, the tributary width of the pressure area.
Resisting the force may involve connection to the side form
facing, the wales, and the frame of the panels. Manufactured
form systems often have components to facilitate bulkhead
support. Keyways or waterstop materials are frequently
attached to bulkhead forms as required by design specifications. If permitted by the speci­
fications, the use of split web waterstops simplifies the placement of waterstops in bulk­
heads. These bulkheads can be complicated and required careful detailing and execution.
Horizontal Construction Joints
The technique of forming high walls with jump forms or climbing forms is used where it
is impractical to place them full height. When the first concrete lift is placed, ties or bolts
are placed in the concrete near the top of the lift. After the concrete has gained sufficient
strength, the forms are stripped and raised to the elevation of the next lift and supported
on the previously placed ties, inserts, or bolts below.
A row of ties should be placed about 6 in. above the joint between the concrete lifts
to minimize leakage. The bolts or ties in the previous lift support the weight of the form,
but cannot be relied on to prevent a slight spreading of the forms at the joint. The form
members connected to the bolts must be an integral part of the form panel. If the wales
are securely attached to the form, they may be used to support the panel. Sometimes a
timber or steel ledger is attached to bolts cast in the previous lift, and the studs of the
form rest on it. Specially constructed strongbacks or special brackets, attached to the
previous lift by bolts, may also be used to support the forms.
Horizontal joint forming details for architectural concrete shown in Chapter 14 indicate
a preferred method of obtaining clean, sharp lines where appearance of these joints is
important.
Contraction Joints
Contraction joints must be placed in concrete walls as shown on the plans. Such joints
are formed by a beveled insert of wood, metal, or other material that is tacked to the
form (see Chapter 14). This insert produces a groove in the concrete that will control
surface cracking. It is frequently designed to be left in the concrete for some time after
the forms have been stripped, and in such a case it must be only lightly attached to
the form. If this insert or strip is removed too soon, the area around the joint may be
damaged. Special care is required if control joint strips are removed along with the
main form panel. If wood strips are used, they should be kerfed to prevent swelling
that might crack or spa II the concrete.
11.5.10 Forms for External Vibration
It is generally not recommended to attach external vibrators unless forms were designed
for this consolidation method. Forms must withstand not only the lateral fluid pressure of
the concrete but also repeated, reversing stresses induced by attached vibrators. Vibration
is imparted to the form and transmitted by it to the concrete, and forms must be able to
spread the vibration over a considerable area in a reasonably uniform fashion. ACI309R­
OS, ·Guide for Consolidation of Concrete; provides a method for estimating the centrifugal
force of form vibrators needed as a function of the form mass and the concrete mass.
Quantitative information on design of the form for these conditions is not available at this
time. and considerable reliance must be placed on experience in fabricating and using
CHAPTER 11
such forms. Best practice coordinates form design with vibration needs before purchasing
or building the forms.
Low-frequency, high-amplitude vibration has a greater impact and is harder on forms
than the high-frequency, low-amplitude type. Extremely rugged forms are required where
both high frequency and high amplitude are used.
Steel is the preferred forming material when using external vibrators because it has
good structural strength, is well-suited for attachment of vibrators, and when properly
reinforced, provides good, uniform transmission of vibration.ACI309R recommends
using steel plate 3/16to 3/8in. or thicker, stiffened with vertical or horizontal ribs, or
both. Wood, plastic, or reinforced concrete forms are generally less suitable, but will give
satisfactory results if their limitations are understood and proper allowances are made. For
more detail, see ACI309R.

11.5.11 ACI Tolerances for Walls

The ACI117 tolerances below for completed concrete structures have a bearing on the
accuracy required for wall form construction. Forms should be constructed to give a
finished wall within these limits, unless otherwise specified.
t. Deviation from plumb of the wall should not be more than the lesser of± 1in.or 0.3%
of the height above the lowest support level for heights less than or equal to 83ft 4 in.
2. Deviation from plumb of conspicuous lines such as exposed grooves and contraction
joints exposed to view should not be more than the lesser of± 1/2 in. or 0.2 % of the
height for heights less than or equal to 83ft 4 in.
3. Deviation in the size of wall openings should not be more than -1/2 in. or+1 in.
4. Variation in wall thickness is limited to:
-1/4 in. or+3/8in. for walls 12 in. thick or less;
-3/8 in. or+1/2 in. for walls 12 to 36in.thick; and
-3/4 in. or+1in. for walls over 36in.thick.
For more details and for structure heights over 83ft 4 in., consult ACI117.

I I .6 Column Forms
5, column forms are frequently subject to much higher lateral
As explained in Chapter
pressures than walls because of their comparatively small cross section and relatively
high rates of placement. Tight joints and adequate anchorage at the base are required.
A template frame of 2x 4s or steel angles fastened to the completed slab are commonly
used to position and anchor the column form (fig. 11.61). Because of the confined space
in which concrete is placed, tall columns sometimes have pour windows at midheight or
other intervals to make placing and consolidating the concrete easier. A cleanout opening
may be provided at the column base for removal of waste or debris before concreting
begins. Fig. 1 1.6 1: Wood template nailed to slab
Columns may be round, rectangular, L-shaped, or of various irregular cross sections. positions a braced column form made of
I
rregular shapes are frequently formed by attaching blackouts inside square or rectan­ plywood, studs turned flat, and manufac­
gular forms (fig. 11.62 ), and L-shaped columns may be formed like wall corners. Round tured column clamps (Photo courtesy Gates

columns may be built in wood, but ready-made forms of metal, fiberglass, or other and Sons, Inc.)

materials are more commonly used. Prefabricated panel system parts are also used to
form square or rectangular columns (fig. 11.63), and special techniques and materials
are used for custom fabrication of special column shapes.
Detailed descriptions are limited to some of the more common column forms built
by the contractor.Typical framing and sheathing members and yoke or clamp spacings
shown in the drawings are representative of actual practice, but should not be used
without checking the proposed application on the basis of design principles discussed
earlier. Temperature, rate of concrete placement, and column size influence the design. A
detailed analysis should be made to see that sizes and spacings are adequate for actual
job conditions.

11.6. 1 Erection Practices

Square or rectangular column forms are generally built in four panels, round ones in
two or three circular segments.Clamp spacing and piece identification marks should
be marked on the panels as they are built. The sequence and method of erection vary
depending on the project schedule, lifting equipment available, and plans for organizing
work of the reinforcing bar placers.The column form may be erected in place panel by
panel, or the forms may be assembled into a complete column box and set in place as a

BUILDING AND ERECTING THE FORM WORK


rn
.
.
. and ties threaded through. For heavy bars and large columns, it is common to build the
L-shaped
Cut out corners
Fig. 11.62: Irregular column cross section
shapes ore frequently formed by using inserts
within standard square or rectangular forms
Fig. 11.63: Heavy-framed prefabricated
panels can be used to form square or recran­
gular columns; note bracing in two directions
complete unit. Reinforcing bars may be assembled in place or prefabricated in cages and
set in place either before or after the forms are in position, depending on individual condi­
tions. For example, if there are any ties that pass through the form, the reinforcing cage
may be set in place and wired to the column dowels, then forms set in place around steel
reinforcing cage in place, although prefabrication is still an option when adequate equip­
ment is available for lifting and setting.
If the column form sides are assembled in place, the first one is aligned and tempo­
rarily braced, then the others added and full bracing completed. The other method of
assembling the entire column first is preferred if equipment is available to lift the assem­
bled form because it saves some of the work of temporary bracing. Some clamping
hardware allows the form to be handled in one piece for setting but to swing open for
stripping, as shown in Fig. 11.64.
A template is generally set in place on the floor slab or footing to locate the column
form accurately. Interior dimensions of the template should be slightly larger (approxi­
mately 1/8 in.) than the outside measurements of the assembled form panel to make it
easier to fit the form into proper position.
During erection of column forms, assure noHtwisting"from the square or rectangular
cross section occurs. Some methods to overcomeHtwisting"include alternating the
direction of bolt members of yokes, or the direction of tensioning for certain types of
clamps. line and thickness tolerances will not control twist unless referenced to a grid
on the floor such as column centerlines. Column tolerances for width and thickness
should not be checked from a reference point on the column form or from a single point
on the floor unless twist is also checked to be within its allowable deviation.
If columns are formed, cast, and stripped independently ahead of the forming of
other structural members-a fairly common practice to permit columns to take initial
shrinkage-the column concrete will be cast slightly above the elevation of the soffit
of the lowest intersecting beam or slab. Some contractors allow about 1/2 in. of extra
concrete to cover vertical shrinkage and any irregularities, but the exact amount depends
on shrinkage properties of concrete mixture, size and shape of member, and local/envi­
ronmental conditions. By placing a small amount above the soffit elevation, the beam and
slab soffit sheathing can be fit fully around the column and the column joint will be in the
Cutp•nellor
cleanout"door·
Fig. 11.64: One of several proprietary column Fig. 11.65: One method suitable for forming
clamping methods permits farm to swing light columns, up to about 12 x 12 in.
open for stripping, yet remain in one piece for Plywood is backed by battens, which are a
handling and resetting (Image courtesy Gores part of the wood and bolt column yoke
&Sons, Inc.)
CHAPTER JJ
slab placement rather than exposed at the top of the column.
The form may extend to a higher elevation as long as the
casting elevation is controlled and if the form height will not
interfere with any projecting hooked column reinforcement.
Frequently, specifications require the contractor to remove
laitance from the top of the concrete after stripping and before
casting the next lift.
If columns are to be cast with the floor system, the column
form height must be coordinated with the floor system forming
elements for the slab and beams intersecting the column.
Because of irregularities in the finished slab at column loca­
tions, the made-up panels are frequently cut 1/2 in. or more
shorter than the needed height, and then shimmed up at the
bottom or pieced at the top to exact height in the field. Exact
amount of height reduction depends on local field practice and
job conditions. Sometimes elevation is checked at the base and
any necessary correction indicated by a mark on the template,
or elevation may be checked at the top of the form to make
final adjustments.

11.6.2 Square or Rectangular Columns

The method of building column form panels depends on the
materials being used, as well as the means of clamping or
yoking the forms. Figure 11.6S shows construction suitable
for light column forms up to 12 x 12 in., held together with
a combination wood and bolt yoke. Battens attached to the
plywood side panels are a part of the yoke, and ties or bolts
with washers form the other two sides of the yoke. This same
Fig. 11.66: Typical construction of heavier column form using plywood
kind of construction may be used for columns up to 18 x 18 in.
sheathing backed by vertical stiffening members and adjustable metal
by adding battens to the end panels. Similar construction can
clamps; a cleanout option is also illustrated
be used with board sheathing. Light column forms can also be
built for tying with metal strapping byHtrussing"the panels to
eliminate right-angle bends in the strap tie.
Heavier column forms are commonly tied with adjustable ready-made column clamps
that are available for column cross sections ranging from about 9 in. square to approxi­
mately S x 8 ft. Figure 11.66 shows a method of forming columns using plywood backed
by vertical 2x4 stiffening members. To build these panels, two 3/4 in. plywood sheets are
cut to exact column size and the 2x4 vertical backup strips are attached to extend 1-3/8 in.
over each side of the plywood. The plywood sheets for the other two sides are cut 1-1/2 in.
wider than that column dimension and the backing members are nailed flush along the
plywood edges. Additional vertical strips are used for wider columns to prevent exces­
sive deflection of the plywood. The same type of assembly can be done with 1x4 vertical
backing members if a design check indicates strength and stiffness are adequate.
The foregoing method of form building produces two matching sides and two matching
ends. A useful variation of this scheme for square columns, shown in Fig. 11.67, makes all
panels identical and therefore completely interchangeable if they are not cut at the top
for beam pockets. If columns of this general type are to be tied with strap or band iron,
trussing is required as shown in Fig. 11.68.
Where column clamps are not available, or where heavy lateral pressures might cause
overload or excessive deflection of clamps, columns may be formed using internal and
external ties with heavy wales {Fig. 11.69).
Because sharp edges are likely to be chipped or damaged while the concrete is green,
all square or rectangular column forms should have chamfer strips in the corners unless
architectural limitations prohibit them. Chamfer strips are usually nailed to two opposite
panel units when the forms are being made up. Strips may be cut from wood for a sharp
4S-degree flat fillet, or ready-made inserts of wood, PVC, sheet metal. or other materials
Fig. 11.67: Square column form similar to the
may be used.
form of Fig. 11.66, but with of/ panels iden­
tical. Panels are interchangeable unless beam
11.6.3 Round and Flared Columns
pockets are cur at the top
The ready-made single-use fiber tubes or multi-use steel and glass fiber-reinforced
polymer forms for round columns (pictured in Chapter 4) require only joining the parts,

BUILDING AND ERECTING THE FORM WORK

 2x4

Fig. I 1.68: Suggested arrangement of �trussing�

for columns up to 18x IBin.when steel strap­
ping is used to tie column form together

Fig. I 1.69: Cross section of form for heavy pier-type column with heavy­
duty external tie bolts and heavy steel wales

setting in place, and bracing to maintain alignment. Because lateral

pressure is resisted by hoop tension in the forms as discussed in
Chapter 7, no outside yokes are required. Similar principles are appli­
cable to round steel forms (Fig. 11.70) that are bolted together from
half or quarter sections and to round disposable paper-board forms.
Round wood column forms are expensive to construct. and are rarely
justified except where only a few are to be built to a tapered shape,
to a nonstandard size, or where the surface finish attainable with
other materials is not considered satisfactory. Figure 11.71 shows one
method of constructing wood forms suitable for tying with steel strap.
The round collars shown could be built out to rectangular shape to
permit use of standard damps.
Columns of any shape may flare outward near the top for either
functional or visual reasons. Forming the flared section often requires
a specially fabricated form. Figure 11.72 shows one method of building
the shape into four corners of a rectangular box form. Because the
forms are expensive to fabricate, the form design and construction
should be calibrated to the number of reuses desired.

11.6.4 Column Heads

The details of the structural design at the intersection of the floor
system and the column have a significant impact on construction cost.
Formwork costs are lower when no beam pocket is required. Beam

Fig. 1 1.71: Round column form built in wood may be lined with
Fig. 1 1.70: Steel form sections of various heights end-connected to plywood, hardboard, or steel; two halves of such a column form
achieve round column height ro be placed (Photo courtesy EFCO Corp.) are bolted together, then strapped or clamped externally

CHAPTER 11
a) Assembly of ribs cut to flare shape b) Attachment of sheathing cut in tapered strips c) Columns after stripping

Fig. 1 1.72: Fabrication of formwork for casting a flared column section (Photos courtesy MEVA Formwork Systems)

pockets are required when beam width is less than column width. Structural systems
such as flat plates, flat slabs having uniform depth drop panels, and beam systems with
beam width at least 2 in. greater than column width are easier to form than situations with
pockets.
When difficult forming situations are encountered, the top of the column form is often
made separate from the column proper to avoid remaking the form to fit varying sizes
of beams and girders that frame in, or to facilitate the use of prefabricated capital forms
of special shapes. The flaring "mushroom" capital sometimes used in flat slab designs is
commonly formed with ready-made units. The drop panel that surrounds it is formed as a
part of the slab.
Usually, the column will be cast separate from the floor and before the floor formwork is
erected. Concrete is placed only to the elevation of the soffit of the deepest beam or slab.
Forming the portion of the column within the depth of the floor system then becomes
part of the floor system formwork. B"mbottom•nghtty
However, in some cases, the column and floor system may be placed as one activity. For shorter th antrue dimension
columns into which beams and girders frame, beam pocket openings are cut in the top of and beveled

the column form panels. The opening is generally made slightly larger than the actual size .
Columns1de
of the beam to leave some room for adjustments as the final assembly is made in the field.
The beam bottoms and sides may be placed within the pocket or merely brought up flush
with it. In the former case, the opening must be cut to allow for thickness of beam side
and bottom forms in addition to the 1/4 to 1/2in. allowed for ease in assembly. The beam
pocket may be reinforced around the edges with 1 or 2 in. nominal thickness material,
which also serves to support the ends of the beam form.
The beam forms are also cut a little short of true dimension to allow some leeway in
assembly. These beam-column intersections are difficult to form, and it is easier to fit a
small closure piece or bevel strip in the field than to have to make saw cuts to enlarge
openings or shorten panels. One contractor reports success with a field-fitted metal
closure tacked on at beam and column intersection lines to cover any gap left by approxi­ Beam side
mate fitting of shop-built panels. Figure 11.73 shows another method of handling this
closure, using a wedge-shaped key that also facilitates stripping.
Fig. 1 1.73: Details of one type of beam­
If the plan for form reuse requires reducing column widths, it is desirable to plan the
column form intersection, showing a wedged
original layout of the vertica12x4s so that the plywood can simply be ripped to the new
vertical key as closure piece; removal of the
width. Reductions in column height may be made by cutting short at the bottom if beam
key simplifies stripping the forms later
and girder pockets are to remain the same at the top. If column cross section remains

BUILDING AND ERECTING THE FORM WORK

 constant but sizes of members framing in vary, several
different head boxes can be devised to extend one
common set of panels. Column boxes added to the top
are also suitable for height changes where no inframing
members exist.

11.6.5 AC/ Column Tolerances

ACI117 gives tolerances for completed structures; such
tolerances give the form builder guidance as to the
level of accuracy required in forming concrete columns.
Allowable deviations from plumb vary with the height
of the building, the location of the column and whether
it is an outside corner. Deviation in cross-sectional dimen­
sions is limited to:
-1/4 in. or +3/8 in. for column thickness 12 in. or less;
-3/8 in. or +1/2 in. for column thickness 12 to 36 in.; and
-3/4 or +1 in. for column thickness over 36 in.
WALER For a more detailed discussion of tolerances, refer to ACI
117.
INSTALL
X-BRACING AS 11.7 Beam or Girder Forms
REQUIRED Beam and girder formwork consists of a beam or girder
bottom and two sides, plus necessary ties or braces. For
fireproofing structural steel and for some composite
construction, beam or girder forms may be supported
with beam hangers from an existing structural frame
Fig. 11.74: Typical components of beam form with slab sheathing supported for a
member.
short distance on beam form sides (Image courtesyCECOConcrete Construction, LLC)
Details of the formwork assembly vary, depending
on plans for stripping as well as materials to be used,
'\.Sheet metal closure location of the member in the building, and the antici­
pated loads to be carried. Whether the beam forms are

Fig. 11.75: Alternate details for framing of beam-side intersection with slab sheathing
Fig. 11.16: Beam form details when wood
joists are supported on ledgers attached to
beam form sides
r
assembled in boxes prior to installation, or whether they
are handled as separate bottom and sides depends on
the lifting equipment available as well as the planned
sequence of form stripping. The following examples
show some of the many ways the forms may be built.
Size and spacing of members for an actual job should
be checked according to the principles outlined in
Chapters 7 and 8.
Figure 11.74 shows a typical interior beam form with slab forming supported on the
beam sides. This drawing indicates plywood for beam bottom and beam sides. Plywood
of the beam bottom is supported on transverse joists and extends beyond the beam sides
providing access for workers during form erection. Some builders use the full 4ft width of
plywood to avoid cutting the panels, thus getting more reuses of the plywood. Figure 11.75
shows alternate details for handling the intersection of beam and slab sheathing.
On smaller beams, kickers or knee braces may be sufficient to hold beam sides in posi­
tion, or metal brackets may be used. Figure 11.76 shows beam form details with deck
forms supported on the beam sides. Use of braced shoring frames or a pair of braced post
shores (as in Fig. 11.74} for beam support is important for stability under the unsymmet­
rical loading that occurs as concrete placement advances across the slab.
Figure 11.77 shows a beam form resting on aluminum framing members with steel
shoring frame support below. Aluminum beam supports for the slab forms bear directly
on the beam side forms. Adequate bearing or lap at the aluminum beam ends is essen­
tial to safely develop the full capacity of the section. Note that the uncut plywood beam
bottom extends well beyond the base of the beam, providing access for workers while
framing the rest of the decking (Fig. 11.78).

11.7. 1 Beam Boffoms

Beam or girder bottoms are frequently made of 3/4 in. or thicker plywood with attached
supporting members of sawn lumber or laminated veneer lumber running the length

CHAPTER 11
of the beam bottom. Length of the beam bottom depends on how it is framed into the
supporting column or girder.
If it abuts a column face, rests on formworkjoist framing around the column face, or
rests on column or girder form sides, the bottom is made the exact clear distance, less a
fraction of an inch for leeway in assembly. The panel ends are usually beveled at the face
of the supporting member to facilitate stripping.
If the beam bottom is to be butted against column or girder sheathing, its length is the
clear span less total sheathing thickness of adjacent members at both ends {less a small
allowance for field fitting). The stiffening members may be cut several inches shorter
than the beam bottom sheathing if necessary to leave room for framing of intersecting
members. Ohen, however, they rest on a yoke or ledger around a column or girder ledger
that supports the beam form.
When beam bottom panels are assembled, they are usually marked with an identifying
code number or letters to indicate their location in the structure. Shore spacing required
should also be marked on the bottom to simplify accurate positioning in the field. A
chamfer strip {unless prohibited by the specifications) can be lightly nailed to both edges
of the beam bottom. At times, it is preferable to insert these in the field.

11.7. 2 Beam Sides

Plywood beam sides require vertical stiffeners or vertical blocking to transfer deck load
to the shores. The ledger is nailed to the beam side at a distance below the top to allow
for the depth of slab forming joists that may be supported on the beam sides. In some
designs, the distance also includes the slab sheathing thickness. Beam side forms are often Fig. 11.77; Beam form supporred by aluminum
shop-fabricated or may be assembled in the field from shop-cut parts {Fig. 11.79). framing members has steel shoring frame
The kicker {Fig. 11.76) may be nailed flush with the bottom of the beam side, and will support below (Image courtesy Harcon)
later be nailed to shore heads to prevent spreading of the beam
sides when concrete is placed. Some form builders prefer to keep
the kicker separate for field installation, but putting it on as a part
of the beam side gives added stiffness, which is an advantage for
members subject to repeated handling. Both ledgers and kickers
are commonly cut a few inches shorter than the beam side so
there is room for framing the intersections of members.
Vertical stiffeners may be nailed in place when the beam
side is fabricated, and in the case of deep beams such as span­
drels, some drilling for ties may be required. When the vertical
members act primarily to transfer slab loads to the shores, some
form builders prefer to cut the required number of vertical pieces
and attach them loosely to the beam side for final positioning
in the field. This way, the blocking can be set directly over shore
heads in spite of any discrepancies in shore location that may
occur. Completed beam sides should also be marked with identi­
fying code numbers.
Exact length of the sides depends on the framing method
chosen. They may be made equal to the dear span less the
thickness of sheathing on both of the members that the beam
intersects, less some fixed allowance, say 1-1/2 in. at each
end. This leaves a gap that is filled in the field with a beveled Fig. 11.78: Construction of formwork for floor system with large
2x4 {Fig. 11.73) or other piece that can be fitted in if a larger girders (Photo courtesy Morley Builders)

opening is left. These small fillers can be easily removed before

stripping the main form panel. The use of such short extender pieces extends the life of
the form. When these pieces are damaged in stripping, they are simple and inexpensive
to replace, compared with repairing or replacing the form panel. Their use also makes
the beam form easier to strip.
Some form builders use a piece of sheet metal to close beam-girder or beam-column
intersections neatly. Another method is to make the sides fit inside a beam pocket cut in
column or girder sheathing. In this case, the sides are cut to the exact clear distance, less
1/2 to 1 in. and are beveled, sloping toward the supporting member.
The depth of beam sides depends on what slab form members frame in and how
they are supported. It is usually the depth of beam, less depth of slab, less depth of slab
sheathing, plus thickness of beam bottom framing when beam sides overlap the beam Fig. 11.79: Field assembly of shallow beam
bottom. The slab sheathing generally rests on top of the beam side, is cut about 1/2 in. sides from shop-cur parts

BUILDING AND ERECTING THE FORM WORK

 YWOOO
314" PL
� TYPICAL (HOO)
'
Fig. 11.80: Proprietary clamps facilitate fabricating beam forms before
lifting into position on shoring system; deck form panels are supported
on separate jocks allowing elevation adjustment (Drawing courtesy Atlas
Construction Supply)
Fig. 11.81: Heavy post-tensioned transfer beam form with plywood
bottom and sides backed by a system of studs, wales, and ties and
supported by closely spaced and braced adjustable heavy· duty shoring
frames (Drawing courtesy Conshor)
short of the full dimension, and is also beveled toward the beam
side. If it is desired to have the slab sheathing butt up against the
beam side, the depth of beam side is then calculated as beam
depth less slab thickness plus depth of beam bottom framing.
11.7. 3 Panel Assembly and Erection
Beam and girder forms are made of the bottom and side panels
previously described. If stripping of sides and bottom at the
same time is planned. they may be assembled in a "beam box" for
erection if hoisting equipment is available. Often, however, these
forms are handled as separate panels; sides are stripped for early
reuse and beam bottoms remain in place longer, until shores can
be removed.
For a typical structure where the beam forms are preassembled
in boxes (Fig. 11.80), the erection sequence may be as follows:
beam boxes are set in place between column faces and supported
on shoring frames distributed along the column line. Shoring and
bracing are completed as required under all members and deck
panels are placed. These systems sometimes use preassembled
deck panels (Fig. 3.6) that are lifted into position and set on
stringers supported on shoring frames.
If the contractor has chosen to use separate side and bottom
panels instead of boxes, girder bottoms are first set in place
between columns with shores placed under them. Then, girder
sides are set in place, lightly nailed to the bottom, and tied across
the top or elsewhere as required. Any ties that are in a position
to interfere with the setting of reinforcing bars may have to be
added later. Beam bottoms between girders are then set on their
shores, and beam sides are set in place and lightly nailed. Then,
intersection details are handled, such as fitting in or attaching
any filler pieces required for a neat closure. An example drawing
for a heavy post-tensioned girder form is shown in Fig. 11.81. The
adjustable heavy-duty shoring frames are supported on a slab that
has been reshored with double wood shores beneath each transfer
beam shoring frame leg. The heavy framing and shoring has been
designed for additional loads imposed by the post-tensioning
process.
After any slab forms that rest on beam or girder sides are placed,
kickers are securely nailed to shore heads, and the entire form is
brought to desired elevation by wedging or adjusting devices on
the shores. When correct adjustment is obtained, cross bracing of
the shore system may be completed.lf camber of beam or girder
forms is required by structural design or formwork plan, it may be
introduced by wedging, blocking, screw adjustment at the shore,
or pre-setting adjustable shores. Chamfer strips are installed as
required by the contract documents (Fig. 11.82).
Beam Pockets in Girder Sides
There are two ways to frame the beam into the girder. Often, the
beam pocket is made to the exact size of the inframing beam, plus
a small allowance for give in the forms, and the beam form is then
butted against it. Alternatively, the pocket may be made to beam
dimension, plus allowances for thickness of beam bottom and
sides, plus a small allowance for easy fitting. The beam form is then
placed into the pocket. The beam pocket should be strengthened by
framing with 1x2 or heavier stock around the opening.
Ties and Braces
For shallow beams, knee braces to the shore heads are commonly
used to hold beam sides against lateral pressure, and are particu·
larly important for spandrel beams or interior beams that are
CHAPTER 11
formed independently of the slab. For deep
beams, ties like those in wall construction
are required. Their depth and spacing are
determined according to design principles,
depending on the rate and method of
placing concrete.

Spandrel Beams
Spandrel beams (Fig. 11.83) require careful
forming because of their critical loca­
tion at the outer surface of the building,
where accurate alignment is the key to
good appearance, even though they may
be covered over with other materials.
Frequently, spandrel beams tend to move
toward the outside of the building due
to movement of the shoring system. It is
wise to monitor alignment during concrete
placement to see how much movement
occurs. It is commonly about 1/2 in. or
more. The spandrel outside form can either
be tied back to the deck or externally Fig. 1 1.82: Chamfer strips provide a beveled concrete corner, ease stripping, and help avoid
braced. Spandrel beams are frequently chippedconcrerecorner
deep enough to require ties through the
beam forms, and the ties must be placed DECK TIES
so as not to interfere with reinforcement or
the inserts that are common in such beams.

11.7.4 Suspended Forms for Fireproofing and Composite

Construction
The various commercially available hangers that support beam forms
for concrete encasement sometimes required for structural steel
frames make possible several different methods of forming such
encasement. One example arrangement of formwork members is
shown in Fig. 11.84. Frequently, as with other types of beam and girder
forming, the beam form also supports deck forms. Where steel framing
members are closely spaced, this may be the only support required for
the entire deck and beam concrete placement.
This same suspension system is adapted to placing concrete decks
on steel framing that is not encased. Similar methods are used for
cast-in-place work supported on precast concrete members. Shoring
may be required by the nature of the structural design for composite Fig. l l .83: Spandrel beam form supported on shoring frame
action, regardless of the ability of the structural frame to support with ties back to deck form; most of the slab load is carried on
the weight of forms and freshly placed concrete. This is a decision to aluminum joist system (Image courtesy Conshor)
be made by the structural engineer, and
the locations of such required support
should be dearly stated in the contract
documents.
Composite construction may involve
beams of relatively light cross section that
are fully adequate when construction Joist
is complete but lacking in strength and
stability to support fresh concrete and Ledger
construction loads before the concrete has a) Fascia tie-back
Batten or
hardened. If significant deflection occurs s tiffener
and additional concrete is added to make
;'>'<LJJL:.ji.--"--f'-1LI8J"J- Kicker
the floor level. the potential for failure
increases. The structural engineer should '---c;--.,::,.--.Jo--.._ Oouble members
alert the contractor to these problems b) Tie or coil-type hangers
with ties between
through notes on the drawings, or in speci­
fication provisions. It is often wise to j ust Fig. I 1.84: Typical beam encasement forms; hanger hardware types are available with various features

BUILDING AND ERECTING THE FORM WORK

 place the specified thickness of concrete rather than try to make the floor level.The form
designer should be alert to this possibility and be prepared to provide shoring or lateral
support where necessary.

11.7.5 Beam and Girder Tolerances

Beam and girder forms should be built to meet the specified tolerances for completed
construction. ACI117 tolerances for beams and girders include the following:
1. Deviation from the level or from the specified grade for beam soffits before removal
of shores should not exceed ±3/4 in.
2. Deviation from level or specified grade for exposed parapets should not exceed ±1/2 in.
3. Deviation from cross-section dimensions should not exceed:
-1/4 in.or +3/8 in. for beam/girder thickness less than 12 in.;
-3/8 in.or+1/2 in. for beam/girder thickness from 12 to 36 in.; and
-3/4 in. or+1 in. for beam/girder thickness more than 36 in.

11.8 Slab Farms

Forming for several common types of slab construction is discussed in this section:
Beam and slab construction;
Flat slab or flat plate construction;
Ribbed or waffle slabs (concrete joist construction);
Flying form systems; and
Slabs supported on a structural steel frame or precast concrete beams.
Typical methods of construction are shown, but the choice of individual members and
determination of support spacing must be based on established design principles. This
section discusses slab forming and Section 11.9 discusses shoring. However, both sections
involve components that are often integrated in manufactured formwork systems.

11. 8. 1 Beam and Slab Construction

Where the slab is cast monolithically with the beam and girder system, ledgers on the
beam sides support joists on which the slab sheathing rests. If spans between beams
require additional support for the joists, stringers perpendicular to the joists are used.
Additional shoring is provided to support the stringers.
The ledgers may be a part of the beam side (Fig. 11.85), which is erected before the slab
forming begins. The ledger is nailed to the beam side at a distance below the top of the
beam-side form equal to the exact depth of joists, except in cases where slab sheathing
is butted against the beam side, in which case the distance is equal to joist depth plus
sheathing thickness. Beam sides must be carefully erected so that ledgers are at the right
elevation to give level support to slab joists. Otherwise, the ends of individual joists may
have to be wedged up or cut down to make a level base for sheathing. Cambers must
also be set if specified by the engineer/architect. If the beam
form is cambered, slab forming follows the beam camber.Some
contractors nail block supports to beam sides at the specified joist
spacing instead of, or in addition to, the long ledger.
If stringer supports are needed for the joists, their shores must
be set in place, and then stringers put in position. The stringer
elevation should match that of the ledger top so that the slab
form will be level except when the slab is to have camber. As soon
Stringers
as all joist supports are in position, the joists are placed at their
required location. Because the deck panels between beams or
girders are not loaded during erection, they are sometimes placed
on the joists before the shoring and stringers are set. Stringer and
/ shore supports can be placed and adjusted for elevation later on

__._,.-������p ost
/ du n n 0
Dou os ;� f�:�i�:�:�r�����. t� j�ists are frequently not nailed to
shor s t
/ le
their supports. However, joists that are narrow in relation to their
depth must be prevented from turning under load; nailing or
Fig. 11.85: Slab form resting on beam ledger and stringers. For short
bridging is often used. Some contractors prefer to use 4x4s that
spans between beams, intermediate stringer and shore support may
do not have the tendency to roll, and thus avoid the need of
not be required
bridging or nailing.

CHAPTER 11
 Slab sheathing is applied next (Fig. 11.86). Plywood sheets,
individual boards, hardboard, or boards cleated into panels
and laid on the joists are used. A few nails at the corners keep
the sheathing panels in place; however, additional nailing is
necessary when lateral buckling of joists is to be resisted by
nailing the sheathing along each joist. To further facilitate
slab forming, joists and sheathing can be prefabricated into
large panels. The entire area between the beams can then be
formed with a few large panels in a single operation without
setting the joists separately.
Where a slab load is supported on one side of the beam
only as at spandrel beams and at openings, edge beam forms
should be carefully planned to prevent tipping of the beam
due to unequal loading.
The details of the intersection of the slab decking and the
beam side require special attention so the panels will not
become keyed into the concrete. Keying can be prevented
by cutting the sheathing 1/4 to 1/2 in. short of the inside
face of the beam side form and beveling the sheathing
panel edge. This and alternate methods are shown in
Fig. 11.75.

11.8.2 Flat Plates and Flat Slabs

Flat plates and flat slabs are concrete floor systems
supported directly by columns without the aid of beams
and girders. In flat plate construction, the concrete is of
solid uniform thickness throughout. In flat slab construe·
tion, columns may flare out at the top to form capitals,
and the slab may be thickened at the columns to make
drop panels. Forming methods are generally the same for
both flat plate and flat slab work, except for drop panels
in the latter.
The slab decking (sheathing) is usually formed of
plywood panels, but other sheathing materials can be
used. Because there are no formed beam sides to support
the joists, they are carried on stringers resting on shores.
The first step in construction of formwork (Fig. 11.87) for
this type of structure is to erect and temporarily brace the
shores. Stringers and joists are placed next and leveled by
wedging or adjusting the length of the shores (Fig. 11.88).
Joists or stringers that are narrow in relation to their depth
may require bridging or other lateral support to prevent
their turning or tipping under load. Often 4x material is used
to avoid this extra work. Deck panels or sheathing are then
placed over the joists. Deck panels adjoining the drop panel
are beveled and extend over the top of the drop panel form
just as slab sheathing extends over beam side forms.
Drop panels are built independently of the slab decking Fig. 11.87: Schematic represenration of typical flat·slab form components;
(Fig. 11.89). They are usually supported on four shores or although wood single·post shores are shown, support may be provided by
a pair of shoring frames that are braced to form a rectan· manufactured metal shoring, shoring frames, or adjustable wood post·shores
gular supporting structure. Two ledgers may be attached
to the top of this frame to support joists for the drop
panel. Sheathing applied over the joists is cut out to fit the column cap, and the shallow
panel side is attached. Drop panel units may also be shop·fabricated and set in place on
supporting shores.
Some flat slab and flat plate designs have voids in the slab. Materials for forming these
voids are described in Chapter 4. Rubber, fiber, or metal tubes with the ends blocked to
prevent concrete entering are commonly used. There is also a system that uses round
balls. The voids are placed between upper and lower layers of reinforcement and tied to
the bottom steel or formwork {Fig. 11.90) to prevent them from floating.

BUILDING AND ERECTING THE FORM WORK

Fig. 11.88: Setting elevation of stringers by
laser level and setting spacing with board cut
to spacing length .

Wire ties

Main reinforcement

Form

Fig. 11.90: Two methods of tie-down for fiber tube void forms (Drawing courtesy Sonoco Prod­
ucts Company)

11.8.3 Concrete Joist Construction

Concrete joist construction is a monolithic combination of regularly spaced joists and a
thin slab cast in place to form an integral unit with concrete beams, girders, and columns.
When the joists are all parallel, this is referred to as a ribbed slab, pan slab, or one-way joist
construction. If the joists intersect each other at right angles, it is two-way joist construc­
tion, also known as a waffle slab.
Various materials, including filler blocks of cellular concrete and cellular plastic, are used
for this type of forming, but the discussion herein of formwork erection is limited to the
widely used fiberglass or metal pans and domes. The forming system is basically the same,
regardless of the pan materiaL These forms are available on either a rental or purchase
basis, and the supplier frequently provides engineering layouts for the forming. Installa­
tion and stripping of the forms, including the erection of necessary shores, stringers, and
soffits or decking, may also be included as part of the service of a number of suppliers.

One- Woy Joist System

Flange-type pans nailed down to solid decking are used for this system (Fig. 11.91 ).
Because the pans are lapped over one another, there may be fins or offsets on the finished
concrete, and lap pans are generally not considered appropriate for exposed work. As
discussed in Chapter 4, the pans are manufactured in a range of depths and widths (Fig.
11.92).
Some flanged pans are available with nail holes in the side for fastening joist soffit
boards that have been slipped into position between the pans. long-span steel pans for
joist construction (Fig. 11.93 and 1 1.94) improve the appearance and reduce finishing

CHAPTER 11
Fig. 11.91: Installation of steel lap pans for Fig. 1 1.91: Workers installing wide-module
one-way joist slab; wider gaps at ends of pans (Photo courtesy CECO Concrete
pans and between pans indicate locations Construction, LLC)
of beams, narrow gap or midlength of pan
is location of distribution rib (Photo courtesy
Titan Formwork Systems)

Fig. 11.93:0ne typeofNiong"pan form thor Fig. 1 1.94: Flanged longform pan erection;
has flange clamped to flange of adjoining pan. adjustable wood shores will be positioned
This longer pan reduces the number of seams under flanges for support (Photo courtesy
and produces smoother exposed construction CECO Concrete Construction, LLC)

Fig. 11.96: Components of nail-down lap pan

Fig. 1 1.95: Nail-down pans for concrete joist
construction rest on solid decking, overlap­
ping 1 to 5 in. longitudinally; availability of
tapered end forms is limited
system; nail holes in pan flange and across
top speed fastening of pans to deck and to
end caps (Image courtesy Concrete Rein­
forcing Steel Institute)

where ceilings are to be exposed. Flanges of these pans are typically 3 in. wide, with a
1-1/2 in. down-turned edge. Adjacent pans are butted directly to one another, creating a
6 in. wide joist. The edges projecting below are fastened with clamps at 1 ft intervals. The
pans can be manufactured to create other joist widths.

Nail-Down Lap Pans

The typical lap pan is 14- or 16-gauge sheet metal 3ft long, with components as shown in
Fig. 11.95 and 11.96. After any beam, girder, and column forms are in place and braced, the
shoring, joists, and stringers to support deck forms are erected to approximate elevation.

BUILDING AND ERECTING THE FORM WORK


Fig. 11.97: Two-way joist slab forming with
prefabricated fiberglass dome pans nailed
to plywood sheathing (Photo courtesy MFG
Construction Products)
Fig. 11.98: Flying form with plywood deck,
aluminum joists, and aluminum trusses;
screw jacks on support legs can be changed
to wheels for rolling out; small knockout panel
permits attachment of slings for crane lines
(Photo courtesy Brand Energy & Infrastructure)
After the plywood decking is in place, shores are adjusted to proper elevation in relation to
the supporting beams.
Then, chalk lines are snapped to guide alignment of the pans. The normal procedure is
to set the end caps first, nailing them to the deck form where the coffer begins. Workers
then set the pans, working from both ends toward the center of the member, overlapping
pans until proper closure is achieved. When the first long sections are placed over the end
caps, nails are slipped into pre-punched matching holes in the pan and the end cap to
stabilize the assembly. As successive pans are set into place, freestanding wood or steel
diaphragms (Fig. 11.96) are inserted to brace the joist form. A wood or metal template cut
to joist width can be inserted between the rows to check alignment and width of joists.
After the pans are tightly nailed down, they should be coated with a release agent before
other trades proceed with their work.
Two· Way Joist or Waffle Slob
Solid deck forms are erected to support the dome-style pans. Domes are usually omitted
in the areas around the columns that are required to be cast solid the full depth of the
joist system to provide shear strength (Fig. 11.97). The dome pans may be nailed to the
deck form through holes in the flanges, or fastened with hook-headed nails if holes are
not provided. Alternatively, a washer-headed nail can be driven at the intersection of four
pans. Most designs require that the flanges be butted together on the deck form, which
facilitates alignment. If wider joists are required, a chalk line should mark the outside edge
alignment of the pan flange.
Filler Blocks
Lightweight cellular concrete or clay tile filler blocks that remain in place are used in some
designs. Rigid foamed plastic material is also used for the same purpose. Deck formwork
required is similar to that which supports the steel domes.
11.8.4 Flying Form Systems
Flying forms are large mechanically handled sections of formwork that frequently include
supporting trusses, beams, or shoring units. Although the term can be applied to any form
that is mechanically lifted and moved through the air, it is most widely used to describe
unitized slab-forming systems. One-way and two-way joist pan forms can be attached to
the deck surfaces and "flown" right along with many of these systems. There are four prin­
cipal types of support for the flying slab forms now in common use.
1. Truss-supported slab forms-Trusses may be made of steel, but aluminum trusses
are most often used because of their weight advantage. Wood joists, or aluminum
joists with a nailer strip on top, are fastened to the trusses and the plywood deck is
attached to the joists. The trusses, commonly 5 or 6ft deep, are supported on shores
or jacks resting on a previously cast floor. For stripping, the form is lowered by jack
adjustment. In some cases, the shore may be telescoped or folded out of the way
before the entire truss assembly is rolled out and lifted by crane to the next casting
position (Fig. 11.98). Because flying tables must be narrower than the actual slab span
to accommodate movement during stripping, narrow filler strips are placed along
wall or column lines.
2. Slab forms supported by column- or wall-mounted hardware-Deck panels are
usually framed by wide flange beams carrying adjustable shoring beams, open web
steel joists (Fig. 11.99), or other transverse members to which plywood or other
deck surface is fastened. load on the deck form is carried directly to previously cast
walls or columns, and vertical shores and reshores are not required. Various support
devices are used, usually bolted through preformed holes or anchored to inserts set
in place when the concrete column or wall was cast. One device shown in Fig. 4.42
has both high-capacity screw jacks and rollers. To strip, jacks are lowered until the
framing beam of the deck form rests on the rollers, and the entire form assembly is
rolled out. Forms may also be lowered by other means and rolled out on dollies.
3. Decks supported by metal frame shoring-A conventionally built slab form is
fastened to one or more towers of metal frame shoring. The towers sit on and are
fastened to continuous ledger members that rest on the supporting floor. The deck
is lowered by screw jacks in the shoring towers, and the entire unit is moved horizon­
tally by dollies or other roller devices until it is in position to be picked up by a crane.
CHAPTER 11
 A version of this method (Fig. 11.100) uses
cross-braced post shores instead of shoring
towers.
4. Tunnel form-Another version of the flying
form combines wall and slab forms with
necessary bracing and shoring in a single
unit called a tunnel form, for use in bearing
wall structures. Wall forms are hinged or
adjustable to move inward a small amount so
the form assembly can be stripped for move­
ment to the next casting position. There are
systems consisting of a full tunnel and others
composed of two half tunnels. These forms
are similar to some used repetitively in rect­
angular culvert construction, but instead of
moving only horizontally to the next posi­
tion they are rolled out and Nflown" upward
Fig. 1 1.99: Slab form with castellated steel beams supported on column-mounted bracket
by crane (Fig. 11.101 ).
jack units; after concrete is placed and cured, form is lowered onto rollers, which are an
integral port of the bracket, then rolled out for flying to next position (Photo courtesy Brand
11.8.5 Adiustable Steel Beams
Energy & Infrastructure)
Adjustable steel beams, also termed horizontal
shores, are used over comparatively long spans
in slab forms without intervening vertical
shores (Fig. 4.13). This reduction in the number
of shores and leaving open spaces clear for
work is one advantage of horizontal shoring,
but it frequently results in much heavier loads
on the fewer vertical shores required. Conse­
quently, greater care must be taken in lacing and
bracing the vertical shores that are used, and in
providing solid footings or mudsills.
Because of the greater concentration of load
at the vertical shore, more settlement due
to compression will take place when wood
supporting members are used, and ledgers
supporting the horizontal shoring should be
set at an elevation to allow for this. The prongs
of the horizontal shoring member should
also have a minimum bearing length on the Fig. 1 1.100: Lightweight system of flying forms uses extruded shores with keyways on
supporting vertical shore or ledger as recom­ four sides for bracing frame attachment; wheels on legs are replaced with screw jacks
mended by the manufacturer. after rolling into position (Photo courtesy Symons by Dayton Superior)

a) Half tunnel forms lower and fold slightly b) Top slab and walls with upset curb are cast in one placement
to strip

Fig. 11.101: Tunnel forms for bearing wall buildings can be used to cast walls and ceiling slab of room at the same time; forms clamp and seal at
upset curb for wall placement (Drawing courtesy Dayton Superior)

BUILDING AND ERECTING THE FORM WORK

 If beam formwork sides are to carry the horizontal shoring, then they must be built heavier
�She•thiog than usual to carry the load. A 4x41edger with stud support at each point where the hori­
zontal shoring rests on the ledger is advisable. Extra bracing for stability must be provided
L___�
____Jj Joi;t because the loading from the horizontal shoring on one side of the beam will occur before
the beam is cast. This is even more critical for spandrel beams, and greater attention to
diagonal bracing and tying is needed to keep spandrel beams in correct position.
Usually, these members have a built-in camber of the correct amount to produce a level
slab as-cast when horizontal shores are loaded to the amount indicated by the manu­
facturer. The formwork engineer/contractor must provide additional camber if specified
by the engineer/architect to offset deflection of the reinforced concrete member itself. If
for some reason the full loading will not be carried-for example, horizontal shores are
.
Sheathing parallel to beam sides or walls, or a bulkhead occurs at midspan of the horizontal shore­
compensating adjustments in camber must be made according to instructions of the
Joist manufacturer. Otherwise, the finished slab may have excessive camber at that point.
This initial camber means that screed chairs set by instrument to desired elevation will
be too low after concrete is placed in the forms and camber is removed. Screed chairs
should be set from the deck sheathing to give correct slab thickness. It is preferable to
place the screed bars perpendicular to the span of the horizontal shoring and to load the
entire span before final strike-off is made.
Fig. 1 1.102: Two types of hanger devices used
to support slab forms from existing steel 11.8.6 Slobs Supported on Steel Beams or Precast Concrete Beams
structure (Image courtesy Dayton Superior) If structural steel framing is to be fireproofed by the concrete, forms for encasing steel
beams are required, as described in Section 11.7.4, and the slab forms usually are
supported, at least in part, on the beam form sides. If additional intermediate supports are
required, conventional shoring is used. If the slab is simply on top of the steel or concrete,
or has only the top flange of the beam embedded in it, slab formwork is frequently
supported entirely from the already placed steel or concrete frame. If the structure is
designed for composite action of slab with its beam or girder support, the design engineer
should indicate whether special shoring is required.
Decking is laid on timber or steel cross pieces hung from the beams by conventional
wire beam saddles or various other hanging devices. The general system and materials are
similar to other slab forming, except that support is from above rather than from shores
below. Figure 11.102 shows typical construction. Steel beams should be evaluated for the
construction loading conditions because they are not always laterally stable until after the
slab has hardened to create a diaphragm.
In some construction, timber supporting members for the deck forms are placed
directly on the flange of the structural steel frame or precast concrete girder.

11.8.7 Metal Decking

Corrugated metal decking (described in Chapter 4) can also be used as formwork for slabs
supported on previously erected steel or concrete members. It is laid across the existing
structural members and may be left loose, welded, or clipped at each support, according
to details required by the contract documents, usually as recommended by the manu­
facturer of the forming material. Longitudinal joints between decking panels are made
by overlapping corrugations or interlocking flanges. Some metal deck is selected so that
it can support the construction live load and fresh concrete load without intermediate
shoring. In other cases, it must be shored. The situation must be known well in advance.
The steel deck form remains in place after the concrete is cast.
Certain types of this decking material are designed to serve also as positive {bottom
steel) slab reinforcement. If the decking form becomes part of the slab reinforcement, it
should be galvanized and should not be subject to atmospheric corrosion.

11.8.8 AC/ Tolerances for Slob Work

ACI117 tolerances for slab construction include:
Deviation from elevation:
Top surface of formed suspended slabs before removal of supporting formwork: ±3/4 in.;
Formed slab surfaces before removal of shores: ±3/4 in.; and
Slabs on structural steel or precast concrete: no requirement.
Deviation from cross-sectional dimension:
Thickness of suspended slabs: -1/4 in.
Deviation in size of openings: not more than -1/2 in. or+ 1 in.

11-34 CHAPTER JJ
11 • 9 Shoring
11. 9. 1 Shore Layout and
Installation
Regardless of the type of shoring system­
single-post wood shores, adjustable
shores, drophead shores, shoring frame
towers, or horizontal shoring-the layout
or plan should be worked out in advance
by the formwork engineer/contractor, with
consideration of possible stress reversals
in partially cured slabs when construction
loads are applied later. This danger exists
particularly when long-span horizontal
shoring is used on multistory work. A copy
of the shoring layout should be kept on the
project site at all times, and it should be
followed. If changes are necessary or desir­
able because of field conditions, approval
of the shoring designer or engineer/archi­
tect should be secured. Permissible tower
heights (for shoring frame towers) and
necessary external lateral bracing should Fig. 11.103:Collapse of shoring frame towers under wind load due to inadequate bracing and
be shown on the layout. Failures (Fig. overturning resistance (Photo courtesy Yenon Research &Design)

11.103 and 11.104) have occurred due to

inadequate shore bracing to prevent buckling, inadequate overall bracing to resist lateral
loads, and eccentric loads on shore heads.
Inspection before concreting should check actual layout against plans to see that
shoring is correctly placed. Further inspection or form monitoring during and after
concreting is also recommended.
Attention should be given to slabs, or one-way and two-way joist construction to prevent
local overloading when a heavily loaded shore rests on the thin slab. Leg loads of flying form
tables should be considered and reshores located directly under heavy leg loads as required.
Shores should be secured from falling by shore holders or other connections because the
placement sequence can cause stringers to lift up temporarily (Fig. 5.3 and 11.104 to 11.107).
Dispersed shores resting on intermediate slabs or other construction already in place need
not be located directly above shores or reshores below, unless the slab thickness and the
location of its reinforcement are inadequate to take the reversal of moments and punching

Fig. 11.105: Stringers at end support nailed

Fig. 11.104: Overextended U-head screw jacks, lack of lateral support for joists, and upperjoists to prevent slipping off shore head; diagonal
supported on plywood are indications of inadequate practices contributing to failure during brace nailed to shore top end with double­
erection (Photo courtesy Yenon Research &Design) headed nails

BUILDING AND ERECTING THE FORM WORK


Fig. 11.106: Shore top end held in position by
shore holder nailed to stringer at interior support
Fig. 11.108: Spring clips nailed to top of
reshare and initially fully compressed keep
shore in place when slab rebounds upward as
concrete is placed on adjacent bays or shores
above are released
cu1l .�LL.!U]
m,
l
STRIPPED IN THIS MANNER WITH CAUSE
STRESS REVERSAL IN THE MIDDLE STRIP.
ron• nrn
-··---
MIDDLE STRIP FIRST. THE SLAB WILL
DEFLECT AND BE LOADED AS DESIGNED
Fig. 11. 109: Stripping sequence for one- and two-way slabs
,_
'
- -·
0
��
�
--..,,, ,
LOADINGADJAC EN T
//.......
-
SP.a.N CAN CAUSE
/'j...J ��=�
THISSPANTO 11 RESHOREORBACKSHORE
MOVEUPWARO
RESHOREOR ESINCE
BACKSHORE ISNOT
DIRECTLY B ELOW :�����;> 1, NEGA.TIVEOEFLECTION
•L. ,'
SHORING
1":"1
Ll L:l II
Fig. 11. 107: Positioning of shores and reshares from floor to floor can create bending and shear
stresses for which the slab was nor designed
shear. The reversal of bending moments in the slab over the shore or reshore below may
occur as shown in Fig. 11.107. If reshores do not align with the shores above, then calculate
for reversal of moments. Generally, the moment induced by the slab dead loads will not be
reversed by the effect of having the upper shore offset in location from the reshore below.
Reshores should be prevented from falling by methods such as spring clips at the tops of
reshores (Fig. 1 1.108) and positively attaching perimeter reshores back into the interior
of the structure with appropriate lacing or bracing. When stripping formwork from under
slabs, the order of shore removal should be planned to minimize stress reversal in the slab,
as shown in Fig. 11.109. The reshoring plan and stripping plan should be submitted to the
engineer/architect for review related to effects on permanent structures.
When multi-tier single-post shores are used (one shore on top of another), OSHA 29
CFR1926 requires design of the system by a qualified designer and inspection by an
engineer qualified in structural design. OSHA also calls for vertical alignment, splices to
maintain alignment, and bracing in two mutually perpendicular directions at the splice
level. Diagonal bracing must also be installed in the two directions. Multi-tier single­
post shoring in two or more tiers is considered by ACI347R-14, nGuide to Formwork for
Concrete,ffto be a dangerous practice and is not recommended (Fig. 8.7).
All shoring members should be straight and true without twists or bends. Shores or
vertical posts must be erected so they cannot tilt, and must have firm bearing. Inclined
shores must be braced against slipping or sliding. Shores supporting inclined formwork
members should be firmly connected to the formwork after final elevation adjustments have
been made. Splices, couplings, or joints should be secure against
bending and buckling. Connections of shore heads to other
framing should be adequate to prevent the shores from falling
out when reverse bending causes upward deflection of the forms.
The importance of adequate diagonal bracing to the safety and
stability of the entire shoring system cannot be overemphasized
(see also Chapter 2). Diagonal bracing must be provided in both
vertical and horizontal planes to provide stiffness and prevent
buckling of individual members of the formwork. For multiple-tier
shoring, high shoring towers, or any other high shoring, increased
attention is required to provide bracing that will prevent sway or
lateral movement of shoring and buckling at splices.
Combinations of different types of shoring are not recom­
mended because there may be a problem where two kinds of
shoring are used in a single bay or section of formwork. Tubular
steel shoring does not show a gradual set or buckling as vertical
. load is applied; rather it fails abruptly when a certain maximum
load is reached. Wood shores (particularly adjustable wood
shores) take an initial set when vertical loads are applied. When
the two types are combined for shoring a single bay, if the wood
CHAPTER 11
shores are not raised to allow for this initial vertical set, part or all of the concrete load can
be transferred to the rigid steel shores. Sudden shifting of load can overload these shores
and may cause collapse. Where tubular metal shoring is used on top of wood shores, the
two assemblies must be individually braced and individually stable, as complete structural
connections between the two are not practical.

11. 9.2 Mudsills or Shoring Foundations

Another consideration of critical importance to the stability of the shoring is the provision
of adequate mudsills or other foundation support. A good foundation or sill distributes
the shoring load over a suitable ground area. The footing must be firm, solid, or properly
planked so that the load is evenly distributed to each leg. Unequal settlement of mudsills
Fig. 11.110: Wood mudsills supporting legs of
changes shore reactions and may cause serious overloading of some shores that do not
two adjacent shoring frame leg pairs; effective
settle as much as the others. Mudsills should not be placed on frozen ground, recently
soil bearing area is less than total board length
placed backfill, or where water will flow around them and scour supporting soil.
If the soil is of low bearing capacity, spread mudsills (Fig. 11.110and 11.111) are
suggested. If the soil is, or is likely to become, incapable of supporting the superimposed
loads without appreciable settlement, it may be stabilized with cement, lean concrete, or
by other methods. Another alternative is to use piles or temporary concrete sills.
Shores supported on previously constructed floors may be assumed to have equal and
uniform bearing. However, sills may be required to distribute the shoring load on green
concrete. Suitable sills are particularly important in concrete joist-type construction, or any
other floor system involving voids where a shore could concentrate an undesirable load
on a thin concrete section.

11. 9. 3 Wood Shores

One-piece wood shores, cut slightly short of the desired elevation and adjusted by driving
wooden wedges under the shore or at its top, are commonly used for slab and beam shoring
where great heights are not involved. Braces can be readily nailed at any desired elevation.
Ends of all such shoring should be square cut and have a tight fit at splices and points of
Fig. 11.111: Reinforced concrete mudsil/s
support. ACI347R recommends against using field-constructed splices of timber shoring unless
supporting legs of shoring frames
they are made using fabricated hardware of demonstrated strength and stability. If it proves
necessary to splice without such hardware, braces should be provided at every splice point.
Such spliced shores should be distributed as evenly as possible throughout the work.To avoid
buckling, the splices should not be located near midheight of shores without lateral support,
nor midway between points of lateral support. Splice pieces should be 2ft or longer, no thinner
than 2in. nominal lumber or3/4 in. plywood, and as wide as the shore being spliced. Round
shores should have three splice pieces, and rectangular shores should have one on each face.
Shores formed by overlapping wood members supported by patented splicing devices
may be used when their load capacity has been established by tests and is guaranteed
by a reputable manufacturer. However, when all shores are of this type, they should be
installed in opposing pairs to reduce overall overturning forces (Fig. 11.112). When used as
reshores, the pairing is less critical because the concrete columns are available to resist the
lateral forces, but it is still desirable to avoid turning all in the same direction. Field inspec­
tion of each splice is also necessary to insure that guaranteed capacity can be developed.
For beam support, wood shores are sometimes assembled with T-heads or L-heads for
spandrel beams. However, shoring frames with cross bracing are commonly preferred
because they provide improved lateral stability and resistance to overturning when loads
are unbalanced.

11. 9.4 Adiustable Shores

All-metal and wood-and-metal shores available with jack or screw type adjusting devices
are used in the same way as wood. They simplify the problem af fine adjustments of eleva­
tion made after the shores are in place. Manufacturers' load ratings are usually given for
a certain extension of shore, and this should be followed unless extra diagonal bracing
is added to the system. Bracing may be nailed to the wood-and-metal shores anywhere
on the wood members. All-metal single-post shores usually have connection points for
attaching braces.
Adjustable shores have various fittings that can be interchanged at the top, providing
extended height, flat bearing plate, U-head, arT-head. For support of stringers or other
Fig. 11.112:Adjustable wood shores used as
horizontal timbers in slab forming, the U-head is preferable because it permits nailing
shares on upper level and reshares on lower level
laterally into the stringer.

BUILDING AND ERECTING THE FORMWORK


Fig. 11.113: Stripping joist and beam elements
of o formwork system with drophead shores
where sheathing is continuous over shores
and stays in place until shores are released
(Photo courtesy Titan Formwork Systems)
Fig. 11.114: High-level shoring with post
shores connected into four-leg rowers by
frames in both lateral directions (Photo cour­
tesy MEVA Formwork Systems)
II. 9.5 Drophead Shore Systems
Some formwork for slabs and plates is designed to allow joist and stringer components or
panels to be removed earlier than the shores (Fig. 11.113). This allows reuse of the many
components or panels in forming the subsequent floor. The shores may remain in place
as "permanentw shores or may be released and re-snugged as reshores or replaced by
reshores when the slab has gained adequate strength to support the construction loads
(see Chapter 6). Several proprietary special forming systems with removable components
are available for flat slabs and flat plates, and a number of the standard panel systems
can be adapted for this work. The same panels that are widely used for wall forms can
be laid on the stringers to form the slab. Drophead shore systems and other removable
panel systems allow all components of the slab-forming system, beams and panels, to
be removed without removing the shores. Some of the removable panel systems involve
components that can be unlocked from the shore without a drophead feature.
II. 9.6 Shoring Towers
Shoring towers generally consist of a pair of prefabricated frames, plus the diagonal
cross bracing required to make the tower. The manufacturer usually specifies or provides
tower bracing, but additional bracing between towers is advisable for stability where
large or high structures are involved; bracing or guying to some solid construction is also
needed. Some systems use four-post shores with frame units in both lateral directions that
assemble the shores into a braced tower (Fig. 11.114).
Before assembling shoring towers, the parts should be checked and those that are
heavily rusted, bent, or bowed, or with damaged welds should be rejected. Locking
devices, coupling pins, and any pivoted cross braces should also be examined to see that
they are in good condition, and any that are not in good condition should be rejected.
Location of each tower, as shown in the shoring layout, should be marked on the floor
by chalk line or other simple method. Sills are placed first, and then adjustment screws or
base plates are distributed to each tower location. The adjustment screws should be set to
their approximate final adjustment before tower assembly begins. The base unit should be
leveled after assembly, before any upper frames are added.
Assembly should be planned so that the shoring load is carried on the legs of the
frames, not on top horizontal members, unless the frames are designed for such a condi­
tion. It is important to avoid eccentric loading by centering stringers on the U-heads or
top plates of the frame legs. Adjusting screw extensions should be kept to a minimum if
the shores are being used at maximum rated load capacity.
The following checklist of points to be covered in the final inspection of shoring frame
towers from SSFI SH304, �Recommended Frame Shoring Erection Procedure," is a good
indication of recommended practices.
1. Check that there is a sound footing, or sill, under every leg of every frame on the job.
Check for possible washout due to rain.
2. Check that all base plates or adjustment screws are in firm contact with the footing or
sill. All adjustment screws should be snug against the legs of the frame.
3. Obtain a copy of the shoring layout that was prepared for the job. Check that the
spacings between towers and the cross-brace spacing of the towers do not exceed
the spacings shown on the layout. If any deviation is necessary because of field
condition, consult with the qualified shoring designer who prepared the layout for
his/her approval of the actual field setup.
4. Check frames for plumbness in both directions. The maximum allowable tolerance
for a frame that is out of plumb is 1/8 in. in 3ft, but not more than the radius of the
vertical member. If the frames exceed this tolerance, the base should be adjusted
until the frames are within the tolerance.
5. Check for gaps between frames. If there is a gap between the lower end of one frame
and the upper end of another frame, it indicates that one adjustment screw must be
adjusted to bring the frames in contact.
6. Check frame bracing. When two or more tiers of frames are used, each frame should
be braced to at least one adjacent frame.
7. Check that the towers have the cross braces in place. While checking the cross braces,
also check the locking devices that they are all in their closed position or that they
are all tight.
CHAPTER 11
 l
8. Check that the upper adjustment screw or shore head is in full contact with the form­
work. If it is not in contact it should be adjusted or shimmed until it is.
r-'····�
9. Check that the obvious mistakes of omitting joists, using the wrong size ledger, or
incorrectly orienting members, have not been made. Check that the lumber used is
equal to that specified on the shoring layout. Check the general formwork scheme - >0"0.0.-

that it follows good standard practice for formwork.

fLF----'Ij
10. lf the shoring layout shows exterior bracing for lateral stability, check that this
bracing is in place in the locations specified on the drawing. Check that the devices
that attach this bracing to the equipment are securely fastened to the legs of the
shoring equipment. If tubing damps are used, check that they have been properly
tightened. If devices for holding timber require nails, check that sufficient nails have � -20 114" I_;:: !---sand fill
been used to hold the bracing securely to the frame legs.

11. 9.7 Adjustment and Jacking

,. •1 114" P ipe plugs
��oll--
Jacks or wedges should be provided to permit alignment and facilitate stripping. Screw­ L ...!��O
type jacks are most typical. Wedges may be used at the top or bottom of shores, but not
Fig. 11.115: Sand jack consists of concrete­
at both ends. The best wedges are made of hardwood, driven in pairs to an even bearing.
filled piston and sand-filled cylinder; useful
When final adjustment of shore elevation is complete, wedges are toenailed to the shore.
for slowly lowering heavy loads; motion con
Wedges are needed in U-heads of shores to prevent eccentric loads of the shore when
be stopped by replugging holes at the bose
stringers are sloped. Any wedges at the top of shores under sloping forms should be
securely nailed to the shore head when adjustment is completed.
The various patented shoring devices have their own jack or screw adjustments for
elevation. Screw jacks for pipe shores or shoring frames may be used at both top and
bottom so long as they are secured by the shore leg against loosening, tilting out of shore
alignment, or falling out. The minimum embedment in the pipe leg or sleeve indicated by
the manufacturer should be maintained.
Where major movements of heavy loads are required, such as when a large section of
shoring is to be lowered or raised as a unit, or where extremely careful control of decen­
tering is required, hydraulic or pneumatic jacks are often used.
For form removal only, sand jacks lower heavy loads up to 300,000 lb, and offer the
advantages of little deflection under load and no danger of failure during placing and
curing. Their rate of travel is easily controlled by slight hand pressure over the plug hole to
change the flow of sand. Construction of such a jack is shown in Fig. 11.115.

11. 9. 8 Permanent Shores and Back Shores

A •permanent� shore is one that can remain undisturbed as form
panels are stripped around it. Use of permanent shores avoids
the special attention required to ensure that reshores are placed
uniformly tight under the slab. It also provides better assurance
that shores are placed in the same pattern on each floor. Perma­
nent shores can work well for low-rise construction where the
shores are left in place all the way to the ground until the small
number of floors is completed. Even then, the loads in the lowest
level of shores become very high. However, leaving shores in
place for multiple floors when the shores no longer extend to the
ground in higher rise construction would cause buildup of unac­ Fig. 11. 116: One method of leaving shoring in place when slab forms
ceptably high loads in the lowest supporting floor, which could are stripped
cause catastrophic failure.
Two basic systems of permanent shoring are the king stringer system and the king shore
system. The former uses ledgers on the sides of the stringer that may be released, permit­
ting the removal of the joist and form contact surfaces between the stringers. Figure
11.116 shows how this may be done with panel slab forms. In the king shore system, the
head of the shore is in contact with the concrete. Prefabricated panels 4 ft long are used
with king stringers 8ft apart. Panels are supported at one end on 2x4s bolted to king
stringers and on 4x4 stringers at the other end. The 4x4s and their shores can be removed,
freeing panels and leaving king stringers and their shores to support the slab as long as
desired.
The term permanent shore has usually been associated with earlier types of built-in­
place wood formwork. However, several current proprietary forming systems permit form

BUILDING AND ERECTING THE FORM WORK

removal without moving the shores by design of panels that lock into the shore heads and
can be used as permanent shores.
Another practice believed to give similar results to permanent shoring is called back­
shoring. It requires placing shores snugly under a stripped concrete member after original
formwork and shores have been removed from a small area without allowing the slab to
deflect and carry its own weight. Backshoring is not recommended by ACI 347R unless it
is done under supervision by the formwork engineer/contractor and with review by the
engineer/architect

11. 9. 9 Composite Construction

Shoring required by the structural design for composite action and concrete strength
required prior to shore removal should be specified by the engineer/architect Such
shoring must generally remain until concrete is fully cured, and so permanent shores
are desirable.
Shoring of members that will act compositely with the concrete to be placed should be
done with great care to assure sufficient bearing, rigidity, and tightness to prevent settle­
ment or deflections beyond allowable limits. Wedges, shims, or jacks should be provided
to make necessary adjustments before concreting as well as to permit removal without
jarring or impact of the completed construction. Provision should be made for checking
the accuracy of position and level during concrete placement. It is sometimes possible to
adjust forms during and after placing concrete, but it is not recommended. Any required
adjustment should be made before initial set of the concrete.
Where camber is required, distinction should be made between the part that is
an allowance for settlement or deflection of formwork or shoring and that which is
provided for design loadings. The former is generally the responsibility of the formwork
engineer/contractor who designs the forms and supports unless such camber is stipu­
lated by the engineer/architect. For acceptance purposes, measurement of camber
provided for design loadings should be made after hardening of the concrete but before
removal of the supports.
12: USING THE FORMS
Construction procedures should be planned in advance to achieve proper balance
between economy and the quality of the formed surface, while still maintaining safety.
This advance planning should be coordi­
nated with the design and construction
of the formwork (Fig. 12.1 ). Knowledge
of conditions for which the forms are
intended and a common-sense willing­
ness to meet these limitations are abso­
lutely necessary. For example, ifforms are
designed for a rise of concrete of 4 ftlh,
that rate should not be exceeded if forms
are to function properly. If slab forms are
designed for 125 to 150 lb/ft2 total load,
placement of heavy bundles of reinforcing
steel or other construction materials may
result in damage or undue deflection of
the formwork. By the same token, heavy
construction loads should be kept offnew,
partially cured concrete structures. When
forms are designed for concrete pressures
anticipated in mild weather, be aware that
the same rate of placement in winter may
produce significantly higher pressures and
greater deflection in wall and column forms
due to a lower concrete temperature and
slower setting. Fig. 12.1: Preparation for use of the formwork during a concrete placement involves planning
The purpose of this chapter is to iden­ and coordination af many trades and suppliers by the contractor (Photo courtesy Morley
tify factors to be considered in using the Builders)

reinforcement and inserts, and operation of the placing equipment in such a way that
Fig. 12.2: Reinforced concrete beam and slab
parking deck forms with deck drain, anchors,
bar chairs, and epoxy-coated reinforcement
in place (Photo courtesy United Forming, Inc.)
Fig. 12.3: With shear studs for slab punching
shear in place, work continues to install rein­
forcing bars and post-tensioning tendons
Fig. 12.4: Inserts, pipe sleeves, shear studs, support chairs, dowels, reinforcing bars, and post­
tensioning tendons in place for a flat-plate concrete floor system
forms, such as the cleaning and coating of forms before concreting, care in placing the
forms are not damaged or misaligned. Inspection of the formwork before, during, and
after concreting is important to both the contractor and the owner's representative, and
some suggestions on how this should be handled are included. Stripping the forms and
installing reshores require considerable care to protect the concrete, and for this reason
are often controlled directly by the engineer/architect through concrete strength and
concrete age requirements.
Some of the factors affecting decisions on these points are enumerated and recom­
mended techniques are included. Reconditioning and proper storage and handling of
forms benefit the contractor who wants the forms to give maximum reuse, and sugges­
tions for these practices are given. Insulation of formwork for use during cold weather is
also discussed.
12.1 Placing Reinforcement and Inserts
Detailed recommendations for placing reinforcing bars have been published12·1 by the
Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute; comments made herein cover only those aspects
of bar setting that have a direct effect on the formwork. The order of bar setting in the
construction sequence depends on the member as well as the system of form erection.
Other construction details, including facilities for hoisting and placing reinforcing cages
and forms, also affect the order of bar setting. For walls, the external form is usually set
in place, followed by the reinforcing curtain, and then the interior wall form is erected
and secured in place. For walls that are part of a core, such as elevator shafts or stairwells,
the inside forms are set first, although the sequence of form placement in cores can vary
when jump systems, guided climber, or self-climbing platforms are used. For columns,
the reinforcing bars may be preassembled and set in place, then the panels of the column
form erected, aligned, and clamped around them. Alternatively, the reinforcing cage, with
side spacers attached, may be dropped down inside the preassembled column form or the
entire preassembled column form may be set down over the erected reinforcement. The
contractor should be aware that the formwork surface can be damaged (scratching from
reinforcing bar) when placed preassembled.
Beam and girder boxes are usually fully assembled to receive the reinforcement, and beam
and girder reinforcement is assembled in place in the forms (Fig. 12.2); less frequently, the
cage is preassembled and set in place as a unit. Spandrel beams having reglets, anchors,
and the like usually have these placed by the form builder ahead of the steel setters. If beam
sides are to be tied across the top to prevent spreading, this must be done after the bar
setters have finished, and such ties should
not interfere with the bars.
Regardless of the exact sequence estab­
lished, it is important to have the work of
bar setter coordinated with that of other
trades. Some inserts, sleeves, conduits,
ducts, straps, and anchors should be placed
ahead of the bars but others should be
placed later (Fig. 12.3 through 12.5). Similar
coordination with the form builders is
necessary to get formwork in position,
braced, and aligned to receive bars. Provi­
sions must also be made for formwork
parts that cannot be erected until after the
bars are set.
The design layout of the steel reinforce­
ment should be reviewed in advance to
determine if it is too congested to permit
proper placement of concrete in the
forms and at the same time provide the
intended cover for the bars. The contractor
should call this condition to the attention
of the engineer/architect to see if details
can be revised and coordinated with
CHAPTER 12
the reinforcing fabricator during the detailing process {refer to ACI SP-66, HACI Detailing
Manuai-2004H).
Release agent or other coatings should be applied before steel is placed so the coating
material does not get on the steel where it could reduce or destroy bond between the
hardened concrete and its reinforcement. Most sleeves and inserts should be securely
fastened in place before steel is set, and bar setters should take care not to remove or
dislodge them. Pipe sleeves and inserts should be held in place by the minimum number
of nails or screws of the minimum size necessary to secure them during concrete place­
ment (Fig. 12.6 and 12.7). When the forms are stripped, these nails and screws tear the
form surface, and may limit the life of the form sheathing. Some manufactured sleeves are
designed for attachment to minimize damage to form sheathing.

12. 1. 1 Support For Reinforcing Bars

Bar supports hold reinforcing steel at the required location and clearance from the forms
before and during the placing of concrete (Fig. 12.4). Bar supports must be sufficiently
strong and properly spaced to support the reinforcement, necessary foot traffic, and other
normal construction loads. They are not intended, and should not be used, to support
runways for concrete buggies or similar loads.
In footings, concrete bricks or precast concrete blocks are commonly used to support
mats of bars. For top bars in heavy foundation mats, special heavy bar supports can be Fig. 12.5: Electrical junction boxes and
obtained with bearing plates to rest upon the subgrade, if permitted by the specification. conduit placed in slab (Photo courtesy
For other members such as joists, slabs, beams, and girders, a wide variety of manufac­ Olympic Panel Products LLC)
tured wire, plastic, and even concrete bar supports are available. Any steel bar supports
used at concrete surfaces that are to be exposed to the elements should be made of stain­
less steel, galvanized, or plastic coated to prevent rust staining of the exposed concrete
surface. It is preferable that the entire bar support in such locations be made of plastic or
other nonrusting material.
For horizontal members, bar supports are commonly spaced 4 or 5 ft on centers. A
reduced spacing may be required to prevent form damage where the weight of rein­
forcing steel is excessive. Bar chairs or bolsters should be strong enough and spaced
closely enough that they are not excessively loaded and bite into the form; this can be
particularly troublesome in architectural concrete. Heavy reinforcing cages may cause
beam bottoms to deflect objectionably at the point where bar chairs or other bar supports
are located. This can be overcome by hanging the reinforcing cage from the top of the Fig. 12.6: Plastic pipe sleeves screwed to form
form, or by closer spacing of bar supports to distribute the load more evenly over the plywood sheathing
beam bottom.
Bar supports for cantilevered reinforced members should have extra strength and stiff­
ness to maintain reinforcement in proper design position. This requires particular atten­
tion because the major reinforcement is near the top of the member, where it is more
vulnerable to accidental displacement by construction activities.
Some method or device is needed to keep vertical as well as horizontal reinforcement in
the proper position. Supports for horizontal bars have long been supplied by the rein­
forcing bar industry, but estimating or detailing spacers against vertical forms to maintain
side cover and cross position in walls and columns has not been a normal industry prac­
tice in the United States. Various makeshift approaches to maintaining cover for vertical
bars have been used, but all too often nothing more is done than to try to manipulate
the bars into place by hand after the concrete has been placed. ACI 347R-14, HGuide to
Formwork for Concrete," recommends more positive measures, such as installing side form
spacers (refer to Fig. 4.43).
One approach has been to depend on tying vertical bars to dowels at the bottom and
attaching them to the forms in some way at the top. Nails driven into the formwork near
the top of the bars, projecting the required amount of cover and matched to the vertical
bars, with wire looped around the nail head, have been used. Sometimes the curtain of
reinforcement is wired to the form ties, or sometimes wire or stamped metal spacers are Fig. 12.7: Weld plate, to be anchored in
used and the curtain is wired to the wall forms and pulled tight against these spacers. concrete by studs, is nailed to form sheathing

From the point of view of the form builder, the wall reinforcing should be attached to nails
in the forms as little as possible. Nails make stripping difficult and may cause damage to
form panels. They may also cause rust streaks later on the surface of exposed structures.
Another method of spacing vertical reinforcement mats is to rip long strips of 2 in.
lumber to the required dimension and insert them at intervals between the wall sheathing
and the steel mat before concrete is placed. The strips are raised as the form is filled, and

USING THE FORMS


Table 12.2: ACI 117 tolerances on bar placement and concrete cover
Toleronte on bor locot10n
meo�ured from formed
Member toto! depth
Wheretotoldepthis4in
or less
Wheretotoldepthiso\'9r
4in. and n ol over 12in
Where o
l toldepthis more
thon 12in.
care should be taken to see that they are
entirely removed before completing the
concrete placement. If there is more than
one layer of steel in a wall or other vertical
member, the same procedure can be
used in both faces. However, if force was
required to flex the reinforcement into
Toleronce DeV10t10n from position when closing the form, the curtain
on m1n1mum cro�s-�edionol may move upon withdrawal of the strips
concrete �urfate contrete cover d1men�1on and result in reduced concrete cover.
+3/8in.,-1/4in. For some exposed walls, small concrete
:tl/4in -3/Si.
n
[except lor slobs) cubes with tie wire cast in them may be
used as spacers to hold reinforcing bars at
z3/8in -3/8i.
n +3/8in.,-1/4in
the proper distance from the forms. The
+ 1/2in.,-3/8i.
n short lengths of embedded tie wire are
[but+ 1i.
n , -3/4 i.
n used to fasten the block to the reinforcing
:tl/2i.
n -1/2in.
ilmorethon 36in steel before the outside wall form is posi­
depth )
tioned. Plastic spacers, often in the shape
of a wheel {Fig. 4.43), that snap onto the
reinforcing bars and need not be tied, are frequently used. They are non-corroding and
available in several shades of gray or white approximating the color of concrete.
Steel in columns can likewise be positively spaced at the proper distance from the form
by snap-on plastic spacers at three or four points as near top, bottom, and midheight
as possible. For such spacing, some erectors cast concrete donuts that are slid onto the
appropriate column verticals during assembly. Others provide wire slab bolsters of suit­
able height tied on the erected column cage to bear against the formwork. Any practices
that hinder stripping or damage forms should be avoided.
Although side form spacers are still considered a �construction option; the Concrete
Reinforcing Steel Institute's Manual of Standard Practice•l.l describes them and includes
illustrations along with other bar supports. Special arrangements for estimating, detailing,
and furnishing side form spacers can be made with the reinforcing steel supplier.
12. 1.2 Positioning Bars; Placement Tolerances
d, and on concrete cover for reinforcing bars are
Tolerances on depth of reinforcement,
given in ACI 318-11, «Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete,« as listed in
Table 12.1. ACI 318 defines d as the distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid
of longitudinal tension reinforcement.
ACI117-10, «Specification for Tolerances for Concrete Construction and Materials and
Commentary,« gives tolerances for placement of reinforcing bars, minimum concrete
cover for reinforcement. and deviation from cross-section dimension, as listed in Table
12.2. 1n addition, both ACI 318 and AC1117 limit the reduction in cover to one-third
of whatever minimum cover is specified in the contract documents, and sets a special
tolerance of -1/4 in. on clear distance to formed soffits.
Because the effective depth, d, and the clear concrete cover are components of total
depth, the tolerances on these dimensions are directly related to tolerances on overall
member depth that must be considered by the form builder. Every pre<:aution should
be taken to prevent bar placing tolerances from becoming additive with tolerances for
formwork to leave steel with insufficient cover or depth. Where combinations of bar
placement and formwork tolerances may present problems, the engineer/architect
should indicate which dimension is more critical or select special tolerances to take care
of the individual situation.
Meeting only the ACI 318 tolerances, the overall column dimension shown in Fig. 12.8
might be any amount from 11 in. upward. However, by following the ACI117 tolerance
for cross section of the completed column-which permits the size to vary from 11-3/4 to
12-3/8 in.-it would be impossible to accept the full limit of ACI318 bar placement toler­
ances. This is an example of the need for the engineer/architect to understand that the
tolerance ford, as stated in ACI318, is for a strength calculation and should not be used as
a placement tolerance for construction without also considering the ACI117 tolerances.
In architectural concrete exposed to the weather, cover on the exposed face is usually
more critical than structural depth. One important exception is in heavily loaded exposed
columns designed for minimum size. For such cases, a special tolerance (-0 and+ 1/2 in.)
CHAPTER 12
on form dimensions and on effective depth (-0 and+ 1/4 in.) is a wise precaution. The
same special tolerance of -0 in. and+ 1/2 in. is also advisable for thin structural slabs.
Examination of bar placing tolerances and concrete dimensional tolerances indi­
cates no serious problem of additive tolerances at critical dimensions for spandrel
beams, ordinary interior members, and exterior members not designed to minimum
size. Special spacers on spandrel beams are sometimes used, however, to maintain the
desired cover. When placing slab or other bars, chalk marks may be made on the forms,
but a soluble gypsum chalk is desirable because regular keel or wax crayon will leave
marks on the finished concrete.
It is sometimes necessary or desirable to move an entire mat of steel into a better posi­
tion by sliding it along the form, or a layer of slab bars may be lifted as a unit to permit
the insertion of bars underneath. This moving may be done with a crowbar or larger lever
Fig. 12.8: Comparison of tolerances for 12 in.
tools. large lever tools require that the fulcrum bear against something solid enough to
square interior column with No. 8 bars
take the heavy thrust. If bars are being raised from slab formwork, a temporary shore may
be needed under the fulcrum point. Care should also be taken not to damage the surface
of forms for concrete that will be exposed.

12.2 Preparation for Concreting

Forms must be thoroughly cleaned of all dirt, mortar, and other matter such as chips,
blocks, sawdust, snow, or ice before each use. Aher pickup of major debris, slab forms
can often be blown out with compressed air or leaf blowers (Fig. 12.9). When possible,
wall forms should be cleaned before closure. If cleaning is necessary after closure and the
bottom of the form cannot be reached from the inside, access panels, preferably at the
end of the form rather than the side, should be provided to permit thorough removal of all
foreign matter before placing the concrete. A jet of air, water, or steam may be used effec­
tively to remove debris. All cleanout openings must be closed after washing out the forms.
Some specifications prohibit cutting washout holes in the forms. In such cases, pumps,
air-lifts, or siphons may be required to remove water and washings.

1 2. 2. 1 Form Release Agents

Release agents are applied to the contact surface of the forms to prevent bond to the
concrete and thus facilitate stripping. They can be applied to form materials during manu­
facture or applied to the form before each use. Manufacturers' recommendations should
be followed in the use of coatings, sealers, and release agents,12·3 but ACI 347R and ACI
347.3R, "Guide for Formed Concrete Surfaces," recommend independent investigation of
performance before using a new product.
The term �form oil" is frequently used. There are many types of oils and at one time
form oil included petroleum compounds originally intended for other applications, such Fig. 12.9:Airblowers areamong the devices
as diesel fuel, heating oil, and used motor oil. U.S. environmental regulations limit use of used to clean debris from forms
volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and prohibit the sale of these commodities as release
agents, but they were widely used in the past because they were inexpensive and readily
available. Due to environmental regulations, petroleum-based products also create issues
with possible spillage, container leakage, and disposal of containers. Transport of petro-
leum-based products may require hazardous material placarding/licensing depending on
flash point and volume being shipped.
The term "release agent" is intended to refer to products containing proprietary
ingredients specifically formulated for use on concrete forms. Mineral oils, derived from
petroleum distillates, and biodegradable oils, derived from biological sources such as
vegetable oil, are both major components of form release agents. Release agents are
commonly classified on the basis of how they act instead of what is in them. The two
basic categories are barrier agents and reactive agents. Some release agents are a combi­
nation of the two types.
Barrier-type release agents create a physical barrier between the form surface and the
fresh concrete, preventing the concrete from sticking to the form. Barrier release agents
are typically applied in relatively thick films and such heavy applications can increase
surface staining and bugholes on the concrete surface. If the coated forms are left for
several days before concrete is placed, barrier release agents may evaporate, possibly
leading to some sticking of the concrete to the form.
Reactive agents contain an active ingredient that may be dissolved in an oil-based
carrier or emulsified in a water-based carrier. The active ingredient is typically some type of
fatty acid derived from plant or animal sources, and it combines chemically with calcium

USING THE FORMS

 ions in the fresh concrete. The reaction product is a thin layer of what chemists refer to
as a grease or metallic soap or salt. Because it is non-water-soluble, it permits the form to
release readily from the hardened concrete.
The reactive fatty acid components are generally considered biodegradable and have
found some favor because of increasingly stringent environmental regulations. For similar
reasons, manufacturers have also been turning to water-based formulas that may be
susceptible to freezing.
Release agents are differentiated from form coatings or sealers that are usually applied in
liquid form to contact surfaces either during manufacture or in the field (Fig. 12.10). Coat­
ings and sealers serve one or more of the following purposes:
Alter the texture of the contact surface;
Improve the durability of the contact surface; or
Protect the contact surface from moisture.

Basic Requirements
ACI 301-10, "Specifications for Structural
Concrete,n gives a simple performance
requirement for release agents:
�use commercially manufactured form­
work release agent that reduces form­
work moisture absorption, prevents
bond with concrete, and does not stain
exposed concrete surfaces.n
There are many proprietary form release
products, both barrier and reactive types,
and new ones are still being developed in
the wake of stricter limitations on VOCs.
Many can be used on a range of mate­
rials, including metal, plastics, wood, and
plywood,m while some are designed to be
specially effective on a single form mate­
rial. Table 12.3 provides comments and
Fig. 12. 10: Applying release in a fine mist before form erection with a portable sprayer, which precautions in relation to various form­
can be hand-pumped or pressurized by a compressed air supply (Photo courtesy of PER/ Form­ facing materials. In addition to assuring
work Systems, Inc.) the release agent will provide clean, easy
release without damage to the form or
concrete, the contractor will have some other concerns:
Will it help produce a stain- and blemish-free concrete surface?
�= �:::� ��� t��:������;=��� �
c i t e fresh concrete and with surface coatings that
y � er
Does it require site mixing?
Will it be easy to apply at anticipated job-site temperature?

Application Methods, Precautions

More is not necessarily better. Barrier-type form oils may release better when heavily
applied, but this increases the cost as well as the chances for bugholes and stains. Either
barrier or chemically active agents, when over-applied, run to low points in the form face
where they can retard cement hydration or produce staining. Manufacturers of chemically
active agents recommend a thin, uniform coating.
Form surfaces should be clean and dry when the release agent is applied. Careful cleaning
pays off in the appearance of the finished concrete and prolongs the life of the form. For
architectural surfaces, remove rust, mill scale, and any residue from previous use of the form.
Most release agents can be applied with a brush, rag, roller, or spray, but spray application
seems to work best in prodUcing a thin, uniform film. Manufacturers give recommendations
for sprayer tips and proper pressure. Additional precautions are as follows:
Keep release agent off construction joints and reinforcing steel. To avoid spraying on
reinforcing bar, apply the release agent before the steel is set (Fig. 12.11 ) .
After coating form faces, protect them from contamination or weather as recom­
mended by the manufacturer.
If there is any release agent pending, wipe away the excess.

CHAPTER 12
Table 12.3: Release agent use with specific form materials
Comments and precautions
Application of release agent prior to each use will prolong wrvice life. Saturating wood with water and omining release
Wood
agent is sometimes sotisfoctory for surfaces to be plastered later.

Many plywood panels such as unsonded COX or sanded CCPTS, BC, and AC find their way into concrete forming appli­
Plywood not mill-ciled cations. A form release suitable for such surfaces should be applied in advance of each use. Plywood service life and
concrete Finish requirements often influence release type selected.

BBOES and concrete form grade medium-density overlaid (MOO) plywood panels that ore factory-treated with o release
Semi<Jbsorbent, edga-seoled, and agent/all into this category. Reactive release agents have earned a reputation for providing the greatest durability for
overlaid plywood panels in this category. Avoid release agents containing castor oil if discoloration of concrete is a consideration. Seal cut
edges to prolong service life

Includes high-density overlay (HDO) and phenolic surface film (PSF) overlaid plywood and other proprietary non­
Non-absorbent edge-sealed ond absorbent overlays or coatings. Sensitive to type, amount, and application rate of release agent; ovoid release agents
overlaid or coated plywood containing fuel oils, recycled oils, or solvents; refer to plywood manufacturer's recommendations; often reactive agents
ore recommended; seal cut edges to prolong service life

Use a release agent that includes a rust inhibitor. light applications of release agent ore essential to keep molds clean
and resulting concrete free of staining and release agent related pinholes and surface voids. Reactive or combination
reactive and barrier release ogenh ore more sensitive to how they ore applied, but they ore also more likely to produce
Steel
the best results when applied correctly. Most reactive release agents are not compatible with galvanized steel and
therefore should not be used on such surfaces. Refer to te)(t paragraph lor further di�ussion on problems with galvanized
forms and reinforcement

Aluminum is reactive with concrete and must be seasoned or coated with o suitable coating prior to being e)(posed to
fluid concrete. Highly reactive release agents are frequently used in combination with seasoning compounds to minimize
Aluminum (e)(truded and cold-rolled)
the potential for a reaction between the aluminum form surface and freshly placed concrete. Avoid products containing
wa)( or paraffin

Rigid plastics, including gloss fiber­ Refer to mold and release agent manufacturer's recommendations. light applications of release agent generally produce
reinforced plastic the best results on surfaces of this type.

Water-based release ogenh ore frequently used when mo)(imum durability is required; however, oi�bosed release agents
Elostomeric (lle)(ible) plastic liners con also be used. Refer to mold and release agent manufacturer's recommendations. Brush application sometimes neces­
sary lor deeper te)(tures

Foamed polystyrene ond natural

Avoid petroleum oil or vegetable- or petroleum-oil-derived solvents that can damage molds.
rubber liners and molds

light applications of chemical bond breakers such as those used in tilt-tJp or lilt-slob construction work well in this applica­
Concrete molds tion. Reactive form release agents should not be used in this application unless the concrete mold surface has been pre­
sealed with a suitable non-permeable coaling.

Controlled permeability form faces

Plaster waste molds

For proprietary agents, follow the

manufacturers' instructions. Some
agents must dry or cure before
concrete is placed, while others can
be applied only minutes ahead of
concrete placement. Find out if the
agent is rainproof, and take precau­
tions accordingly.
Water-based release agents require a
nonfreezing environment for storage
and use.

12.2.2 Sticking and Staining

Problems
Occasionally, lumber or plywood contains
a high concentration of tannin, sugars, or
other organic substances that can cause
surface retardation, dusting, or staining of
the concrete surface. This condition can
be remedied by treating the form surfaces
with whitewash or lime water before Fig. 12.11: Reinforcing bars are set in place after release agent is applied to the plywood face of
applying a release agent or coating.114 the wall forms

USING THE FORMS

 Coatings other than release agents are sometimes used for treating plywood and wood
forms to seal and preserve the material as well as to make stripping easier. Non-overlaid
plywood or wood may be coated with polyurethane or other plastic compounds that offer
almost total exclusion of moisture. This helps prevent wet concrete from raising the grain
and detracting from the surface smoothness of finished concrete. When such coatings are
used, only a very light application of release agent is generally needed.
Sticking of concrete to steel forms may result from:
Abrasive cleaning that exposes bright metal;
Abrasion where entering streams of concrete are directed against forms;
Unsuitable release agent; and
Galvanized reinforcement.
Release agents that are satisfactory on wood are not always suitable for steel forms,
especially where there is a sliding movement of concrete against the forms, as in tunnel
lining. If one release agent does not work as well as desired, others should be tried
because there are a number of proprietary release agents available for very specific
applications.
Rough surfaces on steel forms where sticking occurs may be conditioned by rubbing in
a liquid solution of paraffin in kerosene, or the forms may be cleaned and oiled with a non­
drying oil, then exposed to sunlight for a day or two. These surface treatments, however,
may cause concrete staining or concrete surface coating adhesion issues.
When galvanized reinforcement is placed close to ungalvanized steel forms, concrete
may appear to"stickHto the forms. A similar tendency may also be observed when ungal­
vanized reinforcing bars are close to galvanized forms or liners. This sticking, due to the
presence of zinc, is an electrochemical phenomenon. A 2% solution of sodium dichromate
or a 5% solution of chromic acid (chromium trioxide) solution applied as a wash on the
galvanized surface has been effective in preventing the electrochemical reaction and
eliminating the sticking. The addition of chromic oxide to the mixture will also prevent the
sticking, but its effect on strength and durability of the concrete has not been fully deter­
mined. Weathered or aged galvanizing is not so likely to cause sticking because the zinc is
less active. Additional information and references are in AC1222R-01, HProtection of Metals
in Concrete Against Corrosion.H

1 2. 2. 3 Use of Water on the Forms

Some contractors wet forms just before concreting, as well as using protective coat­
ings or release agents. ACI 305R-10, HGuide to Hot Weather Concreting,H recommends
cooling forms and reinforcement by the generous use of moisture from a fog spray
nozzle inside and outside just before concreting in hot weather. The nozzle should
produce a fog blanket, not a washing spray. Shading forms and steel from the hot sun
is also recommended.
Where concrete is placed against earth forms or dry sands or absorbent material, the
soil should be wetted to prevent absorption of water from the freshly placed concrete;
however, care should be taken to avoid puddles of standing water.

12.3 Inspection and Form Watching

Before concreting is permitted to progress, forms should be inspected to see that they
are in the correct location and properly built to produce concrete of the required finish
and dimensions, with adequate safety for the workers on the job. Project specifications
should state clearly by whom, when, and for what features the owner requires an inspec­
tion of formwork, and what approvals, if any, are required by the owner's representative
before concreting can begin. local building codes such as that of the city of New York, for
example, may also require a certificate of inspection and approval of the formwork to be
filed by the engineer/architect with the proper government official before concreting can
begin, or after concreting is completed for a permanent record.
If the owner's representatives or local building officials do not require inspection of the
formwork, the contractor will bear the sole responsibility. It is clearly in the interest of the
contractor as well as the owner to make an inspection for accuracy, stability, and satisfac­
tory workmanship before concrete is placed. The foreman or superintendent should main­
tain a continuous check, closely watching each phase of form erection as it progresses.
Contractor inspection during erection is important because some details will be difficult
to see after full assembly and reinforcement placement. The contractor should perform a
continuous check of the forms during and after concreting by experienced form watchers.

CHAPTER 12
Reporting and record keeping by the form f01111�TQI[�R£PORT
watcher can be encouraged and simplified
by providing a blank form watcher's report Job loatlon"--------­

'":�=====
such as that shown in Fig. 12.12. Actual Phtenentducrfoto
t n: rlOOI''----- r-.enenl Contra c t or
points to be checked must be suited to job Pl•c-nt rUilber'----­ r.e��er•l ton
tr . Supt_
conditions, and will vary for different types Coii.I'WI 11M r-eference''-----
of construction. SUrtlng tl

12.3.1 Before Concreting

A competent inspector must be thoroughly
llf! o f
rJhc-�" �' �
Cortohtlon tfr�to f olacl!lllefl t

Conc�te o!Jdng .,qu11l114! nt:

:

familiar with the entire job and its require­

ments, and also have a general knowledge
of good concrete construction practices.
C011crete convey119

Scopeof
1 KUIDmtnt:

T:neoflfOI"k tlefngoou�

1ubcontractor's
�������������
work

Typeofforuworkorstructure to wnlcn
ACI SP-2, MManual of Concrete Inspection," subcontrutor'swork Is fr•eci•-------­

and the Bureau of Reclamation Concrete CI:n!1ents ong ener1l contr.ctor� fr.nlng'------

Manual12.s are valuable reference guides for

any inspector. Approaching the problem
from the point of view of the owner, the ACI
Lht of !)Ohh to tl'ltt� out Hfora •nd durl119 concrete plaeantnt
manual suggests a three-stage inspection
as the work advances: _For.det•llsforjob _Clranoutlloltsoltct.ed

Preliminary-When excavation has been -"llShOrtSIIIOhCt _011JRfrr •ndg r•destrlp,lllplact

completed or forms built. If dimensions and _WedQesundtrsnorestlgllt&r.allecl _[q\llpnent awoilable lnuse ofntedfor
adjust��entorre1Rforcenent
stability are satisfactory, the contractor may _Silol"1nglllr0wirt!Stcured
_EJtraJICki
then clean the foundation or oil the forms and _Silhsolld ongrourd orshb
_Ett.-. lilciii!J
may install any reinforcement and fixtures. _L.clngln�hlled. Oitenrequlred
_E•triSilol"ts
_P•n� nslled
Semi-final or cleanup-When everything
CI!ec1for tprudrnwhen requlredln
is in place for concreting, a detailed inspec­ _
jotstoans __P�<�rrenged $1gnol wllh COIIC�le plt<:lg
n
tion of forms, reinforcement, founda- rorerwn to stoD OCHJr In entrQtnt)'
_Plywood ju1nt� nu s�
tions, and all equipment or parts to be - ��� ����a!�� wnerr literal _CIIeckforooss1bltl!'x1troute slncau

embedded in the concrete. If the installa­ Cc r

tions are satisfactory, the work is ready for
final cleanup.
Final-Immediately before concreting to
see that forms, reinforcement, and fixtures
_BrPsureadersfnulacr
_Fomhar<htirt!tlgllt
_T1gntt��wedgrsundr r snoresalo ng
CoMtructlonjahltafortvfousoour
cf tr·ouble . ha..,. at ltHt two 'ucl'l
I"'Uttl uallablewherevtr!H)nlble
_knowplacln,crt�WS' tequenceofpovr ..
Cllttk forulKingderp�o r drop�
bl!'forernalndect
n fOf'

_C!Jtockshor
e
sfOf'Pll.mb
_FJ:�c�'!�� !::'19�:��! ���:': � f
uuedecl
have not been displaced. Surfaces must be
_Telltahslnol ace.,.,dNrlc�lll:ert
clean and, if specified, must be wetted. re
qul,.d
.. by £upedntell<lent

Points that must be considered, whether _C1�rlnstl

a led

the inspection is performed in these three

stages by the owner's representative or
done by the contractor as the job advances,
are listed in the following sections.
Fig. 11.11: Sample form watcher's report used by a slab subcontractor indicates one possible
Overlapping Inspections format; a smaller card-type format could also be used
Inspectors for different trades-structural,
electrical, mechanical, or others-should coordinate their work. If the engineer/architect's
representative cannot make the inspection for all trades or all parties concerned, they
must make certain that no changes required by others affect structural features they have
already approved. The final inspection should cover structural requirements.

Alignment, Location, and Dimensions

Forms should be checked for accuracy of line and grade as early as possible so that delays
for any necessary adjustments can be minimized. location and dimensions of the forms
after they are filled with concrete may not be the same as when they were built because
loading may cause them to settle, sag, or bulge. To ensure that line and grade of finished
work are within the required tolerances, forms should be built to elevation or camber
shown on the formwork drawings. If settlement of supports or sagging of spans is to be
expected, the form designer generally will have planned for this and included compen­
sating allowances in establishing the dimensions. Any indicated elevations and cambers
should allow for joint closure, settlement of mudsills, dead load deflection, and elastic
shortening of form members as well as any camber specified on structural drawings, as
discussed in Chapter 8.

USING THE FORMS


Fig. 12. 13: Weighted string line located one
inch from wales used to check forms for
correct alignment during erection and during
concrete placement
Fig. 12. 14: Bracing for wall forms anchored to cast concrete blocks stabilizes the forms
during concrete placement (Photo courtesy EFCO Corp.)
Various means of checking location and alignment are used. Governing points of line
and grade will have been defined by the engineer/architect and set as defined by the
contract documents, but the inspector will need to make additional measurements
from and between these points. Surveying instruments may be used along with direct
observation and measurement by the inspector; plumb lines and stretched wires may
be necessary in some locations. An accurate straightedge should always be on hand;
and, in many cases, homemade templates will serve as convenient and accurate means
of checking dimensions.
In pavement construction, the alignment and crown of screeds should be checked.
Screeds for floor and roof slabs should be set to assure the desired thickness of the
member. For example, if a slab form is cambered to compensate for dead load deflection
after form removal, screeds should also be cambered to produce a uniform slab thickness.
After the final check of alignment and location is made, telltale devices such as string
lines and plumb lines (Fig. 12.13) should be installed on supported forms and else­
where to give early warning of formwork movements during concreting. Wedges or
jacks should be secured in position after the final check of alignment, but there should
be some positive means of realignment or readjustment of shores if excessive settle­
ment occurs during form erection. Adjustment should not be performed during or after
concrete placement.
Adequate Strength and Stability
In addition to the verification of position and dimensions, the question must be asked:
Are the forms likely to keep the proper position and dimensions during concreting? Wall
and column forms are often braced to earth stakes, temporary slab anchors, or anchors in
large concrete blocks (Fig. 12.14). Slab form shoring is often braced internally (Fig. 12.1 S).
The strength and stability of the formwork depend in large measure on a properly devel­
oped form design. Proper execution of the form designer's plan depends on the inspector,
whose role is to:
Check that braces are in position and prop­
erly connected.
Check that all the necessary tie rods or
clamps are in the proper location and prop­
erly tightened.
Assure the shores are properly seated and
adequately braced.
Verify adequacy of bearing under mudsills
and assure the sills or spread footings do not
rest on frozen ground.
Verify site drainage is adequate to prevent
washouts in areas supporting mudsills.
Assure the shores are connected to form­
work at the top to maintain position if
upward movement occurs and are posi­
tioned to avoid eccentric load at the joints.
Verify the concrete placing crew knows
the placing rates and sequence planned
for the job.
All aforementioned points are important;
however, checking location and tightening
of tie rods and clamps is critical because it is
usually impossible to force a form back into
position after it has bulged while being filled
with concrete.
Quality ond Cleanliness of the Formwork
Joints and seams in the forms should be
checked for tightness to prevent accumulation of dirt before concreting or formation of
fins of mortar when the concrete is placed. The final inspection should include examina­
tion of formwork and construction joints for cleanliness and to see that necessary fittings
and reinforcement are attached in the proper location.
CHAPTER 12
 The inspector should check to see that the form sheathing or lining can reasonably be
expected to yield the desired or specified finish. The inspector should also be sure that
wetting, oiling, or other specified form treatment has been adequately performed before
concreting, and that there is no form coating on the reinforcing steel.

12.3.2 During and After Concreting

Formwork should be continuously watched during and after concreting by a competent
person or persons (depending on the size of the project) stationed below or alongside
the forms being filled. Precautions should be taken to protect the formwork watchers and
maintain an area of safety for them during concreting. Some means of communication
with placing crews in case of emergency should be planned in advance.
The form watchers will use previously installed telltale devices to maintain a constant
check of elevations, camber, and plumbness of the formwork system. When forms are
cambered to compensate for structural deflection, screeds or other guides for finishing
should be set to produce a surface parallel to the cambered form at the proper distance
above it. Merely finishing a slab or beam level may result in a dished surface as the struc·
ture deflects.
Some corrections that may be possible include stopping excess leakage, slowing the
rate of placement for vertical members that show signs of distress, adding ties or bracing
from the outside of bulging forms, tightening bracing, adding bracing, and adding shores
to prevent additional deflection. If bulging of vertical formwork goes beyond tolerated
amounts as work progresses, the superintendent should be notified and the filling of the
form slowed, possibly even stopped, until additional bracing or other corrective measures
Fig. 12. 15: Shores stacked in the foreground
can be taken. As previously noted, it is almost impossible to push back these bulges in
have an inner steel tube and outer section of
the filled forms without removing some of the fresh concrete. It is advisable to monitor
aluminum with T·grooves for attachment of
pressures in the form (Fig. 12.16) if newly introduced admixtures or those used to produce
cross·bracing frames (Photo courtesry MEVA
self·consolidating concrete are being used, where the effect on concrete lateral pres·
Formwork Systems)
sure is not well understood. Pumping concrete into the bottom of the form (Fig. 12.17)
will increase the pressure, often to a level above a liquid head, as discussed in Chapter 5.
Pressures can be as high as the face pressure of the pump piston; thus, either the form or
pump line pressure must be monitored and controlled so that the form design pressure is
not exceeded.
If any serious weakness develops during concreting, such as would endanger workers
or cause undue settlement or distortion, work should be halted while the formwork is
strengthened (or concrete removed to permit form adjustments). If the affected construe·
tion is permanently damaged, it may be necessary to remove a portion of it, but this
requires approval of the engineer/architect because it may affect the safety and stability of
adjoining construction.
After placing the last batch of concrete, the form watchers should remain on duty until
all concrete has been consolidated and screeded, and telltale devices show that deflec·
tion has ceased. An impending form failure often gives warning by gradually increasing
deflection. Shores on ground are particularly susceptible to differential creep settlement
that causes excessive deflection or cracks in green slabs. These slow settlements often
go unnoticed unless systematic measurements are made and compared with before·
concreting elevations.

12.4 Placing and Vibrating-Effect on Formwork

Properly designed formwork of good quality will not be adversely affected by proper
internal vibration or normal placement of concrete, although it is advisable to watch for
loosening of nut·washers and wedges during vibration.
For good form performance, the rate of concrete rise in the forms should not exceed
that for which they were designed. With ever·increasing use of pumping to place concrete,
Fig. 12. 16: Monitoring concrete approximate
rates of placement can be high and lateral pressure differences can be considerable if the
/otero/ pressure by measuring tie forces and
rate of rise is not controlled. Slender column forms can be filled to heights of 20or 30ft
dividing by tie tributary area (Photo courtesy
in a few minutes by pumping. Pressures may be essentially equivalent to liquid head, as
MEVA Formwork Systems)
explained in Chapter 5. Even if a form blowout does not occur, the form facing may be
permanently deformed, relegating the form use to locations where formed surface imper·
fections are acceptable {Fig. 12.18).
Limits set by the formwork engineer/contractor on vibration should also be followed.
Necessary depth of vibration varies with the depth oftayers in which concrete is placed.
When not anticipated in the design of the form, re·vibration of previously placed layers

USING THE FORMS


Fig. 12. 17: Placement of column or wall
concrete by pumping from the bottom up can
subject forms to pressures that exceed the full
liquid head (Photo courtesy MEVA Form work
Systems)
should be avoided because vibrator action in the stiffened concrete can overload
normal forms. Forms designed in accordance with the recommendations of Chapter 5
will be adequate for vibration limited to depths not exceeding 4ft below the top of the
concrete surface.
If forms are not designed for external vibration, extreme caution should be used in
applying or attaching vibrators to the outside of the forms. It has been found that external
vibration can destroy many normal forms. For this reason, some agencies prohibit its use
except when forms are specially designed for such external vibration. When using external
vibrators (Fig. 12.19), the manufacturer's instructions should be followed closely. Exact
spacing and cycling has direct influence on the vibration results and concrete lateral pres­
sures on the form. Electric vibrators tend to build up resonance and increase form pres­
sures. Pneumatic vibrators allow adjustment and avoid resonance.
Vibration should be used for the purpose of consolidation only (Fig. 12.20), not for
lateral movement of the concrete. Reasonable care by the operator is necessary to avoid
scarring or roughening the forms by operating vibrators against them.
Runways for moving equipment should be provided with struts or legs as required, and
should be supported directly on the formwork or a structural member. They should not
bear on or be supported by reinforcing steel unless special bar supports are provided.
Formwork must be suitable for support of such runways without intolerable deflection,
vibration, or lateral movement.
Abrasion of forms caused by an entering stream of concrete can be prevented by use of
protective sheets of metal, plywood, or rubber belting. For forms over 10ft high, tremies
or chutes shoUld be used to avoid impact on reinforcement or forms and segregation of
concrete if, due to the dimensions of the placement, it is likely that the concrete will strike
the reinforcing while falling. If striking of the reinforcing can be avoided, the free-fall of
concrete does not necessarily cause segregation.
12.5 Removal of Forms and Shores
Although the contractor has general responsibility for design, construction, and safety of
the formwork, the strength of concrete or time required before removal of the forms and
shores should be specified by the engineer/architect for most major structures, or made
subject to approval. There is danger of injury due to concrete that may not have attained
adequate strength or that may be overloaded in the stripping or subsequent construc­
tion operations. Applicable local code requirements should be considered. An analysis to
determine loads and available strength, as discussed in Chapter 6, is essential. Where reuse
of forms is planned, it is vital to the interest of the contractor to remove forms and shores
as early as possible. In warm weather, early stripping is sometimes desirable because it
permits specified curing to begin. Another
advantage of early form removal is that the
necessary surface repair or treatment can
be done while the concrete is �greenn and
favorable to good bond. In cold weather,
curing requirements and the danger of
thermal shock to the concrete make early
removal less advantageous.
12.5. 1 Stripping Time Based on
Concrete Strength
Because early form removal is usually desir­
able so that forms can be reused, a reliable
basis for determining the earliest proper
stripping time is necessary. When forms
are stripped there must be no excessive
deflection or distortion and no evidence of
cracking or other damage to the concrete,
due either to removal of support or to the
stripping operation. Supporting forms and
shores must not be removed from beams,
floors, and walls until these structural
units are strong enough to carry their own
weight and any approved superimposed
CHAPTER 12
toad, unless provision has been made to allow for anticipated temporary construction
loads, such as in multi-story work (refer to Chapter 6).1n no case should forms and shores
be removed from horizontal members before concrete has reached the strength specified
by the engineer/architect for form removal.
Strength of concrete necessary before form stripping and the time required to attain it
vary widely with project conditions. Generally, forms for vertical members such as walls,
columns, and piers may be removed earlier than those for beams and slabs. Even when
concrete is strong enough to show no immediate distress or deflection under load, it is
possible to damage corners and edges during stripping and to develop excessive creep
deflection with time. The engineer/architect who designed the structure and understands
its behavior under load is best prepared to decide what strength is required for stripping.
If strength tests are to be the basis for the engineer/architect's instructions to the
contractor on form removal, the type of test, method of evaluating, and minimum stan­
dards of strength should be stated clearly in specifications. The number of test specimens
as well as who should make them and perform tests should also be specified. Methods
for monitoring early strength gain of concrete in the field are discussed in Chapter 6.
Reference 12.6 can also be helpful in evaluating various methods. The most widely used
method has been to test cylinder specimens cured on the job site under conditions no
better than the least favorable curing conditions for actual portions of the structure which
Fig. 12. 19: External vibrators can enhance
the test specimens represent. If such specimens are used, it is advisable to keep a curing
conrere consolidation when vibration is
record including time, temperature, and method for both the concrete structure and the
activated in suitable planned patterns (Photo
test specimens. This information, together with the weather record, will assist both the
courtesy Wacker Neuson Corporation)
engineer/architect and formwork engineer/contractor in determining when forms can
be safely stripped. Specimens that are relatively small are
more quickly affected by freezing or drying conditions than
concrete in the structure, and because of their greater ratio
llliJ!��r'.�
of exposed surface to volume, the strength is frequently
lower than that of concrete in the structure. Thus, they offer
a conservative basis for determining stripping time. As
discussed in Chapter 6, ACI301 lists four alternative ASTM
test methods:
Field-cured cylinders attached to forms;
Penetration resistance;
Pullout; and
Maturity measurement.
While the convenience of the last three methods is most
attractive, and they are applied to the actual structure
instead of an approximately equal sample, they do not
measure compressive strength directly. Calibration data are
required for the given concrete mixture before any useful
inference can be made regarding strength of the concrete
tested.
Strength testing is the preferred method for determining
the appropriate time for form removal. However, when the
contract documents do not specify the minimum concrete
strength required at the time of stripping, the engineer/
architect should be consulted and the methods discussed
in ACI301 should be used for determining appropriate
form removal criteria. The elapsed times shown in Table
12.4 may be used as guidance for determining stripping
time for general planning purposes. The times shown
represent a cumulative number of days, or hours, not
necessarily consecutive, during which the temperature
of the air surrounding the concrete is above S0°F (10°C).
For high early-strength concrete, these periods can be
reduced as approved by the engineer/architect. Conversely,
if ambient temperatures remain below 50°F (10°(). or if
retarding admixtures are used, then these periods should
be increased at the discretion of the engineer/architect. Fig. 12.20: Placing concrete for floor system first in beams and then slab,
Shorter stripping times listed for live load to dead load vibrating both internally, and screeding to desired elevation (Photo courtesy
ratios greater than 1.0 are the result of more reserve CECO Concrete Construction, LLC)

USING THE FORMS

Table 12.4: Guidance for stripping time when contract documents do not strength being available for dead load in
specify stripping time or stripping strength required (from ACI 347R) absence of live load at time of stripping. It
Structural hve load not Structural hve load is important to note that the temperature
greater than structural greater than structural of the concrete is the key to strength gain,
Stovdurol element supported deod load deod load not the ambient air temperature. Ambient
Walls" 12 hovrs 12 hovrs air temperature is only used in this case to
Columns" 12 hours 12 hovrs show a minimum ambient air temperature
Sides of beoms and girder" 12 hours 12 hovrs that will still allow concrete tempera­
tures to be adequate for proper cement
Ponjoistforms1
30 in. wide or less 3 days 3 days hydration.
Over 30 in. wide 4days 4doys OSHA regulations (refer to complete
Arch centers 14doys 7doys text included in the Appendix) require that
the employer determine that concrete has
Joist, beom, or girder soHits
•sufficient strength to support its weight
Undef 10h clear span between struch.trol
7doys1 4doys and superimposed loads· before removing
suppor�
forms, shores, and reshores (Section
10 to 20 ft clear span between structural
14days' 7doys 1926.703(e)). The employer's determination
suppor�
is to be based on compliance with one of
Over 20 ft clear span between stru<:turol
21 days' 14doys two provisions. Either conditions for form
suppor�
removal stipulated in the plans and speci­
One-way floor slobs
fications are followed, or an appropriate
Under 10ft clear span between structural ASTM test method is used to show that the
4doys' 3 days
supports
concrete has gained sufficient strength.
10to 20 ft clear span between structural
7days' 4days
supports
12.5.2 Form Removal Related to
Over 20ft clear span between structural
10doys1 7doys Curing Needs
supports
Wood forms remaining in place during
Removol times ore contingent on placement of reshores where hot, drying weather offer protection from
required. Reshores shoold be placed os won os practicable
the sun but will not keep concrete moist
oher stripping operations ore complete but not later than the
enough to provide acceptable moist curing
end of the working day in which stripping occurs. Where
reshores ore required to implement early stripping while mini­ of outdoor concrete. The forms should be
Two-woy slob systemsl
miling sag or creep (rather than lor distribution of superim· covered and kept moist, then removed
posed construction loods os covered in Chapter 6), capacity at the earliest practicable time so that
and spoc::ing of such reshores should be designed by the
specified curing may proceed with as little
formwork engineer/contractor and reviewed by the engineer/
delay as possible. For some structures, it is
architect.
possible to loosen forms and permit curing
As won os post-tensioning operations hove been completed
Post-tensioned slob system' water to run down inside the forms. This
and op roved
may establish ideal curing conditions, but it
"Where such fa<ms also support formwor� fof slab or beam soffits. the removal Urnes of the latter shook! govern is not appropriate for architectural surfaces.
'Of !he ty� rhat can� remow-d without disrurbing forming or shoring.
The U.S. Bureau of Reclamation has
'Where forms can� rl'mOVed without distu<bing shores. use half of valu-es shown but not less than 3 days.
'llefertoChapter6andACI347Aforspecial conditionsaffecting thenumberoffloorsto remalnsha<edor reshored found12·5 that the surfaces of ceilings and
walls inside buildings may require no
other curing than that provided by leaving the forms in place for 4 days; this period may
vary, however, with the humidity and drying conditions inside the building.
As long as forms remain in place in cold weather, surfaces adjacent to the forms have
adequate moisture for curing (ACI 306R). Attention must focus on maintaining satisfac­
tory temperature above freezing for the required protection period. In heated enclosures,
forms other than steel distribute warmth more evenly. Forms with suitable insulation,
including those of steel, in many cases will provide adequate protection without supple­
mental heating. Therefore, it is usually advantageous not to remove forms until the end of
the prescribed minimum period of protection in cold weather.

12.5.3 Stripping Techniques

Forms and shoring should be designed for easy, safe removal in a way that permits the
concrete to take its load gradually and uniformly without impact or shock (Fig. 12.21).
Screw, pneumatic, hydraulic, and sand jacks are among the devices used to facilitate
gradual release of horizontal formwork. Stripping was formerly referred to as ·wrecking,w
and this description was often given a literal interpretation when forms were removed;
there was little or no salvage of materials. Today, with increasing emphasis on panel
systems, modular formwork components, and economy through maximum reuse of forms,
much more attention is given to building forms that can be removed intact (Fig. 12.22). The

CHAPTER 12
larger weight and surface areas of flying forms and ganged panel units that are handled
by crane present some difficulties in achieving the desired gradual removal, and special
devices and techniques may be needed. Most form systems include lifting devices for
attaching crane hooks. Manufacturer's recommendation must be followed for attachment
to the forms and lifting device capacities. Generally, vertical forms should be broken loose
from the concrete first and then picked by crane. Using the lifting devices for the stripping
process may overload and damage the devices or the formwork. Forms should be lifted
level and plumb above their center of gravity.
Considerable damage can be done to formwork that has not been planned for orderly
dismantling. The sequence of stripping is a consideration in how the forms are to be made
or assembled. To avoid interference between systems, columns and walls are usually formed,
placed, and stripped before erection of floor system forms. If, for example, columns are to
be placed with the floor system, column forms should be made so that they can be stripped
without disturbing adjacent beam and girder forms. Column panels can be pried out from
the bottom so that they can drop down free of beam forms. Beam and girder side forms may
be made to come out before slab soffits. The formwork engineer/contractor should provide
for crush plates or key strips to facilitate removal at difficult form intersections or where
there is danger of damage from stripping tools. Small form openings to permit introduction
of air or water under pressure sometimes simplify stripping {Fig. 12.23). Bottled nitrogen has
also been used to break forms loose where large form areas required pressures not available
from the normal construction site compressor.
Special attention required for removal of large ganged panels or flying forms is frequently Fig. l 2.21: Proper use of screw-type top (a)
planned in advance. For example, hinged parts of the form can be released before the entire and bottom (b) leg adjustments on shoring
form is moved. Jacks may be used for support and adjustment so that the form can be members makes it easier to set forms at
gradually freed by loosening the jacks. If it is necessary to let a slab form fall free, a platform correct elevation and later to lower forms
or other support should be placed to reduce the drop to a minimum distance. Special hard­ gradually without shock to structure
ware {Fig. 12.24) can be developed to help
out when forms stick and refuse to drop as
planned. Ingenuity of the workers on the job
often plays a major part in a successful strip­
ping operation.
When stripping large wall form sections,
it is advisable to leave a few ties connected
until the crane has a secure hold, thus
preventing it from breaking loose acciden­
tally. Faster stripping of wall gangs can be
accomplished by attaching a line to exert
an outward pull at the same time the boom
hitch is pulling upward; however, this prac­
tice introduces additional safety concerns
that must be recognized and addressed.
Special considerations for stripping
architectural ornament or long-span thin
shells and similar structures are discussed
in the section on structures or techniques
to which they relate {architectural concrete,
Chapter 14; shell structures, Chapter 18).
Time devoted to training the strip­
ping crew in the order and method of
form removal will be well spent. Strip­
ping requires considerable care on the
part of workers to avoid damage to the Fig. 12.22: Careful stripping and handling pays off by keeping form panel corners and edges
green concrete, which can be marred by straight and true (Photo courtesy MEVA Formwork Systems)
scratching and chipping even though
it has sufficient structural load-bearing strength. The contractor should take care to
protect the concrete and extend the useful life of the forms by careful handling. Not
only must the forms hold together but they must also remain dimensionally accurate,
and edges should stay in good condition to make accurate alignment and clean joints
possible.
Form panels and shoring components should not be dropped but should be handed
down or lowered on stretched ropes, cables, or other devices to avoid damage. Various

USING THE FORMS


Fig. 12.23: Compressed air or bottled nitrogen injected from underside through holes at
the farm center aids in removing otherwise airtight forms such as dome pans for joist slab
construction
Fig. 12.24: Steel pan form is supported during
stripping by a rack on a forklift while worker
on scissor lift and worker with a pole pulling
device pry the form loose (Photo courtesy
CECO Concrete Construction, LLC)
rigs on wheels can be devised for different
kinds of stripping jobs to improve the
safety and speed of the workers; traveling
suspended scaffolds are particularly helpful
in bridge work.
Post-tensioned construction requires
special attention to shore and reshore load
distribution during the tensioning process.
Some of these issues are discussed in ACt
347.2R-OS, �Guide for Shoring/Reshoring
of Concrete Multistory Buildings.� Given
the variability of design and construction
methods, the formwork engineer/contractor
should coordinate closely with the engineer/
architect during project planning for this
type of work.
12.5.4 Multi·Story Buildings
The engineer's approval should be based
on an assessment of strength of concrete
in the structure, including consideration
of weather, placing conditions, and time
and quality of curing. The total load of the
upper structure, including freshly placed
concrete, formwork, workers, placing
equipment, runways, and motor-driven buggies, must not exceed the live load that the
lower structure is capable of carrying at the strengths then available.
Many multi-story buildings, under favorable curing conditions, are built using one
level of shores and two levels of reshores for progress at the rate of one story per week.
For faster construction or with structures designed for light live loads such as 40 or SO lb/ff,
however, it may be that more levels of support are needed to safely carry one floor of
freshly placed concrete and construction loads {refer to the discussion of design consider­
ations, Chapter 6). The use of backshores and dropshores are variations of the shoring and
reshoring process, as discussed in Chapter 6. Reshoring discussed in the following section
becomes a particularly important consideration in multi-story work.
12.6 Reshoring
Reshores, as defined in ACI 347R. are shores placed snugly under a stripped concrete slab
or other structural member after the original forms and shores have been removed from
a full bay, requiring the new slab or structural member to deflect and support its own
weight and existing construction loads applied before installation of the reshores. Such
reshores are provided to transfer additional construction loads to other slabs or members
and/or to impede deflection due to creep that might otherwise occur. Reshoring facilitates
maximum reuse of the formwork, making use of the strength of completed construction
below as well as the partial development of strength in the member being reshored. When
using drophead shores, the shores become reshores after the forms are stripped and the
shores are later released to activate the slab and then re-snugged to support added slab
construction loads {fig. 12.25).
Premature reshoring and inadequate size and spacing of reshores have caused a
number of construction failures. Because reshoring is such a highly critical operation, it
is essential that the procedure be planned in advance and approved by the engineer/
architect. Detailed instructions {or prohibitions) regarding reshoring may be written into
the project specifications, or the time and sequence of reshoring may be made subject to
engineer/architect approval.
When the study of form removal and reshoring is being made, the live loads for which
the completed structure is designed, as well as the actual strength of the partially cured
concrete, must be considered. Allowance must also be made for any additional Jive and
dead loads to be imposed as construction continues. The reshoring system must be
designed to carry all loads that will be imposed {refer to the example in Chapter 6). Often,
the critical limitation on temporary construction loads will not be strength but
avoidance of excessive deflection and cracking.
CHAPTER 12
 locations, spacings, and the type of
reshores to be used are influenced by story
heights, speed of construction, type and
structural design of slabs, and spacing of
columns. Under proper conditions, metal
shores, 4 x 4 wood shores, or 6 x 6 wood
shores can be economically and safely used
as reshores. As is true for original shoring,
wood and metal reshores should not be
mixed at the same slab level.
All reshoring members must be straight
and true without twist or warp. Reshores
must be plumb and adequate in capacity.
When placing reshores, care should be
taken not to preload the lower floor and
also not to remove the normal deflec­
tion of the slab above. The reshore is
simply a strut and should be tightened
only enough to hold it securely in place.
In no case should wedging or jacking be
permitted to lift a slab above its formed
position to the point of causing cracking.
Excessive wedging will change the load
distribution to various floors supporting
the shores and may easily relieve one and Fig. I 2.25: Formwork beams and panels are lowered by dropheads for reuse while shores
overload another. remain in place supporting early low-strength concrete until slab strength is sufficient for shore
Operations should be performed so to be retracted and then re-snugged (Photo courtesy MEVA Formwork Systems)
that at no time will areas of new construe-
tion be required to support combined dead and construction loads in excess of their
capacity as determined by design load and developed concrete structure strength at
the time of stripping and reshoring. While reshoring is under way, no new construc­
tion loads should be permitted on the new construction unless the new construction
can safely support the construction loads. For high story heights, adequate provisions
should be made for lateral bracing of shores and reshores during this operation. Multi­
tier shoring using single-post shores in two or more tiers is a dangerous practice and is
not recommended (refer to Chapter 11). Where possible, reshores should be located in
the same position on each floor so that they will be continuous in their support from
floor to floor. Where slabs are designed for light live loads or on long spans where the
loads on reshores are heavy, care should be used in placing the reshores so that their
loads do not cause excessive punching shear or reversed bending stresses in the slab.
Shores resting on intermediate slabs or other construction already in place need not be
located directly above shores or reshores below, unless the slab thickness and the loca­
tion of its reinforcement are inadequate to take the reversal of moments and punching
shear. The reversal of bending moments in the slab over the shore or reshore below may
occur as shown in Fig. 12.26. Reversal of
moments must be considered if reshores
do not align with the shores above. Gener­
ally, the moment induced by the slab dead
loads will not be reversed by the effect of
having the upper shore offset in location
Deflection and stress
from the reshore below. Reshores should pattern as designed
be prevented from falling by such means
as spring clips at the top of reshores and
positively attaching perimeter reshores
back into the interior of the structure
with appropriate lacing or bracing. The
reshoring plan should be submitted to the
engineer/architect for review related to
effects on permanent structures.
The use of expandable horizontal Fig. 12.26: Deflection and stress patrern at centerline of a flat slab column strip as designed
shores and large truss-supported flying (above) may be changed significantly by placement of a single line of reshoring (below).

USING THE FORMS

 deck forms (Fig. 12.27) with vertical
shore lines at greater spacing (perhaps
14ft instead of 3 or 4ft) requires careful
location of shores and reshares to avoid
stress reversals, particularly in flat slab
areas where there is no top reinforce­
ment. If extension leg positions are
marked on the concrete slab before
removal of the truss assembly, reshares
can be set in direct alignment with
supports on the slab above. Heavy-duty
shoring equipment that carries larger
shore loads at wider spacing requires
similar consideration. Construction live
loads are a greater potential problem
when these support systems are used
because there is more work space and
better loading areas for construction
materials than with typical shores spaced
3 or 4ft on centers.
Final removal of reshores follows
the same rules as removal of shores.
,;=fjil����f� Reshoring should not be removed until

� .. the slab or member supported has

attained sufficient strength to support all
loads posted to it. Removal of reshores
should be planned so that the structure
supported is not subjected to impact or
loading eccentricities.
For heavy industrial structures, a Hperma­
nent�shoring system is desirable. Early strip­
ping and subsequent reshoring may result
in undesirable deflections or cause develop­
ment of fine cracks that in later years create
a serious maintenance problem. When quick
reuse of the formwork is desired in such
structures, forms should be planned so that
original shores can remain in place while
forms are stripped around them (several
Fig. 12.27: Aluminum truss-supporred flying form panel rests on extension legs with adjustable methods are shown in Chapter 11). Shores
jacks (Photo courtesy CECO Concrete Construction, LLC) can then remain in place until strength tests
or elapsed time indicates safe removal.

12.7 Care and Storage of Forms and Accessories

In all areas where persons are required to work or pass, stripped forms and shoring should
be cleaned and stockpiled safely as soon after stripping as possible. Protruding nails
and hardware should be pulled out, cut, or otherwise made safe. During cleaning, forms
should be inspected for damage that could affect the structural integrity of the form
system. Damage must be evaluated for reuse, repair, or replacement. Cleaning methods
may vary from one system to another. For example, washing the forms with a 10,000 psi
power washer may be recommended for steel- or plastic-faced forms but may be cause
damage to wood-faced forms.
Frames and all metal parts of prefabricated forms should be thoroughly scraped to
remove any accumulated deposits of concrete. The frames should be regularly inspected
for wear, and any split or damaged lumber should be replaced. After the frame has been
checked, the form face should be cleaned. For wood or plywood surfaces, a hardwood
wedge and a stiff fiber brush are good tools. The wedge will remove any odd lumps
of concrete, and the brush will remove dust with a minimum of damage to the face.
Scrapers and wire brushes, unless used with great care, loosen fibers on the form face,
and the"wooly" surface becomes progressively harder to strip. A hard scale of concrete

CHAPTER 12
may require some light tapping with a hammer, but this can be carefully done to avoid
breaking fibers and damaging the form face.
Any open seams in panels should be filled, warped boards planed, and metal facings
straightened to close the joint. Plywood panel faces of prefabricated forms may be
reversed on the frame or replaced if badly damaged. Tie holes may be patched with metal
plates, corks, or plastic materials. Plywood nicks and gouges may be patched with poly­
ester resin auto body putty.
Cleaning knives, steel scrapers, and wire brushes are satisfactory for use on steel
panels, and mechanical cleaning devices (Fig. 12.28) are sometimes used on large proj­
ects. Metal forms should not be sand-blasted or abraded to a bright surface, as this may
cause sticking.
As soon as forms are repaired and cleaned, they should be coated with form oil or other
preservative (some of these coatings are described in Table 12.3). Steel forms should be Fig. 12.28: Gasoline-powered equipment for

oiled on the back as well as the face to prevent rusting and sticking of spilled concrete. cleaning steel form panels; panels placed on

With some coatings, a curing or drying period is required before the forms can be stacked a conveyor are pulled under a rapidly rotating
steel wire brush; faces ore cleaned and oiled
on one another.
and panels emerge at opposite end (photo
Following any necessary drying period for the coating material, the forms should be
courtesy EFCO Corp.)
stacked off the ground on 2 in. or heavier lumber at a slight pitch for runoff (unless indoor
storage is available). It is preferable to place strips of wood between wood forms to
promote evaporation of moisture. Panels should be stacked according to sizes and types
to simplify handling; they should be arranged so that any code markings can be read
without further moving. Old forms may be placed on top to protect the newer ones from
sun and rain.
Plywood sheets, before or after use, should be stored out of mud and water and
supported across the panel at three points. They should be covered loosely to protect
from rain or snow while permitting the plywood to breathe.
Careful techniques recommended for stripping should carry over into handling to
prevent chipping or denting edges. Forms should be piled face to face and back to back
for hauling; they must not be dumped or thrown from a truck, but should be passed from
worker to worker for stacking. On-site stacking of panels and components varies with the
superintendent and site conditions. Orderly storage {Fig. 12.29) will obviously do much to
reduce loss and damage and to prevent panels from being used for other purposes.
Dimension lumber, as well as form panels, may be saved for reuse, in which case it
should be scraped free of concrete deposits, and all nails removed. It should be sorted by
sizes and stored off the ground in a location that will minimize weathering and rotting
(Fig. 12.30).
Reusable form hardware requires careful
handling, or it will become a costly item
through losses or deterioration. Boxes or
buckets should be kept on hand to store
small parts as they are stripped. Parts can
be soaked in a mortar solvent to loosen
hardened concrete, and wire-brushed or
pressure-washed afterwards. Some reac­
tive release agents, in their concentrated
form, will soften the buildup of hardened
concrete. Mechanical brushing is some­
times used where large numbers of parts
are to be handled.

12.8 Cold Weather

Protection
Concrete placed during cold weather will
develop adequate strength and durability
only if it is properly produced, placed, and
protected. ACI 306R-10, "Guide to Cold
Weather Concreting," recommendations
consider cold weather as any period when
the mean daily temperature drops below
40°F for 3 successive days or longer.

USING THE FORMS

 12.8.1 Form Insulation and Heating
Arrangements for covering, insulating,
housing, or heating newly placed concrete
should be made in advance to maintain
the temperature and moisture conditions
recommended by ACI 306R in all parts of
the concrete. Because most of the heat of
hydration of concrete is developed during
the first 3days, heat from outside sources
may not be required to maintain the proper
concrete temperature if heat generated
in the concrete is properly conserved.The
heat may be retained by insulating the
formwork or using insulating blankets on
unformed concrete.
Several types of insulation material (Fig.
12.31and 12.32 ) are suitable for formwork,
including the following:
Polystyrene and polyurethane foam
sheers that may be cut to shape and fitted
between studs of vertical forms. Prefab­
Fig. 12.30: Portable form hardware boxes and material racks can be loaded for shipment by ricated panels may have such insulation
forklift and placed on site by crane permanently attached to the outer face or
sandwiched between two plywood faces.
Urethane foam sprayed onto the outside
of forms, making a continuous layer of insu­
lation.To eliminate water absorption and
protect against ultraviolet ray deteriorating
effects, the urethane foam should be spray­
covered with weathering enamel. Caution
is necessary because this type of foam
generates noxious fumes when subjected
to fire.
Formed vinyl blankets, pliable with an
extruded vinyl backing. These blankets are
available on custom order with electric
wires incorporated in the foam for added
heating. Unheated blankets are available in
standard-width rolls.
Mineral wool or cellulose fibers, usually
encased in a heavy polyethylene liner and
formed into large mats or rolls.The liners
are sometimes given a rough surface finish
to reduce the risk of slipping.They may be
laid flat to cover slabs or draped over other
structural elements.
Straw, although not as effective as blan­
kets or mats, is still popular, according to
ACI 306R.It requires a protective cover to
keep it dry and to inhibit wind convection.
Corners, angles, and metal frame of
forms should be well insulated (Fig. 12.33)
and the material held in place by battens,
staples, or tie wires. For steel forms, the
insulating blanket can be applied tight and
held in place by wedging wood battens or
by tying.
For successful use and efficient reuse,
commercially available blanket or batt insu­
lation can be used if adequately protected
by means of tough, moisture-proof cover

CHAPTER 12
material from wind, rain, snow, or other
wetting that will impair its insulating
value. Closed-cell material is particularly
advantageous because of its resistance to
wetting. Insulation must be kept in close
contact with concrete or form surfaces to
be effective. Remember that the exposed
steel frames may carry heat away from
the concrete and cause localized freezing
damage to concrete surfaces even when
surrounding areas are insulated.
Where practical, the insulation mate­
rial should overlap any previously placed
cold concrete by at least 1 ft. Where tie
rods extend through the insulated form,
a 6 x 6 in. plywood washer can be placed
on top of the insulation blanket and
fastened securely.
Use Tables 12.5 and 12.6 to select the
necessary thickness of insulation for walls
and slabs aboveground, considering
concrete mixtures of different cement
contents placed at different air tempera­
tures.Table 12.5 is based on use ofType I
cement.lfType II cement is used, increase
the tabulated insulation requirement by
approximately 30%.
Data in Table 12.5 are based on a
concrete placing temperature of 50°F
with wind less than 15 mph, assuming
the insulation is applied directly to the
surface of steel forms. If plywood forms
are used, add the insulating value of the
plywood to that of the insulation itself to
get a combined R-value that can be used
in applying Table 12.5. See Example 12.1.
Heated enclosures (Fig. 12.34 and 12.35),
although generally more expensive than
other protection, are recommended by ACI
306R as being the most effective.They can Fig. 12.32: Forms for a large bridge pier with insulating blankets attached to form faces (Photo
be made of various materials, such as wood, courtesy EFCO Corp.)

mtijfiitjfll#·""' !.!'!®fii!.lr
Suppose 3/4 in. plywood forms have an inch of plain expanded polystyrene
(extruded) added for insulation of concrete placed at 50°F, with a cement content of
400 lb/yd. What is the minimum surrounding air temperature permitted for 3 days
minimum protection of an 18 in. thick wall?
The polystyrene has an R of 4.00 and the plywood has an R of 3/4 times 1.25, or
0.94, for a total R of 4.94.
According toTable 12.5, an R of 4 gives protection adequate for a temperature
of 12°F, and an Rof 6 insulates for a temperature of -6°F. Because the R-value for
plywood plus polystyrene calculated previously is roughly halfway between, one can
estimate that this insulation would be adequate for a temperature (halfway between
tabulated values) of 3°F.
For higher wind velocity or longer duration of protection, recommendations of ACI
306R should be consulted. Because corners and edges are particularly vulnerable to
heat loss, insulation of these parts should be approximately three times the thick­ Fig. I 2.33: Example method of attaching insu­
ness required for walls or slabs. Remember that insulation must be provided on both lation to vertical form, showing corner derail
sides of the wall or slab, unless one face is within a heated enclosure. and plywood washers used around tie rods

USING THE FORMS

Note: The table is calculatHI 10< statHI R-val�s. as•uming insulatioo !laving the given R-value is applied to the e•ter>or surface of steel forms. When plywood forms are usN!. the total R is the
comblnHI value for the insulat>on •nd plywood. Wind �lrxity nsumed I.,.;• than IS mph. For higher winds. more insulation will be needed

canvas, plastic, or insulating boards. Enclosures made with flexible materials are cheaper
and easier to build and remove, but more rigid enclosures are more effective in blocking
wind and maintaining perimeter temperatures. They should be designed to withstand
wind and snow loads. If insulated forms are used together with heated enclosures, it is
advisable to monitor the interior as well as the surface temperature of the concrete, so
that neither concrete temperature nor temperature differential exceed allowable values.
Refer to ACI 306R and ACt 207.4R-05, MCooling and Insulating Systems for Mass Concrete
(Reapproved 201 2),�for additional information. The possibility of fire hazard must be
considered and when fossil-fueled burners are used, the combustion products must be
vented outside the enclosure to avoid a reaction with the fresh concrete. Winter weather
conditions may also require removal of snow and ice from forms (fig. 12.36).
In addition to insulating the formwork to conserve heat, or heating an enclosure to
surround and protect concrete while it cures, it is possible to add internal heat directly
to the concrete by means of low-voltage current passed through insulated embedded
coils or to apply heat through the forms to the concrete surface. Several proprietary
systems are available, although their use for cast-in-place work has thus far been relatively
limited. One method makes use of electrical resistance wires built into fiberglass rein-

CHAPTER 12
forced plastic forms containing a hollow
heat chamber. Another uses radiant heat
directed onto metal form surfaces. A third
method involves 1/8 in. thick electrical
heater modules laminated of steel and
fiber-reinforced plastic; these modules can
be attached to or laid against steel form
surfaces. All of the heated forms elevate
temperatures of the concrete to a level of
accelerated curing that permits early form
removal. For most efficient operation, they
are supplemented by insulation to retain
the heat.

12.8.2 Avoiding Thermal Shock

It is important to limit excessive or rapid
temperature changes before the strength
of the concrete has developed sufficiently
to resist temperature stresses. Sudden
chilling of concrete surfaces or exterior
members while the interior concrete
'RisthereciprocalofthermalcondoctlvityK;thMis.R•l/K.KisinunitsofBTUih·ft'·"F.
remains warm can promote cracking,
which reduces both strength and dura­
bility of the structure. ACI 306R recom­
mends that forms or other protection be
removed in such a way that the drop in
surface temperature is gradual and within
the limits listed in Table 12.7 for normal­
weight concrete.
There can be some problems with
rapid surface temperature change when
removing insulated forms. ACI 306R
suggests initial loosening of the forms
away from the concrete and covering with
polyethylene sheets to permit gradual air
circulation.

Fig. 12.34: Temporary enclosures of construction areas; at left polyethylene sheeting encloses
heated space below slab placed on metal deck; at right, blue plastic sheeting on steel studs
provides a heated space below the concrete floor being placed and a wind break above (Photo
courtesy EFCO Corp.)

Table 12.7: Recommended maximum temperature drop in first 24

hours after end of thermal protection

Les� rhon 12 in. 50"F

12 to 36 in 40"F
36to 72 in 30"F
Morethon72 in 20"F

USING THE FORMS

Fig. I 2.35: Protective winter enclosure is mode of opaque and clear ribbed plasric sheers (Photo Fig. I 2.36: Use of leaf blower to assist in snow
courtesy EFCO Corp.) removal from slob form (Photo courtesy
James McHugh Construction)

REFERENCES
12.1: Placing Reinforcing Bars, 10-PLACE, ninth edition, Concrete Reinforcing Steel Insti­
tute, Schaumburg, ll, 2011, 288 pp.
12.2: Manual of Standard Practice, 10-MSP, 28th edition, Concrete Reinforcing Steel Insti­
tute, Schaumburg, ll, 2009, 144 pp.
12.3: Hurd, M. K., NContractors' Guide to Form-Release Agents; Concrete Construction,
Sept. 1999, pp. 18-29.
12.4: Hurd, M. K., NDusting of Formed Concrete Surfaces, N AC/ Journal Proceedings, V. 65,
No. 9, Sept. 1968, p. 720.
12.5: U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Concrete Manual, eighth edition, 1975 (revised 1981),
627 pp.; available from http://www.usbr.gov/pmts/materials_lab/concrete/.
12.6: Harrison, T. A., NFormwork Striking Times-Method of Assessment, w Report 73,
Construction Industry Research and Information Association, London, UK, Oct. 1977, 40 pp.
13: FORMED CONCRETE SURFACE
QUALITY
One goal of the construction team is to produce as-cast concrete surfaces that meet the
requirements of the project specifications. Accomplishing this goal requires that the
specifications have unified definitions of the different concrete surfaces that are to result
from the construction process. Several standard specifications exist, and there is an effort
to integrate an improved method of formed concrete surface specification and evalua­
tion. In this chapter, the provisions of ACI 301-10, �specification for Structural Concrete,"
ACI117-10, �specification for Tolerances for Concrete Construction and Materials,# and
ACI 347.3R-13, "Guide to Formed Concrete Surfaces,.. related to formed concrete surface
quality, are summarized. For architectural cast-in-place concrete, also refer to the addi­
tional discussion in Chapter 14.

13. I Overview of ACI 30 I Formed Surface Provisions

ACI 301 is the frequently used specification for concrete construction, particularly for
structures other than highway structures. In relation to formed concrete surfaces, ACI 301
has default and optional provisions for:
Form-facing materials;
Use of chamfer strips to produce beveled outside corners;
Requirements to lap form facing materials over concrete of previous placement;
Class of acceptable surface offset as defined by ACI117;
Deflection limits of form-facing materials reflected on concrete surfaces;
Cleaning of form surfaces;
Application of release agents; and
Erection of form facing to produce specified appearance and texture.
The appearance and texture requirements are divided into the following:
As-cast surfaces of Surface Finish1.0, 2.0, or 3.0;
Rubbed finishes;
 Unspecified as-cast finish defaults; and
Architectural concrete.

13. 1. 1 General Requirements

The default form-facing materials include lumber, plywood, tempered concrete-form­
grade hardboard, metal, plastic, or paper that create the specified appearance and texture
of a concrete surface. However, a particular material may be specified either generally
or for specific locations. The specification requires erection of form-facing materials to
produce the specified appearance and texture and replacement of used form-facing mate­
rials that will impair specified appearance and texture of concrete surfaces.
Chamfer strips to create a3/4 in. bevel are the default for outside corners. Inside corners
are not normally beveled. Optional provisions might include chamfers of a different size
or of a particular materiaL Bevels of formwork to create inside corner, or re-entrant corner,
concrete fillets are possible but may involve significant added cost.
At joints exposed to view, the formwork sheathing face is to lap over the face of the
previous concrete placement, both vertically and laterally. The contractor is to ensure that
formwork is placed and tightened against hardened concrete so offsets at construction
joints attain specified tolerances and minimize loss of mortar. ACI301 definesexposed to
view as the portion of a structure that can be observed by the public during normal use.
The ACI117 commentary notes that specifiers should anticipate local irregularities
in formed surfaces. Specifiers should also anticipate abrupt transitions at the surface of
members where segmental steel void forms (lapped pan forms) are used to form floor
framing members. The purpose of establishing different surface classes is to define
the magnitude of irregularities in a manner that is consistent with the exposure of the
concrete in service. The ACI 117 Mandatory Requirements Checklist indicates that Exposed
Concrete and Architectural Concrete are to be specifically designated in the contract docu­
ments. Formed surface irregularities are limited by ACI117 to the following maximums:

.. .. . .
Class A Surface................................................ +1/8 in.
Class B Surface ... ......... .... ......................... +1/4 in.

Class .. . . . . .. . .. . . . .
Class C Surface . .. ......................................... +1/2 in.
D Surface .. . .. .. .. .. .. . .. .... . . .. ... . .. +1 in.
Abrupt irregularities are to be measured within 1 in.
of the irregularity (Fig. 13.1 a). Gradual surface irregu­
larities are to be measured by determining the gap
a) between concrete and near surface of a s ft straight­

oeviation --r:J edge, measured between contact points (Fig. 13 .1 b).

Unless otherwise specified in the project contract
documents, ACI301 requires the class of concrete surface
s1 in. resulting from the offset between adjacent pieces of
formwork facing material to be Class B for surfaces perma-
nently exposed to view and Class D for surfaces that will
be permanently concealed, provided that concrete cover
and cross section are within tolerance. For architectural
b)
concrete, when natural plywood form finish, grout­
cleaned finish, smooth-rubbed finish, or other finish is
required, the default requirement is Class A for concrete
surfaces and lines. Class C tolerances may be designated
for surfaces at the option of the engineer/architect.
5 ft straightedge
It is important to understand that ACI 117 specifies
Fig. 13.1: Measurement of abrupt and gradual deviations many types of tolerances for the completed concrete
structure beyond classes of formed surface irregularities.
Many of the other tolerances, particularly deviations in
dimension, position, slope, plumb, plane, and alignment of concrete members, are related
to construction of the formwork but are not the same as formed surface quality.
ACI301 specifies the default maximum deflection of facing materials reflected on
concrete surfaces exposed to view to be1/240 of the span between structural members of
the formwork. For architectural concrete, the default limit for deflection of facing mate­
rials between studs and deflection of studs and wales is 1/400 times the clear span. Other
limits could be specified as an option.

13-2 CHAPTER 13
13.1.2 As-Cost Surface Finishes
ACI 301 lists three types of as-cast surface and their criteria as follows:
Surface finish-1.0 (SF-1.0):
No formwork facing material is specified;
Patch voids larger than 1-1/2 in. wide or 1/2 in. deep;
Remove projections larger than 1 in.;
Tie holes need not be patched;
Surface tolerance Class D as specified in ACI117; and
Mockup not required.
Surface finish-2.0 (SF-2.0):
Patch voids larger than 3/4 in. wide or 1/2 in. deep;
Remove projections larger than 1/4 in.;
Patch tie holes;
Surface tolerance Class B as specified in ACI117; and
Unless otherwise specified, provide mockup of concrete surface appearance and
texture.
Surface finish-3.0 (SF-3.0):
Patch voids larger than 3/4 in. wide or 1/2 in. deep;
Remove projections larger than 1/8 in.;
Patch tie holes;
Surface tolerance Class A as specified in ACI 1 1 7; and
Provide mockup of concrete surface appearance and texture.
If surface finish is not indicated in the contract documents, the defaults are SF-1.0 on
concrete surfaces not exposed to view and SF-2.0 on concrete surfaces exposed to view.

13.1.3 Rubbed Surface Finishes

If a rubbed surface finish is specified, forms are to be removed as early as permitted and
necessary repairs and patching performed. By default, concrete designated as SF-2.0 is to
be rubbed. The listed rubbed finish options that may be specified are:
Smooth-rubbed finish-When this finish is specified, the contractor is to produce the
finish no later than the day following formwork removal. The surface is wetted and rubbed
with an abrasive such as carborundum brick until uniform color and texture are produced.
When insufficient cement paste can be drawn from the concrete itself by the rubbing
process, grout used may be made with cementitious materials from the same sources as
used for in-place concrete.
Grout-cleaned rubbed finish-When this finish is specified, cleaning operations begin
after contiguous surfaces are completed and accessible. Surfaces are not to be cleaned as
work progresses. The surface is wetted and grout consisting of 1 part by volume port­
land cement and 1-1/2 parts of sand meeting the requirements of ASTM (144 or ASTM
(404 with sufficient water to produce the consistency of thick paint is applied. Grout is
scrubbed into voids and excess grout is removed.
Cork-floated fin ish -When this finish is specified, ties, burrs, and fins are to be removed.
The surface is wetted and stiff grout of one part portland cement and one part sand
meeting the requirements of ASTM (144 or ASTM (404 is applied to fill voids. Sufficient
water is used to produce a stiff consistency that is compressed into voids. The final finish is
produced with a cork float using a swirling motion.

13.2 Overview of ACI 347.3R Formed Concrete Surface

Provisions
ACI Committee 347 has developed an alternate method for classifying formed concrete
surfaces that is available for specifiers to use when converted to mandatory language.
ACI 347.3R is a guide that defines four levels of quality of formed concrete surfaces
and provides methods to achieve and evaluate them. These levels of quality are called
concrete surface categories (CSCs). Each quality level categorizes the formed concrete
surface, the concrete surface void ratio, and characteristics of various form-facing mate­
rials. The classification process uses a series of tables with criteria and a method for calcu­
lating surface voids.
The guide can help the project owner, design team, contractor, formwork supplier,
concrete supplier, and all other parties involved in the construction process to reach a
specific understanding of how to produce the desired as-cast concrete surface. All parties
should understand the procedures, processes, and costs for producing defined surfaces

FORMED CONCRETE SURFACE QUALITY


Fig. 13.2: General view of wall from 150ft
(Photo courtesy EFCO Corp.)
Fig. 13.3a: Close-up of test area # 1 (Photo Fig. 13.3b: Close-up of rest area #2 (Photo
courtesy EFCO Corp.) courtesy of EFCO Corp.)
of formed concrete.The guide also discusses phases of construction relating to concrete
surfaces from planning, description of work, materials, and construction and repair proce­
dures through the acceptance of a concrete surface.
The guide may be used by both the specifier (engineer/architect) and contractor as a
supplemental tool for defining, specifying, and evaluating concrete surfaces. It offers guid­
ance to the development of concrete surface specifications and expectations.
The suggested method for specifying formed surface quality under the four concrete
surface categories (CSC1, CSC2, CSC3, or CSC4) involves the following parameters:
Texture-T 1,Tl, T3, orT4;
Surface void ratio- SVR1, SVR2, SVR3, or SVR4;
Color uniformity- CUl, CU2, or CU3;
Surface irregularities- Sl1, Sl2, Sl3, or Sl4;
Construction and facing joint- CJl, CJ2, CJ3, or CJ4; and
Form-facing category- FC1, FC2, or FC3.
Levels of these parameters applicable to the CSCs are presented in Table 13.1 (all the tables
appear together at the end of the chapter), along with recommended use of mockups and
an indication of relative costs.
Tables 13.2 through 13.7 define measurable properties pertaining to formed concrete
surface texture, surface void ratio, color, flatness, and joints. CSC1 has the least restrictive
classifications and CSC4 has the most restrictive classifications for the finished surface. Figure
13.2 shows a large wall area viewed from a distance of 1SO ft. Figures 13.3a and 13.3b show
test area close-up views of the same wall. It becomes apparent that the distance for viewing
and overall appearance of the surface are important considerations in the evaluation process
and that over-specification could lead to costs that do not contribute to the overall result.
CSC levels are specified for the individual parts of the structure to reflect the needs,
desires, and budget of the owner. Possible examples might include the following:
Basement walls: CSC1;
Industrial structures: CSC1 or CSC2;
Electrical and mechanical rooms: CSCl or CSC2;
Stairwells: CSC1, CSC2, or CSC3;
Commercial building exteriors: CSC3;
High-end commercial building exteriors: CSC3 or CSC4;
Religious structures or museums: CSC3 or CSC4; and
Monumental or landmark structures: CSC4.
These examples are provided to illustrate the various classifications of concrete surfaces
and are not specific recommendations of the committee. It is recommended that concrete
surface finish be provided as a part of the contract documents, either designated in sched­
ules or in drawings on exterior or interior views of the structure.
13.2.1 Determination of Surface Void Ratio
The surface void ratio (SVR) can be stated as either the percentage of void area within the
test area or the area of voids within the test area, as noted inTable 13.3. The test area is
defined as a 24 x 24 in. square that can be located anywhere on the designated surface.
CHAPTER 73
Features such as approved tie holes are not counted as voids. Voids with a diameter less
than 3/32 in., or less equivalent area than a circle of that diameter, are not counted. If voids
have a diameter greater than omo,. or greater equivalent area, the surface is evaluated and
a procedure is developed for repair of the deviation.
From Fig. 13.3b, it becomes apparent that voids have a variety of shapes. Some are
round, some are oval, and others are amorphous. For those that are round or slightly oval,
the area Av can be calculated from the average diameter as the area of a circle, A,.= '!{d2/4.
Table 13.8 provides areas for various diameters in the range of the criteria to simplify tabu­
lation of total area. For other shapes, the area can be approximated based on a rectangle
having length and width of the void, as shown in Fig. 13.4.
A,=i X w
i = length Fig. 13.4: Average dimensions of void shape at
w =width concrete formed surface
In arriving at the length and width (Fig. 13.S), the objective for sizing the rectangle is to
have approximately as much void area falling outside as non-void area falling within the
rectangle. See Example 13.1 for an example of void area criteria evaluation.
The images in Fig. 13.6 provide views of concrete surfaces to aid understanding of the
concrete SVR determined in accordance with Table 13.3. These images are only provided
as examples. The overall evaluation process of ACI 347.3R provides detailed descriptions
for evaluating the single criteria and the overall impression of a given concrete surface.
The SVR is only required to be determined if the entire impression of the surface does not
meet the contract expectation or the single criteria exceeds the limits in Table 13.3.

13.2.2 Specifications
Before writing the specifications, the engineer/architect should determine the desired
appearance of the concrete surfaces and the design features the contract documents
should describe. In the contract documents, the engineer/architect chooses and speci­
Fig. 13.5: Measurement of surface void
fies the expected CSC appearance and features for each specific area. The contractor
dimensions
determines the means and methods, material type and quantities, and associated costs
to achieve the specified concrete surface
finish.
The specifications should consider
constructibility, cost, and achievable expec­
lrtfftfflfJFHii1iffit·ffiWI§'6
The framed area shown in the figure
tations, and describe the desired look of the has a count of 215 voids with an
formed concrete surface. In addition to CSC, average diameter ;?:3/32 in. and none
contract documents should include surface with a maximum diameter greater
features such as requirements or criteria than Om4< = 1/4 in. The total void area
related to form-facing category, formwork was found to be 2.01 in.2 According to
joints, tie holes, panel size, panel arrange­ Table 13.3, the determination would
ment, texture, color, chamfer, rustications, be SVR3. If other criteria were met, this
reveals, reglets, drip strips, control joints, would indicate CSC3 if an absorbent . '
expansion joints, and reinforcing bar spacer form facing had been used and CSC4 if
form contacts.

J
a non-absorbent form facing had been
Required mockups should be constructed used.
under site conditions and should have the
following minimum goals:
Validate the means and methods to be
used by the contractor; and Example wall test area

Provide a sample of the specified

concrete surface for the engineer/architect and owner.
The mockup should incorporate building geometries; reinforcing bar cover, finish, and layout;
inserts; and concrete mixture design requirements, as well as sample tie hole patching and other
likely required repair procedures. The engineer/architect should review and accept the results
demonstrated by the completed mockup(s). The contractor should confirm in writing that the
mockup quality represents the work that can be accomplished in the actual structure. Refer to
ACI 303R-12, uGuide to Cast-in-Place Architectural Concrete Practice," for further information
about mockups of architectural concrete.
If the contract requires CSC3 or CSC4, there should be a mockup for each category spec­
ified (Table 13.1). The mockups may be considered a separate contractual reimbursement
item. Additional mockups may be required until all parties involved are in agreement
that they represent the work that is required to be accomplished. Before work begins on

FORMED CONCRETE SURFACE QUALITY

 ·. .-

. ' .. � .,
. , .
. .

(a)CSCI (b) CSC2

(c)CSC3 (d)CSC4

Fig. 13.6: Images representing CSCI to CSC4 without sense of scale or viewing distance

the actual structure, the engineer/architect should approve in writing a mockup for that
portion. Mockups are retained and maintained until the structure has been completed
and the concrete surface finishes have been accepted by the owner or engineer/architect.
An area in an existing building may be used as a reference area only and not as a
mockup because it is almost impossible to reproduce an area in exact detail. A mockup
should be created to illustrate the contractor's ability to reproduce the appearance of the
existing structure used as a reference. Construction should conform to the selected refer­
ence surfaces and fulfill the contract requirements.
The specifier should recognize that some characteristics of surface finish cannot be
absolutely controlled, are difficult to control, or can only be partially avoided. Some objec­
tionable characteristics can be minimized if the work is executed properly. These charac­
teristics and limitations are discussed in ACI 347.3R.

13.2.3 Design Considerations

After stripping formwork, the concrete surface will reflect the texture and other properties
of the formwork. Thus, formwork design should consider the following features as needed
to achieve the formed concrete surface category specified:
Form-facing material;
Form-face joint locations;
Form tie locations;
Reveal size, shape, and pattern; and
Properties of the concrete mixture design.
ACI 347.3R provides detailed recommendations for these and other form design
considerations.

Designing, Planning, and Detailing the Formwork

If required, or when the appearance of a concrete surface is important to the appearance
of the finished structure, a shop drawing showing the formed concrete surface appear­
ance is developed. This drawing is generated by the contractor and reviewed for compli­
ance with the contract documents by the engineer/architect. A formed surface appear­
ance drawing describes the intended surface appearance of a specifically referenced,

CHAPTER 13
 Fig. 13.7: Example formed surface appearance shop drawing

formed concrete surface. The use of formed surface appearance drawings can help convey
the desired appearance of formed concrete surfaces by indicating all applicable features,
such as tie hole treatments, textured surfaces, fluting, fractured fins, sandblasted surfaces,
geometric patterns, wood grain, exposed aggregates, reveals, rustications, construction
joint appearances, integral color, form joint appearances, and modularity or any other
characteristic of the surface that affects the intended visual appearance of the finished
work. •
Figure 13.7 shows an elevation of a finished wall and a plan view of a wall formwork
layout using job-built formwork. Tie hole (Fig. 13.8) and form joint patterns (Fig. 13.9) are
shown in the elevation.
The requirements for the formed concrete surface can only be met if it is possible to
place and consolidate the concrete properly. Consultations are often held between a
formwork engineer/contractor and the engineer/architect during the facility design stage.
Fig. 13.8: Sealed tie hole for execution of CSC3
Formwork design and construction considerations should include:
and CSC4 (Photo courtesy MEVA Formwork
1. Anticipating conditions that can result in air becoming trapped during placement
Systems)
and making provisions for venting of the air or modifications made to the concrete
placement method to avoid surface voids.
2. Evenly arranging pouring windows and making sure they are of sufficient size to
permit concrete placement when needed and allowed. Consider the locations and
forming details of pouring windows in CSC2 and CSC3. Pouring windows are not
recommended for CSC4.

'
FORMED CONCRETE SURFACE QUALITY 13-7
 3. Verifying that spacers for reinforce­
ment will not affect the appearance
of the finished surface by either
corroding, protruding; or being
recognizable at the formed concrete
surface, especially in CSC3 and CSC4.
4. Reviewing contract documents
to assure they maintain adequate
concrete cover at recesses, reveals,
flutes, or other locations where the
nominal concrete section is reduced,
or when the section may be reduced
by subsequent mechanical texturing.
5. Giving careful consideration to
the method of installation and the
aesthetic layout of inserts and embed­
ments in CSC3 and CSC4.
6. Reviewing building elements to
assure they are dimensioned and
Fig. 13.9: Formjoint visual pattern (Photo courtesy MEVA Formwork Systems)
designed in such a way that the
concrete can be placed and consoli­
dated without difficulty.
7. Consulting with the engineer/architect on the possibility of a reduced surface quality
requirement or the use of self-consolidating concrete where the shape and the
dimensions of the building elements, openings, or both, will result in difficulties in
placement and consolidation.
8. Designing the concrete surface to shed rainwater to avoid staining the concrete
surface for surfaces subject to weathering.

Selection of formwork and facing

Selection of a formwork system will affect project cost, design, and the level of crafts­
manship required. Both job-built formwork and pre-manufactured panelized formwork
systems are used to construct structures. The formwork designer should consider the
available form system properties and coordinate the features of the structure with the
characteristics of the specific systems. The form-facing material that depends on the
form-facing category {Table 13.7) may also have limitations of available dimensional
sizes. Facing made of plastic composites, steel, and aluminum sheets that can be fused or
welded together are available for large seamless form faces. Form panels may create differ­
ences in the concrete surface appearance when reused over the course of the project.
Non-absorbent facings produce lighter concrete surfaces, and color differences such as
mottling could become more apparent. ACI 347.3R provides extensive information on
characteristics of form-facing materials and the resulting texture of the formed concrete
surface.
During the design phase, the design concept and the formwork construction systems
are coordinated, such as modular frames, panelized systems, or job-built systems and
their dimensions. For curved formwork and complicated geometrical shapes, consider the
construction process, methods, and systems that may be used. ACI 347.3R includes discus­
sion of system-related considerations, manufactured panelized formwork considerations
and advantages, and job-built formwork considerations and advantages. Form liners
may be attached to either the panelized formwork or job-built formwork. It is possible to
produce a variety of patterns or textures on the exposed concrete surface by using form
liners {refer to Chapter 14).

13. 2.4 Construction

During construction, the contractor should choose and assemble formwork, facing, and
fasteners in conformance with contract documents, including the facing surface that will
produce the specified concrete surfaces. Formwork includes the materials composing the
form structure as well as the facing material. The following recommendations can help
achieve the concrete surface:

CHAPTER 13
 Before each use, examine the condi�
tion of formwork and facing for imper­
fections or damage that may produce
an unacceptable surface; repair or
replace as necessary and properly
store the formwork.
b. Ensure that the tolerances and char­
acteristics of the formwork materials
used provide the required appearance
within specified tolerances.
Evenly tighten ties and seal if neces­
sary; over-tightened ties can result in
depressions around the tie hole.
d. Depending on the CSC, the edges of
cut-to-size plywood may need to be
sealed and factory-sealed edges may
need to be checked and resealed to
achieve the required concrete surface
at the panel joints.
Seals, using silicone or compressible
closed-cell joint tapes, can reduce the
Fig. 13.10: lnconsistenr facing material can lead to color and texture variations (Photo
likelihood of leakage at the facing,
courtesy MEVA Formwork Systems)
form panel joints, or both, including
construction joints. The use of foam
tape, caulking, or both can become problematic after
the initial form use. Residual release agents remaining
on the forms may affect the tape or caulk adhesion. If
joint sealing or taping is required, it should be specified
in the contract documents.
Keep porous plywood or other porous facing materials
moist to minimize swelling and shrinking.
g. Avoid using new and old plywood sheets or sheets
from different manufacturers adjacent to one another,
or both, as different sheets (Fig. 13.10) could have an
effect on the final appearance of the concrete surface.
h. Carefully choose release agents and use in accordance
with manufacturer's instructions and spray, spread, or
spray and spread the release agents in even, thin layers
unless otherwise directed. Wipe off excess release
agents (refer to Fig. 13.11 ).
When locating concrete placement windows or other
temporary openings in formwork, avoid areas of
congested reinforcement. Consider the concrete's
finished appearance when selecting the location of
temporary openings because such openings will most Fig. 13.11 Concrete surface resulting from excess form release agent (Photo
likely leave a form imprint on the finished surface. Make courtesy MEVA Formwork Systems)
temporary openings large enough to allow the use of
internal vibrators with minimal contact with reinforcement and form-facing material.
It is difficult to attain completely tight forms unless joint sealing strips are installed
between each panel. This document attempts to address these issues and provides
limitations to the form gap and mortar leakage. The language of Table 13.2, Classifi­
cation T1-T4, is intended to be consistent with ACI 301-10, which states that mortar
loss should be controlled and minimized. If mortar loss causes reinforcing bar cover
issues, patching may be required.
Other factors that impact formed concrete surface are side-form spacers for reinforce­
ment, installation of inserts, the concrete mixture, and the concrete placement procedure.
These factors are further discussed in ACI 347.3R.
When CSC3 or CSC4 are specified, it is important to establish a concrete surface team
to ensure the coordination of the construction progress and management of infor­
mation flow between the parties involved before and during construction. Roles of
the team members should be clearly defined. The team can discuss and resolve open

FORMED CONCRETE SURFACE QUALITY

questions concerning surface details. The members of the team may include, but not be
limited to the:
Owner, architect and engineer;
General contractor/construction manager; and
Concrete contractor or special consultants with expertise in formwork, formwork
engineer, formwork supplier, concrete producer, reinforcement placing supervisor,
concrete placing supervisor, and testing lab.
The contractor, with input from the team and consistent with the contract documents,
should develop written processes for the successful execution of the project. These
processes may include:
The execution of mockup requirements;
The development, coordination, review, and acceptance procedures for the formed
surface appearance drawings;
How concerns are to be addressed to assure the required quality;
How completed surfaces are evaluated; and
How decisions are made when corrective work appears to be necessary.
Although some parties may not be contractually obligated to other parties within this
team, issues may arise that affect the scope and cost to an individual member and need to
be resolved as part of this process. The purpose of the concrete surface team is to identify
and resolve issues preemptively to avoid contractual disagreements, additional cost, and
delays, and bring the concrete surfaces into alignment with project expectations.

13.2.5 Evaluation of formed concrete surfaces and repair procedures

Surface appearance is the basic acceptance criteria for the agreed upon CSC. Variations
in texture and color are characteristic for all CSCs. Mockups, if used, should be the basis
for the evaluation process. The mockup's surface conditions are not reproducible without
variations. Differences in raw materials, permissible variations in the concrete mixture, the
aging effects of form facings, release agents, and weather conditions do not allow iden­
tical surface results.
The overall impression of the exposed concrete surfaces, viewed from an appropriate
viewing distance, is the main method of evaluation. Even if one criterion of the overall
grade does not achieve the minimum surface agreed upon, the surface should not be
rejected if the overall appearance of the concrete surface is judged to be acceptable.
Evaluation of overall impression should be made under normal lighting conditions
from a minimum distance of 20ft or greater, perpendicular to the concrete surface to be
viewed. This viewing distance allows the viewer to evaluate whether the specified overall
appearance of the structure is achieved. Sunlight striking a concrete surface at an acute
angle will amplify the appearance of its irregularities. As such, evaluations under these
conditions should be avoided. The appropriate viewing distance is equal to the distance
that allows the entire building, its essential parts, or both to be viewed in their entirety.
The individual design features should be recognizable.
When producing exposed concrete surfaces, it is possible that deviations from the
specified quality in the contract documents could arise despite the level of care employed
during construction. A deviation can be a surface category nonconformance identified
during an evaluation or caused by other factors, including weather, finishes, or other
building features.
The failing of a single criterion will only obligate the repair of the defect. The entire
surface impression depends on the size of the viewed area, which was agreed upon at
the beginning of the project. For example, should the surface void ratio in some areas be
higher in the finished work than specified, this alone is not sufficient reason for rejection
of the entire work if the overall appearance is still achieved.
When removing defects of formed concrete surfaces, the objective is to provide the
greatest possible match with the overall impression of the esc specified in the contract
documents, or match or blend into the appearance of adjacent concrete surfaces using
the materials and methods accepted on the field mockup (refer to ACI 301 ). The removal
of defects requires great care. Even with the best craft skills, these areas can remain recog­
nizable as repairs. For this reason, consider for each case whether the proposed repair will
result in an improvement over the existing condition. ACI347.3R provides recommended
procedures for repair and repair evaluation.

CHAPTER 13
Cl
�
"0
t'l
"
�
�<::
,� � ,
I I I I Tl
Co"""" .odo'"' ; w;� low .;,;b;l;�

I esc1 �.��m��,;:::��:�: �! �:,;� :� l

m�•

j
o
I I SVRI
I SVRI I CUl I CU
I Sll CJl
I Optional I FCl low
� . ur , uMid
0 � or covered with 5ubsequent fino5h motenols

�
"'
=i

CSC2
I �t�::�::::��';,,:�:� visual appearance is
I T2 I SVR2
I SVRl I CUl I CUl
I Sl2 CJ2 I Optional I FCl
I Average

lcu2lcu2l
Com::rele surfc:lces that ore in public view or

� 1
CSCJ
I �
where appearance is im r nl, !ouch os e,.;te-
�
rior or interior expo!.ed bu,ldmg elements I TJ
I SVRJ
I SVR2 SIJ CJJ
I ����
reco ded
I FC2 High

u
�� I
lcu21cuJI
Concrete surfaces where the e11posed
concrete is a prominent feature of the
completed structure or visual appearance is
T4
I SVR4 I SVRJ Sl4 CJ4
Should be
required
FCJ
I Veryhigh

important

•For matching requiremen t s of formed concrete surfacecate9<)ries. refer toTables 13.2 through 13.7.

'lheappearanceof theformedconcretesurfaceshould onlybeju dgedin it s entirety,notbylookingat separatecrite.iaon�.Thefailureof oneagreedcr�erion accmding to thi s guide
shoul d not resultin theobligationto repair deviation s if theoverall positivelmageofthe structureorthebuil ding i s not di sturbed

'ai s ab sorbentform facing;nai snoo·absorbentform facing

'The general impres sion of existing or not existing diswlorations <;an usuallybe seen on� after a longer period of timea n d for at lea st8 week s. The uniformityof the coloring ha s to be
judgedfrom thewmmonviewing di stanceaccording toACI347.3R,Chapter7.

'lf required ,a d ditionalmockup s shoold beprepared

Table 13.2: Description of visible texture and panel joints on as·cast formed surfaces

-Acceptable gaps in adjacent formwork components �3/4 in refer to Se<;tion 13.2.4.j

-Acceptable depth of mortar loss � 1/2 in
·Acceptable surface offsets of panel joints up to 1 in. (ACI 117-10, Se<;tion 4.8.3, Closs D).
Tl
·Allowable projections 1 in. from adjacent surface [ACI 301-10, Section 5.3.3.3.o).
. Form-lacing material examples: rough-sown lumber, COX plywood, particle boord
. Imprints of modular ponel lromes ore acceptable

Acceptable gaps in adjacent lormwork components �1/2 in.; refer to Section 13.2.4.j.
·Acceptable depth of mortar loss �3/8 in
.Acceptable surface ofhets of panel joints up to 1/2 in. A
( CI 117-10, Section 4.8.3, Closs C).
T2
-Allowable projections 1/2 in. from adjacent surface
· Form-lacing material examples: Closs BBOES plywood, MOO plywood
Imprints of modular panel frames ore acceptable

·Acceptable gaps in adjacent formwork components �1/4 in.; refer to Section I 3.2.4.j.
·Acceptable depth of mortar loss � 1/4 in
-Acceptable surface offsets of panel joints up to l/4 in. A
[ CI 117-10, Sedon 4.8.3, Closs 8).
!3
Allowable projections 1/4 in. from adjacent surface (ACI 301-10, Section 5.3.3.3.b)
· Form-facing material examples: HDO plywood, phenolic surface film, full plastic, or steel.
· Imprints of modular panel frames ore acceptable

· Formwork should be grout-tight; ovoid grout/mortar leakage ond correct where it occurs.
·Permissible surface offsets of panel joints up to 1/8 in. A
( CI 117-10, Section 4.8.3, ClossA)
- Form-lacing material examples: HDO plywood, PSF plywood, lull plastic, steel, and fiberglass.
- Imprints of modular panel frames ore unacceptable unless demonstrated and approved in the mockup

Table 13.3: Description of surface void areas on as·cost formed surfaces

Void oreo of pores of

6.9 in.' 5.8 in.' 3.5 in.' 1.7in.'
surface• occurring within
D..... - 3/4 in D..,.- 5/8 in. D'""'- 3/8 in. o_- 1/4 in.
o 24 x 24 in. squore

· Void area not to exceed 1.2% · Void area not to exceed 1% · Void area not to exceed - Void area not to exceed 0.3% of
of the test area of the test area 0.6% of the test area the test area

Suggested concrete place-
men! practices to yield
desired results
Standard lormwork and place-
ment practices should yield
these results without ony special
effort.
-This SVR category limitation
should not apply to permanently
concealed concrete surfaces
- Release agent should be
compatible with the form-facing
material.
. Formwork should be cleaned
prior to the opplicotion of
release agent.
-Apply release agent thinly
ond uniformly.
-A mockup might be
beneficial
In addition to the efforts
desoibed for the SVR2
category
-Adequote vibrotion
should be provided,
especially ot leolures,
openings, and embeds.
- Concrete mixture
consistency is important
in achieving reproduc·
ible results.
-Use revibrotion method
at top lilt.
-Mockupsore
recommended.
In addition to the efforts described
for the SVR2 and SVR3 categories:
·Concrete design and formwork
should eliminate surfaces that inhibit
the upward movement of entrapped
oir.
-Placement rote should consider
vertical ascent rote of entrapped oir
during consolidation.
-Use methods of deposition that
minimize ogitotion ot the surfoce
that introduces entrapped oir
-Mockups ore required.

"Vood area os the summatoon of the areas of all voods wothon the sample Sp.lce of 24 x 24 on, Voods wnh �n �ver�ge do�meter of d < 3132 on. are excluded from the cakul�!lon of the vood area

Note: lfth�e criteri� are made�ppliuble to the project, then the mockup should demonstrate the ability of the contr�ctor to meet the SVR expected for these surf�ces. The gener�l appearance of
the �nal structure should be compared with the general -"suaI �ppe�rance of the mockup.

CHAPTER 13
Table 13.4: Description of visible color uniformity• on as-cast formed surfaces

-Light and dark color variations ore acceptable

CUI -Color variations between adjacent placements and Ioyer lines ore acceptable
-Rust and dirt stains are acceptable.

-Groduol light and dark dis.colorotions ore acceptable.

-Color consistency between odjocent plocements and Ioyer lines should be mostly uniform.'
CU2 -Concrete source materials and form-facing material should be of consistent type, grade, and source to ovoid causing deviations in
oppeoronce
-Rust ond dirt stoins ore unocceptoble.

-Dis.colorolions caused by concrete rource material of different kind and origin; different types or treatments of facing material$; or incon­
CU3 sistent lreolmenl of concrete surfoces ore unocceptoble.1
·Rust stains, dirt stains, and visible pouring layers oro unacceptablo.

"Color uniformrtyrs subje(:tove�nd the e•pen,mons for uniformrtyshould be addres!oed before construction

'Concrete color deviations and discolorations cannot be completHyelimiM!� �n using�� best practic� If this is� concern, in addition to a mockup, use a reference structure of similar silt
and finish

'An approwd mockup of the surface is required; even the best practic� and quality control may result in minor color deviations 1nd discoloratioos.

Table 13.5: Description of visible surface irregularities• on as-cast formed surfaces

-ACI117-10, Se.::tion 4.8.3, Closs 0-Surloce

-Mo�imum gradual deviation over a disk:mce of Sit, or abrupt deviation is 1in
Sll
-limit deflection of formwork structure to 1./24 0.
- ACI117-10, Section 4.8.2, does not apply.

-ACI117-10, Section 4.8.3, Clou C-Surface.

-Mo�imum gradual deviation over o disklnce of 5 It, or abrupt deviation is 1/2 in.
Sl2
-limit deflection of formwork structure to 1.1360.
-ACI 117-10, Section 4.8.2, does not apply.

-A( I 117-10, Section 4.8.3, Clan S.Surlace.

-Ma�imum gradual deviation over o distance of 5 It, or abrupt deviation is 1I4 in
Sl3
· limit defledion of formwOI'k structure to 1.1360.
·ACI117-10, Section 4.8.2, does not apply.

·ACI117-10, Section 4.8.3, Cion A-Surface.

. Mo�imum gradual deviation over a distance of 5 It, or abrupt deviation is 118 in.
S14
· limit deflection of formwOI'k structure to 1.14 0 0.
· ACI117-10, Se.::tion 4.8.2, does apply.

"Surfaceirregularitie-sdo notapplyforworked orte•turedareas.

Table 13.6: Description of visible construction and facing joints• on as-cast formed surfaces

CJI · Acceptable offset of surfaces between two adjacent placements �1 in.

-Acceptable offset of surfaces between Two adjacent placements S 112 in.

CJ2
·The use of chamfer !!rips or similar reveols ore recommended at corutruction joints.

-Acceptable offset of surfaces between Two adjacent placements sl I4 in.

CJ3 -The use of chamfer strips or similar reveols ore recommended at construction joints.
-Construction joint locations should be coordinated with architectural design.

-Acceptable offset of surfaces between Two adjacent placements �118 in. Offsets less than 1/8 in. need to be specified in design
documents
CJA -The use of chamfer strips or similar reveals ore recommended at construction joints.
-Construction joint locations should be coordinated with architecltJrol design and approved by architect or engineer.
-The mockup should contain all feotures representative to the finished product.

•constructionjojntsthat remainvisible

FORMED CONCRETE SURFACE QUALITY

Table 13.7: Form-facing category descriptions Table 13.8: Areas of circular
Form fo(mg (gtegory surface voids
Crtteno" FC 1 FC2 FC3
Acceptable if potched, sanded, 3/32 0.007
Holes, greoterthon Plug or diskcovers Visible filling is
ond sealed or ground to match 1/8 0.012
3/16 in. ore acceptable unacceptable
odjocentlorm surface
5/32 0.019
Acceptable if potched,
Acceptable withouT potching, 3/16 0.028
Holes, 3/16 in. or sanded, and sealed or
Acceptable provided form surloce is not
less ground to motch odjo- 7/32 0.038
damaged or torn around hole[s)
cent/arm surface
1/4 0.049
Vibrator burns Acceptable Unacceptable Unacceptable
9/32 0.062
Acceptable if potched, sanded,
Unacceptable unless 5/16 0.077
Scratches/dents Acceptable and M�Cied or ground to match
otherwise approved
adjacent form surface 11/32 0.093

Concrete remnants* Acceptable Unacceptable Unacceptable 3/8 0.110

Should not affe<::tlinished 13/32 0.130

Cement residue' Acceptable Acceptable
concrete surface 7/16 0.150
Swelling of facing at 15/32 0.173
Acceptable Unacceptable Unacceptable
Fastener or tie holes
1/2 0.196
Should not affe<::tlinished
Patching1 Acceptable Acceptable 17/32 0.222
concrete surface
9/16 0.248

'Cemem residue is a thin film remaining on the form face. 19/32 0.277

'Perform and inspect reP<� irs of form facing and IT\i'lke acceptable for the intended formed concrete surface 5/8 0.307
14: FORMWORK FOR ARCHITECTURAL
CONCRETE
Architectural concrete has a twofold purpose. Not only does it serve as the structural
material, but it also becomes an architectural medium by providing the desired surface
finish. Therefore, special care is needed in the design and construction of its formwork.
Imperfections of all kinds will be open for inspection. Varying light conditions will empha­
size fins, sheathing joint marks, crooked corners, "pillows," bulges, and other irregularities.
Facilities designed to incorporate concrete as a visually important feature can vary greatly
in magnitude {Fig. 14.1 and 14.2); however, the objective is consistency of the desired
visible formed concrete surface.
This chapter, along with information already presented on materials and accessories
in Chapter 4 and on methods of classifying and specifying formed concrete surfaces in
Chapter 1 3, indicates some methods of forming architectural concrete to obtain speci­
fied formed concrete surfaces. Most of the general principles of formwork design and
construction discussed in Chapters 7, 8, and 1 1 also apply to architectural concrete form­
work. The items that require special consideration for architectural reasons are discussed
herein.
Although formwork quality is a critical consideration, it must be emphasized that
architectural effects achieved in concrete surfaces may be affected by factors other than
formwork. Types or brands of cement; sources of coarse and fine aggregates; and lack of
uniformity in mixing and placing techniques, slump control, curing methods, time, and
temperatures may significantly affect color and texture of the exposed surfaces despite
meticulous care in the production of the formwork. Helpful information on these consider­
ations is provided in ACI 303R-12, "Guide to Cast-in-Place Architectural Concrete Practice.�
ACI 303R recommends a general criteria that architecturally acceptable concrete
surfaces should be aesthetically compatible with minimal color and texture variations Fig. 14. 1: Arhitectural concrete emphasizes
and surface defects when viewed at a distance of approximately 20ft or more, as agreed consistency of concrete surface (Photo courtesy
upon by the architect/engineer, owner, and contractor, or as otherwise specified. ACI DOKAUSA)
 347.3R-13, uGuide to Formed Concrete
Surfaces,M provides guidance on a system
for specifying formed concrete surfaces
as discussed in Chapter 13. Section 6 of
ACI 301-10, "Specifications for Structural
Concrete," defines requirements for archi­
tectural concrete.

14.1 Specifications: Defining

Quality
Architectural concrete specifications may
be prepared as one of the following types
of specification, or as a combination of the
two:

Performance: The quality of the end product

is specified and, in this case, full responsi­
bility is placed on the contractor. Recom­
mended methods may be suggested.

Prescriptive: Detailed methods, materials,

and procedures are specified, and respon­
sibility is shared by the designer and
contractor.

Fig. 14.2: Architectural concrete for auditorium complex {Photo courtesy PERl Formwork If the types are combined, certain

Systems, Inc.) minimum requirements may be enumer­

ated to reasonably ensure success without
specifying actual methods of construction.
Regardless of the specification type, the contractor should submit formwork shop draw­
ings and formed surface appearance drawings so the engineer/architect for the structure
can verify that deflection, tie, and joint patterns are compatible with the quality and
appearance required by the design documents.
It is usually preferable for the architect to specify the desired surface to be attained on
the concrete rather than specifying the form material. The contractor is then able to use a
form lining or sheathing material familiar to the contractor or to pick the forming method
that is most economical for the operation, as long as the technique and materials selected
can safely produce the required surface. A thorough review of the specification and atten­
tion to materials, equipment, process, and control are critical for the contractor.1•·1 But
how can a specification satisfactorily define an architectural concrete surface that will, in
all probability, be evaluated on the basis of a visual inspection? AC1303Rsuggests using
pre-bid conferences, architectural concrete reference samples, and field mockups.
A preb id conference among architect, engineer, and prospective bidders can be called
to explain and clarify the owner's special expectations and requirements. This conference
gives the contractors an opportunity to point out aspects of the specifications that make
it difficult or excessively costly to achieve the desired surfaces. A pre-bid conference with
qualified contractors will bring out many practical considerations before the design is
finalized.
Surface quality and appearance requirements can be referenced for bidding purposes
to a specimen (or specimens) exhibiting the desired surface, color, and texture, prepared
under the architect's direction and labeled as the Architectural Concrete Reference Standard
(sometimes referred to as a Design Reference Sample). A minimum size of 18 x 18 x 2 in.
thick is small enough to be handled easily, yet large enough for displaying many types of
surface and texturing. A larger sample is sometimes needed. The sample should be cast
vertically if vertical casting will be necessary in the finished structure, or horizontally if
the member will be cast horizontally during actual construction. Such samples should be
available for inspection and examination before bids are taken, and can be validated in
writing by both owner and architect/engineer so that they have equal legal status with the
contract documents. If an existing building contains elements having the desired quality
and appearance, these may be used for reference if they are adjacent or quite nearby so
that comparisons are possible.

CHAPTER 14
 A preferred approach, where the budget
permits, is to include a field mockup
(sometimes referred to as a preconstruc·
tion mockup or a test bent) as part of the
construction contract. The purpose of
the mockup is to confirm the specified
materials and methods and to demon­
strate the contractor's ability to produce
the desired architectural finish. The field
mockup (fig. 14.3) is a full-scale sample
of selected portions of a project's archi­
tectural concrete, usually built at the
project site by the successful bidder before
starting construction of the major work.
The mockup must be large enough to show
architectural concrete portions of concern,
such as floor, wall, and column construc­
tion. Mockups are made full-scale to exhibit
and validate vertical and horizontal form,
form liner, or rustication joints, reinforce·
ment placement problems, and effects of
accessories. For walls, the mockup should
include a minimum of two lifts having
Fig 14.3: Mockups of trial wall, column. and ceiling concrete surfaces, including visual appear-
once, tie hales, rusticationjoints, recesses, and penetrations (Photo courtesy Morley Builders)
heights planned for separate placement.
The engineer/architect may indicate a
section or sections of the building that typify the most difficult areas to build. Specifying
a preconstruction mockup prepared and finished by the contractor for approval by the
architect-using proposed form materials, jointing techniques, and form surface treat­
ments, such as wetting, oiling, or lacquering-should be a requirement for all architectural
concrete. Once such a mockup has been completed to the satisfaction of the architect and
owner, it should remain at the site for the duration of the work as a standard with which
the rest of the work should comply.
All forming materials and construction practices used in producing the mockup are
those planned for use during actual construction of the project. Proper vibration and
re·vibration techniques should be defined at this time because they will significantly
affect appearance of the concrete. The mockup should also include a simulated repair area
and patched tie holes to show that satisfactory color and texture match can be achieved.
Patches should be aged at least a month to give a true indication of the final color.
The mockup, viewed at an agreed-upon distance, provides a basis for written approval
by the architect and owner of the finished product before the architectural concrete work
begins.
BIM is being used for a virtual mockup by some contractors as a preliminary step before
the field mockup. An example is shown in Fig. 14.4. Through a virtual mockup, it is possible
to more clearly show joint locations, appearance of rustications, and details that are
formed in the concrete surface such as chamfer intersections, coves, and rounded corners.
The model can help reach agreement on various details that may not have been apparent
in the architect/engineer drawings. The BIM mockup is also helpful in communicating
requirements to field workers who will build forms for the field mockup. Contractors have
found that the process sometimes allows agreement to use a less-visible portion of the
actual structure to serve as the mockup. This reduces costs of building a mockup that is
not part of the structure and must be disposed. While the BIM virtual mockup can even Fig. 14.4: BIM virtual mockup of beam and
show intended surface textures, it cannot represent the construction process that yields column details (Images courtesy Klarman
the actual consistency of surface texture, surface voids, and color. Construction)

14.2 Architectural Farmwark Design

14. 2. 1 Loads and Pressures

Design loads and pressures are generally the same as for structural concrete form­
work placed at comparable rates. A consistent pattern of internal vibration can often
produce suitable consolidation. However, architectural concrete may at times be
subjected to external vibration, re-vibration, set retardants, and greater slumps. Use of

FORMWORK FOR ARCHITECTURAL CONCRETE

self�consolidating concrete may improve surface details, 14.] but resulting lateral pressures
must be addressed.
External vibration, which is accomplished by attaching vibrators (Fig. 12.19) to the
outside of the forms, is also called form vibration. This type of vibration is the most critical
of the conditions noted. In addition to making the concrete pressure greater by increasing
its fluid action, external vibration sets up unusual dynamic conditions which can open up
the form joints.
Form vibration of cast-in-place architectural concrete is often limited to areas inacces­
sible to internal vibration. However, external vibration can also be effective in reducing
surface air voids, particularly on inclined surfaces. Its effects on the formwork and on
the concrete lateral pressures should be investigated and the formwork strengthened to
withstand the added stresses. Vibrator mounting plates or brackets may be required, and
special attention must be given to fastening of form hardware and sealing form joints.
Vibrators are often staggered vertically and horizontally on opposite sides of a wall with
vibration applied for short periods at the location of needed consolidation and then
moved to new locations as the placement proceeds. Recommendations for forms used
with external vibration are given in Chapter 5 as well as in ACI 309R-05, �Guide for Consoli­
dation of Concrete:

14.2.2 Design Standards

The design methods presented in Chapters 7 and 8 apply to architectural concrete. The
form designer must check for specified dimensional tolerances that may have a bearing
on what deflections can be permitted when designing the forms. If no special tolerances
are given, the form designer may use ACI 117, NSpecilications for Tolerances for Concrete
Construction and Materials," for guidance. Where more exacting tolerances are required
to achieve the desired architectural effect, they should be specified by the architect/
engineer. Additional cost must be considered for specifying accuracy beyond that
normally attainable from commercially available formwork systems, job-built systems,
and local skilled labor. ACI 347R-14, �Guide to Formwork for Concrete; Section 5.4, and
ACI 347.3R show how to specify the acceptable level of irregularities in formed concrete
surfaces, which is considered separately from dimensional tolerances. The Class A surface
suggested for surfaces prominently exposed to public view where appearance is of special
importance has a limit of+1/8 in. in 5 ft for gradual or abrupt irregularities. Special consid­
eration of tolerances and joint details may be necessary where precast and cast-in-place
concrete members must lit together on exposed surfaces.
Requirements for architectural concrete formwork must limit deflections, as formwork
deflections reflect directly in finished surfaces under varying light conditions. Deflection
frequently governs design rather than shear and bending considerations. Limiting deflec­
tion to l/400of the span of formwork components is often specified. However, greater
deflection may be acceptable in cases where the surfaces have a coarse or textured finish
and there is little reflection of light. For smooth finishes or glossy surfaces, even less
deflection may be desirable, and the engineer/architect and the contractor should confer
and reach a clear agreement on standards for deflections. Test panels cast against the
proposed form sheathing may help to establish this agreement if they are large enough to
simulate field conditions of support and span of the proposed form layout.
The design tables of Chapter 9 may be used for preliminary selection of size and spacing
of studs and wales. Unless the engineer/architect specifies otherwise, ACI 301 requires
a limit of 1/400 of the span for deflection of sheathing material as well as for studs and
wales instead of the 1/240 limit used in the tables of Chapter 9. The maximum spans with
deflection limited to 1/400 are 84% of single span or continuous beam span values listed in
Chapter 9 obtained based on deflections limited to 11240 (see discussion in Chapter 9).
Faster rates of vertical placement cause greater pressure on the forms. Even though
forms may be strong enough to resist the faster rates, deflections may increase and unac­
ceptable bulges may appear in the finished concrete. Close control of the rate of place­
ment is particularly important to successful forming of architectural concrete.
Where special forming systems are specified by the engineer for structural purposes
(such as one-way and two-way joist systems) in areas that are considered architectural, the
architect and engineer should coordinate their requirements to assure the desired archi­
tectural effect is consistent with the forming method and material specified.

CHAPTER 14
 14.2.3 Formwork Details
location, number, and details of such items as openings, control joints, rustication lines,
and expansion joints should be indicated by the architect/engineer on design drawings.
The formwork engineer/contractor uses this information to prepare details on the form­
work drawings showing how these features are to be executed. Recommendations are
given later in this chapter for accessories, closure techniques, concealment of joints in
formwork materials, and sealing the forms to make them watertight for uniform surfaces.
Mortar-tight joints prevent the formation of projecting fins. Why, then, the concern over
watertight joints for architectural concrete?The uniform appearance of the concrete can
be disrupted due to a condition called hydration discoloration-variations in total water
content of concrete and moisture movement within concrete during setting can cause
variations in color of concrete. Also, when water containing cement particles leaks from
the forms, a blemish may appear that contains more than the usual amount of aggregate.
There may be streaking, mottling, or darker appearance as a result of less water available
for hydration of the cement. Loss of water alone at comparatively tight form joints can
cause the hydration discoloration, as can other conditions inherent in placing operations,
such as pumping action at the interface between concrete and form during vibration, and
bleeding near the top of lifts.
Hydration discoloration occurs in the concrete to a considerable depth and cannot
ordinarily be concealed by abrasive blasting or tooling the surface. Forms must be made
as watertight as possible to minimize the problem. Taping, caulking, blocking, backing,
gasketing, or interlocking formworkjoints may be necessary. Using lower-slump concrete
helps to reduce leakage, too.
Pressure-sensitive tape may be used on the inside of forms when further treatment of
the surface is planned. Care is needed to prevent displacement or wrinkling of the tape,
because this results in difficult-to-remove blemishes. Brush-applied gum adhesive over
the tapes has successfully held them in place. Taped joints should be inspected before
placing concrete to be sure the tape has not moved.
Form sheathing or linings should be as uniform in absorbency as possible because
hydration discoloration can be caused even by subtle differences in the absorbency
of adjoining pieces of plywood that have been used a different number of times. Even
smoothly taped form joints can sometimes be·read•in the finished concrete surface
because of the difference in absorptiveness of the tape.

14.3 Exposed Concrete Surfaces

Contemporary architecture calls for a wide range of surface textures and treatments. A
surface compatible with the architect's design may vary from a glass-smooth finish to
one requiring special sculptured ornamentation. These surfaces require many different
types of form sheathing and lining. Chemical retarders applied to the form surface make
it possible to remove surface mortar and expose the aggregate after forms have been
removed. Variations in finish may also be achieved by grinding, chiseling, hammering, and
sandblasting after the concrete has set. Precast panels as forms or liners may provide the
desired surface finish. Sometimes, a combination of several of these techniques is used.
Because it is impossible to describe all of the methods of forming architectural surfaces,
a representative sample of techniques and materials used will be discussed. Strength,
stock sizes available, and other data on many of these materials are given in Chapter 4.
Regardless of the finish, a nonstaining release agent should be used for architectural
concrete forms to prevent uneven coloring of the concrete. It is important to apply an
even coat, without bubbles or streaks, on clean mortar-free surfaces. Coverage must be
complete, but avoid heavy coats or accumulation of the agent in joints or grooves. Release
agents should be checked for compatibility with form liner materials and they should not
interfere with adhesion of paints or other surface treatments planned for the structure.
Release agents should be applied to forms while the form is in a horizontal position
before the form is set in place and before reinforcing steel is placed to avoid contact with
adjacent construction joints or reinforcement. Chapter 12 and ACI 303R provide additional
information on the selection of a release agent. For uniformity of architectural surfaces, it
is important to use the same release agent at the same coverage throughout the job. For
long-duration jobs, seasonal temperature variations may affect the application procedures
needed to maintain uniformity of coverage.

FORMWORK FOR ARCHITECTURAL CONCRETE

 14.3.1 Smooth As-Cost Surfaces
Formed concrete surfaces that are smooth
are among the most difficult to achieve
with cast-in-place work (Fig. 14.5). The term
·smooth"as used in this section does not
imply free of defects. Rather, it indicates
non-textured. The degree to which defects
are acceptable should be defined by the
specification. Almost all concrete surfaces
have some surface voids, sometimes called
bugholes or blow holes, caused by bubbles
of air or water trapped at the form surface
while the concrete is hardening. They are
much more easily minimized in units cast
horizontally, where they readily escape
to the surface during vibration, than in
vertical, field-cast elements. On inward·
sloping surfaces, it is almost impossible to
get rid of all surface voids. These voids are
a frequent cause of controversy between
contractor and engineer/architect, as
discussed in Reference 14.3.
Smooth surfaces can also be blotched
by color changes, poorly consolidated
concrete, and from leakage at poorly sealed
joints in form linings or form corners. Blem­
ishes caused by leakage are critical because
they are often more than surface defects.
Smooth finishes are commonly cast
against such materials as steel, plywood,
reinforced or unreinforced plastic, and
hardboard. Color differences occur as a
result of variations in the relative absorp­
tiveness of the form contact surface mate­
rial. Smooth finishes are also vulnerable to
color differences produced by variations
in temperature, humidity, and stripping
time. An impervious surface such as steel,
overlaid plywood, or heavily sealed mate­
rials will usually result in a lighter color and
more uniform appearance if joints have
been properly constructed.
Contact surfaces of the formwork
Fig. 14.5: Smooth as-cast formed wall surface (Photo courtesy MEVA Formwork Systems)
should be installed to produce neat and
symmetrical joint patterns unless other­
wise specified. If the surface is to be free of all marks made by the sheathing material, the
joints between boards or panels must be filled and sealed. Caulk, tape, joint compound,
or their combinations can be used to seal joints. In all cases, unsupported joints between
sheathing sheets should be backed by framing. Silicone caulking can be used in combina­
tion with closed-cell neoprene between butt joints. If joints are filled with joint compound,
the joint compound should be sealed or coated to prevent sticking to the concrete.
Because this is a time-consuming job, materials available in relatively large panels are of
considerable value. In spite of joint filling, additional hand finishing is frequently required
to bring a surface to the desired smoothness. Making joints between sheathing sheets
almost invisible is not usually the objective. The patterns left by panels and sheets often
become part of the architectural concrete features when thoughtfully laid out and consis­
tently executed (Fig. 14.6).
Nailing should be done carefully, using hammers with smooth and well-dressed heads
to prevent marring of the form. Use box nails placed in a neat pattern for any contact
surfaces. Slightly raised nailheads leave a depression in the concrete, which is Jess conspic­
uous than theHpimple"that results when nails are driven below the form surface. Screws

CHAPTER 14
 Fig. 14.7: Concrete ceiling coffers for Notional
Gallery of Art East Building were formed with
are often used to fasten the sheathing.
sanded fir board sheathing (Photo courtesy
Regardless of whether the nails or screws
Bevin E. Johnston)
are flush, recessed, or raised, they will be
visible on the concrete surface unless they
are recessed, filled, and sealed to prevent uneven moisture loss. Back fastening should be
used if the imprints from nail or screw heads are objectionable.1H

Boord Sheathing
If sheathing lumber is selected to build smooth-surfaced forms {Fig. 14.7), dressed material
is a necessity and tongue-and-groove or shiplap is desirable. The need for dressed lumber
comes from the desirability of having boards that can be easily and accurately placed.
They also must fit tightly to minimize the formation of fins.
A common problem in the construction of forms with sheathing boards is the difficulty
of keeping horizontal joints between the boards level. Sheathing lumber, even when
dressed and matched, is not always perfectly uniform in width, and joints can easily get
out of alignment. Irregularities in driving up adjoining boards may also aggravate this
condition. It is therefore necessary to check the level of joint lines at frequent intervals.
To do this, lines of levels may be set at 3 or 4ft vertical intervals. The lines can be readily
followed by carpenters if they are marked on the studs at 3 to 4ft intervals along the
length of the form.

Other Materials
When plywood or hardboard serves as a sheathing material or liner, full-size sheets are
preferred. Joints should be constructed to fit tightly. For best appearance, the joints are
caulked (Fig. 14.8), filled, or taped.
Metal forms and liners give a smooth surface, but the joints between the units are hard
to conceal. If metal form units span the total distance between control joints or architec­
tural features of the structure, the joints between the units will be less noticeable. The size
of metal form panels can often be chosen from among a range of standard sizes avail­
able so that there is an even number of panels or a symmetrical pattern on each face of
the architectural concrete. If such a pattern is acceptable, the joint marks will not require
concealment and costs are reduced.
When horizontal joints are required in metal lining, the sheets can either be butted or
lapped about 1/2 in. If a lap joint must be made in the lining of a vertical form, the inner
sheet of the lap should be the upper one (Fig. 14.9) so that the slight step in the concrete Fig. 14.9: Liner overlap direction to minimize
will not cast a shadow that calls attention to the joint. sun shadow effect

FORM WORK FOR ARCHITECTURAL CONCRETE


Fig. 14.10: Rough board surface with inten·
tiona/joint displacements (Photo courtesy
Morley Builders)
Plastic liners, overlaid plywood, and glass fiber-reinforced polymer forms can be made
exceedingly smooth, and they have proved excellent materials for very smooth finish.
After the forms have been erected, joints can be filled with plastic to create a joint-free
surface. Some form sealers or coating materials, among them epoxy resin, function almost
the same as plastic liners and produce glossy-smooth surfaces upon stripping. Air bubbles
at the concrete surface are more common with these ultra-smooth forms than with more
porous materials. Another disadvantage with such a uniform finish is that any blemishes
(including air bubbles) tend to be unduly conspicuous and may require special treatment.
The glossy-surfaced concrete is excellent for indoor decoration. Outdoors, however, it may
undergo nonuniform loss of reflectivity and, if crazed, trap airborne pollutant particles.
14.3.2 Textured As-Cast Surfaces
Textured as-cast finishes are frequently selected because they contribute a visually desir·
able pattern and at the same time make it easy to avoid the problem of conspicuous
nonuniformity on plain surfaces. Texture may be imparted directly by the form sheathing
or by a liner attached to the forms. Good results are achieved both ways, and various rigid
and flexible materials can be used. Textured liners or textured forms have been made of
glass fiber-reinforced plastics, plywood, polystyrene, polyvinyl chloride, ABS, rough-sawn
lumber, rubber, aluminum, and other materials. Cost, ease of stripping, and possibility
for reuse are factors governing selection of the material. Ready-made textured liners in a
range of sizes and patterns are available from form manufacturers and specialty accessory
suppliers. Custom-made textured forms can be manufactured to suit anyone who can
justify the extra cost.
Boord Marks and Simulated Wood Grain
Wood grain appearance can be achieved by casting concrete against boards or plywood
panels that have been wire brushed to accent the natural pattern of the wood. Sand
blasting can also reveal the grain of wood to be used for forming, or special exposed grain
and striated-finish plywood can be purchased from the manufacturer. Sometimes the face
of the concrete is stained to make the surface resemble wood even more.
The use of board lumber for formwork sheathing can result in retardation or permanent
lack of hydration at the surface contact from the saccharides contained in the specific
species of lumber being used. The contractor should be aware of this potential and know
the characteristics of the lumber in this regard. Sometimes it is necessary to seal the
lumber with a sealer designed for formwork surfaces.
Unfinished sheathing lumber can be similarly used to produce a rough board�marked
concrete. By choosing slash grain lumber (plain sawn from the side of the log), a strong
grain effect is obtained. Sometimes, forms are sprayed with ammonia to raise the wood
fibers and accentuate grain markings. Tongue-and-groove boards may be spaced with a
small gap between adjacent boards to accentuate fins, but an unbroken fin line must not
be expected. Plain or wire-brushed boards may be used to get a slight cupping that accen·
tuates the joint lines where the scale of the structure permits a bold and rugged texture
(Fig. 14.10).
One advantage of a properly handled rough·board finish is that treatment after the
forms are stripped is eliminated because minor defects readily blend into the general
pattern. On the other hand, if voids occur in the concrete where mortar fails to completely
surround the coarse aggregate, it is difficult to make the patches match the surrounding
board texture. These rough textured finishes have a greater surface area than flat concrete
and therefore may require extra vibration and re·vibration time. A disadvantage of rough
board or plywood surfaces is that they do not allow many reuses of the sheathing before
loss of the grain effect.
Both rigid and flexible plastic liner materials are available made up in wood grain
patterns and rough board marked surfaces (see Fig. 4.20). Using such plastic forms or
liners eliminates color changes in the concrete that might result from changing absor·
bency as the wood is reused.
Ribbed and Fluted Surfaces
Fluted surfaces can be formed by attaching wood or elastomeric strips to the form
sheathing. If wood strips are used, they should have a kerf in the back to relieve swelling,
prevent breaking the concrete, and to make them easy to strip. Oftentimes a very small
bead of radiused caulking is used between the flute strip and the form to prevent any
CHAPTER 14
mortar from getting behind the flutes. This practice facilitates ease of stripping, as does
keeping the flutes precisely parallel. It is important for the concrete to gain adequate
strength before stripping to avoid breaking fluted edges.
Use of fully sealed hardwood strips will help avoid swelling problems. If strips are lightly
nailed to the forms, they will pull away when forms are stripped, leaving the wood to be
removed after the concrete hardens. When using any kind of wood feature strips, there
is the possibility of saccharides having a detrimental effect on the concrete surface. The
saccharides can cause retardation or a lack of hydration of the concrete in contact with
the wood, even if the strips have been coated with a form release agent. This can result in
nonuniform appearance and excessive surface dusting. If using wood fluting, it is a good
practice to apply a sealer to the strips, unless it is certain that the wood will not have this
affect.
The main advantage of elastomeric strips is that they can be easily pulled from the hard·
ened concrete. Tightly stretched lengths of rope have been used in the same way as the
elastomeric strips, and they produce a considerably more ornamented concrete surface.
Corrugated sheet metal and corrugated glass fiber building material may also be attached
to forms to obtain regular fluted surfaces. However, some of these methods can be labor
intensive and difficult to reproduce consistently.
Thus, plastic form liner systems that produce continuous corrugations, from deep rib
trapezoidal shapes and undulating curves to a variety of striations, have become popular
(see Fig. 4.11 ). Liner panels come in various widths and in lengths to fit full placement
heights. Interlocking edges that conceal joints in the material are available from some
manufacturers. liner panels release rapidly and cleanly from the concrete, and the better
quality ones are suitable for numerous reuses. Flexible (elastomeric) liner materials can
also be used.

Exposed Aggregate
Several methods can be used to expose aggregate on the surface of architectural
concrete. A concrete set retarder can be applied to the forms so that after they are
stripped, the mortar between the surface aggregate particles can be washed or brushed
away. Another method is the aggregate transfer method,1u in which aggregate is
attached to the form with an adhesive. After the concrete has been cast, the forms are
removed, leaving the aggregate embedded in the concrete because the bond to the
concrete is stronger than the bond to the adhesive. Both methods work best when panels
can be precast with the finished surface down; otherwise, control becomes difficult. Care
and experience are required to achieve uniform results on vertical cast-in-place surfaces. A
mockup or series of mockups is recommended for vertical exposed aggregate surfaces.
Retarders can be formulated to achieve varying depths of etch or exposure of aggre­
gate. The retarder must be applied uniformly to the form surface, avoiding runs on vertical
surfaces because they lead to nonuniform exposure of the aggregate. Concrete may
be placed any time after the retarder has dried. If placement of concrete is delayed, it is
important to protect the typical retarder from dew, rain, or other moisture that would
activate the retarder prematurely. However, some rain-resistant retarders are available. The
use of heat or accelerators during cold weather may also affect the action of the retarder.
Experimenting to determine the effect of heights of placement, form stripping times,
and methods of exposure should be done on the preconstruction mockup or in some
unexposed part of the structure, such as basement walls. ACI 303R recommends a
minimum concrete strength of 1000 to 1500 psi before removal of the retarded surface.
Because the retarder and part of the retarded surface may adhere to the forms, it may be
desirable to use a special form release agent that causes the retarder and retarded matrix
to stay on the concrete, thereby reducing form cleaning costs.
Other methods of aggregate exposure include abrasive blasting, mechanical tooling,
and high-pressure hydroblasting at 10,000 psi or higher after forms are removed. An even
simpler, older method of exposing aggregate is to use flowing water and a stiff vegetable
brush, stripping forms as early as possible, sometimes 12 to 24 hours after casting the
concrete. Just as for retarded surfaces, there is a high risk of nonuniform results unless
consistency is achieved with respect to timing and craftsmanship.
Effectiveness of any exposed aggregate surface depends on proper choice of aggre·
gates and mixture proportions, as well as special attention to vibration practices. There
must be a sufficient amount otwell-distributed aggregate near the surface to be exposed.

FORMWORK FOR ARCHITECTURAL CONCRETE

 Other Overall Decorative Pofferns
Rustication joints can be used to provide
decorative patterns, hide joints between
sheathing sheets by emphasizing a break in
a flat surface, and create a weakened plane
that encourages shrinkage cracks to locate
in the rustication and be less noticeable
(Fig. 14.11). For these reasons, rustication
joints are one of the oldest visual tech­
niques of architectural concrete. Rustica­
tion joints may be formed using beveled
wood strips (Fig 14.12) or manufactured
joint materials.
An endless variety of overall sculptured
or relief patterns can be achieved by
attaching specially prepared form liners.
Plastic, glass fiber-reinforced polymer, and
rubber are among the patterned lining
materials that can be nailed or attached
with waterproof adhesives to the inside
form surface. Ready-made liners (Fig. 4.20)
can recreate wood grain, board marks,
masonry, or the patterns obtained by
tooling concrete. If the pattern is simple

Fig. 14.1 1: Rustication joints create visual patterns (Photo courtesy Olympic Panel Products LLC) or geometrical (fig. 14.13), strips or blocks
attached to the forms may be sufficient
for forming the shape or decoration. Best
results are generally achieved with a pattern or mold that is beveled and free of undercuts
for easy stripping; however, even this requirement may be eliminated with flexible mate­
rials or single-use shapes of rigid foamed plastic that can be chipped, brushed, dissolved,
or blasted away from the concrete after the forms are removed. If patterned molds or
inserts are used, they should be aligned and kept level to give continuity to the overall
pattern (Fig. 14.14). Symmetry with respect to liner seams and matching the modularity of
the liner are important work practices for good visual results.
A number of suppliers produce brick and concrete masonry pattern form liners and
several manufacture reusable wall form panels with the masonry design an integral part
of the form sheathing. Some of these forms are capable of producing a surface that can
be painted or stained and be virtually indistinguishable from brick at ordinary viewing
distance.
Rigid plastic foams, particularly polystyrene, can be used to create complex form liners
with repetitive over-all patterns or one-of-a-kind original works of art. Desired plastic
shapes may be cut or molded, then nailed or glued to form sheathing. Multiple cutting
machines facilitate rapid production of unique patterns for one-job use. Cut edges of
plastic foams have open cells that may cause bonding to concrete unless a coating or
membrane seal is applied over the cut surfaces.
If molded or sealed plastic is coated with a release agent, forms can be stripped and,
according to some suppliers, reused. Others working with the same type of foamed plastic
expect that it will bond to the concrete and must be destroyed during removal-scraped,
chipped, dissolved, or sandblasted away. One proprietary process treats cut shapes with
sealers, pigments, or other materials, and as soon as concrete is cured makes use of a
solvent that liquefies the plastic foam and deposits a glaze on the concrete.
The method of removal of plastic liners depends in part on site labor and form fabrica­
tion costs, but also on the shapes of patterns being formed. Dissolving the plastic makes
possible patterns of almost incredible delicacy but requires an environmental plan for
disposal of the effluent. Chipping or abrading away the plastic makes it possible to form
undercut shapes from which other types of form could not be removed. Molded shapes
coated with form release leave smooth concrete and minimize stripping labor.

Fig. 14.12:A suggestedmethodof attaching 14.3.3 Precast Panels as Forms or Liners

rustication strips to forms (Image courtesy Unusual or decorative surfaces can be incorporated in precast panels that serve as the
PortlandCement Association) exterior form or as a form liner that bonds permanently to the cast-in-place concrete. If

CHAPTER 14
Fig. 14.13: Visual pattern formed in cast-in­ Fig. 14.14: Alignment ofjoints and rustica­
place water tank structure (Photo courtesy tions is critical to appearance (Photo courtesy
Landmark Structures) MEVA Formwork Systems)

the panels are to serve structurally as forms, they should be suitably reinforced to resist
anticipated lateral pressures from the fresh concrete placed behind them. Erection and
bracing to resist wind and other lateral forces must also be considered. If they function
merely as stay-in-place liners, they may be of lesser strength and thickness. Recommenda­
tions for design and fabrication of form panels of concrete are given in Reference 14.6 and
in Section 9.7 of ACI347R (see Appendix).
In addition to the factors recommended by ACI347R, the potential effects should be
considered of differential shrinkage or creep between cast-in-place concrete and precast
forms for columns and bearing walls. Control of cracking in architectural surfaces is also
important. This may be achieved by keeping concrete stresses below the modulus of
rupture or by lightly prestressing the panels.
The panels are fabricated with lifting inserts and anchors to
attach them to the cast-in-place concrete. When the panels are
to be used as exterior forms against which concrete is cast, form
ties may be attached to embedded anchors, reinforcement,
or inserts provided in the panels for that purpose (Fig. 14.1 5),
or ties may be installed at joints between panels when suit­
able backing and provision for precise alignment of the panels
is made. Any embedded metal that remains exposed to the
elements after the structure is completed should be made of
noncorrosive material.
At the intersection of horizontal and vertical jointing, a
temporary bolt through blocking is used to assure holding
corners of all four slabs in the same plane during casting of
concrete. Wales may be used on the concrete form face to main­
tain alignment. Rate of rise of concrete in such forms should
be limited according to recommendations of the manufacturer
of the panels. Thorough consolidation of concrete behind the
forms is desirable to prevent voids that would interrupt the
bond of the form to the concrete, but sufficient care must be
exercised to prevent damage of concrete panels by contact
with vibrators. If horizontal construction joints are made about
3 in. below the top edge of precast concrete form panels,
instead of on the form panel line, the possibility of water
leakage through the construction joint will be reduced. Fig. 14. 15: Wall form assembly showing how precast concrete panel
serves as one face of the form

FORMWORK FOR ARCHITECTURAL CONCRETE

 Precast concrete panels that serve as forms must be protected during transportation
and erection to prevent chipping, spotting, cracking, or other damage of the units. Where
field welding of panel connections is required, the welding process should be controlled
to avoid spalling and scorching of concrete.
Where architectural concrete form panels adjoin or are supported by other forming
materials, care must be taken to use materials that will not stain the exposed concrete
surface. Any concrete that is accidentally spilled on such panels must be washed off
before it hardens. After concreting, precast architectural concrete form facings should be
wrapped or covered with nonstaining materials to protect them from other construction
materials, debris, or mechanical damage.
Joints between precast units are normally shimmed to establish proper spacing, and
then caulked, plastered, or taped on the inside or outside to prevent mortar leakage
during concreting. A gasket of low-density closed-cell neoprene rubber or other durable,
resilient material may be installed at this time to seal forms and remain in the perma-
nent structure. Depending on design details, joints may require filling or caulking after
concreting is completed. This filling or caulking should not cause any damage to adjoining
surfaces, and any cement-based joint filler should be adequately cured to make joints
watertight.
Reinforcement of concrete and mortar with glass fibers also has applications in form­
work. One type of this composite material is made of hydraulic cement mortar and
chopped strands of alkali-resistant glass fiber, sprayed up similarly to fiber-reinforced poly­
mers. Including the glass fibers provides a tough material that can be formed into plain
or patterned sheets about 1/2 in. thick, strengthened by heavier ribs where required. The
material has been used both as a stay-in-place form for bridge decks and as fa�ade panels
for buildings. It also has potential as a liner for producing architectural surface finishes
while weighing less than stay-in-place forms of conventional precast concrete.1u

14.4 Construction of Forms for Architecturol Concrete

Whether panel forms, built-in-place forms, or a combination of the two should be used
depends largely upon the architectural treatment. Where they can produce the required
surface, panel forms have numerous advantages as they do in structural concrete.
Methods of building formwork for architectural concrete generally follow the techniques
outlined in Chapter 11, Building and Erecting the Formwork. The purpose of this section is
to point out additional considerations required for architectural work.
Apart from quality of contact surfaces already discussed, the main concern is for orna­
mental details; accurate alignment; and the prevention of disfiguring deflection, leakage,
and staining. Better-quality materials are usually required for architectural concrete form­
work, and particular attention is given to meeting the dimensional tolerances specified by
the architect/engineer.
Because the surface appearance of the architectural concrete is so important, extra
vibrating or placing pockets may be needed to facilitate placement and consolidation
of the concrete to prevent segregation, honeycombing, sand streaking, or cold joints. It
should be noted that if pour pockets are required on the forms for architectural concrete,
they will normally leave a mark on the finished concrete. The location of pour pockets
should be coordinated with the architect.
Exposed reinforcing bars or bars too close to the concrete surface can cause unsightly
rust stains. Use of noncorroding side form spacers is recommended to maintain proper
cover over reinforcing steel on all vertical architectural concrete members. Be sure that the
spacers selected will not leave undesirable patterns on the concrete surface. Care should
be exercised in placing the reinforcement so that force required to close the form does not
cause the reinforcement spacers to indent the form facing and protrude from the concrete
surface.

14:4.1 Walls
Wall forms for architectural concrete are built the same as for structural concrete, but more
attention is given to alignment, perfection of corners, the contact surface, and especially
to treatment of joint location (Fig. 14.16). All wales should be constructed of two members
with joints staggered to minimize deflection. Minor defects in alignment and construc­
tion, which may not be objectionable in structural work, show up badly in architectural
concrete. It is difficult to get good alignment with wood wales or strongbacks when rigid

CHAPTER 14
Fig. 14.16: Tight form joint intersections produce well-defined edges (Photo courtesy Morley Fig. 14.17: Sheathing quality for reuse must
Builders) be higher to produce uniform architectural
concrete surfaces (Photo courtesy Morley
Builders)
tolerances are required. Substitution of lightweight steel studs, steel or aluminum chan­
nels back to back, or laminated veneer lumber will give much better alignment.
Any amount of care exercised in securing good horizontal and vertical alignment is time
well spent. One method for aligning a long section of forms is to set points about 30ft
apart on the floor with a theodolite or total station. These points may be set 3 or 4ft back
from the face of the wall to be well out of the way. Alignment at the top of the wall can
then be accurately set by plumbing up from the floor points and measuring over to the
wall. Intermediate points are set from a chalk line on the floor between the control points.
Aligning of forms is best done when there is little wind.

Sheathing and Lining

Architectural concrete form sheathing should be of appropriate quality to maintain the
reasonable uniformity of concrete surfaces (Fig. 14.17) through multiple uses and to
control deflection within appropriate limits. Plywood, steel, glass fiber-reinforced polymer,
aluminum, and other suitable materials can all be used as sheathing or facing materials.
Plywood (see Chapter 4) is one of the most widely used sheathing materials, either as a
support for lining materials or as a smooth contact surface for the form. Smooth contact
surfaces are best formed with overlaid or coated plywood so that the wood grain pattern
is concealed. If plywood is used as sheathing, full-size sheets are preferred and edges
should be butted or otherwise jointed. All vertical joints should be backed solidly, and the
edges of abutting sheets should be nailed to the same stud or beam; or if preassembled
in panels (Fig. 14.18), the edge members should be carefully aligned. For best appearance,
plywood sheets should be arranged as symmetrically as possible about the center line of
each exposed surface. The grain of the outer plies should run at right angles to the studs
for maximum strength. If plywood is used with grain parallel to studs, closer stud spacing
must be used as indicated in the design tables of Chapter 9.
To avoid swelling of plywood edges, which would cause a visual effect on the concrete
surface, all plywood cut edges should be sealed, including tie holes. Many plywood manu­
facturers can supply, for field application, the same edge sealers used in factory produc­
tion or a wood sealer can be used.
Plywood sheathing can also be fastened by back-fastening. Two layers of sheathing are
used. One layer is fastened to the wall form studs or beams with nails or screws from the
sheathing surface into the support. The second layer, the form facing, is then screwed Fig. 14.18: Job-built panels with double studs
at verticaljoints

FORM WORK FOR ARCHITECTURAL CONCRETE


Fig. 14.19: Woodboard sheathing joint and
grainpattern (Photo courtesyOoka USA)
Fig. 14.20:Attachment of woodboard
sheathing inplace (Pharo courresyOoka USA)
Fig. 14.21: Tie ho/es/ocated tobecomepart
of the visual design (Photo courtesy Morley
Builders)
from the back side of the first layer. This eliminates any concrete surface fastener imprints
or discoloration.
Whenever the architect permits prefabricated form panels to be used as wall sheathing,
similar care must be taken to keep horizontal joints level, vertical joints plumb, and all
joints mortar-tight. Panels, such as plywood sheets, should be laid out symmetrically
about the center line of the exposed wall face.
Either smooth or rough board finish may be specified by the architect. Because these
terms can cover an almost limitless range of possibilities, a good understanding of the
architect's intent should be established during the preconstruction conferences. At times,
irregular surfaces with projecting fins are desired; in other cases, a faithful reproduction
of wood grain is needed (fig. 14. 19 and 14.20). Board sheathing should be built in place
unless otherwise specified or permitted, except that prefabricated form sections may be
used if a single section forms an entire area from one reveal to another.
When smooth board sheathing is required for architectural concrete surface appear­
ance, great care is taken to prevent leakage through form joints. Vertical boards should
have all vertical joints plumb, and horizontal boards should have all horizontal joints level
and continuous. The vertical joints between horizontal boards should not be over one
board wide, should be staggered at least2 ft, and should be located at studs or other
supporting members. Each board must be driven up snug and nailed at every vertical
stud or horizontal beam. Sheathing of 6 in. boards should be double nailed, and 8 in.
and 10 in. boards should be nailed at both edges and at the center. Placing the bark side
of sheathing boards toward the concrete will give a more even surface by reducing the
natural cupping that occurs when the boards contact wet concrete.
The top three boards below horizontal construction joints should be ripped to approxi­
mately one-third of the closure needed. This helps make the horizontal lines look more
evenly spaced. For example, if24 in. remain at the top of a wall formed with 10 in. boards,
appearance will be better if each of the top three boards is 8 in. wide rather than having
an entire wall of 10 in. material with a single 4 in. board tacked on at the top.
The backing for the form lining should be constructed of a good grade of plywood or
form lumber that is solid, straight, and free from defects. Treat backing sheathing material
with form oil like that used on the face to help prevent warping.
Liners should be handled and assembled with care to avoid distortion. Many form liners,
particularly the plastics, expand and contract noticeably with temperature changes and
exposure to full sunlight. The expansion can cause buckling of the liner and bulges in the
concrete unless appropriate relief is provided at joints. Keep plastic and light- or heat-
sensitive liner materials out of direct sunlight.
Joints in the lining should be offset from those in the backing. Proprietary liners should
be attached following the manufacturer's recommendations. Liner layout should consider
the modular repetition and the dimensions of the structural element being formed.
Generally, the lining material should be attached beginning at the center of the board or
sheet and working toward the edges to prevent buckling. It may be fastened to the forms
with adhesives, staples, screws, or nails, depending on the type of liner material. Nails
should have thin flat heads and should be spaced not more than 8 in. on centers at edges
of lining material. There should be at least one nail in every square foot.
All liners should be used in the widest size possible. Areas less than 4 ft wide should be
lined with a single width of fiberboard, plywood, or other lining material. Edges of abut­
ting sheets should be attached to the same backing board, just as for sheathing. Joints
between liner sheets should be caulked to prevent leakage unless the material has its own
interlocking joints, as is the case for some proprietary sheet liners.
Ties
Form ties for architectural concrete require special consideration. Marks left by the ties can
detract from the finished surface or they may become an integral design element in the
finished fa�ade (fig. 14.21) when properly executed. Tie holes should be bored from the
inside of the forms whenever possible to prevent the formation of burrs on the contact
face. The smallest possible hole should be used to prevent mortar leakage. Special care
should be taken during stripping so the concrete is not broken around the tie holes.
The ties should be adjustable to permit tightening of forms and should leave no metal
closer than 1-1/2 in. to the surface for steel ties and 1 in. for stainless steel ties. Any lugs,
cones, washers, or other fittings, if permitted, should not leave depressions of a diam­
eter greater than their depth at the exposed surface of the concrete if the hole is to be
CHAPTER 14
patched. The mortar plug is less likely to become loose and leak if the side slope of the
recess hole is smaller. Twisted wire or band iron ties should not be permitted. Some
specifications also prohibit snap ties that are not fitted with spreader cones because of
the difficulty in controlling depth of breakback. When breakback can be controlled, some
architects may prefer the small holes left by snap ties without cones.
If ties do not fit tightly, holes should be sealed to prevent leakage. Tie layout should be
planned so as to be symmetrical with the member formed; and, wherever possible, ties
should be located at rustication marks, control joints, or other points where the visual
effect will be minimized unless the tie hole pattern is part of the architectural effect. Ties
penetrating a liner should be selected for visual effect and sealed at the penetration so
concrete cannot migrate between the liner and the substrate.
Where the architect specifies ties such as pencil rods, taper ties, or other bolts that are
pulled out after use, they should be coated with nonstaining bond-breaker or encased Fig. 14.22: Fiberglass ties colored to match
in sleeves to facilitate removal. These ties should incorporate positive spreading devices concrete and aligned in rusticationjoints to
instead of relying on wood spreaders that are removed as concreting progresses. Occa­ further minimize visibility after final trimming
sionally the architect may specify externally braced forms to eliminate surface blemishes is completed (Photo courtesy RJD Industries)
associated with ties, or go to the other extreme of emphasizing tie holes as part of the
surface design. Fiberglass ties (fig. 14.22), sometimes colored to match the concrete, can
be cut off flush with the surface.

Corners and Openings

Forming corners and openings in architec­
tural concrete (fig. 14.23) is a critical opera­
tion. The formwork must be unusually tight
and braced so that no movement occurs
because imperfections in construction and
alignment are most noticeable at corners.
A slight opening of a corner will cause
bleeding that may result in sand streaks or
an irregular line of honeycomb and a fin
that cannot be easily removed or covered.
Inserting closed-cell neoprene material 1/4
in. thick at corner joints will prevent this
leakage.
One way of forming corners for archi­
tectural concrete is shown in Fig. 14.24.
Vertical kick strips are attached to inter·
secting wales at the outside corner, and
the wales are wedged tightly to prevent
leakage. Alternate methods using prefabri­
cated corner ties, shown in Chapter 11, will
keep wales at the same elevation and main­
tain a uniform tie pattern on walls. Methods
are generally the same as for structural
concrete, except that greater precision and
attention to detail are required.
Fig. 14.23: Alignment and tightness ofjoinrs at corners and windows is critical in architectural
Forms for wall openings are built as
concrete (Photo courtesy MEVA Formwork Systems)
described in Chapter 11. Precision is again
the main consideration, especially at the
joint between the wall sheathing and the opening form. Many difficulties can be avoided
if the lumber is selected for straightness so that it fits accurately between the forms,
leaving no blemishes in the concrete.

14.4.2 Columns and Pilasters

Modern architectural designs often require that structural columns be left exposed for
architectural effects. Round or rectangular columns are formed much the same as regular
structural concrete columns (see Chapter 11), except for the attention required for surface
finishing and ornamental details. Smooth sheathing or lining and filled and sealed joints
are essential, unless other provisions are made for a textured surface.
Columns are often sculptured or ornamented and require special fabrication of details.
Glass fiber-reinforced polymer has been used with good results in forming decorative

FORMWORK FOR ARCHITECTURAL CONCRETE

Fig. 14.24: Typical details of straight wall forms showing one
method of securing a tight comer (Image courtesy Portland Cement
Association)
Fig. 14.26: Spandrel form supported by studs extended past wall
opening and sheathing also extended part way across opening (Image
courtesy Portland Cement Association)
- Exlendf� OUlfar
enooghtofeoeiY!Ibftees
Fig. 14.25: Ornamental spandrel beam form design suitable for
casting in two stages because face design would tend to hide
construction joint at the top of the floor slab (Image courtesy Port­
land Cement Association)
columns. Precast concrete panels that stay in place permanently
as a decorative facing have also been used as forms for architec­
tural columns.
Generally, the face form for a pilaster {Fig. 1 1 .4 6) can be made
as a panel. Accuracy in forming is important, as such details are
frequently the focus of attention in the fat;ade of the building.
Corners and sheathing joints must be straight and true, and
marks of the edge grain of the form sheathing should not be
visible from the front
14.4.3 Spandrels and Parapets
Spandrels are often decorative features of a building and may
require the use of molds if they are complicated in design.
Depending on the spandrel elevation relative to the floor slab
elevation, the spandrel top may be at the floor level or upset
above the floor. In the latter case, the spandrel can be cast in
one or two parts, depending on the design of the spandrel. If the
spandrel is to be cast in two parts, it is desirable to have the joint
obscured by placing it at some architectural detail. If the struc­
tural design requires casting the upset spandrel integrally with
the adjoining floor slab, this should be indicated by the architect/
engineer. This point should be rechecked if there is any doubt.
Two methods of forming an upset spandrel are shown in Fig.
14.25 and 14.26. These forms can be used whether the span­
drel is to be cast in one or two operations. The inside wall form
is supported on 1 x4s resting on the floor slab form if casting is
a single operation. These supports are withdrawn before the
floor slab concrete has hardened. Fabricated metal adjustable
supports are available for the same purpose, or precast concrete
block supports left in the floor slab can be used.
Usually, forms for the inside of parapet walls are made in panels
erected as a unit Panels 10 to 12ft long are convenient for the
CHAPTER 14
average project. The method of support is
the same as pictured for spandrel forms.

1 4.4.4 Soffits
If the underside of a concrete slab, beam,
or arch is to be exposed to view, either
painted or as bare concrete, extra care in
form preparation, jointing, and sealing
will be required (Fig. 14.27 and 14.28).
Flat surfaces may be formed with steel,
plywood, board sheathing, or other mate­
rials; however, coffered or ribbed ceilings
are frequently selected for exposed areas
for structural as well as aesthetic reasons
(Fig. 14.28). Glass fiber-reinforced polymer
pans and dome forms-both standard and
custom sizes-have become popular for
this application because of the generally
good quality of the off-the-form finish,
favorable stripping characteristics, and
easy handling due to light weight. These
forms can be trimmed or adjusted in the
field to meet special forming requirements.
Custom-made spandrel and other beam
forms of glass fiber-reinforced polymer
are also used to achieve improved surface
finish and reduce site labor.
Exposed ceilings and beam soffits require
formwork that is kept clean and free of
rust deposits when concrete is placed.
Mill scale may flake off the reinforcing as
it is placed and accumulate on horizontal
form surfaces. If reinforcement or metal
scrap remains in position for some time
before concreting, rust may be deposited
on the soffit form and leave a stain on the
concrete. Compressed air or water jets are
sometimes used to clean surfaces of loose
rust. For highest-quality work, consider
using reinforcing bars that are resistant to
surface corrosion if they must be exposed
on slab forms for a lengthy time before
concrete is placed.
Fig. 14.17: Erection of soffit form for arch (Photo courtesy Morley Builders)

1 4.4.5 Cantilevers
Because canopies and other cantilevered structural members are such conspicuous archi­
tectural features, it is particularly important that their forms provide adequate support
to maintain architectural lines. In designing the forms, the formwork engineer/contractor
will allow for any expected settlement or deflection of the forms themselves, while the
architect/engineer will specify any camber needed to compensate for deflection of the
member after forms are removed. If no camber is specified in the contract documents, the
contractor should request guidance from the architect/engineer to help them realize the
risk of a sagging span of concrete.
One or more checks should be made before concreting to be sure that proper camber
is provided. Any needed adjustment of the form by jacking and wedging must be made
before concrete placement. Adjustment of form elevation during or after concrete place­
ment should not be performed. The upper surface of a cambered slab or beam should
be screeded as nearly parallel as possible to the cambered form surface, so that a level
surface results when the structure deflects. As with other soffit formwork, measure­
ments of elevation to check compliance with the specifications should be made after
the concrete sets but before forms and shoring are removed. Full, continuous support

FORM WORK FOR ARCHITECTURAL CONCRETE 14-17

 should be provided beneath a cantilever
until it is capable of sustaining dead and
live loading. Stripping the member and
then providing reshoring only at the
free end may cause tension failure in the
bottom of the slab or beam. This danger
exists because the principal reinforcement
is placed near the upper face to sustain
tension only when the member acts as a
cantilever. Placing support only at the outer
end converts it to a simply supported beam
with tension at the bottom where steel may
not have been provided.

14.4.6 Ornamental Detail

Molds for casting concrete ornament can
be constructed from wood, plastic, plaster,
rubber, concrete, glass fiber, metal, or other
materials. The type of material selected
for the mold depends upon the shape to
be formed, desired number of reuses, cost
of making the mold, and ease of erection
Fig. 14.28: Concrete arch and coffered two·way joist ceiling become major statements contrib·
and stripping. Ornamental castings may be
uting to architecture (Photo courtesy Morley Builders)
needed either for new work or for restora·
tion projects.
The molds should be set in the forms and securely held in position to reproduce the
design shown on the drawings. Where wood forms adjoin molds, the wood should be
neatly fitted to the profile of the mold and all joints should be sealed. The molds and the
adjacent wood forms should be detailed so that the wood forms can be stripped without
disturbing the molds. A slight draft or taper on the edge of molds or pattern strips will
permit removing the detail material without damaging the concrete. Special provisions
should be made for early form removal, retardation, or both when sand blasting, wire
brushing, or other treatments are required.
Wood molds are best used for ornaments that have straight lines with no undercuts,
such as fluting and molding on pilasters and cornices. Complex ornaments with curved
surfaces and undercuts should be cast against molds made of materials such as plaster,
plastic, and rubber that can be formed around a pattern for a true reproduction of the
shape desired. Sheet metal can be rolled to shape molds for cylindrical sections. Precast
concrete ornamentation is also used; components may be placed inside the form and
concrete cast against or around them. At times, precast concrete ornamentation is
attached after the forms are stripped.

Wood Mold,
Wood molds are made of white pine, soft vertical-grain Douglas fir, or other softwood run
to size and shape in a commercial mill or a form shop with the necessary shapers. Molds of
wood are well adapted to ornamentation on belt courses, cornices, and other long details;
for such purposes, the mold is made up of several long moldings or strips run to the
needed shape. It should be made of material that does not warp or split easily. Combina·
tions of standard moldings are used whenever possible.
Special attention must be given to joint construction. Objectionable fins will be formed
in the concrete if the mold joints are not mortar tight. Each joint should be sealed with
caulk, tape, joint compound, or a compressible gasketing material before the concrete is
cast.
Longitudinal joints between the mold members should be made by overlapping at
reveals or returns whenever possible (Fig. 14.29).1f butt or miter joints are used, alternate
shrinking and swelling may open them to cause fins in the finished concrete. When joints
occur where there is no return or reveal, tongue-and-groove lumber or shiplap should
be used. Joints may also be splined or biscuited. Butt joints can be used when the pieces
are attached to a solid backing that prevents distortion of the mold due to swelling or
shrinkage of the pieces. Brackets of 2x4 and 1x6 material cut to the approximate shape of
the cornice are preassembled and scabbed to studs. Cornice form parts are then attached.

CHAPTER 14
 If transverse joints between successive pieces on a long
wooden mold all occur at the same place, they are easily
detected in the finished concrete, and there will be a distinct
break in continuity that weakens the mold. Staggering joints
overcomes both of these problems, and small joints can be made
almost invisible by sealing.
Because wood swells when wet, the mold must be built so that
this property will not distort the mold or open joints. Swelling
may also break the newly formed concrete. Thin, narrow boards
should be used because they warp and swell less than thick,
wide boards. They also save lumber. Saw cuts in the back of the
mold members (Fig. 14.29) will also reduce warping and wedging
caused by swelling and will make the forms easier to strip. Proper
treatment of wood with sealer (two coats) will reduce swelling
and produce a more uniform concrete surface.
Perfectly square pieces will bind in a formed recess and will
have to be cut out with a chisel. To avoid this extra labor and
possible damage to the concrete, make wood inserts with a slight
bevel or draw and with saw cuts in the back.
Much time can be saved in erecting and stripping forms for a
detail involving many pieces of run moldings if brackets are made
in the shop to the approximate profile of the proposed mold. The
brackets can be fastened to a major part of the formwork and the
mold pieces attached without excessive blocking. Fig. 14.29: Wood mold for cornice showing how longitudinal joints are
made by overlapping pieces rather than by butting or mitering (Image
Plaster Molds courtesy Portland Cement Association)
Plaster molds for casting intricate ornamentation are called
Nwaste�molds because they are broken in stripping and cannot
be reused. However, where elements of the design are repeated a number of times,
duplicate molds, perhaps made in fiberglass, can be mass-produced from the same master
pattern or model.
These molds are usually built by the ornamental plasterer who applies plaster reinforced
with fibers to a pattern of wood, clay, or other material. The pattern is first made to the
exact form of the proposed ornament and then the mold plaster is applied. When the
mold has hardened sufficiently, it is taken off the pattern and finished to the texture of the
form sheathing that is to surround the mold so the concrete finish of the decorative detail
will match the surrounding concrete. The contact side of the mold is then waterproofed
with several coats of shellac or other sealing compound. This prevents the mold from
absorbing water from the fresh concrete, which would weaken the mold and the concrete,
as well as possibly discoloring the concrete.
A 1/4 in. layer of colored plaster placed next to the pattern when forming the mold will
aid in the stripping operation by indicating when the plaster has been chipped close to
the concrete surface. The coloring must be such that the concrete will not be stained if the
waterproofing agent fails or is chipped off the contact surface of the mold.
The contractor and plasterer should work together in developing a mold that is strong
enough to withstand the pressure of the fresh concrete. The mold maker must be given
complete instructions as to how the mold will be attached to the formwork so that exten­
sive blocking will not be necessary. The mold must also be able to withstand handling
during erection.
The shape of the back of the mold varies according to the size and shape of the orna­
mentation to be formed. For small molds or flat surfaces with shallow ornamentation, the
back of the mold will be made flat to bear directly against the studs or wales. Molds for
deep ornamentation would be too heavy if the plaster were brought out to a flat surface
in back, so they are made 1-1/2 to 2 in. thick with the back of the mold made to approxi­
mate the profile of the contact surface. The mold is then blocked out around the edges
and other points with plaster reinforced with jute fibers or burlap to contact the formwork.
A wooden frame is often added to the back of a mold to prevent deflection and cracking
during transportation and erection. The frame is detached when the mold is set in place.
The edges of the mold require special attention. If possible, the joints between the mold
and the form sheathing should be hidden at reveals or returns. The edges of each piece
should be rabbeted so they will fit closely with the form sheathing, making a tight joint.

FORM WORK FOR ARCHITECTURAL CONCRETE

 All joints between pieces of the mold and the mold and sheathing should be pointed with
plaster.
The molds may be attached to the formwork in various ways. They can be nailed or
wired to the studs and wales. If this method is used, the nails are countersunk and the
wires are pulled into the plaster until they are buried and the marks pointed up with
plaster. Nails may also be driven into the mold through the formwork. To strip the form­
work, the nails are withdrawn from the mold, leaving it in place to be stripped later.
Special brackets and blocking can be built into the mold for attachment to the formwork.

MefaiMolds
Curved surfaces of mullions, piers, and pilasters are occasionally formed using metal
molds. It is advantageous if the curved surfaces are designed so that the sheet metal can
be shaped on standard rolls. The metal must be reinforced with collars or diaphragms to
maintain alignment. These supports are usually spaced about 9 to 12 in. apart.
The molds should be made from black iron rather than galvanized sheets because
galvanized metal may stick to the concrete even though it is well oiled. Shapes other than
cylindrical can be formed with metal but this is a costly process and seldom used unless
a great number of forms are needed, such as metal pans in steel or aluminum for a waffle
slab floor system.

Plastic and Rubber Molds

Both flexible and rigid plastics, as well as rubber, are important materials for forming
architectural concrete ornament. Overall liner patterns were described previously, and
the same materials are used for individual ornamental details as for the overall patterns.
Flexible materials such as rubber, two-component polyurethane, and hot-melt PVC can
be used to create molds that are readily fabricated to complex surfaces but are strip­
pable even when some undercuts are present. For low relief, they are attached to form
sheathing; for deeper sculptural effects, they are sometimes backed by reusable plaster
molds or other rigid support shaped to surround the ornamental detail. Steel stiffeners
can be cast into the edges or back of the polyurethane molds. The numerous types of
plastics available are outlined in Chapter 4.
Glass fiber-reinforced plastic molds are used like wood, plaster, or metal molds for orna­
mentation. like plaster molds, many duplicates can be made from a single master pattern;
these molds, however, have the added advantage of reusability. They can be nailed to the
form sheathing or attached with a waterproof mastic, or the shape can be built into the
surface of a panel. Joints between molds and sheathing are filled to keep the joint from
showing in the finished surface.
large reinforced plastic molds are easily blocked out to a flat plane at the back for
attachment to the formwork. If the ornament to be formed is complex, the mold must be
made in several parts. All joints should be accurately aligned and filled with a plastic mate­
rial like that of the mold.
Expanded (foamed) polystyrene and polyurethane sheet materials, particularly in the
higher densities, are excellent for producing both shallow and deep relief concrete orna­
ment. Polyurethane is the more stable of the two, being unaffected by solvents, acids, or
alkalis, whereas polystyrene is dissolved by many common solvents. Patterns are normally
carved into a sheet of the plastic foam, or built up on a rigid form panel using various
cut-out or molded shapes of plastic. Both types of foam are reasonably easy to carve with
sharp cutting tools. Sometimes, a heated knife is used. Polystyrene forms have also been
shaped with the aid of solvents, but this process is difficult to control and mistakes are
difficult to repair if the solvent goes too far. Sheets must be treated gently because even
the higher-density materials crush easily. Cutting machines are available for rapid cutting
of repetitive elements.
Hand-cut foam is generally made into single-use forms that are destroyed in removal,
and undercuts or other shapes that would not ordinarily be strippable can be formed.
The plastic is commonly removed by wire brush, chipping, or abrasive blasting. Polysty­
rene can be dissolved away with any of a number of common solvents. If it is desired to
produce a reusable form, the polystyrene can be given a brushed-on coat of solvent-free
polyurethane. Polyurethane patterns can be coated with polyester resin and glass fiber.
These reusable forms are coated with release agent before casting the concrete. Molded
forms, which may be practical for repetitive shapes, have a tough skin which facilitates
stripping.

14-20 ' CHAPTER 14

Architectural Lettering
Lettering and numbering, either raised or
incised (Fig. 14.3D(a)), can be formed for
concrete casting with many of the same
materials used for other architectural
ornament. Raised, reversed characters are
attached to the flat form surface to produce
the more commonly used incised lettering
(Fig. 14.30(b)). Standard reversed letters
are now available in sizes ranging from 1/4
in. to 24 in. or greater in a variety of fonts.
They are made in aluminum alloy, brass,
medium-density fiberboard, and several
plastics, with or without integral pins for
mounting on the form sheathing surface.
Occasionally, mass·produced letters that
are ready-made for signs can be adapted a) Incised lettering

for formwork, keeping in mind the need

for a reversed inscription when casting
concrete. Loose characters attached to a
form must have a flat back, held tightly
against the form so that concrete will not
spall when forms are removed.
Appropriate draft or taper for stripping
must be established for all lettering unless
the characters are flexible or destructible.
Wood molds for lettering should be made
only of dose-grain, soft lumber, such as
white pine, to reduce swelling and warping.
Adding a kerf to the back of wooden
molds-cutting part way through with a
wide saw cut-will allow some room for
wet wood to expand without binding. All
joints in wood lettering should be mitered,
and adjoining parts should be nailed and b) Reversed lettering applied to formwork
glued securely together. Only milled mate-
rial should be used. A finished wood mold Fig. 14.30: Mockup demonstrating incised lettering and other concrete features; later used to

should be coated with shellac or other

demonstrate HVAC ductwork and window installation (Photos courtesy Morley Builders}

sealer, and then oiled before concrete is

placed.

14.4.7 Erection Practices

Good craftsmanship and attention to detail are distinguishing characteristics of architec­
tural concrete form construction. Angles and joints should be made accurately. Corners
should be sharp and straight. Leakage through the forms must be prevented. Sheathing
joints and miters that are not tight must be sealed. Molds should be accurately positioned.
Penetrations of or attachments to architectural formwork-control boxes, light switches,
light sockets, architectural metal-should be carefully detailed. The method of attach­
ment requires thorough planning for good appearance of the finished concrete as well as
ease of form removal and reuse of forms. All of these items depend upon the skill of the
form builder.
Experience indicates that if the meeting surfaces of the forms are reduced to minimum
bearing areas, tightness of the joints is improved. Figure 14.31 shows two applications of
this idea. Even with this careful construction, a positive means of sealing is often needed.
Installation of dosed-cell compressible gasketing material can help seal many form joints.
Several methods of closing butt joints in sheathing are shown in Fig. 14.32. Corner butt
joints are shown in Fig. 14.33. Where chamfers are required, gasket or caulking material
must be installed behind them to make a leak-proof joint. An alternate method makes
use of prefabricated rubber or polyvinyl chloride chamfer strips with a tail or lip that is
pinched between the butted pieces of sheathing to hold the chamfer in position as well as
to seal the joint.

FORMWORK FOR ARCHITECTURAL CONCRETE

 .1.
·�.1
.
�·,

.
Bearing
•re•

Fig. 14.31: Reduced bearing area at point of contact between form members improves tightness ofjoints; abutting
plywood panels at left and corners of a column form (right) are shown

� m
Closedcengasket Caulked joint
wrth orwithout covered with
rustication ..,.

� �
Epoxy glue on
45-degreecut l t������� nd-
groove)with
caulking

Fig. 14.32: Sealing burt joints in form sheathing. In all cases, joints should be backed up with
2x4 or larger brace nailed to both pieces of sheathing

Compressible
close cell
gasket

Fig. 14.33: Three methods of sealing comer butt joints. Flexible chamfers may be nailed,
stapled, or glued to the form, or the tail can simply be pinched into place when the form is
nailed together

Where it is difficult to draw the form joints tight with only tie rods, wales, and corner
braces, liberal use of wooden wedges driven between blocking and sheathing will often
help. Studs, wales, and ties must be spaced close enough to prevent bulging of forms. In
case of doubt, it is better to space supporting elements of the form closer than necessary
rather than too far apart.
It is generally advisable to erect the outside form first because the exposed face is
usually the exterior face. The designer should avoid requiring ornamental sculpture at
opposite points in both faces. Form lining and molds are easier to apply with the outside
form erected first. Tie holes can be drilled from the face side of the forms, thus avoiding
burrs that would mar the concrete. The completely erected outside form can be inspected
and any joints or other places where leakage might occur can be corrected and sealed
more easily. Design details should be provided for formed surfaces around embedded
items, devices, or features that are mounted on or protrude from the architectural

CHAPTER 14
concrete surface, including consideration of liner effects at these locations. Reinforcing bar
installation should avoid damage to form surfaces.
Inner and outer wall forms must be aligned before the ties are tightened because
two-way continuity of the tied forms will make later accurate alignment difficult.In assem·
bling forms, one must keep in mind the steps that can be taken to aid in removing them
without injury to the concrete. Boxes, molds, rustication strips, or any insert attached to
the main wall forms should be as lightly nailed as possible so they will pull loose from the
forms during the stripping operation and remain in the concrete. After the lumber has
dried and shrunk, these items can be easily removed.lf plaster, plastic, or other molds are
used, the same light nailing technique should be used because it is desirable to leave the
molds in place as long as possible to protect the ornamentation.
Inserts should be attached with double-headed nails driven from the outside of the
forms wherever possible because they can be pulled easily, leaving embedded parts of
the form in the concrete temporarily.When applying rustication strips to the face side of
a form (Fig. 14.12), long casing nails that extend through the strip and sheathing may be
used. Because the heads of these nails are very small, the nails can be pulled through the
strip and sheathing just before removing the form, thus allowing the wood strip to remain
in place until it is thoroughly dry.
For off-the-form architectural concrete surfaces, final cleanup and application of release
agent is essential.Although many such products are said not to stain or discolor concrete,
they must be applied uniformly and in the recommended concentration for good results.
Any excess buildup of the release agent in grooves or corners must be removed. Other·
wise, variations in concrete color, or even local retardation of set, may occur. Different
release agents have different effects on final color of concrete, so a single agent should be
used throughout the job.
Form cleanliness cannot be overemphasized where high-quality surfaces are required.
Dust, dirty hand prints, and pencil marks made by workers have all been known to be
transferred to the face of the finished concrete. Rust from reinforcing bars may dust onto
the form face and also be transferred to the concrete. Snippings from reinforcement tie
wire can also leave rusty stains.The snippings should be removed.Compressed air and
water may not be effective in removing them, and it is sometimes necessary to put a
magnet wrapped in plastic on the end of a stick to reach down into deep forms.

14.4.8 Construction and Contraction Joints

ACI 347R recommends that construction joints be located at joints between form panels Preferred location of
wherever feasible.If the architect/engineer has not positively specified construction joint
locations, the formwork engineer/contractor should draw up proposed locations and
submit them for approval.
Horizontal grooves at construction joints obscure the joints and may become a part
of the visual effect.Typical dimensions for such grooves are shown in Fig. 14.34.These
grooves permit more flexibility in form construction and reduce possible leakage of
mortar onto surfaces at lower elevations.Grooves should be spaced so as to create the
desired visual pattern, and should be straight and continuous across the face being
formed.
It is sometimes necessary to locate construction joints in flat wall surfaces where there
are no architectural details to obscure them. By taking proper precautions, joints in such �- f:/·'
.
exposed locations need not be prominent enough to be objectionable. Anchors with bolts ·
c.of � :
'
(when embedment strength is adequate), threaded internal disconnecting tie rods, or
through-wall tie rods located about 4 in.below the joint should be provided to support
the forms vertically for the next lift.When re-erecting the forms, the contact surface of
the sheathing should overlap the hardened concrete only about 1 in. Greater overlap
provides more opportunity for leakage due to irregularities in the wall surface against
which sheathing is held. High clamping pressure and a tight seal are more easily assured .. . . . . :- �
by minimizing the lap of the formwork sheathing onto the existing concrete.This can be
accomplished through the use of inserts, as suggested, or by re·use of the same ties that Fig. 14.34: Typical dimensions of horizontal
formed the previous section of wall.Joints that are placed at the location of a seam in the groove formed at construction joint to
sheathing may be indistinguishable as a construction joint.This is true for both horizontal improve appearance of concrete; groove is
and vertical construction joints, the object being to make them look as inconspicuous as formed by strip like that in Fig. 14. 12
a plywood seam.When the forms above the joint are stripped, the bolt or tie is removed
from the concrete. A row of ties should always be located just above the joint to resist the
pressure of the concrete rather than relying on the bolts below.

FORMWORK FOR ARCHITECTURAL CONCRETE

 Where grooved joints are not feasible, the construction joint
a�slighayaboYe

�eooo.. ·-·
bottomolslrip is kept straight by tacking a 1x2 strip along the outside form as
shown. The concrete is brought slightly above the bottom of the
1"x2' strip in Fig. 14.35. The strip should be removed after the concrete
Strip
h has set enough to hold its position. Form sheathing for the next
" lift of concrete is placed to overlap hardened concrete about 1

.c:'T
in., with thin compressible gasketing material placed between
b.
�
1-' \ "<::.. sheathing and hardened concrete. When the next lift is placed,

]
• •
T� there will be a straight, true joint. A similar strip can be used on
Sl'leatningoverlaps · ··· ; the inside form if the inside wall surface is to be exposed.
hardenedconcrete ,, When joints between floor and wall placements are to be
architecturally exposed, some special planning may be in order. A

�
� =·
�
common approach is to cast the wall, then place the slab sepa­
rately, possibly with an upstand to aid in registering the wall
above. The upper wall is added in a third placement (Fig. 14.36(a)).
This leaves two joints and three different planes, compounding
FIRST STAGE
problems of plumbness and alignment. It is possible to design the
floor so that it can be placed in a recess in the top of the wall (Fig.
Fig. 14.35: Construction joint treatment ar formed surfaces. Bulges and
14.36(b)), thereby eliminating one exposed joint. The lower wall
offsets are avoided when ties are close to the joint. The 1 in. wood strip
extends upward to cover the floor slab edge. Two large surfaces are
aids in producing a straight, true joint
easier to keep plumb and in alignment.
Contraction joints are usually required for architectural
concrete to prevent haphazard cracking. The location of these
joints should be specified by the engineer/architect. In some
cases, the joints may be planned as part of the decorative
treatment. A straight joint of even width is formed by placing a
projecting strip on the form surface that will form a depression
in the concrete. Wood, metal, and plastics are suitable for such
forming. It is important to keep the alignment of these joints true,
as any deviation from a straight line will be noticeable. The joint
may be sealed with suitably designed backer rod and caulk after
the forms have been stripped.

Fig. 14.36: Alternate methods of casting floor-wall intersection
Fig. 14.37: Removal of ties and stripping of
forms for architectural concrete must be
accomplished with care to avoid surface
damage (Photo courtesy Doka USA)
14.5 Stripping
Careless workers can cancel out the value of good detailing and
planning by indiscriminate use of the wrecking bar. A pinch bar
or other metal tool should never be placed against architectural
concrete to wedge forms loose. If it is necessary to wedge between the concrete and the
forms, only wooden wedges should be used. Once formwork is removed (Fig. 14.37), archi­
tectural surfaces must be protected from continuing construction operations.
Forms supporting concrete and construction loads are subject to the stripping limita­
tions imposed for structural concrete (see Chapter 12). For vertical forms supporting only
the lateral pressure of concrete, ACI 347R suggests allowing removal after 12 hours at 50°F
or above for ordinary concrete. This limit conservatively satisfies structural safety under
usual conditions. If earlier form removal is desired to meet special finish requirements, it
must be demonstrated that safety and curing requirements can be met.
In any case, vertical forms must not be stripped so early as to cause damage to the
visual quality of any concrete that is to remain in its off-the-form condition. If adhesion
between the form face and concrete is greater than cohesion within the concrete, surfaces
may scale and corners spall. Research indicates that attaining a concrete compressive
strength of about 300 psi (research based on cube compressive strength) is sufficient to
prevent this kind of surface mechanical damage.141J However, stripping is normally done at
strength levels attained after 24 to 48 hours and the higher strength is needed to mini­
mize damage to sharp corners and fluted edges. Much depends on the overall quality of
site operations. Corners and edges can be damaged even when concrete is strong enough
to show no structural distress under loading.
For high-quality surfaces, uniformity in stripping time and curing practices is essential.
The longer a form remains in place, the darker the concrete. Even a few hours of difference
in stripping time between lifts may cause a color difference that will be visible for years
after the job is finished.

CHAPTER 14
 Form removal should be planned with regard for possible effects on curing requirements.
Some specifications require forms to remain in place for a certain period as part of the curing.
If forms are removed before this time is up, measures must be taken immediately after form
removal to apply and maintain satisfactory curing. In hot, dry weather, wood forms remaining
in place will not provide adequate curing. Such forms can be loosened or removed so that
concrete surfaces may be kept moist or coated with appropriate curing agent.
In cold weather, removal of formwork should be deferred or formwork should be
replaced with insulation blankets to avoid thermal shock and consequent crazing of the
concrete surface. When concrete surfaces cool faster than the concrete interior, crazing
cracks can develop in the surfaces. The higher temperature of the concrete relative to
ambient temperature is due to hydration and possibly applied heating. Reducing the rate
of concrete cooling minimizes crazing. ACI303R recommends that cooling of architectural
concrete surfaces be limited to a gradual drop of 40°F in 24 hours. ACI303R also calls
attention to cracking danger from thermal shock when cool hydrant water under pressure
is used to expose aggregate on retarded surfaces of massive concrete sections.
When stripping forms in the vicinity of a belt course, cornice, or other projecting ornament,
begin stripping some distance away from the ornament and work toward it. Thus, if there is
any tendency for the forms to bind around the ornament, the pressure of the forms against
projecting corners will be relieved, so there will be less chance of spalling sharp edges.
Forms recessed into the concrete require special care in stripping. Wedging should
be done gradually and should be accompanied by light tapping on the piece to crack it
loose from the concrete. Never remove an embedded form with a single jerk. Embedded
wood forms are generally left in place as long as possible so they will shrink away from the
concrete. The embedded items should be separate from or loosely attached to the main
form so that they will remain in place when the main form is stripped.
When stripping forms for a window opening, cross braces and vertical kick strips should be
removed first. Next, take off top and bottom cleats and, for example, if jambs are full height,
wedge out the head using wooden wedges. The wedges should be driven in at one end,
forcing the head down and away from the side member. To facilitate stripping, a 45-degree cut
or miter through the sides of the frame is sometimes made when the form is built.
Plaster waste molds should be stripped by someone familiar with the detail. The plaster
will usually stick to the concrete, at least in the undercuts, even with proper greasing. It
must be carefully cut away with a chisel. If the mold has been made with a layer of colored
plaster next to the concrete, the worker doing the chipping is warned when he has
chipped dose to the concrete. Plastic, steel, or rubber molds can be stripped by intro­
ducing compressed air between the concrete and the mold through an opening in the
mold for that purpose. Flexible molds are peeled off.

14.6 Cleanup and Repair

After forms are stripped, all material to be reused must be thoroughly cleaned of hard­
ened concrete. Some concrete will always adhere to sheathing lumber in spite of thorough
oiling or other treatment. A tool made to fit the tongue and groove of matched boards will
save time in cleaning the edges of boards.
All nails should be pulled from sheathing boards, plywood, hardboard, and other mate­
rials. Never bend nails over by hammering them against the face of the material if reuse for
forms is planned. Holes that were bored through sheathing for form ties may be plugged
by driving in common corks or foamed plastic and cutting the material off flush with a
sharp chisel or fine saw. Patching plaster can also be used to fill small holes.
Cleaned lumber should be sorted by size and length and stored in neat piles. Plywood
and fiberboard should be laid flat and out of the sun to keep edges from curling. Forms
that are to be reused should be inspected after each use to assure that they have not
become distorted or otherwise unable to perform as designed.
Repair of surface defects and patching of tie holes (where specified) is best undertaken
soon after form removal. ACI303R and ACI347.3R provide recommendations and repair
procedures that are beyond the scope of this book. Usually, a patch of the same mortar
as that in the concrete will be darker than the surrounding concrete. White cement can
be mixed with a gray cement to produce a patch that will blend with the surrounding
concrete. About 20% white cement is usually adequate. For an accurate match, several trial
mixtures should be made, cured, and allowed to dry for comparison. A leaner mixture will
also produce a lighter color. Placing a plastic sheet over a patch helps cure the material to
a better color match.

FORMWORK FOR ARCHITECTURAL CONCRETE

 REFERENCES
14.1. Shilstone,J. M., NArchitectural Concrete-Construction Requirements," Forming
Economical Concrete Buildings-Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference, SP-107, R. J.
Cook,ed.,American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, Ml,June 1, 1998,pp. 79-102.
14.2. Moats, H. P., •Architectural Concrete for the High Museum of Art,• concrete Interna­
tional, V. 29, No. 4,Apr. 2007,pp. 42-45.
14.3. Reading,T. J., NThe Bughole Problem; AC/ Journal Proceedings, V. 69, No. 3, Mar.
1972,pp.165-171.
14.4 Peterson, E., "Meeting the Formwork Requirements for a Challenging Structure,"
Concrete International, V. 32, No. 1,Jan. 2010,pp. 42-48.
14.5. PCA, Color & Texture in Architectural Concrete (SPOll A), second edition,Portland
Cement Association, Skokie, IL, 1995,32 pp.
14.6. ACI Committee 347, P
N recast Concrete Units Used as Forms for Cast-in-Place
Concrete,M AC/ Journal Proceedings, V. 66, No. 10, Oct. 1969,pp. 798-813.
14.7. PC I, Recommended Practice for Glass Fiber Reinforced Concrete Panels (MNL 118-0 I),
fourth edition,Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute,Chicago,ll,2001, 102 pp.
14.8. Harrison,T. A.,·rabies of Minimum Striking Times for Soffit and Vertical Formwork,N
CIRIA Reporr67, Construction Industry Research and Information Association, london, UK,
1977,24 pp.
 (Photo courtesy MEVA Formwork Systems)

15: BRIDGE FORMWORK

Many of the problems and procedures in planning and building formwork for concrete
bridges are the same as for other types of concrete construction. Forming bridge decks is
similar in some respects to forming floor slabs in building construction, whereas bridge
pier shafts are often adaptable to slip-forming and climbing form techniques used for
vertical building structures. Smaller piers are formed like columns. Visual appearance in
bridges is often as important as in buildings, and the same techniques are employed for
producing pleasing effects and a desirable surface finish or texture.
Site conditions are important when determining the most efficient way to build forms
and plan a concrete bridge construction project. If construction is over an existing
roadway, vertical underclearance and roadway width must be maintained as specified
by the contract documents. Procedures must assure that no material falls on the traffic
roadway. Construction over waterways requires methods that do not involve vertical
shoring. Both construction and removal of forms and their supports require careful
advance planning. For a particular project, the contractor may observe that savings can
be made by using a different formwork technique or construction sequence than that
envisaged by the designer. Permission from the owner or engineer to propose alternates
will give the contractor greater freedom in exercising ingenuity to achieve economy
through better methods. It is wise to include in the specifications a provision for making
such changes, particularly in the location of construction joints, with the approval of the
engineer. Otherwise, many bidders may assume that no changes will be accepted.
Bridge forms are discussed in terms of substructure, superstructure, and deck. The
typical bridge substructure has a foundation that supports one or more piers with a pier
cap at the top. The superstructure girders, usually made integral with the deck, bear on
the pier caps. Formwork is described herein in the order that it would be used to build
the bridge: that is, first the foundation or lower part of the substructure, then the upper
substructure or piers, and then the superstructure and deck. Segmental box-girder
bridges are treated in a separate section.
 WotetUnt

R== tmollt
,J-_L__j_-l, •r=Stol Thil Stl After
i1 Plo�td ond Pump
Ou t Colfer

Plo�e Distributi on Blotk

AgoinstS,.othing

r
:��� grr��,��H:::\v•.h
Dit
v rond Sol• ogt Top Pe
i cn

FOUNDATION
H-BEARIMG
ON
PILE
CAISS ON

May Hove Slont

CoursestoPre•tntSeour

Conc,.lt AqoinstSI'Itolhinq
With Liner to Pt
r .,.nl Bond
t u il
oS h tp t
fOUNDATION ON FOUNDATION ON
PRECAST PILES ROCK {UNDER WATER)

0•'•'"'' '"""'

R o ek
b�ovot• to F or m t d Arto
Salt Slope
Fig. 15.1: Schematic representations of some common types of
FOUNDATION ON
ROCK lDN LAND)
bridge foundations

15.1 Foundations
There are several different types of bridge foundations and many different designs
depending on the location of the bridge, length of span between supports (whether over
water or land), and the bearing material on which the foundation can be supported, as
shown in Fig. 15.1. Because each bridge presents its own problems in type of foundation
and the conditions under which it must be constructed, the foundations usually offer the
greatest opportunity to explore alternate methods of construction and arrive at one that is
most satisfactory and economical.

15. 1.1 Caissons

Caissons are hollow structures sunk into position as excavation proceeds inside or
under them. Built of steel or concrete, they offer an economical and practical method
of constructing a foundation that must be located at great depth below ground or river
bottom for large bridges. The caisson load capacity may be developed by bearing on rock,
bearing on soil, or sidewall friction. Construction of the heavy caissons required for bridge
support requires skilled supervision by those experienced in this type of work. Only a brief
description of some of the formwork required for concrete caissons is presented herein.
Open caissons may be round, rectangular, or of any shape dictated by structural needs.
They may be built as a shaft whose entire hollow center is a single dredge well, or the
caisson shaft may be of large area requiring a number of dredge wells within. The bottoms
of the concrete caisson walls have cutting edges. The cutting edge is frequently cast in a

CHAPTER 15
steel-cutting shoe-a fabricated unit (Fig.
15.2) that is left in place-to produce a
hard, sharp edge. The cutting shoe may
be placed in land or within a dewatered
cofferdam, as shown in Fig. 15.3.
Forms are required for caisson walls,
cutting edges, dredge wells, working
chambers, and worker access tubes (the
latter two for pneumatic caissons). Forms
(Fig. 15.4) may be built of wood or steel,
or a combination of the two. The caisson
may be cast and sunk as a complete unit,
but for the large depths generally involved, Fig. 15.2: South Park Bridge caisson steel shoe Fig. 15.3: South Park Bridge caisson steel·
only the cutting edge portion and a small (Photo courtesy John Stamets) cutting shoe placed in cofferdam (Photo
section above it are cast initially. Then the courtesy John Stamets)
forms are raised; and as the lower part of
the caisson sinks, the next section is cast
(Fig. 15.5), adding weight to assist in the
sinking. With this method of climbing or
lifting the forms, the wall forms for outer
and dredge well walls are generally reused
many times. For example, the walls of
the South Park Bridge caisson in Seattle
extended to a depth of 100 ft.
Below the waterline, dredge wells are
open to the bottom so that muck may
be removed as the caisson sinks. When
the caisson reaches the desired elevation
below the waterline, tremie concrete is
usually placed in the bottom of the dredge
wells to seal and stabilize the structure (Fig.
15.1). Some designs call for complete filling
of the dredge wells. Dredge well forms,
Fig. 15.4: South Park Bridge caisson exterior Fig. 15.5: South Park Bridge concrete caisson
or internal forms, need not be as accurate
forms for second lift (Photo courtesy John wall lift placement (Photo courtesy John
and smooth as the forms for the external
Stamets) Stamets)
surfaces and cutting edges of the caisson.
Their main requirement is that they be
readily removable and replaceable if they
are not intended as a permanent part of
the caisson.
When a concrete caisson is to be started on soft ground, it may be necessary to provide
extra support until the first 10 or 15 ft are cast. The cutting shoe may be placed on closely
spaced transverse timbers and blocking used to support the beveled edge of the caisson,
thus spreading the load and relieving some of the pressure on the cutting edge. When the
caisson is ready for sinking, timbers must be carefully cut or removed to maintain even
pressure of the cutting edge on the ground and prevent tipping. Sand islands or cause­
ways are sometimes constructed in shallow water to permit starting a caisson in the dry.
The sinking must be carefully controlled to keep a level position while the caisson is
being formed. The level can be checked by either a laser level or a water-tube level system
with indicators located at four corners of the caisson. If the caisson becomes slightly
out of plumb during sinking, it is important to cast the next lift out of plumb, parallel to
the preceding one, so that an irregularity or·dogleg•is not created in the plane of the
concrete. It is usually possible to correct a slight tip in the caisson, and it is better to keep
the walls a straight line because these·doglegs· greatly increase the frictional drag on the
sinking caisson.
In some cases, a cofferdam is attached to the outside of the caisson to permit sinking
below water before concreting. In this case, the cofferdam panels become a part of the
permanent form. Concrete is placed against them, and the panels are not stripped. lf the
upper part of the caisson is smaller than the lower part, formwork may be built inside the
cofferdam. After the upper part of the caisson is cast and the caisson has reached final
elevation, this formwork and the upper section of the cofferdam are removed.

BRIDGE FORMWORK
 15.1.2Piles
Support for a bridge foundation can be provided by piles driven through the overburden
Wedge into solid bearing material, as shown schematically in Fig. 15.1. To minimize corrosion,
2 x 6 nailer
steel piles must not be exposed to seawater, acid waters, or certain types of overburden,
such as cinders or ash fill. One way to avoid continuous contact with water is to drive the
piles below the river bottom and cover with a concrete cap. When such a pile cap founda­
tion is being built in water, a cofferdam is installed surrounding the piling, a clamshell is
used to remove soil to a suitable depth, and a concrete seal is placed by tremie before
dewatering. The seal counterbalances upward water pressure and provides lateral support
for the sheeting lower end to prevent "blow in" due to lateral water pressure. Tremie
Corrugated metal concrete cast against sheet piling requires no forming preparations other than clearing
or plywood debris from the sheet pile underwater within the cofferdam.
After removing water from the cofferdam and cleaning the top surface of the concrete,
forms are set for the distribution block and concrete is placed. Side forms for the rein­
Fig. 15.6: Lining cofferdam sheet piling forced block may be set with working clearance from the sheet piling of the cofferdam
prior to concrete block placement to allow or the form may be simply a liner placed against the sheeting to prevent bonding of the
sheeting extraction concrete to the sheet so that the latter can be salvaged. This liner is usually a dispos-
able type, either light corrugated metal or light plywood. It is nailed to 2 x 6 nailer blocks
wedged into the recesses of the sheet pile, as shown in Fig. 15.6.
The cofferdam remains in place until all operations below water level have been
completed, including the setting of forms and concreting for the lower part of the piers.
Then, the sheet pile is either removed completely or the sheets are burned off at the top
of the tremie seal, thus salvaging the top of the sheeting while the lower part remains in
place as a guard against scouring.
Another technique is to encase part or all of each pile in concrete. This can be achieved
by using watertight forms that are placed over the tops of the piles aher they are driven.
The forms are then filled with concrete and may subsequently be withdrawn or left in
place. These forms are usually prefabricated of steel.
Concrete piling is usually used where the pier base is above the river bottom. A pile cap
Fig. 15.7: Support of cap form beams from piles is cast encasing the heads of the piles at approximately water level (Fig. 15.1) and serving
in water (Photo courtesy W. Kenneth Creech) as the foundation block for the piers. The form for this cap can be hung on the piling a
few feet below the water surface (Fig. 15.7). Another technique is to first drive some wood
piles on which the cap form is supported before the concrete piling is driven. Holes in the
form serve as templates for setting and driving piles. Aher the piles are driven, the form is
filled with concrete. The bottom or template is left in place, but side forms for the cap are
stripped. Alternates to driven piles include concrete piles cast in drilled holes, piles cast in
driven shells, and auger-cast piles. For comprehensive information on concrete piles, refer
to ACI 543R-12, "Guide to Design, Manufacture, and Installation of Concrete Piles."
Forms used underwater present unusual problems of locating, aligning, and sealing.
Elaborate methods of locating forms and piles from the surface must be developed, using
sighting towers or preplaced guides, or divers must work underwater to relay instructions
to guide the components into position. The sealing of openings to contain the concrete
must be carefully carried out in advance because corrective measures after concreting
commences are difficult and costly.
If underwater forms are to be salvaged for reuse, it is desirable that they be designed
so that the stripping may be carried out from the surface. Thus, if possible, forms should
have no undercuts or re-entrant angles that make it difficult or impossible to withdraw
them from overhead. Hydraulic cylinders are sometimes used to jack the form open and
separate it from the concrete so it may be withdrawn. Special fittings on the form may be
required to facilitate this operation.
When piles are located entirely on land, construction proceeds as for a building struc­
ture either with a sloped excavation or one protected by sheet piling (Fig. 15.8). After piles
are installed and cut to final elevation, forms are erected and braced or tied, and reinforce­
ment placed in preparation for concreting.

15.1.3 Rock or Soil Offering Direct Support

If the ground level or river bottom is close to the rock-bearing surface, a foundation
can be built directly on the rock without resorting to piling or caissons. On land it
is simply a matter of excavating to the rock, sloping the walls of the excavation to
prevent cave-in, as shown in Fig. 15.1. Usually, the excavation for large bridge foot­
ings is continued a few feet into the rock to provide a key. Footing forms are built and

CHAPTER 15
anchored or braced to the rock, which
serves as the bottom surface of the form.
Then, the foundation concrete is placed.
In water, a sheet·pile cofferdam is first
driven through the overburden to and
sometimes slightly into the rock. Driving
sheet piling into rock is difficult but it is
hard to seal a joint at the rock surface. After
water is pumped out of the cofferdam,
muck is excavated from the cofferdam until
the rock·bearing surface is exposed. The
excavation may be continued into the rock
for a few feet so that the foundation will
key to the rock. The rock surface is cleaned,
and a form liner of sheet metal or plywood
is fastened to the sheet pile. Concrete is
placed directly on the rock, which serves as
the bottom form surface. When the concrete
has hardened sufficiently, the form for the
pier base is erected on it and braced against
the cofferdam. After pier construction rises
above the water level, the cofferdam sheet Fig. 15.8: Preparation of bridge foundation pile cap form (Photo courtesy of New York State
piling may be withdrawn. DepartmentofTransporrationO)
Whenever a cofferdam is used to back up
a form liner or the bracing for form sides, the concrete pressure against the sheet piling
is opposite to that which it is primarily designed to withstand. When an internal frame
is bracing the cofferdam sheet piling, the possibility of a net pressure outward must be
evaluated. If preplaced aggregate is being used, with high injection pressures, there could
be an extremely high outward pressure on the cofferdam, and this must be taken into
account in its design.
As in other types of construction, it is sometimes found that the soil beneath a land
bridge or the land portion of an overwater bridge is firm and capable of supporting a
pier or arch on a spread footing. Forms for such footings are relatively simple and can be
constructed in the same manner as footing forms for buildings. The ground is leveled to
serve as the form bottom, and the form sides are made of steel panels or built up of wood
sheathing braced by stakes in the ground.

15.2 Piers
A pier shaft rests on the spread foundation or pile cap and supports the bridge superstruc·
ture at the necessary height. Piers usually are rectangular or circular in cross section, but
some may have more complex shapes for visual effect. Pier sides may be vertical, battered,
or stepped. The type of formwork depends on the shape and height of the piers and the
number of similar piers.
When the bridge has many piers or the piers are quite high, careful study is justified to
achieve maximum reuse of forms. Where considerable reuse is possible, pier forms are
frequently custom·made in steel by a supplier who specializes in this work. Wood forms as
well as wood and metal forms may also be used. For smaller piers, forming materials are
much the same as for building columns described in Chapter 11.

15. 2. 1 Forms Moved for Reuse

When there are few piers and they are of considerable height, it is desirable to have forms
that can be reused vertically in successive lifts. If a pier has a constant cross section for all
or a large part of its height, it is easy and economical to construct an efficient climbing
form or slip form. Climbing forms should be designed to be easily loosened and raised for
each successive lift.
However, a shaft that is battered or otherwise changes cross section is more of a
problem. It requires a more expensive form that can be adjusted or modified as it is raised,
or it may make the reuse of forms for successive lifts impractical.
In the case of a large number of piers of uniform shape, forms may be moved horizontally,
using a different form for each lift, as in the form planning example presented in Chapter 3. Forms
are designed to be removed from one pier and placed in position at another pier as simply as

BRIDGE FORM WORK


Fig. 15.9: Round pier form supporting pier cap
form (Photo courtesy EFCO Corp.)
Fig. 15.10: Concreting of pier structure with
stone facing set in place and supported by
vertical wood /-joists held in place by diagonal
braces and comer ties (Photo courtesy MEVA
Formwork Systems)
possible. Where pier shafts are relatively small in cross section, it may be possible to avoid the use
of through tie rods. In this case, the fOfm can frequently be merely loosened at the corners, lifted
up, and removed over the completed concrete instead of disassembling the panels.
Various methods of breaking the bond of the form with the concrete are employed.
In some cases, a positive corner releasing device is used to back the form away from the
concrete in addition to loosening the corner. In other cases, a jack at the top of the lift
working against a cross attachment connected to the form helps break the bond. In some
instances, air nozzles may be installed in the form panel so that a shot of compressed
air can be used to break the seal. The use of wedges driven between the form and the
concrete surface can cause spalling and should be avoided.
15. 2.2 Round Piers
Round bridge piers of relatively small cross section may be formed just as round columns
with any of the several standard forming materials or techniques, including single-use
fiber tubes and ready-made metal forms. Heavy-duty circular steel forms made of rolled
sections bolted together are also available, especially for bridge work. These may be of
standard design or made to order for a particular project. The bolted flanges form stiff­
ening rings that add to the rigidity of the form. Frequently, the pier cap is a part of the
assembly, as shown in Fig. 1S.9, and is supported on the side forms.
15.2.3 Stonework Facing
When the bridge design specifies that the pier shaft or base be enclosed by stonework,
the stonework is often a veneer applied after the pier is stripped. However, the stonework
may serve as the outer form for the pier concrete. The stones are laid and mortared, and
an open-face formwork is constructed on the outside of the stonework (fig. 1S.10) to hold
the stones in position. If the stone has a rough-cut exterior surface, it may be necessary to
use extensive wedging between the stones and the formwork to hold the stones in posi­
tion. When possible, the support is all external and slow rates of placement may be used
to minimize lateral pressure. Tie rods, when necessary, pass through the spaces between
stones, and tie rod size is limited by the maximum permissible joint spacing of the stone.
A form liner can also be used to produce a similar stone surface texturing. Additional
concrete thickness must be provided to maintain reinforcing bar cover. Color can be
provided by an integral concrete mixture color or surface stain.
15.2.4 Massive Piers
Some piers or pier bases are low and wide so that their construction is more like that of mass
concrete instead of tall shafts. For mass concrete members, a temperature control plan is
needed, which often results in installation of cooling and insulating systems prior to and after
concrete placement,. respectively. Please refer to ACI 207.1 R-05, -Guide to Mass Concrete,� and
ACI 207.4R-OS, �cooling and Insulating Systems for Mass Concrete.� Generally, such piers require
a very large form or combination of form panels. Because panels or form sections are apt to
be quite large, the capacity of lifting equipment may be a critical factor. If it is possible to erect
lifting beams and hoists of sufficient capacity to handle a complete form unit or the maximum
practical size of form section, substantial savings in handling costs can result
Frequently, special sections to form curved nose surfaces or other irregular shapes
are made separately from the pier side forms. Where galvanized steel or wrought iron
plates are to be cast into the concrete at the waterline to prevent scour, the plate may be
constructed as part of the form and left in place when the form is stripped. If the form is
erected on top of the foundation inside a cofferdam, the walls of the form may be braced
against the walls of the cofferdam for low lifts, thus minimizing the need for ties.
15.2.5 Vertical Alignment
Braces or guy lines connected from the upper part of the form to the ground provide
one means of positive control of vertical alignment (fig. 15.11). Other methods may be
more convenient and faster, or are used where it is not practical to connect to the ground
or to the foundation or base. The form may be aligned by adjustable jacks set on kickers
attached to the previous lift of concrete, threaded rods with leveling nuts cast into the top
surface of the previous lift, or by cables with turnbuckles inside the form and connected to
the previous lift.
Some free-standing circular steel forms have been made to produce straight vertical
columns without the aid of formwork bracing or guying {fig. 15.12). A lap ring at the
CHAPTER 15
bottom, held in place by the hardened
concrete, supports and aligns form sections
for the next lift.

15.2.6 Access for Workers

Pier shafts may be quite high and there·
fore present problems getting workers
and equipment up to the point at which
forms are being assembled or concrete is
being placed. Working platforms, ladders,
stairways, and catwalks between shafts
are usually necessary and sometimes
can be built as part of the formwork (Fig.
1 5.1 3). A ladder can be bolted to inserts
in the pier shaft, work platforms can be
supported from the formwork, or an
access tower and stairway can be built
(Fig. 1 5.14). Sometimes form reinforcing
members can do double duty as ladders.
Careful consideration must be given to all
applicable safety standards.

15.2.7 External Ties Fig. 15.11: Braced and guyed pier form (Photo Fig. 15.12: Pier form lapped adequately for
Visual appearance requirements may
courtesy EFCO Corp.) alignment (Photo courtesy EFCO Corp.)
prevent the use of internal tie rods for
pier shaft forms, and sometimes complex
reinforcing steel within the shaft makes
the use of internal tie rods impractical.
External bracing or tying must be used in
such cases, and various methods are readily
adaptable to pier forms (refer to Fig. 1 S.1 S).
Steel strapping is a simple method of
tying together the sectors of a circular
form, and it also may be adapted to piers
with cross sections other than circular by
using filler adapters or shaping the form
studs or wales to fit the curve of the strap
and develop its full hoop strength. Usually,
heavy steel structural angles or channels
can double as stiffeners and ties. Drilled
and bolted or nailed to wood sheathing, or
welded to a sheet metal liner, the angles
or channels may extend beyond the panel
edges to be bolted to mating stiffeners
on the adjacent panels to tie the form
together. Steel rods, sometimes called
yokes, can span across the form above the
construction joint to resist lateral pressure.

15.2.8 Pier Cops and Tie Struts

Because a pier generally is designed to
support a bridge deck that is much wider than the pier, a cap beam is cast at the top of the
pier to distribute the load and support the full width of the deck.This may be a hammer· Fig. 15.14: Stairway erected for worker access
head· orT-cap at the top of a single shaft pier (Fig. 1 5.16). More frequently, however, the to pier cap form (Photo courtesy MEVA Form·
cap connects two or more pier shafts at the top, thus serving as a tie strut (Fig. 1 S.12). work Systems)
Where piers are especially high, one or more additional tie struts may connect the shafts
at lower levels.
A pier cap is a beam, and forms for caps and struts may be constructed and supported in
much the same manner as beam forms.To get maximum reuse of form parts, pier caps should
be similarly sized and it may be desirable to strip the cap or strut sides separately from the
bottom for early reuse.

BRIDGE FORM WORK

 Pier cap and strut forms may be made as
part of the shaft form or may be supported
by shoring up from the ground with
shoring frames or timber posts. They can
also be supported on adjustable single­
post shores for low elevations, or on steel
beams attached to inserts or to large
through-bolts placed in sleeves cast into a
previous lift of pier concrete. For light beam
caps on circular pier shafts, friction collars
(Fig. 1 5.17) can be used to carry all or part
of the cap formwork.

15.3 Superstructures
Bridge superstructures include girders,
a deck or roadway, curbs, sidewalks, and
railings or parapets. Concrete bridge decks
may be simple slabs for short spans or
slab and girder construction for longer
spans. They may be entirely cast-in-place,
entirely precast, or a combination of cast­
in-place slab with steel or precast concrete
supporting girders. Many of the forming
problems and techniques are similar to
those for other slab work, the major differ­
ence being the problem of support for
formwork when spans are at great height,
over water, or above unsatisfactory earth
support. For special considerations and
recommendations, refer to ACI345R-11,
NGuide for Concrete Highway Bridge Deck
Construction," and ACI345.2R-13, "Guide
for Widening Highway Bridges.NThe use of
mortar-tight deck and superstructure forms
provides a smooth unblemished appear­
ance that will enhance public confidence in
the soundness of the structure.

Fig. 15.15: External ties and full-span wales used to avoid internal ties (Photo courtesy MEVA 15.3.1 Monolithic-Simple Slob,
Formwork Systems) Beom, and Girder
Bridges with short spans between supports
(less than 25 ft) may be built as simple slab
decks. Because these simple slab bridges
are sometimes designed with the expecta­
tion that the curbs will supply part of the
bending resistance, the curbs may be cast
integrally with the deck slab. Formwork for
a slab deck is like that for any other slab;
sheathing of metal, wood, plywood, or
other material is supported on joists and
stringers. Edge forms are equal in height to
the curbing and are braced externally from
joists extending beyond the deck width.
The form is supported from below by any
one of the various types of shoring, or on
heavy horizontal members supported on
the piers. On projects where there are many
identical short spans, large one-piece forms
have been used for an entire span, then
lowered to barges and floated to the next
position for reuse.

CHAPTER 15
Fig. I 5. I 7: Round column friction collar
example (Image courtesy EFCO Corp.)
Fig. I 5. I 8: Stay-in-place steel forms attached Fig. I 5.19: Stay-in-place precast concrete deck
by self-tapping screws to angle ledgers that forms supported directly on concrete girders
15.3.2 Cast-in-Place Deck Support­
have been welded to structural steel bridge
ed on Steel or Precast Girders

�--·-·--
girders (Photo courtesy of New York State
Formwork details may differ, but the
Department of Transportation�)
general method of forming slabs is
the same whether supported on steel

1 I�---
or precast concrete girders. Formwork -"1"
� - ---

,E.;
o... s.----

members either rest on the lower flange or

haunch of the beam, or they are hung with

---r�25571
various manufactured devices from the . .

upper flange. Several hanging devices are

discussed in Chapter 1 1.
Cool-
To eliminate the problem of stripping fomol-

forms high in the air, stay�in-place deck forms

-oe..... - -
are sometimes laid directly on steel or precast
concrete bridge girders. The form material
may be precast concrete, or corrugated metal
Fig. 15.20: Construction arrangement for removable bridge deck formwork (Image courtesy
so that no stiffening joists are needed. Such
Dayton Superior)
stay-in-place forms (Fig 15.18) are usually
used on short spans where intermediate
supports for the form are not required.
Corrugated metal may rest on top of or
between the already-placed bridge framing.
Precast concrete deck forms (Fig. 15.19)
usually become an integral part of the load­
bearing deck after the cast-in-place deck
concrete hardens and bonds to the forms.
The roughened top surface of the panel
improves bond with cast-in-place concrete.
Projecting loops of reinforcing steel provide
shear reinforcement and also serve as lifting
attachment points. The panels are placed
on a grout bed that provides both a sealer
and elevation adjustment to compensate for
different stringer elevations and camber.
When there are excessive variations in
the camber of steel or precast concrete
girders, adjustment of the slab thickness
to give a smooth upper roadway may
go beyond tolerances permitted in slab
construction and result in greater dead Fig. I 5.21: Example hangers far bridge deck farmwork (Image courtesy Dayton Superior)
load on the girders than anticipated. A
typical design approach uses small haunches over the top flange. Changing the depth of
haunch compensates for camber variations without changing slab thickness. Forming for
such a haunch is shown in Fig. 1 5.20.
Figures 15.20 and 15.21 show example arrangements for forming a bridge deck using
adjustable hangers supported on the top flange of the steel beam. Main supporting form
members are first hung between the steel girders and adjusted for elevation. Spacer
blocks are set on these wood members and joists laid across the spacer blocks. Decking

BRIDGE FORM WORK


Fig. 15.22: Plan and elevation of prefabricated
steel form for diaphragm between precast
girders.
Fig. I 5.23: Method of forming expansion
joints in a bridge deck producing a joint wider
at the bottom than at the top
Fig. I 5.24: Deck overhang forms supported
on overhang brackets with inclined hanger
ties attached to steel girder flange (Photo
courtesy of New York State Department of
Transportation©)
material is then laid on the joists and lightly nailed. Spacers and joists can raise the level
of the deck soffit several inches above the top flange of the girders if necessary. Where the
deck concrete is to laterally support the girder, fillet boards can be located flush with the
flange underside, as shown in Fig. 1S.21. It is important to avoid twisting of outer girders
where there may be a hanger load on one side only. Bracing against interior girders should
be used when this condition is critical. Similar devices and arrangements can be used
when forming decks on precast concrete girders.
The structural design sometimes includes cast-in-place concrete diaphragms to give
lateral support to the precast beams. Usually these are cast-in-place along with the
deck, and the form construction (wood or metal) is similar to that for any other beam
intersecting a slab. The diaphragm form may be hung from inserts cast in the beam or
supported on a flange of the beam (Fig. 15.22). Usually the diaphragm concrete is placed,
then reinforcing steel is placed in the deck form and the deck is concrete is placed.
To minimize transverse cracking in the completed deck of bridges with continuous
girders over two or more spans, the location and sequence of placement and location
of construction joints is often specified. The usual objective is to place deck segments
located at midspan first and place segments over piers on later dates to minimize deck
longitudinal tension in negative-moment regions over supports. The requirements should
be evaluated when planning form quantities, construction loads to be supported, and
potential needs to specially brace the girders to resist lateral buckling when the deck is
not in place to act as a diaphragm.
15.3.3 Expansion Joints
Where the design requires open expansion joints in the slab, the design width is some­
times narrow at the top and wider at the bottom. This facilitates cleanout in service and
accommodates a drainage trough. A method of achieving this is illustrated in Fig. 15.23. A
light plywood bulkhead is laid against wedge-shaped vertical pieces braced by diagonal
struts. After concrete for the first slab section is placed, the plywood bulkhead is removed
and the wedge-shaped pieces are moved against the end of the slab and are backed up by
a second set of wedges that slant in the opposite direction. The plywood bulkhead is laid
against these, and concrete is placed in the second section of the slab. After the concrete
has hardened, the bulkhead and the wedges are slipped out of the expansion joint,
leaving an opening that is narrow at the top and wide at the bottom.
15.3.4 Overhang, Sidewalks, Parapets, and Median Barriers
Overhangs, including sidewalks, are commonly cast along with the bridge deck, with hori­
zontal construction joints on which the curbs or guardrails above deck level are later cast
separately. Overhang soffits often include a drip edge reveal. Provision must be made for
unbalanced loading that may occur when paving machines travel on overhang forms. If
the overhangs are to be cast separately, inserts for supporting their formwork are some­
times cast in deck slabs, girders, pier shafts, spandrel walls, or arch rings, depending on the
type of bridge being built.
In a bridge with steel girders or flanged concrete girders, sidewalk or overhanging deck
formwork may be supported on the girders, as shown in Fig. 15.24 and 15.25. Overhang
support brackets are attached to the girder top flange using manufactured accessories.
Manufactured accessories are also used when wood support brackets are built (Fig. 15.26).
Traffic barriers located at the parapet or in the median are frequently cast-in-place
and anchored into the deck slab. The exterior face of the parapet barrier is often vertical,
perhaps incorporating a visual feature, while faces of the parapet and median barriers
exposed to traffic are designed to deflect vehicle collisions. Example job-built wood forms
and manufactured steel forms are shown in Fig. 15.27 and 15.28.
15.3.5 Support for Superstructure Forms
The choice of vertical support for bridge cast-in-place superstructure forms depends in
large measure on the height above ground and the nature of the terrain. Other site factors,
such as need to keep a highway or railway open for traffic, will also influence layout of the
superstructure support system. Because the superstructures for long-span or rigid-frame
bridges are sometimes much deeper at the piers than at center span, the shoring may
need to be built up to a specified curvature using the same techniques as in constructing
arch forms. Timber shoring, adjustable metal single-post shores, and shoring frames are
all adaptable where solid ground support is available (Fig. 15.29). Erection procedures are
CHAPTER 15
much the same as for building construc­
tion, except where greater heights call
for more diagonal bracing to stabilize the
supporting structure. If the design requires
shoring of the girders while placing the
slab for composite action, the engineer
should specify its nature and location. The
recommendations of ACI 347R should also
be consulted.
If shoring from the ground is imprac­
tical or impossible, various other means
can be devised to support the formwork Fig. 15.26: Overhang frame fabricated in wood
from piers or other parts of the substruc­ (Image courtesy Dayton Superior)

ture (fig. 15.30). In bridges where the

Fig. 15.25: Bridge deck overhang brackets
superstructure is to be continuous over
supported by hanger tie to precast concrete
several spans, it may be necessary to
girder (Photo courtesy Dayton Superior)
build a complete falsework for all spans
acting together.
Where a large volume of concrete is
placed over an extended period, it may be
necessary to use additives to retard setting
and prevent the inducement of unequal
stresses throughout the deck structure.
The falsework also must limit deflection as
placement continues to prevent unequal
loading.
Hollow girder bridges pose additional
problems because of the great impor­
tance of the falsework remaining in place,
without deflection, until the deck flange
concrete is placed, completing the box by
making the top composite with the webs
and bottom flange. Sometimes, the webs
are cast together with the deck and the
Fig. 15.27: Wood forms for parapet barrier
interior web and deck forms are left in
with farm ties to resist concrete pressures
place. Falsework or shoring for such bridges
(Photo courtesy of New York State Depart­
can be founded on driven piles when
ment ofTransportationO) Fig. 15.28: Parapet barrier formwork incor­
necessary. If piles are not necessary, large porating steel yokes to resist placing pres­
concrete pads are preferred to conven­ sures without ties (Photo courtesy Symons by
tional mudsills (Fig. 15.29). Post-tensioned Dayton Superior)
hollow girders constructed in segments
present different problems and opportuni­
ties discussed in the concluding section of
this chapter.

15.3.6 Stripping Bridge Forms

347R-14, �Guide to Formwork for
A( I
Concrete,WSections 5.5 and 5.7, provides
recommendations for form erection
and removal (refer to the report in the
Appendix of this book). In continuous
structures, support should not be released
in any span until concrete in the first and
second adjoining spans on each side have
reached the specified strength.
Forms for ornamental work, railings,
parapets, and other vertical surfaces that
require a surface finishing operation should
be removed between 12 and 48 hours
after casting the concrete, depending on
weather conditions.

BRIDGE FORM WORK

 When cast-in-place post-tensioned bridges are constructed, falsework must remain
in place during the curing period and until tensioning of the tendons has been accom­
plished. Post-tensioning force usually lifts the member above the formwork at midspan
and transfers the structure loads to the substructure. This type of construction requires
advance planning and direction by the bridge engineer. In composite construction also,
the engineer should include any special provisions that are required for form or shoring
removal in the project specifications.
For bridge decks cast at great height or over water, the problem of stripping the forms
from beneath the deck presents a considerable challenge. Various methods are used to
provide safe and convenient working conditions. Work platforms for stripping may be
suspended from equipment riding on top of the deck (Fig. 15.31). Similar platforms also
Fig. 15.30: Use of plate girder forms to support
may ride on rails beneath the deck, and towers or equipment are sometimes elevated
concrete bridge placement over water (Photo
from the ground. Sometimes holes are formed in deck slabs, through which the forms are
courtesy EFCO Corp.)
lowered from above by a hand winch. A hole in the deck is also sometimes used to aid in
breaking the bond between concrete and forms. Barges are frequently required for trans­
porting, erecting, and stripping forms in open water.

15.4 Arch Bridges

Shoring or centering, together with the critical operation of decentering, is critical for

�
.c� arch bridge forming. Careful attention must also be given by the bridge engineer to
the specified camber of arch forms to produce a finished arch at the desired elevation.
Decentering operations for arches require detailed advance planning, much the same as
decentering shell structures, so that the structure can assume its load uniformly without
being damaged.

i ;.;.
··� These issues require careful engineering of both the tall shoring system, which is
frequently a major temporary structure (Fig. 15.32), and of the process to be followed

\ •·.· ·'" l--

���
for decentering. A detailed discussion of arch bridge forming is beyond the scope of this
book, but a few illustrations suggesting some solutions are included.
Low, short-span arch loads and forms may be supported on simple trusses, on forms
,
themselves spanning as an arch (Fig. 15.33), or directly on shoring. For longer-span, higher

�,
arches, metal shoring in heavily braced tower assemblies is often used (Fig. 15.32).
Where high, long-span arches cannot be suitably or economically supported on shoring,

\ J
a temporary cable-stayed support system has been used to cantilever the arch from each
side until joined at the center (Fig. 15.34 to 15.36).1ncreasingly, the cantilever method is
· · .. I
. .. • . :·
.
-·-· used for both arch and other types of bridges, reducing or sometimes eliminating shoring.

Fig. 15.31: Removal of overhang brackets

(Photo courtesy of New York State Depart­
ment ofTransportationQ)
Fig. 15.32: Arch formwork supported by shoring
towers to ground. (Image courtesy Doka USA)
15.5 Segmental Box-Girder Bridge Construction
Post-tensioned segmental construction has gradually become the prevailing method of
building long-span concrete bridges. As early as the 1930s, reinforced segmental bridge
construction had appeared in Brazil and France, followed in the late 1940s by prestressed
segmental arches in France and in the 1950s by segmental box girders in Germany. The
method came to North America with a cast-in-place structure in Quebec in 1g64 and a
precast structure, also in Quebec, in 1967.1n the 1g7os, the method was introduced in
the United States. Concrete segmental construction is one of several innovative bridge
construction methods developed in recent decades for bridges of long length or long
span where mechanized forming and erection methods become economical.1s.l-lu
Availability of post-tensioning methods and improving formwork technology has made
segmental construction technically feasible. This type of bridge construction has dramati­
cally extended the practical and economically competitive range of concrete bridges.
Using this method, a bridge superstructure is made of separate elements, called segments,
which are either precast or cast-in-place and assembled by post-tensioning into a struc­
tural unit. If the bridge is cast-in-place, falsework or travelers are used to support forms
and permit successive elements to be cast and post-tensioned together. If the structure
is precast, segments (Fig. 15.37) are made in a casting yard or factory, transported to the
point of use and placed in the bridge by cranes or launching equipment (Fig. 15.38).
Hollow box girders, particularly of trapezoidal cross section, are most widely used for
segmental construction. Other possibilities include arches, rigid frames, and trusses, but
this discussion concentrates on the hollow box-girder structures.
Because of the loads placed on the bridge during construction, the structural designer
must be deeply concerned with the construction method. Segmental construction forces
the designer to find the most economical way to build the bridge. The design is then

CHAPTER 15
based on the economy of the construc­
tion and a knowledge of loadings to be
placed on the bridge before it is complete.
In North American practice, where design
and construction are more often done by
separate organizations, it is common to
engage construction engineers to work out
the detailed construction procedure.
The forms and form travelers are really
forming machines that must be engi­
neered and manufactured by specialists
with expert knowledge. They are usually
made of steel, with jacks or other powered
devices to strip, move, and adjust the form
and any supporting gantry or traveler.
This highly skilled, specialized field of
form building is beyond the scope of this
manual. However, an overall description
is given as background for understanding
the construction alternatives now avail­
able. There is a multitude of choices, and
changing techniques and technology result
in few structures being constructed in
exactly the same way.
Fig. 15.33: Form erection for bridge arch with temporary erection tower to support form until
form work arch is complete (Photo courtesy EFCO Corp.)
15.5.1 Cast-in-Place Segmental
Construction
In cast-in-place construction, segments
are cast one after another in their final
location in the structure. Special equip­
ment is used, such as traveling forms for
cantilever construction or formwork units
moved along a supporting gantry for
span-by-span construction. Each segment
is reinforced with conventional reinforcing
steel and sometimes by vertical or trans­
verse prestressing, or both. The segments
are joined together by longitudinal
post-tensioning.
Because segments are cast end to end,
longitudinal steel can readily be made
continuous across the joints. Concrete
strength and modulus of elasticity
development influences construction
speed and amount of structure deflection
during construction.
Fig. 15.34: Concrete arch formwork supported Fig. 15.35: Initial cast-in-place arch segments.
15.5. 2 Precast Segmental by temporary stayed cables until arch formwork travelers, and worker access provisions
Construction completion for Hoover Dam Bypass Bridge (Photo courtesy USOOTFHWA)
Precast segmental bridge construction can (Photo courtesy USOOT FHWA)
be done with joints several inches wide
for which forms are built before the joint is filled with grout, mortar, or concrete. Formed
joints are more readily built with span-by-span erection methods that provide support
for the forms. With formed joints, precast production can be speeded because match
casting is not required. However, recent practice favors joints of minimum thickness.
This calls for match casting, whereby segments are cast against one another in the same
sequence they will have in the bridge. Where the climate permits, these joints are left dry.
Elsewhere, a thin layer of epoxy is used to seal the joints. The segments are cast with one
or more integral shear keys. Usually there is no continuity of conventional longitudinal
steel; post-tensioning establishes the longitudinal continuity. When the segments are

BRIDGE FORM WORK

 cast well in advance of erection, they will
have less creep, shrinkage, and deflection
in the bridge than would the cast-in-place
segments.

15.5.3 Principal Erection Methods

Although the construction methods may
vary as much as the ingenuity and skill
of designers and contractors, for modern
post-tensioned bridges there are four basic
erection methods in current use with either
precast or cast-in-place segments:
Balanced cantilever;
Progressive placing;
Incremental launching; and
Span-by-span.
Some bridges are made by a combi­
nation of these erection methods, and
some use both precast and cast-in-place
segments. Where ground support condi­
tions are favorable, some parts of the
bridge may be built on falsework in
nonsegmental fashion.

Fig. 15.36: Completed Hoover Dam Bypass Bridge arches, piers, and deck with temporary Balanced Cantilever Erection
pylons and stayed cables removed (Photo courtesy U5DOT FHWA)
The main advantage of the balanced canti­
lever or free cantilever method of erecting
segmental bridges is the elimination of shoring or falsework. It is particularly advanta­
geous over navigable waterways and traveled highways or railroads. Construction begins
at permanent piers and is self-supporting at all stages. Segments are cantilevered from
a pier, alternating from one side to the other and a closure pour is made with the corre­
sponding half span cantilevered from the next pier (Fig. 15.39).
Construction typically begins with a pier cap or girder segment called a pier table,
built in place on top of the pier (Fig. 15.40). The top post-tensioning tendons in the pier

Fig. 15.37: Precast segment after removal from form (Photo courtesy EFCO Corp.)

CHAPTER 15
table segment are operating at capacity during the entire erec-
tion sequence to resist the negative moments of the cantilevers.
Thus, the construction loads must not increase significantly over
what was assumed in design. Several methods are used to resist
overturning moment created by temporary imbalance of the canti­
lever as segments are attached to cantilever ends. They include
post-tensioning the pier down to the pier stem, adding temporary
supports on either side of the pier, or stabilizing the cantilevers with
erection equipment. The final choice is made by the contractor, but
the designer must assume and detail a method for stress evaluation
and provide parameters for the builder.
In precast segmental work, each added segment is immediately
post-tensioned to the already-completed portion of the structure.
There are various ways to deliver segments to the cantilever position:
land- or water-based cranes, truck or crawler cranes, floating cranes,
and self-operating launching gantries are among the most common.
The launching gantry or launching girder is a machine capable of Fig. 15.39: Balanced cantilever traveler(Photo courtesy Doka USA)
transporting a segment from a completed part of the bridge or from
below the bridge to either end of the cantilever being erected. Launching girders are
made in many sizes and shapes; most can move themselves once a cantilever is completed
and another is ready to be started.
For cast-in-place segmental cantilever construction, forms are supported on a movable
carrier or form traveler (fig. 15.41) that advances on rails attached to the deck of the
completed structure and is anchored to the deck at the rear. For balanced cantilever work,
at least two travelers are needed, working simultaneously. The work sequence includes
the following steps:
1. Set up and adjust the carrier;
2. Set and align the forms;
3. Place reinforcing steel and tendon ducts;
4. Place concrete;
5. Install post-tensioning tendons in the segment and apply stress aher the concrete
has gained the required strength;
6. Remove the formwork; and
7. Move carrier or traveler to the next position and repeat the cycle.
The forms are adjusted to make changes in the box-girder depth as required.
Cantilever construction has been used for reinforced concrete bridge spans as long
as 320ft. However, balanced cantilever construction is at its most economical for posr­
temioned spans of approximately 300 h up to 850ft. Cable-stayed spans, also built by the
cantilever method using cables during construction, may be used where longer spans are
desired. Fig. 15.40: Construction of pier table segment
(Photo courtesy EFCO Corp.)
Spon·by-Spon Construction, Stepping Formwork
The balanced cantilever construction described previously is advantageous for long spans,
but span-by-span erection may be the most economical technique for erecting segmental
bridges in the medium range of spans less than 250 h. Construction proceeds from one
end of the bridge to the other, one span at a time, with some kind of temporary support
set up for the span being worked on. This erection method is referred to as stepping form­
work when construction is cast in place.
For cast-in-place work, the temporary support is a form traveler that may be supported
on the piers, or from the edge of previously completed construction at the joint location
and at the forward pier. The traveler is a steel structure that is moved from one span to
the next as the work progresses. For an above-deck carrier, the large formwork elements
for one bridge segment are suspended on rods during concreting. Aher the segment has
gained strength and been post-tensioned, the forms are released and rolled forward by
means of structural outriggers on both sides of the form traveler's superstructure. A similar
procedure can be followed by using a below-deck carrier (fig. 15. 42) . The form carrier
or traveler in effect provides a sort of factory operation transplanted to the job site. This Fig. 15.41: Cantilever bridge formwork craveler
method has many advantages of mass production in a plant plus the added capability for details (Image courtesy Doka USA)
field adjustments.

BRIDGE FORM WORK

 In applying span-by-span construction
to precast segmental work, one method
is to assemble all of the segments for a
single span on a steel erection truss span­
ning between two adjacent piers. A crane
places the segments on the assembly truss
in approximately their final position. After
all of the segments are assembled for one
span, post-tensioning tendons are installed
and stressed, and at the same time the
span is post-tensioned to the adjoining
one. Some alternatives to using the
movable erection truss are:
Assemble the segments on the ground
below their final position and then lift
into place.
Assemble on falsework or fill in the final
position.
Assemble on falsework parallel to the
final position, then push laterally into
place.
Other variations include: partial assembly
on the ground, lifting into place on false­
Fig. 15.42: Projecting to next pier for form traveler support before moving formwork for full work, and completion of the assembly on
span between piers (Photo courtesy MEVA Formwork Systems) the falsework; or assembly of a full span on
a barge that is then floated to position for
lifting the span.

Progressive Placing
Progressive placing also starts at one end of a structure and proceeds continuously to the
other end. The spans cantilever as segments are added, but unlike the balanced cantilever,
the work cantilevers from only one side of the pier. The method works for precast as well
as cast-in-place segments. If the bridge is cast in place, traveling forms are used as in a
balanced cantilever.
Because the cantilever is long (an entire span) in relation to construction depth,
supports such as cable stays from above (Fig. 15.43) or pier bents below are used to
limit stresses in the cantilevers during construction. Precast segments are moved over
completed portions of the deck to the tip of the cantilever where a swivel crane places
them. The first few segments out from the
pier, perhaps as much as a third of the span,
can be erected as a free cantilever before
stays or other temporary or permanent
supports become necessary.
This method is of particular interest
where spans are in the 100to 160ft
range, but has proven practical and
economical for some spans up to 3 00ft.
It can be advantageous where site condi­
tions prohibit the span-by-span method.
Where physical or environmental restric­
tions impede conventional access to pier
locations, this method permits trans­
porting equipment and materials for pier
construction from above, over the partially
completed structure, as was done in the
case of the linn Cove Viaduct in North
Carolina (Fig. 15.38).

Fig. 15.43: Progressive placement of precast bridge segments supported by stay cables (Photo
courtesy Doka USA)

CHAPTER 15
Incremental Launching or Pushout Method
The incremental launching method is best suited to bridges with spans up to approxi­
mately 200ft, where piers can be easily located at regular intervals. Segments of the
bridge superstructure are cast in lengths of 30to 100ft in stationary forms just behind the
bridge abutment. Stringent control of dimensions is necessary at the casting site because
errors are hard to correct and add to launching costs.
Each segment-generally 1/4, 1/3, or 1/ 2of the regular span-is cast against the
previous unit and post-tensioned to it as soon as sufficient strength develops. The assem­
bled units are pushed forward step by step to permit more segments to be cast or posi­
tioned behind the abutment.
Incrementally launched bridges may be either straight or curved, but the method is
limited to structures with constant radius of curvature, either horizontal or vertical. Thus,
roadway geometry is sometimes dictated by the construction method, contrary to usual
practice. Hydraulic jacks are used to move the superstructure out in the longitudinal direc­
tion, and special temporary sliding bearings and proper lateral guides must be provided at
both temporary and permanent piers.
To keep bending stresses down during launching, a fabricated structural steel launching
nose (Fig. 15.44) approximately 6 0% of the span length is attached to the lead segment.
This has worked well for spans up to approximately 200ft. For spans in the 200to 330ft
range, intermediate falsework in the form of temporary piers or bents may be needed.
Another way to control bending stresses in the advancing span is to use temporary stays Fig. 15.44: Incrementa/launching of post-
attached to the front part of the deck and supported from a tower that can be moved tensioned match-cast segments
from pier to pier as the bridge advances.

I 5.5.4 Making Precast Bridge Segments

Precast segmental bridge units are cast in a plant or under factory-like conditions at
or near the project site. Segments vary in length, but usually range between 8 and
15ft. Maximum practical size is limited by handling and hoisting equipment. Some­
times segment lengths are varied to keep the handling weights about equal. Ducts
for the prestressing strands are usually cast in the segments, although some bridges
have been built with strands threaded through holes in deviator blocks and exposed
ducts inside the box girders.
Some precast segmental bridges have been built with cast-in-place joints 3to 4 in. wide
between the segments. Although this procedure requires less dimensional precision in
precasting, the segments must be supported on falsework while the joints cure, and erec­
tion speed can be substantially reduced.
The prevailing method is to use an epoxy resin material approximately 1/32in. thick in
the joints. In areas not subject to freezing and thawing, dry joints have occasionally been
used. Either of these two methods calls for a perfect fit between adjoining segments,
which is ordinarily achieved by match casting; that is, each segment is cast against the
face of the preceding one and then the
segments are erected in the same sequence
in which they were cast. Casting may be by AFTER STRIPPING DURING CASTING
either the long line or short line method.
The forms are mechanically and structur­
ally engineered and fabricated by special­
ists whose expertise is beyond the scope
of conventional formwork explained in this
book. Where numerous variations of cross
section are required, a sophisticated forming
machine is developed, such as shown in Fig.
1S.45and 15.46. Turnbuckles and jacks, both
screw and hydraulic, are used for stripping
and to adjust cross-section geometry.

tong tine Segment Casting

All required segments may be cast next
to one another in correct relative position
on a long line. The line is usually slightly
more than half the length of the longest Fig. 15.45: Simplified drawing of formwork used for casting segments with half section on the
span in the structure, and it must be built /eft showing exterior forms in the stripped position

BRIDGE FORM WORK


Fig. I 5.46: Fabrication of form for bridge
precast concrete segment (Photo courtesy
EFCOCorp.)
Fig. 15.48 Formwork and processs of short line casting of bridge segments
c::•m••• on a firm foundation that will not yield
under the weight of the segments. One
g�··· ELEVATION
or more formwork units move along
the line, guided by a preadjusted soffit
(Fig. 1 5.47). Formwork at the beginning
of long line casting moves to the right
�-'"' -
as each segment is cast, leaving a long
line of match-cast pieces. As the opera­
tion proceeds, segments are taken in
sequence from the end of the line to be
placed in the structure.
Fig. 15.47: Formwork and process for long line
The long line is easy to set up and
casting of bridge segments
makes it easy to maintain control over the
segment production. After stripping it is
not necessary to take away the segments
immediately. Because the forms move
along the line, so must the equipment
for casting and curing. The line can be
designed to accommodate curved struc­
tures, but usually the short line method is
more appropriate for curved and variable
structures.
Short line Precasting
With short line casting, the segments
are cast on carriages or carriers, all at the
same place in stationary forms and against
the old neighboring element (fig. 15.48). After casting, the old neighboring element is
removed, the inside form is withdrawn, and the just-cast new segment is shifted to the
position of the old neighboring element, leaving the stationary form empty for casting the
next unit. The older element can then be removed to a storage area. A horizontal short line
is shown in the drawing, but it is also possible to set up a vertical casting line for segments
that are to be used horizontally.
The short line takes substantially less space than the long line method. Hori­
zontal and vertical curves and twisting of the structure are economically obtained
by adjusting the position of the neighboring segment before casting against it.
However, this positioning must be done very accurately with precise control of
geometry.
Generol Requirements: Cast-in-Place Segmental Bridge Formwork
As already mentioned, formwork for segmental bridge construction is the work of
specialists. It should be carefully designed by persons with experience in segmental
procedures as well as in form design. Only some of the more general requirements
are discussed herein. Like other formwork, it is designed to safely support the loads
without undue settlement. Soil stabilization or special foundations may be required.
The formwork should also permit adjustments to compensate for settlement.
Because economical production of either precast or cast-in-place segments depends
on multiple uses of the forms, they must be sturdy and well-built with careful attention to
details. Particular attention must be given to erection details and assembly instructions,
especially if the formwork is to be assembled by someone other than the manufacturer.
The forms should be easy to handle and strip. Paste leakage through form joints should
be prevented by using flexible gaskets or sealing materials. This is particularly important at
the face that will join with the matching segment because loss of cement paste there will
give a poor surface that can destroy the matching required and call for costly repairs. Also,
all form surfaces, especially welded joints, in contact with concrete must be smooth and
free from reentrant areas, pitting, or any other discontinuity that could trap small amounts
of concrete and lead to spalling during form stripping.
Flexibility Needs
Formwork for structures with variable geometry has to be relatively flexible to allow
adaptation at various joints. Some flexibility may be needed to accommodate small
CHAPTER 15
differences of dimensions with the previously cast segment. The design must also
provide easy and accurate adjustments in desired camber, curvature, and twisting.
Special consideration must be given to parts of the formwork that have to change
dimensions. Equipment such as hydraulic jacks, screw jacks, turnbuckles, and wedges is
provided to make adjustments easier. Compressed air jets may be used to break suction
during stripping.

15.5.5 Voids, Inserts, Affachments

Holes for tendon ducts should be located precisely to assure matching between segments
and to inhibit flow of joint-filling material into the tendon duct void space. Sometimes,
voids are formed by flexible sheathing that remains after hardening of the concrete. Flex­
ible spirally wound metal ducts can be stiffened from the inside during casting by inflated
rubber duct tubes. Rigid ducts with smooth or corrugated walls will not deform exces­
sively under pressure of the vibrated plastic concrete. Ducts must be aligned and tied to
reinforcement or special supports at close intervals to avoid displacement.
Special attention is needed at the junction of post-tensioning tendon ducts with
the forms. Attachments to the form such as these anchorages, blocking, and inserts
must also be designed to stay in place during casting. The fittings should not interfere
with form stripping, and projecting anchorage blocks or other irregularities should be
designed with stripping in mind.

15.5.6 Joint Surfaces

Even, smooth surfaces at joints are needed to avoid surface crushing or chipping of edges,
caused by point contact during post-tensioning. Chamfers at match-cast joints are not
recommended because they are difficult to manufacture and they reduce joint contact
areas significantly. If chamfers are required for visual effect, the designer must take into
account the effect of area reduction.
For bridges having hinges within spans, accurate positioning of reinforcement is
important to prevent cracking in the region of hinged connections. Any bearing materials
attached to forms must be carefully installed to avoid leakage of paste that could weaken
the bearing surface.

15.5.7 Vibration
Internal vibration is more common, but when external vibration is used, forms must be
designed to withstand the stresses it adds. External vibrators should be attached at points
that will give the best consolidation and still permit easy replacement in case of a break­
down during casting.

15.5.8 Heat Curing Considerations

Early development of concrete strength is required to shorten the cycle of operations
and to maintain the productivity of special equipment in either precast or cast-in-place
construction. To avoid heat loss, forms are usually insulated and some source of radiant
heat is installed inside the segment. Low-pressure steam may be circulated around the
forms. Electrical resistance may be embedded in the concrete, or forms may be heated
electrically. The latter method is well-adapted to long curing cycles. It permits a wide
range of adjustments per zone, varying temperature between thick and thin sections, thus
minimizing thermal gradients and eliminating the risk of damage to concrete at the begin­
ning of its hardening stage.
Heating of forms with low-pressure steam around them is preferable for short curing
cycles. but it requires regulators to assure proper temperature within the separate enclo­
sures for different form panels.
If steam curing with temperatures on the order of 130°F is used, then the deforma­
tions of the forms due to heating and cooling must be considered to prevent cracking of
the young concrete. Cantilever flanges and other thin parts cool faster than the heaviest
parts of the section, and cracking of the elements has occurred. This should be guarded
against by close control of the heating and cooling process and consideration of the
effects of stripping on the cooling process. With accelerated curing, it is desirable to cure
the segment that has just been cast together with the segment it was cast against. This
prevents temperature deformations of the hardened concrete during curing of the new
segment, which could lead to open joints upon erection.

BRIDGE FORMWORK
 Table 1 5.1: PCI recommended tolerances for precast box girder
segments

:tl/8in. per ft;

length,o
:tl in. maximum

�:1/16in. per ft;

Width,b
:t3/4 in. maximum

Web width,bl tJ/8in.

Bottom Flange width,b2 1:1/16in. per ft of width; :t1/2 in. max

Diaphragm thickness,b3 :tl/2 in

Overall depth,c :tl/4 in.

Depth of tap and bottom slob, c1 t3/Bin.

Fig. 15.49: Precast segment dimensions Grode of fOJm edge ond soffit,e :tl/8in. in 10ft
covered by PC/ tolerances (Image courtesy location of past·len$ioniog di.ICt, k t1/8in.
PC/)
location of shear key, z :tl/4 in.

15.5. 9 Tolerance Requirements

Fabrication tolerances for precast box-girder segments illustrated in Fig. 15.49 and listed in
Table 15.1 are from PCI MNL-135,MTolerance Manual for Precast and Prestressed Concrete. �
They are for general reference,and may require adjustment to project-specific conditions.
AASHTO publishes guide specifications for segmental bridges.15·7The specifications of
state or local agencies may follow these recommendations or impose other requirements.

REFERENCES
15.1. Barker,J., �construction Techniques for Segmental Concrete Bridges,� PC/ Journal,
July-Aug. 19BO,pp. 66-B6.
15.2. Muller,J. M.,and Podolny,Jr.,W.,Construction and Design of Prestressed Concrete
Segmental Bridges, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,New York,1982,561 pp.
15.3. libby,J. R.,and Perkins,N.,Modern Prestressed Concrete Highway Bridge Superstruc­
tures: Design Principles and Construction Methods, Grantville Publishing Co.,San Diego,CA,
1976,254 pp.
15.4. Mathivat,J., The Cantilever Construction of Prestressed Concrete Bridges, John Wiley &
Sons,Inc.,New York,1983,341 pp.
15.5. Degenkolb,0. H.,Concrete Box Girder Bridges, Iowa State University Press/American
Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, Ml,1977,106 pp.
15.6. Rosignoli, M., Bridge Construction Equipment, ICE Publishing, london, UK,2013,
488 pp.
15.7. MAASHTO Guide Specifications for Design and Construction of Segmental Concrete
Bridges,� second edition,,Washington, DC,1999,with 20031nterim Revisions.
16: MASS CONCRETE FORMWORK
The term "mass concrete" is defined in ACI301-10, "Specifications for Structural
Concrete,· as "any volume of structural concrete in which a combination of dimensions
of the member being cast, the boundary conditions, the characteristics of the concrete
mixture, and the ambient conditions
can lead to undesirable thermal stresses,
cracking, deleterious chemical reactions,
or reduction in the long-term strength as
a result of elevated concrete temperature
due to heat from hydration."Traditionally,
however, the term "mass concrete" has also
been applied to concrete used in struc­
tures that derive their strength from the
weight or mass of the concrete, such as
gravity dams, gravity retaining walls, locks,
foundations, and anchorages. Most of
this chapter applies to this latter category
of gravity structures that, because of the
need to minimize cracking for water tight­
ness, simultaneously fits into the ACI301
definition.
Using conventional dam construction
methods (Fig. 16.1), mass concrete is usually
deposited in the forms by large-capacity
bottom dump buckets from cableways,
cranes, and derricks. Because of the large
plan area of most mass concrete structures,
the rate of rise of concrete in the forms is
usually low, although large quantities are

Fig. 16.2: Preparation of reinforcing and
form work for thick concrete foundation mat
(Photo courtesy MEVA Formwork Systems)
Fig. 16.3: Cantilever form setup for vertical
face (Image courtesy Doka USA)
being handled. Belt conveyor systems are often used for placing mass concrete and are
available to handle up to 6 00 yd1/h.Concrete buckets up to 12 yd1 capacity were used at
Glen Canyon Dam in the United States, and rates of placement of over 1000yd1per shift
are not uncommon when using 4 yd3 buckets.Such air- or hydraulically operated buckets
are capable of rapidly depositing 8 tons or more of concrete at one time.
For gravity retaining structures such as dams, the conventional approach to mass
concrete placement is now supplanted in most cases by the use of roller-compacted
concrete.This change in placing practices reduces forming requirements but generally
does not totally eliminate forms for major structures (refer to Section 16.5).
Large and thick foundation mats (Fig. 16.2) for buildings, industrial structures, and
power generation facilities are also often referred to as mass concrete because of poten­
tial damaging effects of high heat of hydration. large piers for long-span bridges involve
similar concerns.For large building mat foundations, mass concrete placement is usually
by use of multiple pumps. Depending on the mat dimensions, single-sided braced forms
may be used.
One major consideration facing the designer of mass concrete structures is control or
elimination of thermal cracking, and in the case of hydraulic structures, leakage through
construction joints.The large amounts of heat generated by hydration of the concrete
present considerably more problems than in other structural concrete, and some of the
provisions made to limit temperature rise have a vital effect on the formwork.
In warmer climates especially, the concrete temperature is kept to a minimum during
placement and hydration by the use of low-heatType Hand IV cements, fly ash or other
pozzolan replacement of part of the cement. cooling techniques, special curing tech­
niques, and heat-dispersing steel forms.Cooling techniques for mass concrete are
discussed in ACI207.4R-05, ·cooling and Insulating Systems for Mass Concrete (Reap­
proved2012).T - he height of lifts, plan, and sequence of placing the concrete are gener­
ally selected to help control temperature. Form removal is also planned to avoid thermal
shocks that would result in cracking of the concrete surface.The most common approach
to regulating shrinkage and heat of hydration in mass concrete work is to limit the height
and area of lifts.16·1 Lifts are often placed in alternate monoliths, sections, or blocks of
the dam that are bounded by transverse contraction joints, as seen in Fig. 16.1. Heights
of lifts range from 2.5 ft for multiple lifts just above foundations to 7.5 and 10ft in many
gravity dams, and 10ft or more in thin arch dams, piers, and abutments.The trend toward
increased lift heights has been brought about by a desire to reduce horizontal construc­
tion joints, thereby reducing potential leak paths and saving time and cost in joint prepa­
ration and concrete placement.
Except for the initial footing or foundation lift, most formwork used on short lift mass
concrete dam and retaining wall construction is of reusable pure cantilever or tied back
(propped ) cantilever design. Low lifts require frequent reuse of forms, and cantilever
forms are most often made of steel to withstand high loads and give long service through
many reuses. Some are made of wood, however, and others with wood sheathing bolted
on steel frames may also be used.The latter permit greater flexibility in attaching recess
blackouts, but will require additional costs when worn face sheets need replacing.
16. I Types of Contilever Forms in Common Use
The most commonly used cantilever form unit consists of a framed panel equipped with
two or more strongbacks, wales, or lever arms that are attached to the panel and extend
downward for 2 / 3 to 1- 1/3 times the panel height (fig. 16.3).The strongbacks are generally
anchored to the top of the preceding lift by bolts and embedded anchors.They are gener­
ally adjustable to facilitate alignment through other means than the anchor bolt. Anchors
or other holding inserts are accurately positioned in each lift by template bolts that pass
through a hole in the form face near the upper edge of the form and are secured in a
template bracket with a locking pin. Some manufactured form systems have proprietary
anchors and inserts.
For vertical faces and joints, cantilever forms follow the basic arrangement shown
in Fig. 16.3 or some approximation of it.The form may brace to the ground with a
single brace for the starting lift, add a lower brace back to the dam face to create the
strongback for the second lift, and add a lower work platform for use if needed for the
third and later lifts.The same type of forming may be accomplished by adapting heavy
prefabricated panel sections and a suitable strongback as shown in Fig. 16.4, where final
lifts are being placed in alternate areas for a dam structure.
CHAPTER 16
 For sloping faces, such as in retaining
walls or the downstream faces of gravity
dams, a form anchored at the top of the
previous lift would tend to tilt inward if
not prevented from rotation.Thus, it is
common practice to extend each strong­
back so that a second anchor bolt can be
attached to the bolt insert in the second
preceding lift (Fig. 16.5). If a sloping
cantilever form does not have this two­
point attachment to previously placed
concrete, it generally must be temporarily
braced from within the form until sufficient
concrete is placed against the face of the
form to counteract the inward tilt.
The tie-down cantilever design (Fig . 16.6),
which uses a row of ties attached at or near
the top of the form in addition to anchor
units at the base attached directly to the
previous lift, is sometimes used for higher
lifts, between 7- 1/2and 10ft, to minimize Fig. 16.4: Metal panel sections with metal strongbacks used as cantilever forms for top surface
form deflection and reduce the weight of and edge barrier of mass concrete dam (Photo courtesy Contra Costa Water District)
the units. The tie-down system may also be
used with lower-lift cantilever units to accomplish the same purpose of reducing weight or
deflection.Cantilever forms for 7-1/2to 10ft lifts may be strengthened by trussed strong­
backs (Fig. 16.7) or other heavier strongbacks so that tie-downs are not required.
When sloping forms are used, they often extend over the construction joint to the
extent that it is difficult to bring concrete buckets close enough to place and adequately
consolidate the concrete.ACI 207.1R-05, �Guide to Mass Concrete (Reapproved 2012),�
suggests that such forms be hinged so the top half can be swung back {Fig. 16.8) out of
the way until concrete is placed up to the hinge elevation. The top half is then lowered
into position and concrete placement continued.
For gravity arch and hollow gravity arch dams, it becomes necessary to further modify
the basic design to provide for curved profile and contour surfaces.Changing horizontal
or vertical curvature is usually accomplished by using smaller or jointed modules with
Fig. 16.5: Sloping cantilever forms require a
tension tie anchor at strongback lower ends to
filler pieces if necessary, and inserting adjusting bolts between the strongback and the
prevent overturning (Photo courtesy Doka USA)
panel, or between the strongback and the surface of the preceding lift. Alternatively, it can
be accomplished by attaching the upper end of the strongback toward
the middle of the panel with a combined pivot and screw combination.
Other cantilever form modifications can be made for special
purposes, such as the one shown in Fig. 16.9.That form has large key
blocks applied to the vertical form surface to allow concrete interlock
with subsequent lateral placements.
Cantilever form panels of precast concrete, which remain in place as
the permanent facing of the structure, are technically feasible and have
been used, but at present they do not appear economically attractive.

16.2 Design Considerations

There is a wide variation of basic cantilever form designs requiring
investigation before deciding on the most suitable type for the applica­
tion under consideration.The factors that should be taken into consid­
eration include:
1. Probable weather conditions that will be encountered; will insula­
tion of construction joints or forms be needed? Will hot weather
cause limits of time of day for placement of concrete?
2. Placement schedule sequence, restrictions and method of
delivery, method of placing, and rate of placing.
3. Number, size, height, and profile of lifts in each monolith of each
gravity structure.
4. Concrete mixture placing temperature. Fig. 16.6: Tie-down for vertical cantilever form withjack pipe to
maintain alignment

MASS CONCRETE FORM WORK

 5. Concrete temperature and expected
strengths during first 5 days after
placement.
6. Method of cooling the concrete
mixture, which may include provi­
sion for possible cooling water pipe
penetration through forms and
reconnection of pipes to circulation
system after forms are raised.
7. Degree of form flexibility, reusability,
and methods of form handling and
cycling; allowable deflections.
8. Estimated cost.
Considering the significance of each of
these factors for form design, it should be
noted that even allowing for the different
types of dams, differences in specified
placing sequences and other construc­
tion details will be encountered from
project to project. Specifications vary on
the minimum time between lifts but are
often in a range of 3 to 5 days. A maximum
time of 5 days is sometimes specified.
Fig. 16.8: Sloping cantilever form for 7-1/2 fr
Fig.16.7: Cantilever form with trussed Similarly, some specifications call for the
lift, with tilting upper portion of form to facili­
strongbacks (Photo courtesy MEVA Formwork minimum exposure of vertical joints (not
tate concrete placement near roe of slope
Systems) more than three lifts), whereas others call
for the maximum exposure of joint faces either by specifying that alternate sections be
completed first or by designing the structure with narrow filler sections that are cast after
completion of the main sections. Analysis of the factors summarized at the beginning of
this section will aid in determining the type of form best suited to the job requirements.

16.2.1 Loads on the Formwork

As with all formwork, the first step in
detailed form design is to estimate the
magnitude and distribution of pressures
and loads acting on the formwork. ACI
347R-14, uGuide to Formwork for Concrete,u
recommends that pressure formulas for
concrete walls be applied to mass concrete,
but it also warns that local lateral pressures
may be greater than would be estimated
using the average rate of placement and
that use of large concrete buckets may
cause high impact loads near the forms.
For conventional mass concrete place­
ment ACI 207.1R recommends that forms
be designed for 100% of equivalent hydro­
static pressure plus 25% for potential impact
loading. For example, with 7.5 ft lifts and
concrete weighing w< = 150 lb/ft1, the form
would be designed for a maximum pressure of

Cc.oma.= 1.25 X 150 lb/ft3X 75ft= 1400 lb/ft'

The h value should be the vertical depth

of the concrete lift, not the measurement of
the form face. Because hydrostatic pres-

CHAPTER 16
sure acts perpendicular to the confining surface, uplift must be considered in designing
anchorage for inward-leaning sloping forms.
In addition to forces due to pressure of the concrete, the design must provide for
handling of forms and dead and live loads due to exterior work platforms, work crews,
and any special form attachment. A rational design of a form panel can be made for the
estimated loading, following general principles outlined in Chapter 7. The required section
modulus of the strongback is determined by calculating bending moments and deflec­
tions for a beam supported as a tied or pure cantilever, depending on which arrangement
has been chosen for the form.
When form reuse is planned, the effects of cumulative load duration should be consid­
ered in accordance with the applicable design specification for the material. The control­
ling factor in design of the pure cantilever form is often the permissible deflection which is
compatible with the specified tolerances (refer to Section 16.9).

16.2.2 Anchorage Accessories

The fastest placing cycles permitted in mass concrete work call for stripping and re-erec­
tion of the forms 24 to 48 hours following the completion of the lift and completing the
subsequent lift within 72 hours. Even when successive lifts are placed as much asS days
apart, the form anchoring devices have to develop sufficient working capacity in concrete
having compressive, tensile, and bond strengths much lower than its 28-day strengths.
The design or selection of an anchorage unit of specified strength is determined by taking
moments about the center of bearing at the lower end of the strongback and solving for
tension or pull on the bolt, then equating this tension or pull with either the compressive or
bond strength of the surrounding concrete, depending on the anchor design and the time
when the force is applied. The diameter of bolt required for use with an embedded anchor
is determined based on the combined shear and tension on the bolt and anchor from the
dead weight of the form, construction live loads on the work platforms, and lateral pressure.
A few of the different types of embedded anchorages used in low-lift mass concrete
work are shown in Chapter 4. Safe working loads in tension on these devices when
embedded in concrete are developed by anchor manufacturers. The holding power of
such units depends on the strength of concrete in which they are embedded and the
depth of embedment, along with several other factors. Table 7.7 lists ACI347R minimum
factors of safety of formwork accessories. The factor of safety for anchors, based on ulti­
mate-strength, is 2.0 for formwork anchors supporting form weight, concrete pressures,
and wind load only and3.0 for formwork anchors supporting form weight, concrete
pressures, wind loads, construction personnel live loads, and impact. Factors such as
concrete edge distance, simultaneous shear, and direction of the shear load relative to
the edge can reduce the tension capacity. ACI318-11, ·auilding Code Requirements for
Structural Concrete; Appendix D, Anchoring to Concrete, states that its provisions are
for in-service conditions, rather than for construction conditions. However, the ACI318
provisions can provide helpful understanding of these strength-reducing factors.
For any large job, or where hazard to life and property are involved, performance of the
selected anchorage device should be confirmed under actual field conditions. Particular
care should be used when designing anchors in sloping lifts when fresh concrete is placed
against a vertical form face in the lift above because that may involve simultaneous high
tension and high shear on the anchor. Concrete strength development must be moni­
tored, particularly as affected by concrete temperature, to verify when sufficient anchor
strength is available for each loading operation.
Besides considering the ability of the embedded anchorage to sustain loading of
recently placed concrete, the designer must consider initial bolting stresses at the time
forms are set. Although there may be a 5-day concrete placing cycle, forms are frequently
stripped and reset from 24 to 48 hours after concreting, when the relatively low-strength
mass concrete has gained only part of its design strength. Attaching forms for the next
lift to the anchorage units in some cases may crack the concrete or partially pull out the
anchor, causing a failure later when concrete is placed. This condition may become critical
at low temperatures when the rate of concrete strength gain is low or when supplemen­
tary cementitious materials have been used to replace part of the cement in the lean
concrete. A torque wrench with pressure cell is suggested to check the pullout value
of anchorage units when early concrete strength is in doubt. It may be necessary to set
forms with anchor bolts only tight enough to support forms, and then tighten the bolts just
before concreting. Using longer anchors with deeper setback for such conditions will usually

MASS CONCRETE FORM WORK

 prevent cracks or premature slippage (bond
mtrmi§I!Jif1@6i!f.J.t.1p·M!ttrj!@L failure) of the anchor.
The figure shown here illustrates the simplified schematic of a vertical face cantilever Forms tied or anchored to a rock face require
form. Work platforms are 2.5 ft wide and located 6 in. from the concrete surface with particular care. Rock anchors are often placed
personnel load of 50 lb/ft1• The strong back braces and anchors are located at 4ft on before the forms are erected. This requires
center horizontally on the face of the dam. The sum of the form components' dead the form designer to accommodate tie and
load, C01, is 1200 lb at each strongback with the force centroid located 8 in. from the anchor misalignment. Rock anchors should be
face of the concrete. The lower strongback reaction, Rex, is only a bearing force on the checked to ensure that the anchor can resist
concrete. The concrete pressure is assumed to be liquid head based on a concrete unit the tie forces.
weight of 145 lb/ft3 plus the 25% increase factor recommended by ACI 207.1R. Given
Design loads for tie rods must not exceed
the following dimensions, determine the ASD working loads which anchor A must
the allowable load for the anchor or bolt to
resist.
which they are attached. A demonstration
a= 12 in. of how these anchor forces are calculated is
shown in Example 16.1. Bending or welding
b=6 ft
of high tensile steel tie rods should not be
C= 3 ft permitted without the approval of the tie
h= 7.5 ft manufacturer. It is important to remember that
the angle of the tie rod or anchor affects its
(Pft =(m=2.5 ft X 4ft X 50 lb/ft2=500 lb ability to resist lateral pressure of the concrete.
(c""""= 1.25wh= 1.25 X 145 lb/ft3 X 7.5 ft= 1360 lb/ft2 Concrete pressure acts perpendicular to
the form surface, but tie rods to anchors
H= 4ft X 7.5 ft X 1360 lb/ft2/2 = 20,400 lb
embedded in previous lifts are frequently at
Summing moments about the reaction at 8 an angle to the direction of pressure and their
maximum capacity cannot be considered
R..... x6 ft=20,400 lb
(37.5ft
+1.0 ft+6.0 ft +2x500 lb 3 ft-
( 2.Sft
2
l +1200 lbx0.67 ft effective in resisting the pressure against the
) form. The greater the slope of the tie away
from the direction of pressure, the less pres­
Rh =( 193,800+1750+800 ) ft-lb / 6 ft=32,700 lb sure load it can carry. (Refer also to Fig. 8.14).

RAy= ci'El +CI'El +ca =sao lb+soo lb +1200 lb = 2200 lb 16.2.3 Other Design Features
The procedure to be used for accommo­
The resulting anchor bolt load is a combination of tension and shear. Most manu­ dating changing profile of the structure,
facturer load tables are based on tension only. Anchor working load capacity should particularly abrupt changes, and also the
be based on a factor of safety of 3.0 to meet ACI 347R provisions. OSHA form scaffold intersections of face and joint formwork
requirements should also be investigated. After preliminary selection based on tension, should be fully detailed. Particular care must
the working load capacity based on the combined loading should be investigated with be taken to provide anchorage for sloping
the anchor's manufacturer. The principles provided in ACI 318, Appendix 0, Anchoring forms and wall forms tied to a rock face.
to Concrete, on interaction of tension and shear should be helpful in understanding the Drawings showing the form layout for
issues although the anchor types may be different. each lift and the scheduled movement of
the individual units are usually prepared for
each elevation of each bay as the detailed
designs are evaluated. Many agencies
require complete lift drawings in advance
showing all items to be included in the
particular lift of concrete. These guide the
builder and various crafts involved as well
as the owner's inspection forces. Form
checkout cards are frequently attached to
each lift form requiring initials from all the
individuals connected with its preparation
before placement may begin. These may
include the craft represented, the inspec­
tors for each specialty, the layout crews
of the contractor, as well as the owner's
comparable group, and the concrete place­
ment inspector, who performs the pre­
placement inspection of the formwork.
Beveled grade strips and 1 in. or larger
triangular toe fillets can be used to
Cantilever form for vertical face mask offsets that sometimes occur near
horizontal joint lines. This will generally

CHAPTER 16
improve appearance of formed surfaces, according to ACI 207.1 R. When used at the top
and bottom of the forms, this will leave an effective and pleasing groove. A 1 in.or larger
chamfer should also be used in the corners of the forms at the upstream and down­
stream ends of construction joints for the sake of appearance and to prevent chipping
of the edges. Sharp corners of the block otherwise are often damaged and are difficult
to effectively repair. The chamfers also prevent pinching and spalling of joint edges
caused by high surface temperatures.
Other aspects of cantilever form design include the provision of adequate external
work platforms,ladderways,and lifelines that enable the erection,placing, and strip­
ping crews to work safely and efficiently.In this regard,forms for faces with a vertical
curvature or changing batter usually have self-adjusting walkway brackets that maintain
the walkway decking in a horizontal plane. Ladderway openings in the upper working
deck should be provided with a snap-on guard rope as a minimum and preferably a self­
closing personnel barrier.
If catwalks are used for linking alternate bays, they should be built in accordance
with the appropriate design standards for temporary structures and be subject to
regular inspection.

16.3 Handling, Erecting, Stripping

Various methods have been used for handling.erecting,and stripping cantilever forms. On
smaller structures,where the schedule permits,it is common practice to use the same cranes
or derricks that are used for placing the concrete. When handling the forms in this fashion,it
is usually necessary to use a spreader beam equipped with eye turnbuckles that are attached
to the form lifting points by shackles. The turnbuckles provide a ready means of leveling and
positioning the units to facilitate the engaging of the bolts in the anchors. With this method it
may be possible to move forms for an entire side of the monolith all at one time.
Care is necessary to avoid spalling concrete around the anchor bolts in the low-early­
strength concrete of the lift being stripped of forms,because these bolts will be used to
provide horizontal restraint in the next formwork setup.
On large dams,methods of raising the forms to the succeeding lift have included use of
derricking devices attached alternately to adjoining units or smaller rubber-tired cranes that
are placed on the top of each lift by the cableway,derricks,or larger cranes used primarily for
concrete placing. The small crane moves around within the forms raising form panels. This
operation is generally most effective where the lift surface exceeds 3000ft1in plan area.
Some forms are equipped with self-jacking devices. Although details vary,this is essen­
tially a hand-over-hand type of operation. Lifting towers are anchored to the previously cast
wall below the form level. After a new lift has hardened within the forms,the self-lifters are
pulled away from the wall and raised while supported on the forms. The lifting towers are
then reattached to the wall and support the forms when they are released and raised for
the next lift. These forms are similar to self-lifting or self-climbing forms used in building
construction (refer to Chapter 11) but may need special provision for sloping dam faces.

16.4 Non·Cantilevered Formwork

High-lift mass concrete construction was adopted for a time by some authorities,particu­
larly in Canada,in an attempt to reduce potential leak paths and minimize cracking in
dams built in cold and even subzero weather.In its extreme form,the method provides
continuous placing of lifts up to SOfthigh using wood or insulated forms with housings
and steam heat.Formwork in this case is comparable to that for structural concrete,except
that ties may be 20to 40ft long rather than 20to 40in. Spacing of the internal form ties
usually precludes direct placement from buckets and,consequently,the size of the larger
aggregate is limited by the size and configuration of hoppers,chutes,and other placing
equipment. Thus,mass concrete used in high-lift work generally corresponds to that used
for structural concrete and the forms are designed to withstand lateral pressures calcu­
lated in accordance with formulas in Chapter 5.
High-lift mass concreting of dams is no longer practiced in North America.
Fig. 16.10: Forming thick walls of a torrent­
However,there are 20 to 30 ft high monoliths, such as bridge abutments, that may
dissipating structure (Photo courtesy MEVA
very well be considered as high-lift mass concrete requiring some of the techniques
Formwork Systems)
once used for dams.
Tied forms may also be used in water-retaining and delaying structures much like dams
intended to slow torrents that develop in valleys and dissipate rate of flow. These struc­
tures may be partly gravity structures and partly braced buttressed walls (Fig. 16.1 0).

MASS CONCRETE FORM WORK

 16.5 Facin9s for Roller·Compacted Mass Concrete and
Dom Repa1r
Roller-compacted concrete (RCC) is a specially proportioned no-slump mixture that can
be transported, placed, and compacted using earthmoving and rock-fill construction
equipment. Since the late 1970s, the use of RCC for dam construction and rehabilitation
has been steadily increasing, although conventional mass concrete methods continue to
be used for arch dams, and large wall and foundation work where RCC methods would be
difficult or impracticaL
As described in Act 207.5R-11, NReport on Roller-Compacted Mass Concrete," RCC is
usually mixed using high-capacity continuous mixing or hatching equipment, delivered
Fig. 16. J 1: Overview of RCC dam project by trucks or conveyors, and spread by bulldozers in relatively shallow layers (often 10

(Photo courtesy Christopher Hicks) to 16 in.) before being compacted by heavy vibratory rollers (Fig. 16.11). If no attempt
is made to compact the edges of an RCC placement, the sides will assume a natural
angle of repose of approximately 50 degrees. Thus, forms are not needed to retain the
basic mass of RCC, but they are frequently used where this angle is not satisfactory for
the design of the structure or to install a facing layer for seepage control and improved
durability (Fig. 16.12).
Facing layers may also provide improved hydraulic performance or a more aestheti­
cally satisfying structure. The facing mixture may be either conventional concrete or the
roller-compacted mixture. Among the facing construction approaches is the use of grout
enriched vibratable RCC (GEVR) and grout-enriched RCC (GERCC). For GEVR facings, grout
is placed on the previous RCC lift. Then
uncompacted RCC material is placed over
the grout and internal vibration is used to
produce the facing by drawing the grout
up into the RCC. For GERCC facings, grout is
added to uncompacted RCC and vibrated
together, basically producing a mixed-in­
place conventional concrete.
Many projects have used traditional
forming systems to form the vertical,
stepped, and sloped faces of RCC. These
forming systems may be used for conven­
tional concrete facing placed before or after
the RCC has been deposited, for conven­
tional concrete facings placed concurrently
with the RCC, or for RCC placement directly
against the forms{Fig. 16.13and 16.14).
More detail is provided in ACI 207.5R and
References 16.2 and 16.3. Precast concrete
panels may be used as forms instead of
traditional formwork for these applications.
The formwork must be able to withstand
the forces created by internal vibration
of conventional concrete and surface
compaction of adjacent RCC. To reduce
Fig. 16. J 2: Reservoir RCC dam facing forms (Photo courtesy Olympic Panel Products LLC)
lateral pressure on the forms, smaller pan
surface vibrators are sometimes used adjacent to the formed face rather than the heavy
vibratory rollers. The choice of forms depends on the dam size and location as well as
local availability of equipment and labor. Consideration should be given to the tie system
because RCC concrete has very low concrete strengths and slow rates of strength gain.
RCC can also be placed directly against sllpformed curbing or facing elements placed by
powered equipment such as that used to construct highway median barriers. RCC place­
ment can be started as early as 8 hours after the slipforming is completed. This method is
appropriate for projects that require long continuous placement of the elements. Figures
16.15 through 16.18 show some of these alternatives schematically.
Existing earthen and masonry dams are sometimes repaired by replacing or covering
their previous facing with a new concrete facing. A combination of cantilevered or braced
face forms and wood bulkheads used to place alternate monoliths are shown in Fig. 16.19.

CHAPTER 16
 Fig. 16.14: Anchors for forms with RCC placed

Fig. 16. 13: Short cantilever form for two curb
steps of facing concrete on RCC dam (Photo
courtesy Ahmed F. Chraibi)
directly against vertical face (Photo courtesy
of Christopher Hicks)
•
Fig. 16.15: Precast concrete blocks or slip·
formed concrete placed by a curber may be
used to shape either vertical or stepped faces
before the RCC is deposited (Image courtesy
Portland Cement Association)

nchor
CONVENTIONAL CONCRETE Fo
PLACEO AGAINST FORMS I
IN 1· TO 2-FT LIFTS RCC

Convention
concrete

Fig. 16.16: Temporary forms can be used to Fig. 16.17: Precast concrete panels serve as Fig. 16.18: Conventional form panels may
shape conventional concrete facing after permanent forms for RCC, supported by shape a vertical face for RCC placements
placement of the RCC (Image courtesy Port· strongbacks anchored in lower lifts of RCC or form a layer of conventional concrete to
land Cement Association) (Image courtesy Portland Cement Association) prevent seepage into the RCC dam. Forms
must withstand vibration and possible
impact from placement equipment (Image
courtesy Portland Cement Association)
16.6 Foundations or Starting Lifts
Initial lifts of mass concrete structures may
be founded on rock or down in a rock cut,
which prevents the use of cantilever forms.
Special footing forms are then used, which
must be tied down to pins or anchors
drilled and grouted into the rock surface.
Forms with vertical studs and no bottom
plate may be set in place and held while
extension pieces are nailed to the studs
to fit the shape of the rock bottom. The
sheathing is then similarly cut to fit this
irregular surface. Tie rods, sometimes called
"hog rods; connect the form wales to the
grouted connection in the rock. As a reac­
tion to the pull on these rods, jack pipes or
similar struts are used to resist the pull until
the concrete is in place. Threaded adjust­
ment screws or a wedge device are used
for the fine adjustment of the form align­
ment with these jack pipes. The pipes are
removed for reuse as the concrete is placed
against the form.
Fig. 16. I 9: Forms for Gilboa earthen dam facing replacement with concrete placed in alternate
monoliths (Photo courtesy Barnard- D.A. Collins JV)

MASS CONCRETE FORM WORK


Fig. 16.20:Cantileverform modified for
starting lift (Image court e sy D oko USA)
Fig. 1621: Sloping spillway tobecastwith sideforms only (PhotocourtesyContra Costa Water District)
In some cases, contractors have used the cantilever forms as footing forms to save
building limited-use footing forms. However, in such a case, it is necessary to invert the
form so that the strongbacks stick up in the air. Problems of fitting such a form to an irreg­
ular rock surface, as well as danger of damaging these expensive forms, make this practice
least desirable. In some instances, a special cantilever panel has been used wherein the
strongback partially detaches so that it may be set at an angle to the form to serve as a
brace for a footing form or where a change of direction in the concrete surface is required
(Fig. 16.20). Footing forms may also be braced from the outside against kickers doweled to
the rock surface. Because there is some danger of lifting a form braced this way, a similar
tie-down may be necessary.
For sloping footing and spillway top surfaces up to a certain angle, top forms are not
required, but the many variables preclude establishing at exactly what angle concrete
may be placed without a top form (Fig. 16.21 and 16.22). An experienced individual must
determine this in relation to the economics of the job. In some cases, a simple form may
be placed to hold the concrete surface after it is screeded without requiring as much tie­
down as a conventional form.
For high-lift mass concrete, when the initial lift is cast directly on a competent rock
foundation, a proportion of the tie rods are attached to rock anchors that are usually incor­
porated in the design of the structure, thus producing a crisscross tie-rod configuration in
the lower sections of the lift.
The proportion of tie rods terminating at rock anchors will depend on the degree of
slope or the ratio of vertical to horizontal forces acting against the form. Because these ties
to rock anchors are generally insufficient to prevent uplift, the forms are further tied down
by means of external guys and rock bolts positioned along the bottom face of the form.
16.7 Curing, Joint Cleanup,
Insulation
Construction joint treatment presents
special problems in mass concrete. After
placement, the concrete surface must
be prepared by cleaning off all laitance
and exposing (but not undercutting) the
aggregate. This may be done before the
concrete has fully set up by"green cutting"
it with air and water jets. Usually one or two
washings are also required to complete
this operation. Some agencies do not
approve this method and instead require
wet sandblasting of the surface shortly
before the next lift is placed. The equivalent
of sandblasting can now be obtained with
ultra-high-pressure water jets. This has the
advantage of no sandblast sand to supply
or remove before or after cleanup. In any
case, some way of removing wastewater
and cunings must be provided. Depending
on the time and method of the joint
preparation, an opening may be made in
the lower or upper part of the form. With
a wood-faced form, a washout hole may
be neatly cut anywhere if proper care is
taken in its replacement so as to prevent
an unsightly finish. Where washout holes
are not permitted, washout pipes or sumps
will be required for removal of water and
debris.
Curing must be maintained for certain specified periods. This is sometimes provided by
installing pipe along the trailing edge of the form with spray nozzles to direct streams of
water against the completed concrete. Soaker hoses or rotating sprinklers for the hori­
zontal joints are also used, as is water-soaked matting in some cases.
CHAPTER 16
 Providing water for curing and washing, and air for cleaning the form and vibrators is
sometimes done by mounting outlets on the form with hoses connecting them to distri­
bution lines on the ground. In other cases, twin pipes (one air, one water) are carried up
through the concrete the full height of the structure.These must be grouted tight at the
completion of the job.They are frequently held in position by attachments on the form
that hold them a foot or more back from the face of the concrete.
Insulation of mass concrete forms may be required to prevent heat loss (refer also to
cold weather protection discussed in Chapter 12). This insulation is frequently sprayed on
the forms, but insulation blanket material is sometimes attached.Insulation blankets may
trail from the lower edge of the form to protect concrete of the previous lift, and tarpaulin
enclosures around formwork are sometimes used together with heaters or steam under
extremely cold conditions.
Fig. 16.22: RCC dam spillway concrete place­
ment and forms (Photo courtesy Ahmed F.
16.8 Planning and Supervision Chraibi)
Because of the large volume and numerous lifts on a large mass concrete job, there are
many areas for possible human error in preparing forms for concreting, such as:
Ties not secured;
Wedges not secured;
Corners not adequately tied;
Wales not continuous across panel joints; and
Washout holes not plugged.
Good supervision and well-qualified form watchers are essential to prevent such occur­
rences. The cost of correcting such errors prior to concrete placement may be incon­
sequential when compared to the expense of an interruption in production sequence,
blowout cleanup, or injuries that might result.
Maintaining continuous, uniform production rates is most critical in mass concrete work.
Therefore, monoliths with special recesses such as galleries, tunnels, armor steel, and
penstock tubes must be carefully planned so as not to slow up the entire operation. Preas­
sembly of all unusual form items helps greatly. On a large mass concrete job, a highly effi­
cient, well-equipped shop is needed. Labor-saving tools and material handling equipment
are well worth the expense. Good coordination of material flow to the construction site is
essential. In some instances, intermediate placements are made within a lift to remove a
time-consuming operation such as a gallery floor and gutter from the overall construction
sequence. Precast gallery walls and crown
have proved economical, and precast
gallery tunnel segments are used in RCC
applications {refer to Fig. 16.23).

16.9 Tolerances
Overall quality of work in building and
erecting forms must be such that speci­
fied tolerances can be maintained in the
finished structure.ACI 117-10, �specifica­
tion for Tolerances for Concrete Construc­
tion and Materials." presents tolerances
for all types of concrete construction in
specification format. Wherever the ACI 117
specification is used, its tolerances for mass
concrete must be met. Tolerances are also
indicated for related work such as mono­
lithic water-conveying tunnels, siphons,
conduits, and spillways.
Tolerances for completed mass concrete
construction provide some guidance as to
the accuracy required in form construction
and installation.ACI117 presents toler­
Fig. 16.23: Staging of precast gallery tunnel units (Photo courtesy Christopher Hicks)
ances for completed mass concrete in a
separate section, indicating that the speci-
fier should designate which portions of the structure are mass concrete.ln making the
designation, care should be taken to distinguish between designation as mass concrete

MASS CONCRETE FORM WORK

for defining tolerances and reference to mass concrete for purpose of controlling heat of
hydration, volume change, and cracking. For example, a large thick foundation mat for
a building might not be mass concrete for tolerances but might be an element where
control of heat of hydration, volume change, and cracking could be a concern. Table 16.1
shows the ACI117 tolerances for mass concrete.

Table 16.1: ACI 117·10 tolerances for concrete designated as mass

concrete in structures
Type of devtatton
Deviation from plumb %11
- /4in. %2-1/2in.

Deviation from plan position %1-1/4in. %2-1/2in.

Deviation from vertical of flotwork and !Ofmed

i:l/2in. %lin.
surfoces

Deviation from plane: slope of IOfmed surfoce with

respe<t Ia spe<ified plane

Vertical deviation %0.2% %0.4%

Horizontal deviation %0.4% %0.8%

Deviation from plumb and vertical: sills of radial

%3/16 in.
gates and similar watertight joints

Crons.ec
- tionol dimension thickness +I in.,-3/4in.

REFERENCES
16.1. "Gravity Dam Design,� u.s. Army Corps of Engineers Engineering Manual, EM 1110-
2-2200, June 1995, 88 pp.
16.2. "Roller-Compacted Mass Concrete; U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Engineering
Manual EM 1110-2-2006, Jan. 2000,73 pp.
16.3. "Facing Systems for Roller-Compacted Concrete Dams & Spillways;EB 400, Port­
land Cement Association, Skokie, ll, 2001,46 pp.
17: TUNNEL AND SHAFT FORMWORK
Many types of structures, such as tunnels, shafts, conduits, powerhouses, or defense
installations, are built underground. Each structure has different formwork requirements,
but their construction is similar in one respect-adverse working conditions such as dirt,
water, high noise level, artificial lighting, restricted access, and a confined working space.
Restricted access and limited working space are major factors in the design of formwork
for underground structures. The form designer must provide forms that are suitable for
use with the specified concrete placing procedures and the size of the structure being
cast, which can be quite large (Fig. 17.1 ) .
Most multi-use formwork for underground structures has been developed over the
years by a few form design and fabrication companies that have specialized in tunnel and
shah forms. The highly developed basic form arrangements are readily adaptable to the
vast majority of individual project requirements. Such companies can provide precise
information on proven forming arrangements.
This chapter emphasizes the techniques of underground forming for concrete linings of
tunnels and shafts. Cut and cover work-built in an excavation and later backfilled-pres­
ents less rigid space limitations than true underground construction, and the concrete
placing methods are similar to those used for aboveground structures. Cut and cover
tunnels may be any shape but are more likely to be rectangular than driven tunnels,
particularly transport tunnels (Fig. 17.2).

17.1 Tunnel Forming Components

Tunnels constructed underground are usually circular or horseshoe-shaped (Fig. 17.1)
in cross se<tion, depending on their function and the type of ground through which
they are driven. Regardless of the cross section, they are usually divided into invert and
arch sections for concreting, as shown in Fig. 17.3. The arch section is sometimes further
divided into sidewall sections that are cast separately from the upper part of the arch.
Separate curbs may also be cast before the invert is concreted.
 A common placing sequence for tunnel
lining is to first place the curbs and the
invert, which will serve as a base for
machinery and form travelers, then form
the walls and arch. In other cases, rails for
travelers and machinery are placed on
excavated rock, and the arch is concreted
ahead of the invert. Less common is the
case where the full circle of the lining is
placed as work advances. The order of
placement depends on factors such as
tunnel shape and size, ground and water
conditions, allowable tolerances, and
project schedule requirements.

17. 1. 1 Curb Forms

As noted previously, one approach is to
form and place curbs along both sides of
circular and modified horseshoe tunnels
to provide a base for setting the invert
forms (screeds) and a runway for the lead
wheels of a traveling invert forming and
placing bridge. When an invert top form is
needed, anchors are embedded at regular
intervals along the top of the curb to
receive bolts used for clamping the invert
forms to the curb.
Because the curb is later covered by
the invert and arch concrete, the finish
produced by the curb formwork is unim­
portant, although the upper surface must
be to the correct grade and the anchorage
Fig. 17.1: Formwork for a large horseshoe-shaped tunnel bypass (Photo courtesy PERl Form­
units accurately positioned.
work Systems, Inc.)
There are a number of different ways
to accomplish this simple forming task;
Fig. 17.4 shows typical wood and metal
curb forms. Another widely used type
of curb form consists of an upper panel
equipped with horizontal guides through
which vertical 2 x 6 sheathing is driven
down to the irregular excavated rock
surface. The upper edge of the panel is
usually supported by inclined adjust­
able braces that either bear against sills
anchored to the rock invert or are spiked
directly to the rail ties.
In designing the curb form, as with all
other tunnel formwork, the prime consider­
ation in some cases is to minimize the use
of consumable lumber and form hardware
Fig. 17.2: Form for box-shaped roadway runnel (Photo courtesy PERf Formwork Systems, Inc.)
or conversely to aim for maximum reuse.

17. 1. 2 Invert Forms

The invert form is another relatively simple part of the tunnel forming activity, which can
be built in a number of different ways, depending on the tunnel design {Fig.17.5 through
17.7). The invert may be placed with or without curbs as the drawings indicate.
On larger tunnel projects, invert forming and placing is sometimes undertaken as a
continuous process with the aid of a traveling bridge from which the sideform handling,
concrete placing, and, when required, track relaying activities take place. Because the
design and construction of such a bridge is a major cost item, it is usually adaptable for
reuse with the arch form.

CHAPTER 17
 Rates of advancement of up to 1000 ft
per day are common. The efficiency of the
operation is predetermined by the degree
of workability and consistency of the
concrete, as well as skill of the concrete
placing crew and finishers. The number of
side form units needed is determined on
the basis of the optimum rate of advance­
ment, the specified stripping time (usually
12 hours), and the speed of handling of
the units.
Arch forms or side wall forms are gener­
ally extended from the traveling bridge Fig. 17.6: lnverr forming for open cut sewer
frame and pressed against the curb or the with anchorage units placed for exterior and
upward curving invert. interior forms for next stage
Designers sometimes show the longi­ Fig. 17.3: Typical circular and horseshoe
tudinal joints at each side of the invert at tunnel sections showing division for
right angles to the inside surface of the concreting
tunnel. Making the joint perpendicular
to the inside curved surface is often
not necessary, particularly for tunnels I
that are not for rapidly flowing water. A
horizontal joint is easier to do well on a
production basis. A 90-degree invert with
a horizontal joint along each edge makes
45-degree joints with the inside surface
of the tunnel, which are satisfactory if the
joints are properly cleaned before placing Fig. 17.4: Simplified drawing shows how both Fig. I 7.7: Circular invert bulkhead with form
the arch concrete. wood and metal may be used for curb forms for casting integral curb in background
Sometimes, a depressed keyway below (Photo courtesy MEVA Formwork Systems)
the level of the joints is also shown.
Keyways in these joints are difficult to
construct while maintaining the quality
of the joint, and are usually not needed to
resist shear. Setting a beveled strip to mold
the keyway usually involves overworking
the joint surface to the detriment of the
surface mortar and therefore to the ulti­
mate quality of the joint. Also, the keyway Fig. I 7.5: Wood invert forms without previ­
catches debris and adds considerably to ously placed curb, and steel invert forms
the work of joint cleanup by sandblasting attached to curb
or high-pressure water jet. It is the clean-
ness and quality of the surface and the absence of any visible water when concrete is
placed that assures a superior joint-not the keyway.

17. 1. 3 Arch Forms

The main structural frame for arch forms is often made up of circumferential ribs and
longitudinal joists conforming to the required tunnel cross section. These joists are braced
as required and covered with wood sheathing or a steel skin. The ribs are usually hinged at
three or more points and are designed to minimize obstruction of the working space.
Details of typical steel arch forms with longitudinal wood 1-joists are shown in Fig. 17.8 and
17.9. Arch forms are partially collapsed and moved forward, usually on their own specially Fig. I 7.8: Retracting hinged ribs of side form
designed ·;umbo• or traveler, as the arch concreting advances. To retract and extend (Image courtesy Doka USA)
the hinged rib sections, hydraulic cylinders, ratchet jacks, or adjustable pipe braces may
be incorporated in the design (Fig. 17.10 and 17.11). Similar systems are used in forms
for tunnels with a box cross section, as shown in Fig. 17.12. Forms that can be collapsed
sufficiently to move forward within an adjacent form section that remains in place are
described as telescoping arch farms; this type of form is essential for continuous advancing
slope concreting described in Section 17.2. Non-telescoping forms are those that collapse
enough for stripping and then move forward beyond the just-completed tunnel section to
be set in place for concreting the next section of the tunnel.

TUNNEL AND SHAFT FORM WORK


Fig. 17.9: Retracting hinged ribs of orch crown
form (Image courtesy Doka USA)
Fig. 17.10: Ratchet jack (Image courtesy EFCO
Corp.)
Fig. 17.13: Tunnel form with bottom horizontal struts between legs (Photo courtesy EFCOCorp.)
The arch forms are supported on the
tunnel invert and may be held in place
by ties attached to anchors embedded in
the previously placed invert concrete, as
shown in Fig. 17.8. The ties to the invert
absorb the load of the side wall concrete
lateral pressure at the base of the traveler,
particularly when the space between the
legs of the traveler must be unobstructed.
In other designs, cross struts between the
Fig. 17.11: Adjustable pipe brace (Image legs of the traveler (Fig. 17.13 and 17.14)
courtesy EFCO Corp.) absorb the lateral pressure force. Arch
forms also experience uplift pressures
when side walls are not vertical or inclined
toward the center of the tunnel. Some·
times the uplift force is small, but upward
form movement may occur at the begin·
ning of the placement when the dead
weight of the form is not enough to resist
the uplift. Inclined ties (Fig. 17.8) can be
used to resist the uplift force.
During the initial stages of the continu­
ously advancing slope method of placing
in circular tunnels, there have been cases
Fig. 17.12: Tunnel form for box cross section of the arch form developing a roll on its
(Photo courtesy Doka USA) polar axis and also becoming out-of-round
due to the inexperience of the work crews
and the tolerances provided on the clamp
and bolted connections. In such cases, it is
helpful to mark the invert with guide lines
corresponding to the bottom edges of the
form and to check the diagonal dimension
between the hinges and the bottom edges
of each unit as it is being bolted up.
Because tunnels are often driven through
rock, the forms are sometimes tied to the
wall, thus removing part of the load from
the ribs and braces. Ties should be spaced
so they do not hamper concrete placement.
Placing the full tunnel section monolithi­
cally in one operation is restricted to full
circular tunnels with forms in relatively
short lengths. Form support for full-circle
concreting varies with soil conditions.
Forms may be supported on precast blocks
set to grade in the invert excavation, or on
beams that are supported outside the form
at the bulkhead end. For tunnels driven
through solid rock, the formwork may be
positioned and held by adjustable bolts
called spuds. The spuds extend out from
the skin of the tunnel forms and contact the rock to resist unbalanced pressures and uplift
in the crown. In full round tunnels, there are invert spuds to support the weight of forms
and jumbo carriers. The number and spacing of the spuds are determined by the dead
load of concrete and forms, the lateral pressure of the concrete, and the uplift. Spuds are
pulled shortly after the concrete rises above the spuds. The holes in the form are quickly
plugged while the concrete is wet or plastic. The concrete will flow into the spud space so
that the spud hole does not need to be patched after the forms are stripped.
A plastic sheet waterproofing liner is sometimes used in subway and vehicle tunnels
located in porous soil or rock. Often, a drainage fabric is attached outside the liner then
connected to an external drainage system. The liner will be installed around the arch and
CHAPTER 17
invert. The joints are fused to create a plastic tube. Normally, the excavated soil/stone
is shotcreted to make a smooth surface to attach the liner. The liner with filter fabric is
attached to the shotcrete using watertight grommets at points of attachment. When
plastic waterproofing liners are used, the form designer may not use rock anchors or spuds
to restrain the form. Rock anchors will penetrate the liner and spuds will damage the
liner, causing leaks in the waterproofing system. For this reason, lateral and uplift forces
are resisted by anchors to the invert or curb. Depending on placement assumptions and
tunnel configuration, the forces resisted by the curb anchors may be very large.

17. 1.4 Form Traveler Operations

Movement and positioning of the form traveler (Fig. 17.15), or jumbo, involves a series of
steps. A large traveler may roll on rail tracks or steel wide-flange beams; a small traveler
may roll directly on the invert concrete. The steps may vary with the design details and
manufacturer but generally involve the following:
1. Retract the side wall forms;
2. Place hydraulic jacks and extend to temporary support brackets (Fig. 17.16);
3. Loosen and remove the primary load-carrying devices used to support the traveler Fig. 17.14: Tunnel form with bottom hori­
vertically during concrete placement; zontal struts between legs (Photo courtesy
4. Lower the traveler with the hydraulic jacks, transferring load to wheels or track multi­ MEVA Formwork Systems)
rollers (Fig. 17.17 and 17.18);
5. Move the traveler by means of
winches, pushing equipment or inte­
grated wheel drive motors;
6. Jack up the traveler;
7. Insert and extend the primary load­
carrying devices, usually located
under each traveler column, and
adjust form elevation;
8. Remove the hydraulic jacks;
9. Extend and align side forms; and
10. Tie form traveler to invert anchors
as needed.
Before moving the form, it is necessary to
sweep the rolling path because even small
amounts of debris can hamper movement
of the traveler.

17.2 Concrete Placement

Methods
Tunnel dimensions, placing sequence, and
concrete lining construction joint configu­
ration usually determine the forming
arrangement and method of concrete
placement. There are two basic systems
of forming and concreting the arch and
sidewalls of tunnels: the advancing slope
method and the bulkhead method. While
the continuous advancing slope method
must be an around-the-clock operation, Fig. 17.1S: Tunnel formwork traveler supported vertically on rails (Image courtesy Doka USA)
the bulkhead method can be undertaken
on two 8-to-10-hour shifts per day. When site conditions permit, tunnel work is sometimes
done in an open cut where the bulkhead method can be adapted to forms that are similar
to many used above grade.
While placing concrete in the side walls, it is important to minimize unbalanced
concrete lateral pressures on the tunnel form. This is a normal operation to control
because concrete is placed using one pump and hose. Concrete can only be placed in
one side of the form at a time through side pour windows. In the side walls, a common
assumption is a maximum imbalance of 2ft, one side to the other. The contractor first
places 2ft up on one side, then 4 ft up the other side. Then the concrete is placed in 4
ft lifts, alternating from side to side. This assures a maximum side wall concrete height
differential not greater than 2ft. This is important, as the load on the side wall spud is

TUNNEL AND SHAFT FORM WORK

 Fig. 17. 18: Track style multi-rolfers (Image
courtesy Doka USA)

determined by the unbalanced pressure.

Often, the maximum bending loads in
the side-form main structural members
are determined by the load on the spud.
Fig.ll.ll: Wheelrollers(lmage courtesyDoka The maximum imbalance is an important
USA) design assumption and needs to be speci­
fied on the formwork engineer's drawings.

17.2.1 Continuous Advancing

Slope
The advancing slope method of tunnel
lining is normally an uninterrupted opera­
tion, except for breakdowns or holidays.
The concrete is usually introduced through
one or more pipelines at or near the top of
the arch. The concrete forms an advancing
mass as it flows from the top of the arch
around and behind the forms. The mass of
concrete is in the shape of a moving wedge
with a slope equal to the angle of repose of
the fresh concrete. The arch form required
for this method usually consists of eight
or more sections ranging between 15 and
30 ft in length. The sections are succes­
sively stripped or collapsed, telescoped
through other sections by means of a form
traveler, and re-extended. The operation
is timed so that the rear form unit is ready

Fig. 11. 19: Cut-and-cover construction for dual roadway runnels with temporary bridge serving to strip when it is needed at the toe of the
intersecting roadway above (Photo courtesy PER/ Formwork Systems, Inc.) advancing slope of fresh concrete.

17. 2. 2 Bulkhead Method

The bulkhead method is an intermittent placing of sections-generally of a length to suit
the volume of concrete that can be placed in one shift under average conditions. Lengths
vary from 50 to 1 SO ft. The technique of concrete placement in the bulkhead method may
be similar to the advancing slope method because the concrete is often introduced at the
top of the arch and the same advancing slope of concrete is present until the forms are
filled. However, for larger tunnels especially, it is common practice to place the concrete in
horizontal layers from internal and external chutes and elephant trunks that are fed by one
or more pipelines. After the concrete in the bulkheaded section hardens, the entire form is
stripped by partially collapsing the unit, moving it ahead, and re-extending for casting the
next section.
The bulkhead method is always used where poor ground conditions exist, requiring the
lining to be placed concurrently with tunnel driving operations. It is also used when some
factors such as the size of the tunnel, the introduction of reinforcing steel, or the location
of construction joints preclude the advancing slope method.

CHAPTER 17
 17.2.3 Cuf-and-Caver Consfrucfion
Cut-and-cover tunnel construction (Fig. 17.19), used largely for shallow tunnels and
conduits, is a variation of the other methods. The bulkhead placing technique is used for
cut-and-cover work, but additional external wall forms may be required in earth excava­
tions. The outside forms may be braced against the excavation and the previously placed
tunnel invert. The inside forms are like those used for regular underground work. Form ties
are used to resist lateral pressure and spreaders maintain proper spacing and alignment.
Because the exterior of the structure is accessible from above, the outside forms for
cut-and-cover work are usually positioned with a crane. The outer forms are often discon­
tinued near the arch crown to leave room for the placement of concrete. This area is later
finished by hand. Concrete is delivered by bucket, pipeline, or conveyor.

17.3 General Design Considerations

In planning underground formwork, the general design criteria discussed in previous
chapters apply, but additional considerations are important. This section will note these
considerations and point out factors requiring special attention.
The design and fabrication of steel arch forms for large-scale operations can be
approached in different ways depending on the size of the project. A company special­
izing in this work can provide a complete system of prefabricated form units with inte­
grated travelers designed and built to meet the project specifications. For smaller proj­
ects, standard steel arch form units that meet the project specifications can be rented or
purchased and offer the benefit of the experience of these manufacturers. Travelers and
other form parts to use with the prefabricated units can then be designed and built.
When renting or buying standard or special shapes and sizes of prefabricated steel form
units, the following information should be furnished to the prospective supplier: drawings
of tunnel lining cross section, with longitudinal dimensions and location of construction
joints; proposed placing sequence; number of horizontal and vertical curves and radii;
invert slopes; required rate of daily progress; minimum form stripping time; desired rate
and method of concrete placement; underground transportation system; and services
such as compressed air and water.
Contractors who design and build their own arch forms should have a complete stress
analysis made of the form components by a qualified engineer. All loading conditions
must be investigated including those induced by handling and surcharge concrete pres­
sures. The proposed method of handling the form units during erection, transportation,
and stripping together with proposed methods of bracing and anchorage should be

,
clearly indicated on the drawings. Methods
Si
l ck line
of supplemental strutting or bracing

=��-
for abnormal conditions should also be

�
indicated.

:=.:.::;;
: ;;
..... . .
Con veyor

17.3. 1 Influence of Placing Equipment - . • :. ·• • •• · •·

Tunnel arch concrete is usually placed by
positive displacement pump or special­ connection toplp ell neprevloualy pllced pl•cedcon cree
t tr•vel•r

ized placing machine, either by slick line

Fig. I 7.20: Arrangement of equipment for arch concreting within rhe runnel, wirh dry-botched
over the crown of the form or through
materials mixed near the concrete pump
pour doors or ports arranged around the
form perimeter. The slick line pipe, typically6 to 8 in. in diameter (Fig. 17.20), is generally
embedded 5 to 10ft within the fresh concrete to prevent segregation. The line is with­
drawn as the cavity is filled. For this type of pumping, an upward slope of 30 to 60% for the
pipes carrying the concrete will help assure continuity of concrete within the line. Some
projects use ready mixed concrete supplied from above grade.
The alternate placing method (Fig. 17.21) is via pump line and large hoses or a distrib­
utor machine inside the form, using ports or valves in the form panels to place concrete
into the wall space. These ports are filled in rotation around the form and along its length,
ensuring no voids from uneven placement. line connections at the openings must be
carefully detailed to avoid interfering with form movement. Heavy form vibrators are
norma11y used on form panels, operated in concert with the advancing slope of the
concrete placement. High form pressures are possible, so movement from port to port in a
controlled manner is essential for safety and to prolong form life. Fig. 17.2 1: Alternate method of placing
The entire concrete handling and placing system is frequently positioned on a trav­ concrete in the runnel arch with slick line
eling bridge that backs away as the arch form is filled. Figure 17.20 shows one system of

TUNNEL AND SHAFT FORM WORK

 transporting and placing concrete in tunnel work. In cut-and-cover projects, the concrete
is usually mixed outside the excavation and deposited in the forms by pumps, conveyors,
or buckets and chutes.
With small aggregate and high-slump concrete such as might be used in a heavily rein­
forced tunnel lining, pump line pressures commonly range from 14,000 to2 1,000 lb/ft1• Care
must be exercised to avoid flow blockages at the line outlet; otherwise, these pressures or
greater could be exerted locally on the form.
If the formwork design provides for a method of placement other than by sustained
pumping through a buried slick line, it should be clearly stated that design pressures may
be exceeded if sustained pumping were adopted.

17.3.2Loods and Pressures

Formwork for tunnel linings placed pneumatically or by concrete pump is subjected to
high pressures. In accordance with ACI 347R-14, MGuide to Formwork for Concrete; form
pressures and forming requirements should be determined by engineers with firsthand
knowledge of tunnel lining operations. Pressures of 3000 lb/ftl and higher can be induced
at the crown of a tunnel arch form; and in practice, many forms have been designed to
With With
self-consolidating conventional withstand a working pressure of this magnitude.
concrete concrete
Floatation effects of upward pressure must also be considered when inverts are placed
continuously with side walls. At 800 lb/ft1 or so, thousands of pounds of uplift force can
Fig. 17.22:Form designpressures for a 12ft
be quickly generated. This is a good reason for placing the invert separately as most of the
diameter full round telescoping runnel form
illustrations in this chapter show.
where the entire cross section of the form has
For guidance purposes only, ACI347R recommends that the pressure assumed for
been filled with concrete slugged into crown
design be at least 1500 lb/ft1 acting normal to the forms, plus the dead weight of concrete
space at 3000 lb/ff by pumping (Data by
in the arch section, unless the tunnel side walls are placed separately. In this latter case
Ramon J. Cook)
and for shafts, the lateral design pressures may be calculated the same as for wall forms
above grade.
Figure 17.22 shows maximum pressure developed during concreting a full-round, 12
ft diameter tunnel. Current experience indicates that full equivalent hydrostatic pres­
sure may be anticipated at the center line of the invert with self-consolidating concrete.
The placement of conventional concrete {4 to 6 in. slump) shown on the right side of the
drawing will result in lower pressure at the invert once the vibrators have been moved
higher on the form.
In determining such a cross-sectional pressure distribution, the designer assumes that
the wall section extends up to a point 45 degrees from the vertical center line, and that
the arch spans between these points on either side of the center line. lateral pressure
acting on the wall form section may be calculated from the general equation for wall
forms {Chapter 5), but no less than 1500 lb/ft1 should be used for design.
Pressure acting on the arch form section is assumed to reach a maximum at the crown,
and to be a minimum, corresponding to the pressure established for the wall section, at
the 45-degree point. Arch pressure magnitude and distribution as shown in Fig. 17.23
are determined from analysis of actual project conditions, including the size of the cavity,
incidence of rock support ribs and lagging, reinforcing steel, the required degree of filling
of the cavity, the method and rate of placement, plus significant characteristics of the
concrete, such as temperature and workability. In the example, invert concrete was placed
and cured before arch construction and concrete was assumed to be placed equally on
both sides of the form via over-the-top and through-the-form pumping ports.
Workability of the concrete has become even more important because of the introduc­
tion of high-range water-reducing admixtures and self-consolidating concrete. As arch
concrete is rammed into the space between excavation and form, side shoulder pressure
goes up as arch thrust from crown pumping pressure fans out and down to eventually
thrust against excavation side walls. live loads produced by concrete mixers and pumps,
agitator cars, muck cars, conveyors, pipelines, or other equipment must be considered
when designing tunnel forms.
Except for tunnel linings and similar underground structures that are placed pneumati­
cally or by a positive displacement pump, the design loads and pressures for underground
formwork are similar to those for surface structures. lateral bracing is required for slabs
and walls, much the same as for above-grade work, despite the absence of wind.

CHAPTER 17
17.3.3 Vibration and Form Access
External vibration is often required because
of the cramped, curved space within the
form, and forms must be able to withstand
forces set up by this vibration. Several
vibrators may be attached to the forms
and moved ahead to follow the advancing
slope of fresh concrete.
Access to the space behind the forms
should not be overlooked. Access doors
and holes should be placed in the form at
convenient locations. Most commercial
forms come equipped with doors that are
dogged or wedged tight and opened as
needed for concrete placement, vibra­
tion, and inspection. Smaller holes are
needed for the insertion of bolts and
grout pipes. These holes are usually
closed off by a bolt with an insert plate
attached at the end, the bolt being held
in place by a yoke arrangement.

17.4 Form Construction

On most projects, the forms are erected
aboveground to assure proper fitting of
parts when the units are taken under�
ground (Fig. 17.24).1f any modification
is necessary, it is generally better to do it
before the forms are in the tunnel where
working space is at a premium.
The choice of materials for underground
formwork is usually based on the shape,
degree of reuse, and mobility of the forms
and the magnitude of pump or pneumatic
pressure to which they are subjected.
Tunnel and shaft forms are usually made of
steel. or a mixture of wood and steel. When
reuse is not a major factor, plywood and
Fig. 17.23: Example maximum pressures developed on tunnel arch form during filling with
conventional concrete having 4 to 6 in. maximum slump (Data provided by Ramon J. Cook)
tongue-and-groove lumber can be used for
exposed surface finishes.
Wood is seldom used in large under­
ground projects unless the section being
formed is of an irregular shape such as
found in transition sections and draft tubes
(Fig. 17.25).1n such sections, form surfaces
are often too complicated for economical
steel fabrication unless several reuses of
the forms are possible.
Wood forms benefit from the environ­
ment of tunnel projects. The consistently
high humidity in underground construc­
tion alleviates the problem of shrinkage
and warping that often occurs in wood
formwork under dry conditions, making it
a viable material for underground form­
work. However, because wood does not
hold up as well as steel under repeated
use, tunnel length is a factor to be consid­
ered when determining its suitability as a
formwork material.

TUNNEL AND SHAFT FORM WORK

 -
17.5 Stripping Time
Although the minimum stripping time for tunnel arch forms is usually established on the

•-� - - --
basis of experience, it can be safely predetermined by tests in the laboratory. It is recom­
mended that at the start of a tunnel arch concreting operation, the minimum stripping
time be 12 hours for surfaces exposed to view and 8 hours for construction joints. If the
specifications provide for a reduced minimum stripping time based on site experience,
--
� -- such reductions should be in time increments of 30 minutes or less and should be estab­

?
lished by means of laboratory tests and visual inspection and surface scratching of sample
areas exposed by opening the form access doors. The use of pullout tests or the maturity
method can provide indications of the early strength needed for stripping. Special atten­
Fig. I 7.25: Wood form for transition from tion should be given to the stripping time for arch forms when there is a possibility that
square to round section (Photo courtesy unvented groundwater seepage could become trapped between the rock surface and the
Universal Forest Products) concrete lining, requiring higher concrete strength to be developed before stripping.

Table 17.1: Tolerances for monolithic water-conveying tunnels, siphons, 17.6 Tolerances
conduits, and spillways (ACI 117·10) Tolerances in underground construction
depend on the use of the finished struc·
Type of var.at1on Max1mum dev1at1on
ture. High-velocity conduits, for instance,
Horizontol deviation
require close tolerances to assure correct
Centerline alignment :tl/2in.
Inside dimensions :tO.S%times inside dimension behavior of the fluid and to prevent erosion
of concrete. Table 17.1 lists tolerances
Verticol deviotion
:�;1/2 in.
for monolithic water-conveying tunnels,
Profile grode
Surloce of invert ±1/.4 in. siphons, and conduits from ACI 117-10,
Surface of side slope ±1/2 in. MSpecification for Tolerances for Concrete

Cross-sectionol thickness at any point Construction and Materials.� For vehicular

Increase in thickness Greater of 5%of thickness or + 1/2 in tunnels, previous editions of SP-4 have
Decrease in tbidness Greater of 2.5%of thicknenor-1/.4 in. suggested that deviations from line and
Deviation from plane: slope a/formed surfaces when Visible surloces Concealed surfoces grade be limited to 1 in. Where tunnel and
measured witb o 10 h stroightedge conduit linings are cast against excavated
Verticol deviation :t0.2% :t0.4%
rock and earth, the maximum wall thick­
Horizontol deviation :t0.4% :t0.8%
ness is difficult to limit due to variations in
NOTE: For!Md surface tolefances are discussed in the te�t the excavated surfaces (Fig. 17.26).
Conventional application of these toler­
ances does not require them to be related
to any specific distance. For example, the
actual alignment or grade of a tunnel can
be 1/2 in. from established alignment or
grade throughout its entire length or any
segment of length and meet these require­
ments. Tunnel forms are usually at least 20
ft long and deviations from alignment or
grade are thus gradual over at least 20 ft.
Control over both gradual and abrupt
irregularities may be included in the finish
requirements, which vary for different
types of work, depending on the function
of the underground structure. For example,
finish requirements for abrupt irregulari­
ties may be limited to 1/4 in. while gradual
irregularities are limited to 1/2 in. MAbrupt�
irregularities include, but are not limited
to, those caused by displaced, misplaced,
or improperly matched sheathing, lining,
or form sections, and loose knots that will
result in surface blemishes. MGradual� irreg­
Fig. I 7.26: Form for tunnel lining positioned at runnel enrrance (Photo courtesy EFCO Corp.) ularities are those that result from warping,
nonplanar surfaces, and similar more or less
uniform variations from the true surface as designed. Gradual irregularities are checked by
means of templates or straightedges 5 ft long. For structures where evenness of surface
for water passage is essential, the maximum allowed abrupt irregularity is typically 1/4
in. for irregularities parallel to the direction of flow water and 1/8 in. for irregularities not

CHAPTER 17
parallel to the flow direction. Maximum
allowable gradual irregularity is typically
1/4 in. for these latter finishes.

17.7 Shafts
Shafts are usually required to provide venti­
lation and speed construction of tunnels
that are greater than 3 or 4 miles in length.
They may also be an integral part of the
design, such as surge or intake shafts in a
hydraulic tunnel, or mine shafts that are
built apart from any tunnel lining opera­
tion. Shafts may also be the way of access
for installing the tunnel forms, as seen in
Fig. 17.27.1f the shaft is to be permanent, a
lining of concrete is usually specified. This
construction must be carried out within a
very limited space just as in tunnel work,
but with the added hazard of exposure to
falling objects and loose rock. Work often
must be done from hanging or integrated
work platforms, depending on the lining
and excavation procedure.
Most shaft lining is done while the shaft
is being sunk because federal, state, or local
regulations often give a maximum depth
beyond which the shaft cannot be sunk
without timbering or lining. Usually, when
a depth of approximately 30ft has been
reached, the excavating is discontinued
while the shaft section is lined, the forms Fig. 17.27: Lowering tunnel form down an access shaft (Photo courtesy MEVA Formwork
being supported on a platform laid on top Systems)
of loose muck.
Shafts may also be lined from the bottom
upward, as shown in Fig. 17.28. When this
method is adopted, the forms for each
successive lift are supported on anchors
in the previously placed lift. Slip forms
(Chapter 18) can also be used in shaft lining
when it is possible to excavate full depth
before beginning the lining operation.
When the slipform method is used, the
shaft form is suspended from a number
of wire rope or tubular steel slipform jacks
that are supported from a frame at the
top of the excavation (Fig. 17.29). Cable
jacks may be lift jacks only if the system is
used just for concreting. Dual-action jacks
are provided when the system is used for
setting steel and inserts before concreting
begins. Concrete is placed in the forms
while the jacks intermittently raise the
slipform system. Some slipform jacking
systems are reversible and can raise as
well as lower the slipform system, thereby
enabling the deck to be used for setting
reinforcing steel, inserts, or blackouts
before concreting begins.
Care must be taken to assure an accurate
circular cross section of the forms because
strength of the form may be impaired

TUNNEL AND SHAFT FORM WORK

 considerably by an out-of-round configuration. Forms must be designed to permit the
setting of anchors in the lining to support forms for the next lift, if required, and as attach­
ments for the structural bracing elements of the finished shaft. When the shaft form relies
on the single shear value of embedded anchors as a means of support, the minimum
strength of concrete and maximum allowable loading in addition to the dead weight of
the forms should be specified.

Fig. I 7.29: Schematic cross section of shaft

slipform system (Image courtesy Dan Litr)
18: SPECIAL TECHNIQUES IN CONCRETE
CONSTRUCTION
Unusual concreting practices frequently impose special form requirements; an unusual
type of form such as those for slipform construction may make departures from conven­
tional concreting methods practical and advantageous. For the most part, these unusual
techniques are handled by specialists. The discussion in this chapter focuses only on the
special aspects of each type of construction that influence the formwork needs. In some
of these techniques, such as tilt-up work, the forms are largely eliminated, whereas in
others, the form is extremely important. Thus, some of the following sections are exten­
sive in detail, whereas others are quite brief. No attempt is made to fully describe the
construction methods. Many excellent books and articles are available to those inter­
ested in reading the full construction story. A few of these are listed as references at the
end of the chapter.

18.1 Vertical Slipfarm Construction

Slipform construction is similar to an extrusion process. Fresh concrete is placed in the
forms and the forms act as moving dies to shape the concrete. The rate of movement of
the form is regulated so the forms leave the concrete after it is stiff enough to retain its
shape while supporting its own weight. Vertical slipforming {Fig. 18.1) can be performed
on a continuous basis or can be planned to stop at desired elevations, resuming the
sliding operation later with resulting joints no different from those between lifts affixed­
form or climbing form construction.
Vertical slipform construction1U·IU can be used for structures such as silos (Fig. 18.2);
storage bins; shearwall buildings; and for high-rise elevator, stairway, and utility cores. It
is also suitable for bridge piers, chimneys, communication and observation towers, and
underground shafts. Fig. I B. I: Vertical s/ipform construction of a
Vertical slip forms are usually moved by jacks that climb on smooth steel rods or building concrete core enclosing elevator and
structural tubing embedded in the hardened concrete (Fig. 18.3). The various working stair shafts (Photo courtesy Scanada)
Fig. 18.2: A slide in progress for tal/grain­
storage structure; finishers' platform is
suspended from main work deck (Photo
courtesy Younglove Construction, L.L.C.)
Fig. I 8.3: Model assembly of jack rod, jack,
yoke, clamps, braces, wales, studs, and
sheathing of a typical slip form (Photo
courtesy Scanada)
Fig. 18.4: Typical slip form with deck and plat·
forms supported on wales and templates for
positioning reinforcing bars in upper platform

Fig. 18.6: Suspended building core interior

work platforms separated to allow installation
of floor beams around elevators as slip form
Fig. 18.5: Assembled two levels of work deck and suspended work platforms with first few feet rises (Photo courtesy Sundt Construction, Inc.)
of slipformed wolf at foundation level (Photo courtesy Younglove Construction, L.L.C.)

decks, concrete supply hoppers,and finishers' platforms are attached to and carried by
the moving formwork,as shown in Fig. 18.4and 18.5.1n some cases, fixed forms such as
sheathing,rock,earth, or existing concrete may be on one side,with the slip form on the
other. For shahs below grade and other special structures,jacks may climb on cables or
jack rods suspended from above.
Advantages of slip forms are speed and the production of a monolithic structure
through continuous sliding of the forms. In many cases,the cost of materials and building
of the slip forms is approximately the same as for fixed forms that would do the same
job. The economy comes from the shorter construction time and being able to install
inserts,elevator shaft beams,and other items from suspended work platforms rather
than erecting separate scaffolds (Fig. 18.6) or by riding up with the slipform,as shown
in Fig. 18.7. For vertical construction, savings often do not develop unless the structure

CHAPTER 18
is approximately 40 ft or taller. The relative costs of slip forms, jump forms, and climbing
forms are often compared when considering options for particular projects.
Slipform construction is most efficient where there are few projections perpendicular to
the direction of slide. It must also be remembered that the process requires a more expe·
rienced crew at all levels; forms should be designed and built by individuals experienced
in slipform work, and the sliding operation must be carried out under careful, experienced
supervision. Slipping also requires complete planning of delivery and installation of all
embedded items: dowels, reinforcing bars, weld plates, door bucks, plumbing blackouts,
and the like.
Slip forms used for underground construction or mass concrete structures should
comply with applicable recommendations for those types of construction in ACI347R-14,
�Guide to Formwork for Concrete,�as well as provisions therein for sliding forms.
The forms consist of three sections: yokes, wales, and sheathing. The yokes have two
primary functions: 1) to keep the forms from spreading; and 2) to transfer the load of the
Fig. 18.7: 5/ipforming of large-diameter post­
forms to the jack. The wales stiffen the forms and are braced to carry the load to the yokes.
tensioned silo and simultaneously lifting the
The finishers'platform and working deck are connected to the wales, and the wale-yoke
roof structural steel with the jacking system.
connections should be designed to withstand these loads.
(Photo courtesy Scanada)

18. 1. 1 Design and Construction Considerations

Loads ond Pressures
In addition to any dead loads, live loads
assumed for the design of working decks
"'la�;G���
r..
(Fig. 18.8) should not be less than:
75 lb/ft1 or concentrated buggy
wheel loads (whichever is greater) for
sheathing and joists;
50 lb/ft1 for beams, trusses, and wales;
and
25 lb/ft1 for light-duty finishers'
platforms.
The friction loads used to determine
jacking requirements should normally
not be less than 200 lb/ft of concrete wall
when a nominal3 ft 6in. to 4 ft two-sided
slipform height is used. If working decks
are used as a bottom form for cast-in-place
construction such as floor or roof slabs, the
deck must be designed for the dead load of
the concrete plus any superimposed loads
and should comply with usual slab-forming
practice (Chapter 11).
Vertical loads and possible torsional
forces resulting from deck loads and fric·
Fig. I 8.8: Looking down on the working deck of o complex, multi-walled slip form where
tion of concrete on the forms must also be
workers are on hand to place reinforcement and concrete and monitor operations as the slide
considered because the forms must act
proceeds. (Photo courtesy Scanada)
as trusses for the vertical loads between
jacks. Braces or other appropriate supports should be provided for top wales where the
span between jacks exceeds 6ft or where vertical loads would cause unacceptable vertical
deflection of the wales.
As recommended in ACI347R, the lateral pressure of fresh concrete to be used in
designing forms, yokes, bracing, and wales may be calculated as follows

(18.1)

where c,,..... is the maximum lateral pressure, lb/ft1; c1 is the slipform vibration factor,
tb/ft1; c1 = 100 lb/ft1 for partial internal vibration in shallow layers; c1 = 150 lb/ft1 for full
internal vibration in shallow layers; R is the rate of concrete placement, ft/h: and T
is the temperature of concrete in the forms, oF. The value of c1 = 100 lb/ft1 is justified
because vibration is slight in slipform work; the concrete is placed in shallow layers of
6 to 10 in. with no revibration (Fig. 18.9). For some applications, such as gas-tight or

SPECIAL TECHNIQUES IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION


Fig. 18.9: Close-up of yoke assembly clearance
for placement of horizontal reinforcement
(Photo courtesy Scanada)
Table 18.1: ACI 117 tolerances for vertically slipformed building
elements
Deviation from plumb
Heights 100ftor1ess
Heights greater than 100ft
Horizontal deviation
Between adjacent elements
Edges of openings 12in. and smaller
Edges of openings 12in.and smaller
Openings through elements
Door openings. length or width
Other openings and sleeves
Wall and column cross-sectional dimensions
12in.orless
More thanl2in.an-dlessthan36in.
Morethan36in.
space
Fig. 18.10: Yokes should be designed with
adequate clearance below the yoke beam to
permit efficient placement of reinforcing steel
containment structures, additional vibration can be required to achieve maximum density
of the concrete. In such cases, the value of c1 is increased to150 lb/ft1•
Current trends favor more mechanical vibration in slipform work. Consolidation with
immersion vibrators allows use of relatively low-slump concrete, and has done much to
reduce honeycombing and ensure proper consolidation of the concrete.
Wales must be adequately nailed or bolted together to transmit shear due to lateral
pressure of concrete. Vertical posts should be placed between wales at lift points to
distribute the lifting load.
Tolerances For Completed Work
Overall, lateral and diagonal bracing of forms must be provided to ensure that the shape
of the structure will not be distorted beyond allowable tolerance during the sliding opera­
tion. Tolerances for vertically slipformed building elements given in ACI1 17-10, MSpecifka­
tions for Tolerances for Concrete Construction and Materials," are listed in Table18.1 .
ACI117 does not differentiate between slipformed building cores and other slipformed
building elements. However, it would be
desirable for the designer and builder to
review tolerances and verify the specified
values are appropriate for the intended use
of the structure. This will facilitate achieving
±1/2in. per1evel, ±21n. ma�imum the best speed and economy consistent
± 1/600times the height. ±112in. per level,±6in. maximum with needed precision. Slipformed cores
and shafts of buildings that tie into other
±1in. adjacent parts of the building should meet
the same tolerances for plumbness as those
±2in.
for building walls.
ACI313-97, "Standard Practice for Design
+ 1- 1/2in.- 1/4in.
+I in.-Oin.
and Construction of Concrete Silos and
Stacking Tubes for Storing Granular Mate­
+3/8in.,- 1/4in.
rials," gives similar slipformed construction
+1/21n.,-3/8in. tolerances for silo wall position and dimen­
+I in.-314in. sions and for location of openings. The ACI
313 tolerances for silos are generally larger
than the ACI117 tolerances for slipformed
building elements.
Yokes
The yokes (Fig. 18.1 O) may be made of metal or wood and should be stiff enough to
adequately resist lateral pressure from the concrete. They must transfer the full load of the
forms, finishers' platform, and working deck to the jacks. They should be designed with
enough clearance above the forms to allow the horizontal reinforcement and embedded
items to be installed in the correct location prior to being submerged in the rising
concrete.
Frames called dummy yokes are sometimes placed between jacking yokes to
resist lateral loads by holding the wales in place. These frames are commonly used to
support the forms at wall intersections or wherever the wales on one side are more
easily supported than those on the other side. Hence, the dummy yokes are generally
constructed to transmit their loads through the wales to the nearest main yokes on the
side that is most easily supported.
Work deck dead and live loads must be transmitted to the jacking system. Often, the
deck is framed in a combination of wood joists and steel beams. In Fig. 18. 11 , inverted
l-shaped hangers for the deck beams project up through the deck and sit on pairs of steel
channels spreading the end reactions to a pair of yokes.
Wales
The timber or steel members making up the wales (Fig. 18.10} must be stiff horizontally
to withstand the lateral pressure of the concrete tending to make the forms bulge out
between the yokes. They must also be stiff vertically to transfer the weight of the forms
and the friction force to the yokes without excessive deflection. When the span between
jacks reaches approximately 6ft, the wales should be braced for improved rigidity. Diag­
onal struts from the wales to the foot of the yoke are often used to provide this stiffness
CHAPTER 18
(Fig. 18.12). For circular shapes such as silos,
the wood wales are often segments cut to
the curve of the structure from wider S4S
2x dimension lumber and combined into
two or three layers.

Sheathing
The form sheathing is normally constructed
of 1 in.nominal board, plywood that can
adequately conform to the required shape
or radius and suitably reinforced with
backup members, 10-gauge steel sheets, or
other approved material.The 1 in.boards
should be straight-grained and finished to
minimize drag. Quartersawn lumber may
be of some advantage in resisting wear but
the increased costs for this material should
be considered. Board sheathing joints
should be vertical so the form will slide
upward without a transverse drag compo­
nent {Fig. 18.13 ). Fig. 18. I 1. View showing upper platform template holes for placing vertical reinforcement;
As in other types of construction, staging of blackout form segments; and inverted L-hangers for work deck girders (Photo
swelling of wood forms must be controlled. courtesy Marietta Silos)
Swelling may present a greater problem for
sheathing in slipform work because forms are in continuous contact with fresh concrete
for a much longer period than in conventional construction. Use of pretreated sheathing
or presoaking either in water or in a waterproofing preparation will reduce swelling during
the sliding operation.A small gap (1/ 16 to 1/8 in.) at the joints between sheathing boards
may be left to take up the swelling.
The forms should provide some working space above the level of the fresh concrete but
should not be so high that they interfere with the placing of horizontal reinforcement.
The outside panel of the exterior wall forms can be constructed somewhat higher than
the inside (Fig. 18.14).This provides a splash board to protect the finishers working on the
work platform below.

Batter
The forms should be constructed with a slight batter or slope so that they will be self­ Fig. 18.12: Interior view of wales, braces, and
clearing as they slide (Fig. 18.14).The top of the forms should be slightly smaller than clamps transferring load to foot of steel yoke;
the required wall thickness and the bottom of the forms slightly larger. In this way, the wire rope hangers support interior work plat­
concrete can take its final shape approximately halfway down the form and is completely form (Photo courtesy Marietta Silos)
free of the form at the bottom.The amount
of batter is a question upon which many
successful supervisors differ. A range from
1/8 in.to 1/2 in. in 4ft is representative of
current practice. Sometimes the form for
the outside face of an exterior wall is left
vertical.

Form Depth
The depth of the forms depends on the
rate of slide and the time required for
concrete to strengthen enough to be self­
supporting.The minimum depth of forms
is 3- 1/2 ft with the most commonly used
depth being approximately 4ft. Forms up
to 5 ft have been used in winter weather
or when greater sliding speed is desired.
For special applications such as piers and
single-sided underground shaft slip forms,
Fig. 18. 13: Vertical boards attached to braced wales are the sheathing choice for this silo slip­
forms up to 8 ft deep have been used.
form project; long vertical jacking rods are visible at each yoke; note wood-framed blackouts in
walls (Photo courtesy Younglove Construction, L.L.C.)

SPECIAL TECHNIQUES IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION

J"x�"hardboard 1x6splashboardnailed
to2x4back-upsat
�z�"
Fig. 18.14: Batter strip placed between upper
wale and sheathing will give enough batter
to sheathing to help reduce friction
Fig. 18.15: Jack in place on rod steel pushes
up on lifting frame yoke; long reinforcing
bar verticals have been passed downward
through holes in the top working platform
(Photo courtesy Marietta Silos)
Fig. 18.16: High-capacity jacks climbing on
jack-rod rubing having a 2-7/8 in. outside
18. 1.2 Jacking System
lifting jacks should be located so they carry nearly equal vertical loads that do not exceed
the jack capacity. Typical slipform jacks have load ratings from 3 to 25 tons. These jacks
may be manual, pneumatic, electric, or hydraulic (Fig. 18.15).
High-capacity jacks of 15 to 2S ton lifting capacity have been used for slipforming high­
rise building cores and multi-cell industrial structures. A structural steel frame or jacking
grid is located some 8 to 10ft above the main deck. High-capacity jacks push against
the grid and (by means of hang rods attached to the slipform yokes) pull the forms, work
decks, and platforms along.
Some advantages of the high-capacity jacking system are:
A smaller number of larger slipform jacks make it easier to position them to miss
major openings, areas of concentrated reinforcement, and discontinuous walls.
Plumb and twist of the form are easier to control.
It leads to a multi-deck forming structure, allowing materials storage and providing a
convenient way of stabilizing vertical reinforcing bars and prefabricated wall-column
assemblies.
The working deck can be economically enclosed to protect it from the elements.
High-capacity slipform jacks can also be used to lift heavy construction loads as well as the
slip forms (Fig. 18.16). Loads in excess of 400tons have been successfully lifted.
Usually, lifting loads are limited not by jack capacity but by possible buckling of the rods
on which the jacks climb. The jack rods must be designed for anticipated loads and be
properly braced where not encased in concrete. If they are to be used as reinforcement,
consideration must be given to splices and their low bond value as plain bars.
If the jack rods are to be retrieved, they must not bond to the concrete. Usually a thin
pipe sleeve approximately 3 or 4ft long is placed around the jack rod and attached to the
yoke or jack so that it is carried upward with the forms. Because the short length of pipe
is pulled upward with the forms, the rods are left standing in a small hole in the concrete
and can be pulled out after the slide is completed.
Jacks or other lifting devices should be equipped with mechanical dogs or other auto­
matic holding devices to provide protection in the event of power outage or failure of the
lifting mechanism.
A jacking system that provides simultaneous movement of the entire form in small
preset increments of approximately 1in. at a minimum of 3-minute intervals is desirable.
The pumping and control system is usually placed near a central location on the work
platform, and a backup pump is desirable (Fig. 18.17). To avoid unplanned cold joints,
especially when such an occurrence would adversely affect the integrity of the struc­
ture, reserve jacking and placing equipment and standby construction service equip­
ment should be available to maintain a continuous operation. If it is not feasible to keep
duplicate equipment on standby, then all materials needed to halt placement just as at
a preplanned joint should be kept ready. Such materials might include wood joint strip,
extra dowels, and waterstop joint materials for water-retaining structures or structures
requiring positive sealing.
18. 1.3 Sliding Operations
Because economic success depends primarily on attaining the highest possible rate of
slide consistent with good construction practice, careful planning and supervision are
necessary to minimize delays. A slide rate
of 12inJh {24ft/day) is about average for
vertical slipforming. Sliding form opera­
tions have been conducted at average
speeds of 18 inJh and the trend seems to
be toward even higher rates. Increased
speed has been made possible by using
high-early-strength cements; by using
concrete admixtures that accelerate setting
and improve workability; by increasing
form heights to 6 ft or more; by improving
jacking equipment and form design; and,
Fig. 18.17: Hydraulic pump and backup unit most importantly, through better project
operated from centra/location on work deck planning.
(Photo courtesy Scanada)
CHAPTER 18
 An adequate supply of concrete to maintain the planned rate of slide is required. Mate­
rials should be conveniently stockpiled and resupplied to the deck to maintain the flow of
work activities without interruption. During the first filling of the form, the placement rate
should be limited to that for which the form was designed. Design drawings should show
a maximum initial filling rate as a function of the temperature of the concrete placed in
the form.
Although the maximum rate of slide must be carefully predicted and planned for, the
actual rate must be controlled by an experienced field superintendent who is qualified
to make adjustments when changing field conditions call for them. The superintendent
must see that the slide operation is proceeding neither too fast as to causeNblowoutsN
(soft concrete falling out from under the forms), nor too slow as to cause "liftsN(concrete
sticking to forms and ripping away from the concrete below). To establish safe lifting rates,
the level at which the concrete in the form is hardened can be checked frequently by the
use of a probe.

Forming Openings, Recesses

Because slipform construction is like an extrusion process, no projections beyond
the face of the forms are possible because they will interfere with the moving forms.
Necessary structural concrete projections or decorative projections of other materials Fig. 18.18: Slipform details to allow for open­
may be added after the slipformed portions are completed. Although projections are ings, beam pockets, and concrete brackets
not feasible during the actual slide, continuous vertical flutings and various changes in
cross section are possible within the confines of the forms. Entire sections, openings, or
partial inserts may be blocked out and resumed as required using stationary or moving
bulkheads that fit between the forms, as shown in Fig. 18.18. Where jack rods extend
through a formed opening, bracing to prevent rod buckling must be provided. Large
opening blackouts (Fig. 18.19) must be segmented to fit the parts under the yokes as
the slip gradually progresses. Window and door frames may be set in place right in the
walls as the slide proceeds, and normally no difficulties are encountered when placing
piping or electrical conduits in walls or columns. Horizontal features can be incorpo­
rated at the bottom and top of the structure with little difficulty.
Pockets to take beams, weld plates, keys with dowels, and anchor slots for masonry
attachment are also placed during the slide. Dowels for future connections may be bent to
fit within blackouts and later straightened, but only with approval of the engineer/archi­
tect. Where bending of bars is not permitted, dowel bar splicing systems may be provided
for later placing of connecting steel.
The reinforcing steel provides a base to which embedments and inserts may be
attached. It is important that all inserts, both large and small, be placed ahead of time to
prevent location errors as the forms rise to a particular elevation.

Reducing Wo/1 Thickness

The thickness of a wall can be reduced in steps as the slide proceeds upward. When
concreting is completed to the level of the step, the forms are jacked upward to the
exposed part of the form face and a filler piece is inserted inside the forms and suitably
affixed to the form face. As the centerline of the concrete changes with the use of insert
forms, jack and jack rod locations must be taken into account and the unbalanced load on
the yokes must be designed for.
A few wall thickness changes can be made economically, but a study should be made to
determine economic feasibility if many changes are needed. The savings in concrete may
be offset by the expense of adjusting the forms and the time lost during the interruption Fig. 18.19: Small and large opening blackouts
of the sliding operation. put in place in segments as slide proceeded
(Photo courtesy Younglove Construction,
Maintaining Level and Alignment L.L.C.)
When designing and building the forms, the jacks should be positioned so that the forms
will draw straight and without twist to prevent the forms from drifting from plumb or
designed dimensions and to prevent torsional movement.
The best way to prevent drifting is to start with adequately braced, carefully plumbed
forms, and then to keep the deck level throughout the slide. The deck may be checked
for level by: 1) checking the level of the jacks against marks on the jacking rods; 2) using
a water-level system consisting of a central reservoir of dyed water connected to plastic
tubes placed at strategic locations (Fig. 18.20); 3) checking by transit or laser on the deck;

SPECIAL TECHNIQUES IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION


Fig. 18.20. lnterconnecred rubes filled with
water containing a dye allow quick visual
monitoring of slipform levelness at each jack
location (Photo courtesy Marietta Silos)
or 4) vertical tape measures from fixed points. The two latter methods cannot be used
when the forms are in motion.
Alignment and plumbness of the structure should be checked at least once during
every 8 hours that the slide is in operation and preferably every 4 hours. In work that is
done in separate, intermittent slipping operations, a check on alignment and plumbness
should be made at the beginning of each slipping operation.
Plumbness of the structure can be verified by plumb line, optical plummet, or laser. Slip
forms for very tall structures with relatively small cross sections are subject to twisting.
Enough plummeting should be provided to readily detect and evaluate movements of the
form so that appropriate adjustments can be made by experienced personnel. Deck tilting
and come-alongs have been used successfully to adjust these systems.
Curing, Finishing, and Stripping
If the forms are constructed properly and kept clean, the concrete emerges ready for a
float and brush finish. The finishers work on a platform hung from the forms. Equipment
for the application of curing compound is also carried by the platform. Good coverage
of the concrete with membrane curing compound is important, especially for thin walls,
or if water is to be used in curing, care must be taken to ensure that it does not erode the
freshly finished concrete. Water lines can be attached to the finishers' platform to apply a
continuous fog spray to the concrete. A shield may be attached to the forms to protect the
concrete from drying winds. A suspended finishers' platform both inside and outside the
structure is useful for patching work, even though finishing may not always be needed on
the inside. lights are typically installed for night work.
The rate of slide is an important factor in winter concreting. Because the setting time of
the concrete is increased at low temperatures, the concrete must stay in the forms longer.
This can be accomplished by reducing the rate of slide or increasing the depth of the
forms. To protect the concrete from the cold, a shield of lightweight rigid panels such as
plywood, hard-board, or insulating board can be attached to the forms.
In addition to providing protection for the concrete, the shield also gives the finishers
shelter from winter winds. The shield should be attached directly to the forms rather than
to the finishers' platform to prevent unnecessary vibration of the platform, which may
make the finishers' work hazardous. Tarpaulin enclosures have been used satisfactorily on
many projects, but they tend to flap in the wind and mar the finish of the concrete.
Heat may be applied to the fresh concrete by steam pipes attached to the finishers'
platform using a steam source at the base of the slide within the structure. Steam is
recommended because it will not dry the concrete. The warm, moist air inside the struc­
ture provides excellent curing conditions. Temperatures on the inside and outside faces of
recently placed walls should be equalized to prevent thermal cracking.
When the forms have reached the top of the slide and jacking is finished. the weight
of the forms is generally transferred from the jack rods to the finished wall. This is usually
done by bolts or bearers inserted through holes left in the walls below the wales. The
location of these holes must be carefully planned for the particular method of supporting
the forms. When the weight of the forms has been taken off the jacks, the yokes, jacks, and
jack rods may be removed if they are needed elsewhere on the project, before the roof
slab is placed.
The working deck frequently serves as the form for casting the roof slab. If the yokes
have been left in position, small boxes are set around the vertical members of the yokes
so they will not be keyed into the roof slab. After the yokes have been removed, the boxes
are stripped and the holes are filled with concrete.
Unless stripping is properly organized, it may prove to be very expensive. The removal
of the outside forms presents no great difficulties or special features, but it is typical to
leave holes in certain planned positions in the roof slab to facilitate the suspension of a
stripping platform inside the structure. The cost of labor for stripping and the value of the
used material should be carefully investigated before it is decided to drop and waste any
sections.
I 8.2 Horizontal Slip Forms
Horizontal slipforming can be used for horizontal concrete elements such as tunnel
inverts, water conduits, drainage channels, canal linings, highway pavements, highway
median barriers, curbs, and various precast concrete products. Monolithic cast-in-place
pipe is also produced by horizontal slipform methods. Slipforming of full tunnel linings
CHAPTER 18
has been done, but it is still regarded as
primarily an experimental technique.
Because most horizontal slipforming is
against a fixed form support such as rock or
earth, the operation is essentially a consol­
idating-screeding-finishing operation. For
some projects, a series of machines are
used to trim-finish the earth; place, consoli­
date, and screed the concrete; and finish
the surface (Fig. 18.21). Slipform machines
move on rails, track crawlers, wheels, or
a shaped excavation. The intake of the
machine is a trough designed to distribute
concrete uniformly to all parts of the form.
The concrete is consolidated by a vibrating
bar or a rack of vibrators parallel to and
a few inches ahead of the leading edge
of the form. The fresh concrete can also
be consolidated by hand vibrators. Most
highway and canal pavers are essentially
placers and spreaders. Edges are slipformed
and occasionally top surfaces, but most top
surfaces are spread by blades or rotating
augers and then finished by a plate or a
rotating cylinder.

Fig. 18.21: Horizontal s/ipforming is common for long canal lining operations. (Photo courtesy
18.2.1 Design and Construction
Guntert & Zimmerman)
Considerations
For the large slipform pavers or canal liners, consideration should be given to unsymmet­
rical and eccentric loading and the fact that the machine must be regularly disassembled
and reassembled as it encounters siphons, bridges, and chutes along the waterway or
highway. Some of the larger machines are hinged so that sections may be passed through
or beneath structures. Vertical or lateral deflections, particularly of long span machines,
must be investigated, and sufficient rigidity provided to ensure that concrete tolerances
will be met.
Vibration may be used ahead of the slip form, but consolidation must be completed
as the concrete passes under the form. Vibration of the slip form itself does not provide
proper consolidation, apparently due to lack of means to supply additional concrete
needed to fill the voids. The trailing edge of the slip form is usually adjustable to positions
somewhat lower than that of the leading edge. This improves consolidation and tends
to mold the concrete more closely to the subgrade. Too low a setting of the trailing edge
causes tearing, rather than smoothing, of the surface. On some machines, the slip form is
followed within a few feet by an uironern plate or by a surface texturing drag that, under
favorable conditions, leaves a surface that requires little or no hand finishing.

18.2.2 Horizonto/ App/icotions

Tunnel Inverts
Linings for tunnel inverts are often placed in a continuous longitudinal strip. The trans­
verse section of the invert is usually curved to a prescribed shape. The best way to hold
such a shape and at the same time obtain good vibratory consolidation of the higher
areas along the side forms is to use a heavily weighted slip form supported on the fixed
side forms and having a length equal to or greater than the width of the invert. The slip­
form is moved forward by winches or under its own power on larger projects. The concrete
is delivered by means of pump and pipeline or conveyor belt and is placed and vibrated
immediately ahead of the slip form. Invert forms are also discussed in Chapter 17.

Concrete on Slopes
Placement of concrete on slopes may be accomplished by use of a weighted, unvibrated,
steel-faced slipform screed on edge supports. An efficient screed width has been found by
experience of practice to be approximately 27 in. in the direction of movement. The screed
may be pulled up the slope by equipment located on the shoulder or by air or electric

SPECIAL TECHNIQUES IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION

Fig. 18.22: 5/ipform screed for placing
unformed concrete on slopes is steel-faced
and weighted Fig. 18.24: Crawler-mounted machine for
earth shape and is towed or pulled by a winch s/ipforming small canals (Photo courtesy
(Photo courtesy Guntert & Zimmerman) Gomaco Corporation)

Fig. 18.26: Canal slipforming with a conveyor spreader for placing, a cylinder finisher, and a
work bridge for touch-up and application of curing compound or membrane (Photo courtesy
Gamaco Corporation)

hoists mounted on the slip form. The concrete vibrators are manually operated just ahead
of the slip form rather than mounted on the form. If the form is vibrated, it will cause a
swell in the finished surface emerging from the trailing edge. Figure 18.22 shows the cross
section of a simple slipform screed.

Channels and Canals

For small, unreinforced channels and canals, a simplified slipform machine has been used
with good results. This machine is held to grade and line by a steel pan, shaped to fit
the previously prepared excavation section and pulled forward by an external source of
power. Behind the pan and immediately preceding the slip form is a transverse, compart­
mented trough for uniformly distributing the mixture (Fig. 18.23). Internal vibration of
the concrete in the trough may be used to improve the flow of concrete under the slip
form, thus eliminating vibration of the form itself and also decreasing the need for hand
finishing. Self-propelled slip formers for small canal placements mechanize more of the
operations and increase speed of placement (Fig. 18.24).
For reinforced linings and also for medium- and large-sized canal linings, more elabo­
rate slipform machines are required. A framework, traveling on rails, wheels, or a tractor
crawler assembly (Fig. 18.25 and 18.26) on the shoulder and invert of the drainage channel

CHAPTER 18
or canal supports the working platform and
distribution system. The slip form is a steel
plate, curved up at the leading edge, extending
across the bottom and up the slopes of the
canal and shaped to conform to the finished
surface of the lining. When a distributor plate
is used, it is fastened to the leading edge of the
slip form and moves upward on a steep incline
to the working platform. On some of the
machines, a continuous row of hoppers in the
working platform feeds into drop chutes, each
supplying one compartment of the trough
below. Concrete is dumped, usually from a
shuttle car or wiper conveyor on the working
platform, and is guided to the trough below by
the distributor plate or the drop chutes.
As the concrete passes out of the bottom
of the trough and under the slip form, it is
Fig. 18.27: Crawler-mounted highwaysfipform paver receives concrete from moving
consolidated by a vibrating bar parallel to and
conveyor(Photo courtesyGuntert&Zimmerman)
a few inches ahead of the leading edge of the
form. Consolidation must be accomplished as
the concrete passes under the slip form. The
trailing edge of the slip form is usually adjust­
able to positions somewhat lower than that of
the leading edge. This improves consolidation
and tends to mold the concrete more closely to
the subgrade. Too low a setting of the trailing
edge causes tearing, rather than smoothing, of
the surface. On some machines, the slip form is
followed within a few feet by an•ironerwplate.
In other cases, a separate finishing and curing
jumbo follows the slip form at some distance.
For large channels {bottom widths of SO to
110ft), it is impractical to build machines to
span the entire waterway. The slope paver is
a crawler-mounted slip form that places the
concrete lining on one side slope and the adja­
cent 8 to 10ft of the invert. After the opposite
side slope is similarly completed, the invert is Fig. 18.28: Sfipformed concrete pavement after vibration, screeding, finishing, and
finished by horizontal pavers. All three opera- texturing(PhotocourtesyGuntert&Zimmerman)
tions are kept on line and grade electronically
through sensors probing guide wires.

Highway Pavers
The slip form used for highway pavements1u is similar in principle to the slope form
pavers. No fixed side forms are required as the side forms of the machine slide forward
with the paver, leaving the slab edges unsupported (Fig. 18.27 and 18.28). The concrete
is deposited either on the subgrade ahead of the paver or into a hopper box. Following
spreading by a rotating auger or dozer-type strike-off blade, the concrete is consolidated
by vibration and shaped by an extrusion plate or a rotating cylinder finisher. Flat, para­
bolic, or hip crowns can be provided with a quick change device for transitions in and out
of horizontal curves. Surface elevations can be maintained by electronic controls. Slipform
machines are available for curb and gutter placement and for highway barriers (Fig. 18.29).

Cast-in-Place Pipe
Cast-in-place pipe is a continuous nonreinforced concrete conduit having no joints or
seams except as necessitated by construction requirements. It is built in a previously
excavated trench that has a semicircular bottom and vertical or nearly vertical sides. The
outside lower portion of the pipe is formed by the trench and the corresponding inside is Fig. 18.29: Machine for s/ipforming
formed by a specially designed slip form commonly called a boat or a sled, or by a more highway barriers in place (Photo courtesy
complex slipform machine. The inside of the remainder of the pipe is formed by either Gamoco

SPECIAL TECHNIQUES IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION

 metal forms or an inflated tube. Two construction methods, single-stage construction by
machine and two-stage construction by machine, are described in ACI 346-09, NSpecifica­
tion for Cast-in-Place Concrete Pipe."

Slipformed Precasf Hollow-Core Floor Slab

Concrete floor slab units with hollow cores to reduce weight are a typical product of the
precast concrete industry (Fig. 18.30). The slabs or planks are slipformed in long beds
with pretensioning strands anchored at each end. After curing and attaining the required
concrete strength, typically overnight, the strands are released applying the prestressing
force. Then, the long slab can be saw cut into the lengths needed for the building project.
In some plants, multiple production lines are used that can either be cast every day or on
alternate days if longer curing is needed. Figure 18.31 shows two lines, one with the slip
former in operation.

Fig. 18.30: Cored slab produced by slip­ 18.3 Tilt·Up

forming the sides, cores, and top surface
Fig. I 8.31: Two production lines for pretensioning, s/ipforming, curing, and then sowing cored
slabs for floor plank
Fig. 18.32: Lifting and tilting a large panel
cost against a slab-on-ground (Photo courtesy
Tift-Up Concrete Association)
Tilt-up construction (Fig. 18.32 and 18.33) is a method of casting wall panels on a
completed floor slab and then tilting or lifting them into a vertical position.1a.s The main
Fig. 18.33: Large tilt-up panels with window
openings being lifted, set in place, and
braced until lateral stability of the building
is established through roof diaphragm
completion (Photo courtesy Tilt-Up
Concrete Association)
advantage of this type of construction is
the elimination of vertical formwork for
the walls.
The floor slab that serves as a casting
bed is the bottom form for the precast wall
panels, and special attention to its design
and construction is necessary. It must meet
all the normal requirements of the finished
floor slab as well as special provisions for
efficient application of the tilt-up method.
For good tilt-up work, the floor should be
level to a tolerance of 1/4 in. in 10 ft. The
slab should be smooth, hard, and free of
blemishes (Fig. 18.34). A steel-troweled
finish is preferred because the surface
texture will usually be transferred to the
underside of the tilt-up panel.
The floor slab supports edge forms for
the tilt-up panels. The edge forms are
traditionally nailed into the slab, and the
holes the nails leave require patching after
the wall panels are tilted into position.
Such edge forms often involve a vertical
form board braced by blocking (Fig.18.34
and 18.35). An alternate support system
consists of individual angle braces with
a self-adhering shoe that includes an
integrated adhesive that bonds it to the
floor slab without damaging the slab.
No mechanical fasteners to the slab are
needed. Another system uses a continuous
base track with a built-in chamfered edge
and double-faced tape for attaching it to
the slab. Triangular brackets snap into the
track to support edge forms of 1-1/2 in.
dimension lumber or 1-1/4 in. strand board.
The floor slab should also be designed to
withstand truck crane loads if the method
of lifting requires the presence of the crane
on the slab. Overall speed and efficiency
are generally improved when the crane
does work on the slab, so the decision
will probably rest on whether or not the
working area of the slab is large enough for

CHAPTER 18
the crane. Reinforcement and inserts (Fig. 18.35) are designed and placed to allow lifting
without cracking the panel. Bracing must be provided to align and secure the panels
against wind loads until the roof diaphragm is structurally complete.
A compacted fill or temporary slab may be used in place of the floor slab for the casting
of tilt-up units as long as it meets requirements for construction loads and smoothness.
After the casting surface is completed and covered with a parting compound, the tilt-up
units are cast directly on the floor slab. The contractor must select a panel arrangement
that maximizes the available floor area and results in reliable panel joint designs. ACI117
provides tolerances for tilt-up panels and other slab dimensions. Forming the panels with
common side forms is an effective solution, but the form boards must provide enough
resistance to the pressure of concrete placement to maintain panel edges square and in
alignment within tolerances. Laminated strand lumber (LSL) has been found suitable for
this application and can be reused approximately four times. Fig. 18.34: Edge forms for tilt-up work can be
Often, successive panels may be cast one atop the other, thereby reducing the area attached to the concrete ba�e slab by nailing,
required for temporary slab casting and working space. Only edge forms and frames to drilling, or adhe�ives; ru�tication strips
form windows, doors, or other openings are needed. Occasionally, plans may call for a half provide pattern to the later exposed surface
pilaster to be cast along each edge of the wall panel. References 18.6 and 18.7 provide (Photo courtesy Tilt-Up Concrete Association)
detailed information on design and construction methods.

18.3. 1 Curing and Bond-Breaking Compounds

Proper curing of the base slab is extremely important for its use as a casting bed as well as
being critical for its service life as a floor. Liquid membrane curing compounds have been
found practical for tilt-up work because they allow early use of the slab for casting, and
they can also serve as parting compounds or bond breakers. Among the commercially
available curing and bond-breaking compounds, there are chemical base, chemical resin
base, resin base, and wax base types. Resins that inhibit the set of cement they contact are
not suitable for use in curing or bond-breaking compound. Compounds serving only as
bond breakers are usually sprayed on at a coverage of approximately 300 ft2/gal. and up to Fig. 18.35: Braced edge forms for tilt-up
600 ft1/gal. for the curing coat. The initial curing coat should not be expected to also serve panels with reinforcing steel mats, weld
as a bond breaker, particularly if the tilt-up panels are cast several weeks later than the plates, and lifting inserts set in place (Photo
floor slab. courtesy Tilt-Up Concrete Association)
Carpenters can begin layout and forming of wall panels as early as the morning after
casting the base slab and applying curing compound. When edge forms for the wall
panels have been completely laid out, before any steel or inserts have been placed, the
base slab should be cleaned of all dust and debris. A second coat of the bond-breaking
agent is then applied at approximately half the intensity of the curing coat. Wooden
edge forms can be sprayed at the same time to seal them from moisture and make their
removal easier.

18.3.2 Curved Tilt-Up Panels

Tilt-up contractors have produced curved panels, although this feature is by no means
commonplace. The common method for forming the curved panels in skateboard-like
concrete ramps requires building lumber or metal frames that will then be covered by
shaped plywood built up in layers until a suitable form is developed. Because this form
building is labor-intensive, efforts have focused on an alternative method based on
carving out the shape of the intended panel in the soil. After finely grading the compacted
soil, a template is made to ensure the radius is correct and a mud slab is created in the
radius shape to serve as the casting bed. Normal preparation of edge forms and setting of
steel reinforcement is the final step before concrete placement.
Another method makes use of a set of curved forms resembling those normally used in
a precast plant to create both the positive and negative side of the curved panel. Concrete
is placed through a slot at the top of the forms, accompanied by external form vibration.
After the concrete hardens, the top form is pulled back and the panel is ready for lifting.
Although this requires form construction not normally associated with tilt-up, the forms
are reusable and there is no need to design for the pressures normally associated with wall
construction. Six foot and 8 ft radius panels have been made with this method.

18.4 Lift Method of Construction

The lift method of construction, popularly described as lift slab, is based on casting rein­
forced concrete floor and roof slabs one on top of the other at or near ground level.18.a.1s.9
Then, after proper curing, the slabs are lifted (Fig. 18.36 and 18.37) to their final position

SPECIAL TECHNIQUES IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION


Fig. 18.36: Ufr slabs being raised to fino/
position by jacks on top of columns and
lifting rods atrached at slab collars around
columns (Photo courtesy Portland Cement
Association)
Fig. 18.37: Combining lift method for post·
tensioned slabs and slipform method for
elevator/stair cores to produce a building
structure (Photo courtesy Portland Cement
Association)
by the use of lifting rods and jacks attached to the tops of the previously placed steel
columns. This method was popular for several decades until the 1987 collapse of the
L'Ambiance Plaza building project during construction resulted in the deaths of 28
workers.1''10The failure consequences included reduced application of the method and
increased safety requirements.
The U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) requires that lift slab
operations be designed and planned by a licensed professional engineer who has experi·
ence in lift slab construction. The OSHA requirements for safety and stability of the struc­
ture during lifting of the slabs, including detailed regulations for jacking, are presented in
Se<tion 1926.70S (reprinted in the Appendix of this book).
In this layer method of precasting, the slabs are commonly of the flat plate type. Other
uniform depth types of framing such as ribbed or waffle slabs can also be used, with or
without prestressing. Roof slabs sometimes use upturned beam framing. Proprietary
methods, equipment, and materials for the lifting operations are available.
18.4. I Forming ond Costing
The forms for lift slab construction are relatively simple. The only forms needed for flat
plate design are edge forms for the slabs and forms for blocking out openings in the slabs.
The bottom form for each slab is the previously placed slab. The ground floor slab and the
soil supporting it are required to carry the dead load of the stacked slabs.
The forming techniques for ribbed or waffle slabs, or slabs with voids requiring filler
blocks, cardboard tubes, or similar formwork components, are much the same as for
conventional slabs discussed in Chapter 11.
The first step after completing the specified subgrade and edge forms is to place the
bottom floor slab. The slab may be placed before or after the columns, according to the
design. Because the slabs are cast in layers one on top of the other, care must be taken in
the finishing of a slab if the ceiling of the floor above is to be exposed. Any imperfections
or uneven surfaces will be transferred to the underside of the slab above.
As soon as the separating medium is dry and the slab has set, the forms, lifting collars,
and reinforcement for the first elevated slab may be placed. Care must be taken in locating
collar keyholes or other lifting attachments to assure their vertical alignment after the
slabs have set. Collars can be held in correct alignment by wedges inserted between the
columns and the collar. Blackouts should be provided to prevent concrete from entering
spaces between collar and column or lifting attachment openings.
18.4.2 Slob Separation
Bond breaking media should be carefully placed because the slabs may be damaged if
they bond together and have to be separated by wedges or other mechanical means.
After the slab sets, the separation compound is mopped, sprayed, or brushed onto the
slab. This compound should be cured or dried before reinforcing steel and other items are
placed. It should be free of wax if the slabs require a separate finish, tile adhesives, or paint
as a later application. Manufacturer's specifications for application and coverage of the
separating media should be followed.
Another method of preventing bond between slabs is to spread a sheet of polyethylene
film over the slab. The plastic must be kept flat against the slab and must not be torn
during the placement of steel. If the ceiling is to be exposed, the plastic film should not be
allowed to wrinkle.
18.5 Shells, Domes, and Folded Plates
Construction of shells, domes, and folded plates presents unique challenges to the form·
work engineer/contractor. Because of the relatively thin section in this type of construe·
tion, imperfections in the forms are larger in comparison with the section of the finished
member than in beam and slab members. Form removal is a critical operation because of
the danger that formwork may bind or hang up on the shell and overload the structure, or
the sequence of removal may concentrate loads at points not anticipated in the design of
the structure.
The key to successful formwork for shells is careful planning by the engineer/architect
and formwork engineer/contractor. Shells (Fig. 18.38) can take the form of doubly or
singly curved surfaces. Singly curved surfaces, such as barrels of circular cross section, are
relatively simple to design and build. Most of the doubly curved surfaces, such as domes
or free-form shapes, are difficult to analyze and costly to form. One notable exception is
CHAPTER 18
the hyperbolic paraboloid18•11 with a doubly curved surface that can be generated by the
movement of a straight line. To form such a shell as a roof structure, joists can be spaced
along the path of the generating line and the sheathing can then be warped to fit the
doubly curved surface formed by the straight members. Most roof structures are formed
on curved forms supported by shoring or falsework. However, the hyperbolic paraboloid
cooling tower (Fig. 183
. 9), frequently associated with power generation facilities, is usually
constructed using jump or climbing forms. Folded plates differ from shells in geometry,
but the shape can be quite complex, requiring the same care in form design and building
as the shell.
Because the concrete of shell structures is often left exposed as an interior ceiling, atten­
tion must be given to the surface texture of the forms. A test panel approved in advance
by the engineer/architect should be prepared to demonstrate the required surface texture
and provide a comparison standard for acceptance purposes.
Fig. 18.38: Concrete shell roof structure of
multiple joined hyperbolic paraboloid shapes
18.5. 1 Shell Form Design Considerations (Photo courtesy PER/ Formwork Systems, Inc.)
The engineer/architect must provide the geometry of the finished structure with coor­
dinates sufficiently close together to give the desired results. For thin shell structures of
large span or unusual proportions, ACI334.1R-92, "Concrete Shell Structures- Practice
and Commentary,� recommends that the engineer/architect also provide a decentering
drawing before the formwork engineer/contractor selects the method of shoring.
Due to the special shapes involved, tolerances based on functions of these shapes
should be specified by the engineer/architect in the bidding documents. A contour
drawing of the surface to be formed may prove helpful for irregularly curved surfaces. Due
to the high cost of forming shells and folded plates, travelers or reusable form sections are
often developed for structures having recurring elements of the same shape.
Thin section structures often have a large dead load deflection when the forms
are removed. Edge members and free edges may have both horizontal and vertical
components of deflection. The engineer/architect should specify the formwork camber
required to compensate for these deflections. This same deflection may be the cause
of decentering problems, particularly where edges deflect inward and tend to pinch or
Fig. 18.39: Concrete shell cooling tower cast
bind the formwork.
using climbing forms (Photo courtesy Doka
Because a three-dimensional analysis of complex formwork shapes is required, ACI347R
USA)
recommends that this be done by engineers having the necessary special qualifications
and experience. Unsymmetrical or eccentric loadings may occur in the falsework members
during concrete placement. Stresses occurring during erection and decentering of the
falsework or movement of travelers should also be considered.
The forms and shores for shell structures must be braced to resist all foreseeable lateral
loads, particularly wind. Suction created by the wind on the leeward side of the shell form­
work should be considered. Such formwork should be anchored as a whole against uplift
and sheathing should be secured.
Construction loads are very important in this type of construction because they may be
large in relation to the dead load of the concrete. For example, the dead load from a3 in.
shell is approximately40 lb/ft2, whereas the minimum recommended construction live
load is SO lb/ft1• The placement of concrete on one section of the forms may cause upward
movement of another part. The forms and falsework must be designed to resist the forces
arising from the method and sequence of placement. It is also important to accurately
estimate the dead load of the shell formwork.
Because the weight of the supporting forms and falsework may be equal to or greater
than the design live load, the form should be designed so it will not bind or hang up and
overload the structure during decentering. Joints in the forms should be planned so that
no keying action can develop because of movement during the placement of concrete.
The forms must not become keyed into the concrete in a way that would hinder stripping
or transfer the load of the falsework to the shell. Joints that can be loosened, connections
that are free to act as a hinge when a locking pin is removed, or small panels and wrecking
strips that can be removed just before decentering begins often help eliminate form
hang-up and binding.
The formwork drawings should show the camber to be provided, the recommended
sequence for placing the concrete, and the sequence for stripping or decentering. Camber
should include an allowance for settlement or deflection in the forming system as well
as any camber specified by the engineer/architect to compensate for deflection of the
structure itself. The engineer/architect should check formwork shop drawings to see that

SPECIAL TECHNIQUES IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION

 requirements are met, and should give
written indication of approval.

18.5.2 Building the Forms

Special care in the erection of forms and
falsework (Fig. 18.40) will enable the
contractor to meet tolerance requirements
and ensure that the structure will take
the correct shape when loaded. When
movable forms are used, a minimum
batter of 1/8 in./ft is recommended for
vertical surfaces to facilitate form removal.
To ensure ease in stripping and to
prevent keying, the form builder should
give special attention to the assembly
of the form sheathing. Plywood, dressed
lumber, and other smooth materials make
for easier stripping than rough form boards,
but the latter may at times be architec·
turally necessary. Sealed or taped joints
should be used wherever possible, because
untaped joints leave fins that increase
finishing as well as stripping difficul·
Fig. 18.40: Shoring and formwork are the most expensive component of concrete shell
construction (Photo courtesy PER/ Formwork Systems, Inc.)
ties-more so on sloping than on vertical
surfaces. Where boards, instead of sheet
material, are required by the shape of the shell, the widest boards practicable should be
used and all reasonable steps to prevent joints from opening should be taken. Narrower
boards are easier to warp and may be better for doubly curved surfaces that require
warped sheathing.
Adequate wedges and jacking devices to adjust the form elevation before and during
placing must be provided. Their adjustment must allow for structural deflection during
decentering. Form building requirements have at times been successfully bypassed to a
great extent by using forms made of compacted earth that is excavated after concrete
gains strength.

18.5.3 Placing Concrete

A roof shell slab with its supporting and stiffening members is usually considered one unit
and is constructed monolithically. Except in unusual circumstances, concreting begins at
the bottom and continues up the slope. It is usually desirable to keep the placement as
symmetrical as possible to minimize unwanted deflection and stresses in the formwork.
Exact sequence depends on the size and shape of the shell; for example, concreting may
proceed upward from the bottom of the slope in concentric rings or placement may be in
layers, working from both sides toward the center of the shell, as in the case of cylindrical
shells. Concrete may also be placed in sections if allowed by the size and shape of the
shell.
Top forms may be needed to keep the fresh concrete from running down or falling
away from the forms on slopes steeper than approximately 45 degrees. It is difficult to
set one exact slope as the dividing line. Above 50 degrees, it is virtually impossible to
place concrete by conventional methods without top forms, and below 40 degrees, top
forms are usually unnecessary. Top forms are usually used in sets of two or three. The
forms should be deep enough to allow the concrete to stiffen sufficiently before they are
moved up the slope for the next lift. Top forms should not be left in place so long that the
concrete becomes too stiff for proper finishing. Concrete block spacers are sometimes
used as a guide in areas where the slab thickness changes. Accurately placed screed
supports may be required where the thickness of the shell requires special attention.
Forms must be watched continuously during concreting so that any undue settlement or
distortion may be promptly adjusted.

18.5.4 Form Removal

Removal of forms for shells, domes, and folded plates is often an extremely critical opera·
tion. As already noted, the weight of forms and supporting falsework is often higher than

CHAPTER 18
the structure design live loads. Thus, if for any reason the shell form clings to the shell as
the supporting falsework is loosened, it may overload the new concrete structure. Further
complications arise because shell and folded plate structures deflect appreciably when
they become self-supporting, and the forms may be caught or bind against the structure
as it begins to deflect. These problems may be even more troublesome with prestressed
shells if the shortening during post-tensioning has not been considered.
To meet these conditions, certain precautions have already been suggested in the
designing and building of the forms. The use of form joints that can be loosened, hinged
joints, or small panels that can be removed just beforedecentering begins will relieve
troublesome binding. Formwork must be designed so that it does not act as a dome or
shell itself.

Strength Requirements
ACI347R states that decentering and form removal should not be permitted until speci­
fied tests demonstrate that the minimum concrete strength and stiffness (modulus of elas­
ticity) specified in the contract drawings have been reached. ACI318-11, NBuilding Code
Requirements for Structural Concrete." requires the use of field-cured beam test specimens
if form removal time is based on development of a specified modulus of elasticity. The
value of the modulus of elasticity must be obtained from flexural testing of the field-cured
beam specimens, not derived as a proportion of the compressive strength of concrete in
the beam specimen.
Where elastic requirements and buckling considerations are the governing factors as
to when the decentering occurs, it may be practical to make the decentering time depen­
dent on the deflection of small reinforced test beams to simulate the bending conditions
within the roof shell11
. w

Decenfering Schedule
Deflections in structures of this type may be such that a strict decentering procedure is
necessary for the structure to assume its loaded shape without damage-either to the
structure or the falsework. Oecentering sequences and methods used should be planned
to prevent any concentrated reaction on any part of the permanent structure. Generally,
decentering should begin at points of maximum deflection and should progress toward
points of minimum deflection, with the decentering of edge members proceeding simul­
taneously with the adjoining shell. Where edge members are to be reshored, ACI 334.1R
recommends that the engineer/architect specify the spacing of the shoring.
When screw jacks are used in decentering, the amount of vertical movement should be
expressed as the number of turns or fractions of a turn on the jack. The engineer/architect
should provide the decentering instructions, which may be elaborate and complex.

18.5.5 Inflated Forming Methods

Inflated forms can be used to produce full or partial spheres, ellipsoids, cylinders, and
varied irregular or free-form shapes. They have been used to construct structures from
20ft in diameter to more than 200ft, l&·n and they frequently provide an economical
alternative to the conventional methods already described in this chapter.
Several construction methods have been developed, usually requiring a foundation slab
or ring-beam footing to which the form is anchored before inflation. Although concrete is
sometimes plastered or troweled onto forms for smaller structures, shotcreting is the more
common placement method. Reinforcement may be wire mesh such as Nchicken wire,N
steel fiber, conventional reinforcement, or post-tensioning tendons. For more information,
refer to AC1334.3R-OS, NConstruction of Concrete Shells Using Inflated FormsN
.

18.6 Traveling Farms

Traveling form construction is based on reusable forms mounted on movable frames
called travelers. After the concrete of one section of the structure has gained suffi­
cient strength, the forms are released and moved along the structure to the next
section to be concreted. Traveling form construction offers maximum reuse of forms with
minimum labor.

18.6. 1 Applications
Traveling forms are suitable for many types of structures: bridges (refer to Chapter15),
sea walls, floor systems, shell roofs, tunnel linings (refer to Chapter 17 ), culverts, and

SPECIAL TECHNIQUES fN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION


Fig. 18.4 1: Shoring dolly designed to lift, strip,
and move sections of frame-type shoring
with formwork still in place (Photo courtesy
Ooka USA)
segmented or multiple domes. Project conditions, including the design of the structure
itself, generally determine whether traveling forms are feasible or economical. They may
be used for building structures that have a constant section or a recurring shape. The
simplest type is the shoring dolly used to move sections of frame shoring and formwork
tables (Fig. 18.41 ) .
There is no standard traveler design for any given structure. Each set of forms and
travelers must be designed for the job at hand. This, of course, does not rule out reuse of
major components of the forms and travelers on a similar project in the future. A great
deal depends on the ingenuity of the form designer and builder. Figure 18.42 shows a
traveler design for a folded plate roof structure.
The basic principles of traveling form construction are relatively simple, although details may
become complex for large, long-span travelers. Forms are attached to a traveler that is mounted
on skids or wheels, which in tum travel on rails, a concrete pad, or any suitable surface. Move­
ment may be by hand, tractor, or any means compatible with the size of the traveler, design of
the structure, and the available equipment. The traveler must be able to move freely and easily to
obtain the maximum benefits from this type of operation. Figure 18.43 shows a traveler mounted
on rails involving a counterweight for casting the parapet curb for a bridge.
The traveling form is built to be backed off from the hardened concrete, moved to a new
position, and precisely adjusted for concreting the next section. Jacks between the trav·
eler and forms are usually used to back off the forms and make adjustments. Care in plan­
ning and building is necessary so that form units do not become keyed into the concrete
and complicate the stripping operation. After the bond with the hardened concrete has
been broken and the forms have been backed off slightly, additional movement of the
forms may be necessary to clear beams, columns, and other features.
There are various ways for the traveler to get around obstructions; sections may be
cut out to clear obstructions and later inserted before reuse, or folding form sections
may be incorporated. For forms such as
those for the folded plates shown in Fig.
18.42, a straight vertical drop of a few feet
was sufficient to free the forms for lateral
movement.
When the traveler has been moved to the
next location, the forms must be positioned
to receive the fresh concrete. If the forms
must be lifted into place a significant height,
they are initially lifted into the approximate
position using jacks. The load can then be
taken off the traveler wheels or jacks by
blocking the formwork. Sand jacks, steel

Fig. 18.42: Traveling glue-laminated wood falsework was raised 6 ft with hydraulic jacks, on chairs, wood blocks, or any device or mate­

each of eight columns, and then shored on tripods during concrete placement; forms were rial that will not crush under the load of trav­

lowered the same way, except that the first 4- 1/2 in. of drop was made by draining sand jacks eler, forms, and concrete can be used. Final

atop the tripods (Reprinted from Engineering News-Record, 1958, McGraw-Hill Publishing adjustments are made with screw heads or

Co., Inc.) wedges and the forms are ready to receive

reinforcement and concrete.

18.6.2 Design Considerations

When traveling forms are used for shell form construction, as they frequently are, the
special requirements for shell forms should be observed. Where travelers are used for
conventional structural systems and on short spans, there are few special requirements
and the general principles of form design prevail.
Where large travelers are built for long-span structures, some additional factors
must be considered. Many travelers remain in use for long periods and are loaded
and unloaded repeatedly. They must be designed to keep distortions to a minimum
throughout a series of loading cycles. Frequently, due to unsymmetrical loading and
lateral pressures developed during concreting, very considerable lateral deflections of
parts or of the entire traveler have occurred. This has happened on travelers of light, rela­
tively long span construction as well as very heavily framed travelers. If lateral or vertical
deflections are inelastic, the traveler does not recover its true shape after decentering.
Many times, distortions of this type are due to poor detailing at connections. large eccen·

CHAPTER 18
tricities in the connections can permit distortion or even failure of the members. These
large eccentricities most often occur in lateral bracing systems.
Detailing deficiencies are sometimes the result of efforts to simplify fabrication and
disassembly and to increase salvage value of the materials used. While there may be no
real harm in such practices, their implications must be realized.
Another common problem is a failure to appreciate and provide for the variety of
partial and eccentric loading conditions that may be encountered during concrete
placement and decentering operations. This is critical when the traveler itself has trusses
of appreciable span. Often, such trusses are designed as simply supported, but redun­
dant members are added that enforce continuity between trusses or between trusses
and columns. At other times, continuous trusses or beams are used with little regard for
the effect of uneven decentering, which may result in complete stress reversal in many
members. This may be especially serious where tie rods with little compressive strength
are used as tension members. Fig. 18.43: Rail mounted suspended form
With the foregoing problems in mind, the following suggestions are made: traveler and work platform for placing
Establish the placing sequence on any traveler in advance and follow it closely, with bridge edge beam and sidewalk (Image
the falsework designed accordingly. If this is impractical, then design falsework for courtesy Ooka USA)
a number of alternate placing sequences that will cover all conditions likely to be
encountered.
Plan the decentering procedure during the design of the traveler, and check the
design for stresses during decentering, assuming reasonable variations in the actual
performance of the decentering operation.

18.7 Preplaced Aggregate Concrete

Preplaced aggregate concrete, also referred to as grout intrusion or prepacked aggregate
concrete, is made by injecting grout into the voids of a preplaced mass of clean, graded
aggregate. This method of construction is used in the repair of damaged concrete struc­
tures, new construction, underwater concreting, and mass concrete structures.
The injected grout may consist of sand, portland cement, and water, sometimes mixed
in specially designed high-speed mixers that impart colloidal properties to the mixture;
or it may be a combination of water, fine sand, portland cement, pozzolanic filler, and a
chemical additive designed to increase the penetration and pumpability of the grout. The
special qualities of the additive inhibit early stiffening of the grout, enhance fluidity, and
hold the solid materials of the grout in suspension. The additive may also curtail shrinkage
or cause expansion of the grout. The coarse aggregate is similar to the one for conven­
tional concrete. It is well washed and graded from 1/2 in. to the largest size practicable.
After compaction in the forms, it usually has a void content ranging from 35 to 40%.
Higher void contents are possible, and the contractor should check this thoroughly in
selecting aggregate to avoid expense of extra cement for grout.
At finished surfaces, a surplus of grout is brought to the top of the coarse aggregate,
and sufficient fine aggregate is worked into the grout to produce a topping mixture
ready for screeding and floating. Because the preplaced aggregate particles are already in
contact before the grout is added, there is little drying shrinkage.
For normal construction, the preplaced aggregates are wetted and kept wet until the
injection of grout into the voids is completed. The grout is usually injected by hori­
zontal or vertical perforated pipes that are gradually withdrawn as the voids are filled. In
underwater construction, the grout displaces the water and fills the voids. If construc­
tion is to be interrupted for any length of time, the injection pipes should be withdrawn
and washed out. The depth of grout intrusion may be determined by measuring the
level of grout in preplaced inspection pipes with a float designed to sink in water but
float on the rising grout.
Particular attention must be paid to uplift pressures created in battered forms. Provi­
sions must be made to prohibit even the slightest uplift of the form. Injection pipes
spaced 5 to 6ft apart, penetrating the face of the form, require that the form be designed
for the pressures and provided with a means of plugging or shutting off the openings
when the injection pipes are removed.

18. 7. I Lateral Pressure

Due to the method of placement, the lateral pressures on formwork differ considerably
from those in conventional concrete construction. All formwork components should be
designed to resist the sum of the pressures from the dry aggregate and the injected grout.

SPECIAL TECHNIQUES IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION

Pressure from Aggregate
The pressure of the aggregate on the formwork is converted to an equivalent lateral fluid
pressure by using a reliable bin action theory or the Rankine or Coulomb theories for
granular materials. Using the Rankine or Coulomb theory, the maximum equivalent lateral
fluid pressure from the aggregate is

where$ is the angle of internal friction of the aggregate, degrees; his the height of aggre­
gate placement, ft; and wa is the unit weight of aggregate in a packed condition, lb/ftl.
Approximate values of 4> are 45 degrees for crushed stone and 40 degrees for rounded
gravel. No distinction need be made for larger-sized aggregate because the volumes in
such construction are so large that the aggregate size has little effect.

Pressure from Grout

The lateral pressure of the injected grout is the same as the pressure of an equivalent fluid
of the same weight as the grout-normally 130 lbfftl, but occasionally higher densities
up to 200 lb/ft3 may be used. The time required for the initial set of the fluidized grout
(from 1 to 2 hours) should be determined by standard test methods. The rate of rise (1 to
6 ft!h) will then be planned according to setting time and other project requirements. The
maximum height of fluid to be assumed in determining the lateral pressure of the grout is
the product of the rate of rise and the time of initial set. Thus, the pressure from the grout,
for normalweight grout, is

c,l'lgrOUI) = 130 lb/ft3 x Rt

where R is the rate of rise, ft/h; and r is the time of initial set measured in hours.
If grout is heavier, use the actual density in place of 130 lb/ft3 in the formula. ACI 304.1 R-
92, �Guide for the Use of Preplaced Aggregate Concrete for Structural and Mass Concrete
Applications; indicates that, for most projects, it has been found conservative for form
design to assume a minimum static grout pressure of 1440 lb/ft1•

Total Pressure on Forms

The lateral pressure for the design of formwork at any point is the sum of the aggregate
and grout pressures, as determined previously.

If preplaced aggregate concrete is to be placed underwater, the effect of water pressure

on the value of aggregate pressure on the forms must be taken into consideration.

18.7.2 Form Construction and Materials

In addition to the requirements outlined in Chapter 11 for conventional form construc­
tion, the forms must be completely grout-tight. The grout is as capable of penetrating
small holes in the forms as filling the voids in the preplaced aggregate. Low-frequency,
high-amplitude external vibration of the forms is frequently applied at or just below the
grout surface to permit the grout to cover aggregate-to-form contacts, providing a good,
smooth surface appearance. This, in addition to the lateral pressure, usually requires the
workmanship and detail of the formwork to be better than for conventional concrete.
Joints between form panels that do not produce a very tight fit are usually taped on the
inside. Anchor bolts or other penetrations should be tightly fitted or sealed on the inside.
Where forms overlap concrete or other surfaces, a compressible gasket or strip of grout
may be used to seal the joint.
Preassembled steel and plywood systems have been used on large projects, and precast
concrete panels have served as permanent forms for dam refacing. For underwater pier
construction or encasement of existing pier bases, sheet steel piling is most frequently
used. Deep water piers may require internal anchorage for the sheet piling because
successive placements above previously hardened concrete may cause deflection of the
sheeting, permitting grout flow between the piling and the already-hardened concrete.
Tongue-and-groove lumber is preferred for exposed surfaces; the joints between
boards permit the escape of traces of water. However, excessive bleeding will cause sand

CHAPTER 18
streaking that will mar the appearance of the finished surface. When significant bleeding
is unacceptable, caulking or sealing of the joints is recommended. For unexposed
surfaces, grout-tight forms of steel or plywood are acceptable. Prefabricated panel-
type forms usually are not suitable because of the difficulty in making grout-tight seals
between panels. Absorptive form linings are not recommended because they permit the
coarse aggregate to indent the lining and form an irregular surface. Form linings, such as
hardboard on common sheathing, are not successful because they do not transmit the
external form vibration normally required.

18.8 Shotcrete
In the shotcrete method of placement, concrete is projected by an air jet (Fig. 18.44)
directly onto various types of surfaces to any desired thickness.18·14 Shotcrete can be
used in numerous ways: for example, to repair dams, retaining walls, and concrete and
masonry structures; to build walls, slabs, and shells; to coat existing brick, concrete,
steel, and masonry structures; to encase structural members for fireproofing; and to line
tunnels and sewers.
There are two shotcrete processes: wet and dry. In the dry process, cement and aggre­ Fig. 18.44: Pneumatic placement of concrete
gate are dry-mixed and charged into a pressurized feeder. The pressurized dry mix passes allows placement to form free-form shapes
through a delivery hose to a special nozzle where water is introduced. The moistened with limited formwork (Photo courtesy
mixture jets directly onto the surface to be shotcreted. ln the wet process, aggregate, American Shotcrete Association)
cement, and water are mixed in a pressurized chamber and fed wet into the delivery hose.
Compressed air forces a jet of the wet mix onto the surface to be shotcreted.
Shotcreting techniques reduce forming problems because only a single forming or
support surface is required. Vertical walls can be built by shotcreting with only one
backing or forming surface required to support the fresh concrete (Fig. 18.45). Even soffits
can be built up from below against a horizontal surface.
For repair or coating of existing structures, there is no formwork; the pressurized
mixture is supported adequately by the surface being covered. Because the final struc­
tural value of a shotcrete repair depends on its bond with the surface on which the
mortar is shot, this surface must be sound and thoroughly cleaned. All coated, scaly, or
unsound concrete or masonry should be removed and dressed down to a solid, newly
exposed surface.
Forms may be of any rigid material such as wood, steel, paper-backed reinforcing
mesh, or sheets of expanded metal, adequately braced to prevent excessive vibration or
deflection during shotcrete placement. Where required for the support of the full weight
of shotcrete, they should be designed to permit the escape of placing air and rebound
during the gunning operations. Provision for escape of air and rebound is particularly
important for thicker structural members. Columns should be formed only on two adja­
Fig. 18.45: Vertical walls and pilasters can
cent sides wherever practicable; however, satisfactory results may be obtained where
be built by shotcreting against a single form
three sides are formed provided the width is at least 1-1/2 times the depth. Pilasters may
surface (Photo courtesy American Shotcrete
be formed on two adjacent or opposite sides. The soffit and one side of the beams should
Association)
be formed; this provides the maximum area of escape for air and rebound during the
shotcrete buildup. Forms need be placed for only one side of a waiL
Forms or backing against which shotcrete is placed should be thoroughly secured
to line and dimensions. If forms are to be removed after use, a release agent should be
applied before application of the shotcrete.
Adequate ground (gauging) wires should be used to establish the thickness, surface
planes, and finish lines of the shotcrete. Ground wires should be taut, secure, and true to
line and plane.
Scaffolding should be built so that the nozzleman can hold the nozzle at the optimum
angle and distance from the surface for all parts of the work (Fig. 18.46). The scaffolding
should also give easy access to the shotcrete surface for screeding and finishing, if such is
specified. Scaffolding should be constructed to permit uninterrupted application of the
shotcrete wherever possible. For full details on the placing operation, refer to ACI 506R-05,
·Guide to Shotcrete,� and to the shotcrete machine manufacturer's specifications.

18.9 Tremie Concrete

Tremie concrete is placed underwater by gravity feed through a vertical pipe with one end Fig. 18.46: Scaffolding is needed to allow the
above water for charging with concrete and the bottom immersed in the concrete being nozzle to be held at the optimum angle and
placed (Fig.18.47). This type of placement is used for sealing cofferdams and caissons, for finishing (Photo courtesy American Shot­
crete Association)

SPECIAL TECHNIQUES IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION

Fig. 18.47: Concrete placement underwater by Fig. 18.48: Example plug for tremie using Fig. 18.49: Enclosing plug in p/mtic bag to
tremie for a cofferdam seal (Photo courtesy polystyrene and plywood, which will float to enhance tremie pipe seal (Photo courtesy
W Kenneth Creech) surface when forced out by concrete (Photo W. Kenneth Creech)
courtesy W Kenneth Creech)

building underwater structures, and holding tunnel sections and other objects in place
underwater.18·1s-1s.16
The tremie pipe is first plugged (Fig. 18.48 and 18.49) and lowered into position. After
the pipe is filled with concrete, the plug is pushed out by the concrete as the tremie pipe
is slightly lifted. The concrete flows out and surrounds the bottom of the pipe so fresh
concrete passing through the pipe does not flow through or mix with the water. The
bottom of the pipe is kept continuously immersed in the fresh concrete.
If the pipe is lifted out of the concrete by accident or to move the pipe to a new
position, the original pipe plugging operation must be repeated. To prevent mixing
of water and concrete and to prevent stiff concrete from obstructing the flow of fresh
concrete, continuous placement is desirable. For best results, the forms are filled rapidly
to minimize laitance formation and the tremie pipe is kept immersed in concrete until
the forms are full.
Tremie forms must confine fresh concrete until it sets. Ordinarily, the forms are placed
on a gravel blanket. The seal between the forms and the blanket must prevent concrete
from flowing out under the forms. Inspection by a diver is usually necessary to ensure a
proper seal.
Good tremie concrete depends on a smooth, gentle flow of concrete into the forms. Any
turbulence will result in laitance. To produce gentle flow, concrete consistency, concrete
head, and pipe spacing must be in proper balance. The forms must be designed to arrest
water movement that would disturb the concrete before it sets.
In addition to the pressure from the concrete, the forms must withstand forces
produced by waves and currents and unbalanced pressures due to nonuniform concrete
placement. Forms for underwater work are designed with the same basic considerations
as for aboveground work, except that in calculating lateral pressure the density of the
submerged concrete can theoretically be reduced by the weight of displaced water.
Consideration should be given to local pressures that can develop due to the head of
concrete in the tremie. Some form designers prefer to ignore the effect of submergence
because this offsets some hard-to-quantify underwater conditions.
In tidal zones, forms should be designed for the lowest possible water level. Changes
in construction schedules can transform a planned submerged placement to one made
above water, thus losing the offsetting water pressure.

CHAPTER 78
 Underwater forms are built on the
surface in large units because any final
positioning and fitting done underwater
by divers is slow and costly. Multiuse forms
may have special devices for positioning
from above the water and special stripping
devices such as hydraulic jacks that also
permit form release from above the water.
Accurate knowledge of the behavior
of concrete placed underwater is difficult
to obtain, and therefore fewer facts are
available than for other concreting tech­
niques. For this reason, the form designer
not familiar with this type of construction
should consult an individual with tremie
experience.

18.1 0 Precast Concrete

Precast elements may be produced in a
factory (Fig. 18.50) or at the project site.
On projects where specifications permit a
choice between field casting or ordering
factory-cast members, the contractor's
decision depends on such considerations Fig. !8.50: Casting table and mounted formwork for a factory-produced wall panel
as availability of producers; transporta-
tion costs; and number, size, and shape of members to be cast. Factory production (often
with pretensioning) of precast elements has become a specialized operation, with many
aspects beyond the scope of this manual on formwork.
This discussion will emphasize precasting at the project site, where it is the work of the
concrete contractor or subcontractor. The scope of such work may range in scale from the
casting of a few complex shapes to the exceptionally large project where the contractor
in effect sets up a precasting plant at or near where the members will be used. Tilt-up and
lift-slab construction, which are specialized forms of site precasting, have been described
earlier in this chapter.

18. 10. 1 Advantages of Precasting

Precasting of structural and architectural elements at the job site has several advantages
over normal cast-in-place concrete construction:
1. Formwork costs are reduced by precasting. Less shoring is required, and fewer forms
are needed because reuse is easier to schedule. Forms are frequently simpler; in some
cases, they are almost entirely eliminated. This method of construction also makes
more efficient use of the labor force with crews working at or near ground level.
2. Placing and finishing are easier and better controlled because workers have easy
access to the forms. Working at lower levels improves safety of working conditions,
and thus can save on worker's compensation insurance rates.
3. Vertical transportation is simpler-only the completed piece and a minimum of
access scaffolding need be provided.
4. Reinforcing steel is easier to place accurately and to maintain in position. The steel
is placed at ground level rather than being lifted to its position in the structure.
Preformed cages of reinforcement can be easily dropped into the forms. Ground-level
pieces are easier to prestress.
5. Precasting is a time-saver. Precasting operations can go on during construction of the
foundation, basement, or other cast-in-place work. Cold weather and rain need not
interfere with production schedules. Precast structural elements are ready to carry a
load as soon as they are set in place and joined, thus eliminating the waiting period
required for cast-in-place beams and slabs to gain strength.
With the foregoing advantages in mind, the engineer/architect is wise to give the
contractor the option to precast whenever structural and architectural considerations
make it feasible.

SPECIAL TECHNIQUES IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION 18-23

Fig. 18.51: Wood form work forprecasting Fig. 18.52: Cur-away view of steel formwork Fig. 18.53: Double-tee steel formwork with
a buildingpanel in the needed limited forprecasting bridge girders (Image courtesy bulkheads installed to form skewed ends
production configuration Hamilton Form) (Photo courtesy Hamilton Form)

18. 10.2 Formwork Requirements

Apart from requirements that differ because of the different location of forms at the time
of casting, general considerations for the design and construction of formwork for precast
concrete are the same as for cast-in-place work. However, because the finished units are
assembled to form the structure, accurate dimensions are more essential because the
pieces must fit properly. These small tolerances require attention during construction
and reuse of the forms and the actual casting of the units. Depending on the application,
tolerance might be specified either by ACI117 or PCI MNL-135-00, NTolerance Manual for
Precast and Prestressed Concrete Construction.w

Materials
Forming material should be rugged, leak-resistant, rigid, and require little or no mainte­
nance. Maximum reuse with minimum repair is perhaps the most important consideration
when selecting materials. If the forms have to be repaired after only a few castings, some
of the advantages of this method of construction have been lost.
Untreated wood forms (Fig. 18.51) for complex shapes are satisfactory for limited reuse,
but for large production, they are difficult to strip and costly to keep in repair. A plastic
coating or a lining material such as plywood or hardboard will improve the stripping of
wood forms and lengthen their life. Form-grade plywood and overlaid plywood are also suit­
able as sheathing for these forms. There are several liquid-applied form coatings designed
specifically for precast construction that may also aid in constructing long-lasting forms.
Metal molds are well suited to this work (Fig. 18.52). They can be fabricated from sheets
or die-pressed. The stamping method is seldom used unless a great many molds of the
same shape and size are to be made. A wide range of metal forms for standard sizes and
shapes of structural units (Fig. 18.53) is available from manufacturers who specialize in this
field. Many of these ready-made forms have provisions for adjustment to varying sizes.
Concrete molds may be cast from a wood, plaster, sand, or concrete master mold.
Special care must be taken in finishing the concrete mold so that it will have a surface
compatible with the desired finish of the precast units. Concrete molds with metal or
wood side forms are well suited for the casting of ribbed slab units.
Plastic and glass-reinforced plastics are also suitable for precast concrete forms and form
linings. These materials, like concrete and metal, will give prolonged service with proper
care. The method of making plastic molds is discussed in Chapter 4.

Layout of Casting Area

Efficiency in the use of materials and labor will reduce costs in any type of construction.
This is especially true in precast work. One of the primary considerations is a well-planned
casting area at the job site; even for relatively small projects, an orderly and efficient layout
saves time and labor.
The forms should be arranged for assembly line operation. There must be enough space
to allow the passage of transit-mix trucks and lifting equipment. Concreting of one set of
forms must not hold up the stripping of another set and vice versa. Material storage areas
must be dose, yet not hamper the operation. Storage of completed units must be planned

CHAPTER 18
Fig. 18.54: Wall panel cast horizontally but Fig. 18.55: Vibrating table for precasting wall Fig. 18.56: Fabrication of steel form with
lifted, stored, and erected vertically panels in a horizontal position but lifting with hydraulic fold-out sides for precasting
edge inserts to strip after tilting prestressed inverted tee beams (Photo cour­
tesy Hamilton Form)
ahead while consideration of the layout of the yard area and scheduling of the casting
operation will be time well spent.

Casting Bed
The type of bed used will depend on the items to be cast and the type of forms used. For
shapes to be cast using the bed as a bottom form, the surface should be level, smooth,
hard, and free from cracks, holes, or crevices. A concrete slab can be used effectively as
the bed-sometimes the completed floor slab of the structure. For some items, the bed
is raised to table height for more efficient concrete placing and finishing. In all cases, the
bed must be watertight and rigid so that the weight of the concrete will not deform it and
passing equipment will not cause movement of the forms. Wall panels are often cast flat to
avoid the high concrete lateral pressures normally associated with wall construction. It is
often desirable to locate the lifting inserts in the top edge of the panel for vertical storage
and erection (Fig. 18.54). However, tilting from horizontal with an edge lift can crack
panels and damage edges. Thus, in plant precasting, a tilting table {Fig. 18.55) is often
used so that the panel can be tilted to near vertical before the edge lift.
Units such as beams may be cast in individual forms that require no special bed. The
foundations for casting beds that carry heavy loads such as stacked castings should be
designed to prevent differential settlement. Prestressed precast work presents unique
challenges, as discussed Section 18.11.

Form Construction
The forms can be built in various ways depending on the shape of the piece to be cast,
the material used, the space available, and the number of reuses required. For instance,
panels can be cast individually or one on top of the other. Where the precast units are to
be stacked as cast, the form must be designed to carry the total load of stacked units, and
the subgrade or supporting bed must also be adequate for the total load. This precau­
tion must be remembered when a completed driveway or floor slab-on-ground is to
be the casting bed. Beams or other members with a constant cross section can be cast
individually in long forms, in which the length of the members is regulated by adjustable
diaphragms as in plant precast production (Fig. 18.53).
Prefabricated forms ready-made for most common shapes or custom-made for special
shapes are used in field as well as factory casting. They are usually made so the form
section can be modified by bolting on diaphragms, moving side forms, or blocking. Some
(Fig. 18.56) have special features, such as fold-down sides, that facilitate stripping.
Because an economical precasting operation frequently depends on early stripping of
forms for reuse, provisions for adequate curing without the forms should be made. The
vacuum and steam-curing techniques used in factory precasting may be adaptable to
some exceptionally large site precasting operations, but generally more conventional
methods must be relied on. Any equipment needed for curing should be arranged so that
it will not interfere with placing and stripping operations. Form dimensions should take
into account any shrinkage caused by the curing process.
Some precast elements such as box girders require inside forms. These must be prop­
erly located and anchored to reinforcement and side or deck forms with ties to prevent

SPECIAL TECHNIQUES IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION

flotation or displacement during the placing of concrete. It is important for these interior
forms to remain in the correct position at all times to prevent reduction or change in the
critical cross section as the concrete is placed.
Inside forms made from cardboard are often used and left in place to eliminate strip­
ping the interiors of hollow sections. If forms for interior openings are made of wood, they
should be equipped with a knock-out or release device to allow loosening of the forms
after finishing is completed. A removable or adjustable relief section prevents swelling of
the forms from cracking the concrete. It is desirable to leave openings in both the top and
bottom faces of interior forms to check placement of concrete in the bottom of the girder.
Weep holes should be provided for hollow girders, whether they are formed with stay-in­
place cardboard interior units or with removable wood forms.

18.10.3 Stripping
All forms must be designed for easy stripping. Side forms are usually hinged so they can
be folded down or fastened by clamps or pins for easy removal. When the stripping opera­
tion is accomplished by lifting the casting out of the form, the design of the form should
be such that it cannot become keyed or wedged to the concrete. Because the units are
usually stripped as soon as possible to free the forms for casting another piece, the green
concrete may be damaged if the mold hangs up on the casting. Some small draft in the
forms is required because friction on a surface exactly parallel to the movement may
damage the surface of the casting.
Forms should be coated with release agent or otherwise treated to facilitate strip­
ping. When precast members are cast one on top of the other, appropriate separating
membranes are required. These may be sheet materials or films of plastic, but many
favor the liquid type that can be applied with power spray equipment. Any separating
membrane or form release agent should be of a clear, nonstaining type and should not
interfere with the adhesion of paint or plaster if any is to be applied to the concrete
surface after the unit is erected. Air or water introduced between casting and mold by a
water or air pipe will aid stripping.
Molds can be tied down with wire to pull them from the casting as it is lifted. In the
event of sticking, wire strength should be such that it will break before the concrete
casting is damaged by splitting away from the mold.

18. 10.4 Erection ond Joints

All precast units must be safely and adequately shored and braced in position immediately
after erection. Shores and braces should be left in place until final connections are made
and cured (if cast-in-place concrete forms part of the joint). Shoring and bracing should be
installed as detailed in the plan drawings or as approved by the engineer/architect.
If the precast units are only 7 to 10 days old at the time of erection, as is frequently the
case, a considerable portion of the drying shrinkage is still to occur. Connections must
be designed to accorrimodate this shrinkage, or the designer should specify a longer
drying period after curing or that restraining connections be made later, to allow time for
shrinkage to take place.
A preferred method of connecting precast units is by doweling bars from the units into
a cast-in-place joint. The use of relatively wide joints between adjacent panel units permits
�screeding out" or compensating for minor differences in surface alignment. Forms are
sometimes required for joints between adjacent panels or units.

18.11 Prestressed Precast Concrete

Prestressed concrete members are composed of high-strength concrete and high-strength
steel. Design stresses are closely controlled, but behavior in service depends on the speci­
fied concrete being properly placed in forms of the correct dimensions around accurately
positioned prestressing steel or ductwork for steel.
There are two methods of prestressing concrete: pretensioning and post-tensioning.
Pretensioning is accomplished by stressing steel strands to a predetermined amount
(Fig. 18.57) and casting concrete around them while the stress is maintained. After the
concrete has hardened, the end anchorages of the strands are released. The stress in
the strands is transferred by their bond to the concrete, producing the prestressing
force. In post-tensioned construction, concrete is cast around unstressed strands or bars
enclosed in flexible metal or plastic ducts to prevent bond with the concrete. The strand
or bar tendons are draped in a profile (Fig. 1 B.SB) so the post-tensioning force will cause

CHAPTER 18
compressive stress in the concrete at locations that will counteract the bending tension
due to dead and live loads imposed in service. In some cases, the strands or bars are
inserted later into the ducts cast within the concrete members. After the concrete has
hardened, the unbonded tendons are stressed and anchored to the ends of the member
(Fig. 18.59), thus prestressing the concrete. Post-tensioned strands or bars are then
protected from corrosion by grease or cement grout injected in the space around the
strands or bars within the sleeve or duct.
Post-tensioning is commonly regarded as a job-site technique, and pretensioning
is most commonly a method of manufacturing prestressed concrete in permanent
precasting plants. However, post-tensioned beams are also made in precasting plants, and
temporary pretensioning plants may be set up at or near the job site. In keeping with the
scope of this manual, discussion of both methods emphasizes work done at the construc­
tion site. Only linear prestressing-prestressing of elongated structures or elements such Fig. 18.57: Pretensioned strand held at
as beams, slabs, piles, and the like-will be discussed because most circularly prestressed required elevation by bulkhead slots in steel

structures are built by a few contractor specialists using proprietary methods. formwork for precasting stay-in-place bridge
deck forms like those shown in Chapter 15
18. 11. 1 Forms for Post-Tensioning (Photo courtesy Precast/Prestressed Concrete
Because post-tensioning is applied without the use of a special tensioning bed or bench, Institute)

this method of prestressing is applicable to both cast-in-place and precast construction. It

is the method most likely to be used by the contractor, who may apply it to both cast-in­
place and job-site precast members. Post-tensioning is particularly economical on projects
where only a few prestressed members of special cross section are needed. For example,
on a bridge project where a dozen beams of nonstandard design are needed, it may prove
more economical for the general contractor to make them on the site than to order from a
precasting plant and transport them to the site.
Where there are relatively few form uses, non-adjustable wood forms are frequently
used in post-tensioning operations. Well-built wood forms properly coated and cared
for may often be used 10 times or more before reconditioning is required. If unprotected
dry wood is used, its expansion must be controlled to prevent damage to the forms and
concrete casting. Fig. 18.58: Draped tendon supported by bar
Steel forms are used whenever the number of reuses is great enough to justify their on high chair at slab band with slab band
added cost. Blackouts and bulkheads are used to accommodate variations in shapes (beam) tendons running at bottom in oppo­
and sizes. Aside from the considerations of materials related to the anticipated number site direction
of reuses of the forms, the following characteristics1s.17 are desirable in forms for post­
tensioned concrete:
1. Precision of the form units and dimensions. Because the forms for precast work are
generally made in panels that can be connected together to form a large member, it is
essential that the panels fit together precisely.
2. Ease of handling. It is essential that the individual pieces of the form that must be handled
are not awkward to handle and remain in a generally upright position. This characteristic
makes it easy to adjust the forms in the precise position required during erection and to
lay them on their backs for cleaning.
3. A design that permits one side of the form to be erected in the final position indepen­
dently of the opposite side. This facilitates layout of the member and simplifies forming
special blackouts and transverse holes through the member, as well as making it easier Fig. I 8.59: Monosrrand post-tensioning
to secure web reinforcing and post-tensioning units in the proper location. tendon anchorages attached to edge form for
4. Form vibration. The forms should be sufficiently strong to withstand the effects of form flat-plate floor slab
vibration. For precast members, brackets or rails should be supplied with the forms
to facilitate placing form vibrators. Fewer vibrators are needed when the soffit form is
mounted on anti-vibration mountings.
s. Rigid, structural soffit form. The soffit form must be rigid to resist deflection under the
load of fresh concrete. In addition, the soffit form should be a structural element to which
the side form can be securely attached to prevent the side forms from moving upward or
outward during placing of the concrete. This latter requirement is particularly significant
in the manufacture of members with large bottom flanges because the uplift may be
great under such conditions. In spite of the need for rigidity during concrete placement,
the form assembly must be planned so that it does not restrain elastic shortening, deflec­
tion, or camber resulting from application of the post-tensioning force.
6. A minimum of joints. All joints should minimize leakage and bleeding.

SPECIAl TECHNIQUES IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION

 Erection and Removal
The soffit form and one side form for a post-tensioned member are generally set in place
first, as shown in Fig. 18.60. Then bearing plates, anchorage assemblies, prestressing
steel, reinforcing steel, conduits, ducts, and lifting devices to be set in the concrete must
be accurately located with formwork templates and securely attached before setting
the other side form. Information on the location of these devices should be given in the
contract documents.
Many post-tensioning hardware systems are available, each with different installa-
tion and stressing procedures. Detailed information on a given system can be obtained
from the supplier. The engineer who designs post-tensioned concrete should specify any
camber required in forms as well as the required concrete strength for various stages of
prestressing. The post-tensioned precast
girders shown in Fig. 18.61 were cast in the
form shown in Fig. 18.60.
Side forms are usually designed to be
stripped before post-tensioning to prevent
wedging of the forms.
Form supports and soffit forms for cast­
in-place members cannot be removed until
sufficient prestressing has been applied to
carry dead load, any formwork supported
by the member, and anticipated construc­
tion loads. The length of time that the
forms are to remain in place should be
specified by the engineer/architect along
with any required decentering schedule.
The engineer/architect should indi­
cate in the contract documents any
special construction requirements for
prestressed construction. For example,
' it may be necessary to provide appro­
Fig. 18.60: Steel form with one side open for installation of reinforcing bars and post-tensioning priate means of lowering or removing the
ducts (Photo courtesy Hamilton Form) formwork after partial prestress is applied
to prevent damage due to upward
deflection of resilient formwork. Care should be exercised with post-tensioned slabs
to ensure that supporting shores do not fall out due to lifting of slab during tendon
tensioning. The concrete placing sequence for some structures must also be planned
so that concrete in the process of hardening is not subjected to bending stress caused
by deflection of the formwork.

Effect of Post· Tensioning on Forms

Although the forms are quite similar to those for conventional reinforced concrete,
there are several important differences. In addition to normal shrinkage, post-tensioned
members will shorten when the prestress is applied. Forms can absorb part of the
prestress if they resist this shortening; therefore. they must either be provided with
Fig. 18.61: Precast variable depth girders after
sections that can be removed for stress relief or designed to allow proper movement of
stripping and prestressing by post-tensioning
the casting.
(Photo courtesy Hamilton Form)
Another consideration in form design for this method of construction is the deflection
of the member during the post-tensioning operation. long girders, for example, may lift
off the soffit form, providing support at midspan when post-tensioned. This redistributes
the dead load toward the end supports where the soffit form and its supports must with­
stand the higher concentrated end reactions of the girder. Similar behavior occurs in post­
tensioned floor slabs (refer to ACI 347.2R·OS, ·Guide for Shoring/Reshoring of Concrete
Multistory Buildings,� for analysis procedures).
When post-tensioned members are cast in place, with relatively long clear formwork
spans, the designer must camber the formwork to compensate for its deflection under
load, taking into consideration the upward deflection that will occur in the member when
the prestress is applied, as well as any net camber desired in the finished structure. Form
removal must be planned in relation to stages of the post-tensioning operation.

CHAPTER 18
 Example 18.1 is representative of prob­
lems that may occur in such construction. utmmlJI:Idj@l,§.(11.!.!§.1:ttf!@I•Aii§i!.!.t
Each case must be planned with coordina­ Assume formwork for a bridge over a waterway is to be supported by temporary
tion between the engineer/architect and steel trusses spanning between the bridge piers. The trusses were built with a 2 in.
the formwork engineer/contractor. camber and the forms were set for a 3 in. total camber, including the truss camber.
After the deck was cast, a 1 in. camber remained, indicating a 2 in. formwork deflec­
18. 11.2 Forms for Prelensioning tion. Strand tendons were tensioned in two phases. The first phase was sufficient
Pretensioning tendons must remain to support the concrete bridge dead load. Thus, after the first phase strands were
stressed until the concrete-tendon bond tensioned, the falsework was lowered and moved to its next position for reuse.
and the concrete strength are capable of Prestressing was then completed. Because the bridge was much stiffer than the
accepting prestress. Stress in the tendons falsework, upward deflection from the full tensioning amounted to only 1 in.,
may be held by anchoring them at ends approximately half the downward deflection of the trusses under the weight of the
of steel molds, called �self-stressing"forms concrete. If the formwork had not been lowered, the upward force from the elastic
{Fig. 18.62 and 18.63), designed to with­ recovery of the truss would have overstressed the deck in reverse bending and
stand the prestressing force as well as loads possibly cracked the deck.
from the freshly placed concrete. Alter­
nately, the stressed tendons are held by
massive end anchorages on pretensioning
beds or benches, which also provide a level
surface on which the members may be cast.
The pretensioning bed is usually a perma­
nent installation. For this reason, preten­
sioning is well suited to the factory produc­
tion of precast prestressed members.
However, for large remote projects, site
pretensioning may prove economical.
The contractor who decides to undertake
the production of pretensioned members,
for reasons of economy peculiar to the
project or special site location away from Fig. 18.62: Self-stressing double-tee form with Fig. 18.63: Self-stressing dual piling form with
factory facilities, is advised to secure the anchor plates having hole pattern to accept stressed strands held by strand chucks at the
services of a consultant thoroughly familiar many possible strand locations {Photo cour­ end bearing plate after pretensioning (Photo
with pretensioning techniques. Because tesy Hamilton Form) courtesy Hamilton Form)
the typical contractor will not be concerned
with the design and construction of forms for pretensioned concrete, the desirable charac­
teristics18·18 of pretensioned concrete forms will only be summarized briefly:
1. High resistance to damage due to rough handling. This requirement normally elimi­
nates the use of wood forms that do not perform well under repeated use, particularly
if exposed to steam curing. Although concrete forms have been used successfully, the
lighter steel forms are generally preferred.
2. Adjustability. The forms, or components of the forms, should be adjustable in such a
manner that members of several shapes can be made from the form or form components.
3. Precision of form units and dimensions.
4. Ease of handling and a design that permits one side to be erected in the final position
independently of the opposite side.
5. Provision for form vibration.
6. Rigid, structural soffit form.
7. A minimum of joints.
In addition, provisions should be made for the deformation and movement of the
casting during the prestressing operation and for movement of the member without
damage during release of the prestressing force. Forms may be partially or entirely
stripped before tendons are released to stress the member because shortening, bending,
and shrinkage will occur to some degree. Where the side forms cannot be conveniently
removed, they must be designed for additional axial and/or bending loads that may be
imposed on them during the prestressing operation. Adequate horizontal and vertical
movement of the casting should be allowed during stress transfer to prevent the
casting or forms from being damaged. Provision in the soffit for attaching tie-down
devices to hold the prestressed tendons at desired depths is also required for many
pretensioned members.

SPECIAL TECHNIQUES IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION

 Safety shields should be provided at end anchorages of prestressing beds to protect
workers and equipment against the possible breakage of prestressing strands or acci­
dental release of the chucks gripping the strands.
Prefabricated forms that meet all or many of the aforementioned characteristics are
available from several manufacturers. Custom-designed forms can also be ordered.

REFERENCES
18.1. Camellerie,J. F., NVertical Slipforming as a Construction Tool," Concrete Construction,
V. 23, No. 5,May 1978,pp. 262-272.
18.2. Camellerie,J. F., NSiipform Details and Techniques,· AC/ Journal Proceedings, V. 55,
No. 10,Oct. 1959,pp. 1131-1140; addenda published in ACI Journal Proceedings, V. 59, No.
8,Aug. 1962,p. 1109.
18.3. "Siipformed Tower at Inches per Hour," Concrete International, V. 6, No. 4,Apr. 1984,
p. 57.
18.4. Ray,G. K., and Halm, H. J., "Fifteen Years of Slip-Form Paving," AC/ Journal Proceed­
ings, V. 62, No. 2,Feb. l%S,pp. 14S-160.
18.5. NTilt-Up Concrete Buildings,N Portland Cement Association,Skokie, IL,1989.
18.6. Mays,T. W., and Steinbicker,J. J., NEngineering Tilt-Up,NTilt-Up Concrete Association,
Mt. Vernon,lA,32S pp.
18.7. NThe Construction ofTilt-Up,NTilt-Up Concrete Association, Mt. Vernon,lA,22S pp.
18.8: Russillo, M.A., Nlift Slab Construction; Its History, Methodology, Economics,
and Applications,N Forming Economical Concrete Buildings-Proceedings of the Third
International Conference, SP-107, American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, Ml,
1988, pp. 59-68.
18.9. Hurd,M. K., NWalls and Slab Lifted in Texas," Concrete Construction, Oct. 1989,p. 891.
18.10. Culver,C. G.; Scribner,C. F.; Marshall,RD.;Yokel,F. Y.;Gross,J. L.;Yancey,C. W.; and
Hendrickson,E. M., Nlnvestigation of l'Ambiance Plaza Building Collapse in Bridgeport,
Connecticut," NBS IR 87-3640, National Institute of Standards and Technology,Washington,
DC,Sept. 30,1987,309 pp.
18.11. Christiansen,J., "Economics of Hyperbolic Paraboloid Concrete Shells,NConcrete
International, V. 12, No. 8,Aug. 1990,pp. 24-29.
18.12. Tedesko,A., NConstruction Aspects ofThin-Shell Structures," AC/ Journal Proceed­
ings, V. 49, No. 2,Feb. 1952,p. 505.
18.13. Wilson,A., "Very large Air-Formed Concrete Shells,N Concrete International, V. 15,
No. 8,Aug.1990,pp. 21-23.
18.14. Reading,T. J. et al., Shotcreting: A Symposium of Thirteen Papers on General and
Specialized Shotcreting Practices, SP-14,American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills,Ml,
1966 (reprinted 1977),224 pp.
18.15: Gerwick, B. C. Jr., NPiacement ofTremie Concrete,N Symposium on Concrete
Construction in Aqueous Environment, SP-8,American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills,
Ml,1964,pp. 9-20.
18.16: Gerwick, B. C. Jr.,and Holland,T. C., NUnderwater Concreting: Advancing the State
of the Art for Structural Tremie Concrete; Lewis H. Tuthill International Symposium: Concrete
and Concrete Construction, SP-104,American Concrete Institute,Farmington Hills, Ml, 1987,
pp. 123-144.
18.17: Libby,J. R., Prestressed Concrete, Ronald Press Co., New York,1961,pp. 331-332.
(reprinted by permission of the publisher)
18.18: Libby,J. R., Prestressed Concrete, Ronald Press Co., New York,1961,pp. 15-41.
(reprinted by permission of the publisher)
APPENDIX A-REFERENCED STANDARDS
AND REPORTS
The standards and reports listed below were the latest at the time this document was
prepared. Because these documents are revised frequently, the reader is advised to
contact the sponsoring group if it is desired to refer to the latest version. Some of the
publications are also listed dually with the American National Standards Institute (ANSI).

American Concrete Institute

ACI117-10 Specification for Tolerances for Concrete Construction and
Materials and Commentary
ACI207.1R-05 Guide to Mass Concrete (Reapproved 2012)
ACI207.4R-05 Cooling and Insulating Systems for Mass Concrete (Reapproved
2012)
ACI207.5R-11 Report on Roller-Compacted Mass Concrete
ACI222R-01 Protection of Metals in Concrete Against Corrosion (Reapproved
2010)
ACI301-10 Specifications for Structural Concrete
ACI302.1R-04 Guide for Concrete Floor and Slab Construction
ACI303R-12 Guide to Cast-in-Place Architectural Concrete Practice
ACI303.1-97 Standard Specification for Cast-in-Place Architectural Concrete
ACI304.1R-92 Guide for the Use of Preplaced Aggregate Concrete for
Structural and Mass Concrete Applications
ACI305R-10 Guide to Hot Weather Concreting
ACI306R-10 Guide to Cold Weather Concreting
ACI309R-05 Guide for Consolidation of Concrete
ACI313-97 Standard Practice for Design and Construction of Concrete
Silos and Stacking Tubes for Storing Granular Materials and
Commentary
ACI315-00 Dct;)ils .:�nd Detailing of Concrete Re!nforcemem
ACI31B-11 Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete and
Commentary
ACI334.1R-92 Concrete Shell Structures-Practice and Commentary
(Reapproved 2002)
ACI 334.3R-05 Construction of Concrete Shells Using Inflated Forms
ACI346-09 Standard Specification for Cast-in-Place Concrete Pipe
ACI347R-14 Guide to Formwork for Concrete
ACI347.2R-05 Shoring/Reshoring of Concrete Multistory Buildings
ACI347.3R-13 Guide for Formed Concrete Surfaces
ACI435R-95 Control of Deflection in Concrete Structures (Reapproved 2000)
ACI506R-05 Guide to Shotcrete
ACISSl.lR-05 Guide to Tilt-Up Concrete Construction
ACISP-2(07) Manual of Concrete Inspection
ACISP-66(04) ACIDetailing Manual-2004

The Aluminum Association

ADM 1-2010 Aluminum Design Manual

American Institute of Steel Construction

AISC 325-11 Steel Construction Manual

American Iron and Steel Institute

D100-08 Cold-Formed Steel Design Manual

American Notional Standards Institute

ANSIA4B.l-19B6 Forms for One-Way Concrete Joist Construction
ANSIA4B.2-19B6 Forms for Two-Way Concrete Joist Construction
ANSIA190.1-2012 Wood Products-Structural Glued Laminated Timber

American Society of Civil Engineers

ASCEJSEI 7-10 Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures
ASCEJSEI37-14 Design Loads on Structures During Construction

American Society of Safety Engineers

ANSI/ASSE A 10.B-11 Scaffolding Safety Requirements
ANSI/ASSE A 10.9-2013 Safety Requirements for Concrete and Masonry Work

American Wood Council

AWC NDS-2012 National Design Specification for Wood Construction (including
addenda through July 1, 2013)

APA The Engineered Wood Association

0510C-2012 Panel Design Specification
V34SV-2012 Design /Construction Guide: Concrete Forming

ASTM International
ASTM (31-06 Standard Practice for Making and Curing Concrete Test
Specimens in the Field
ASTM (39-05 Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength of Cylindrical
Concrete Specimens
ASTM C803-03 Standard Test Method for Penetration Resistance of Hardened
Concrete
ASTM C873-04 Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength of Concrete
Cylinders Cast in Place in Cylindrical Molds
ASTM C900-06 Standard Test Method for Pullout Strength of Hardened
Concrete

APPENDIX A#
ASTM C1074-04 Standard Practice for Estimating Concrete Strength by the
Maturity Method

Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)

OSHA29 CFR1926 Safety and Health Regulations for Construction

Precosf/Prestressed Concrete Institute

PCI MNL·13S·OO Tolerance Manual for Precast and Prestressed Concrete

Scaffolding, Shoring, and Forming Institute

SSFI F401 Guide to Safety Procedures for Vertical Concrete Formwork
SSFI SH300·07 Standards for Testing and Rating Shoring Equipment
SSFI SH304 Recommended Frame Shoring Erection Procedure

Steel Joist Institute

SJI COSP-201 0 Code of Standard Practice for Steel Joists and Joist Girders

U.S. Department of Commerce, National Institute of Standards and

Technology
LLB·810 a Hardboard Concrete Form Liners (Simplified Practice
Recommendation)
PS1·09 Structural Plywood
PS2·10 Performance Standard for Wood· Based Structural-Use Panels
PS20·10 American Softwood Lumber Standard

These publications may be obtained from the following organizations:

American Concrete Institute
38800 Country Club Dr.
Farmington Hills, MI4B331-3439
www.concrete.org

The Aluminum Association

1525 Wilson Blvd.
Arlington, VA22209
www.aluminum.org

American Institute of Steel Construction

One East Wacker Drive, Suite700
Chicago, IL 60601·1B02
www.aisc.org

American Iron and Steel Institute

25 Massachusetts Avenue NW, SuiteBOO
Washington, DC20001
www.steel.org

American National Standards Institute

25 West43 rd St., 4 th floor
New York, NY 10036
www.ansi.org

American Society of Civil Engineers

1B01 Alexander Bell Drive
Reston, VA20191
www.asce.org

American Society of Safety Engineers

1800 E. Oakton St.
Des Plaines, IL60018
www.asse.org

REFERENCED STANDARDS AND REPORTS

American Wood Council
222 Catoctin Circle, SE, Suite201
Leesburg, VA20175
www.awc.org

APA-The Engineered Wood Association

7011 S.19 th St.
Tacoma, WA98466-5333
wwww.apawood.org

ASTM International
100 Barr Harbor Dr.
PO BoxC700
West Conshohocken, PA19428
www.astm.org

Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)

United States Department of Labor
200 Constitution Ave., NW
Washington, DC20210
www.osha.gov

Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute

200 West Adams St., Suite2100
Chicago, IL60606
www.pci.org

Scaffolding, Shoring, and Forming Institute

1300 Sumner Avenue
Cleveland, OH44115
www.ssfi.org

Steel Joist Institute

234 W. Cheves Street
Florence, SC29501
www.steeljoist.org

U.S. Department of Commerce

National Institute of Standards and Technology
100 Bureau Drive, Stop1070
Gaithersburg, MD20899-1070
www.nist.gov
APPENDIX B-NOTATION

= area of cross section F,1 = reference compression design value perpendicular to

= bearing contact area grain
= effective area Fa' = adjusted compression design value perpendicular to
= projected area of an individual object grain
= contributing form area including effects of continuity = critical stress
= gross area of object or area bounded by object = elastic critical steel buckling stress
= net cross-sectional area of tie = allowable rolling shear stress
= area of formed surface void = reference rolling shear design value for plywood
= width or breadth of beam cross section = adjusted rolling shear design value for plywood
C" = bearing area factor = allowable working stress for tie material
Cc = chemistry coefficient = reference shear design value parallel to grain(horizontal
c,P = lateral pressure of fresh concrete shear)
c,_ = maximum lateral pressure of fresh concrete f,' = adjusted shear design value parallel to grain(horizontal
C0 = cumulative load duration factor shear)
Cot = construction dead load-self weight of the formwork = specified minimum yield stress of steel
Cdi = diaphragm factor for nailed connections actual bending stress
�� : :�� ?a� �/
=

i actor for connections = actual compression stress parallel to grain in wood; or

i t actual compressive strength of concrete
c,Jofl. = fixed material load-vertical dead load of placed = specified compressive strength of concrete
concrete and reinforcement = actual compression stress perpendicular to grain
= flat use factor = actual rolling shear stress in plywood
= group action factor = steel stress
= horizontal construction loads = concrete tensile strength
= incising factor = actual shear stress parallel to grain(horizontal shear)
= beam stability factor = oven-dry specific gravity
= wet service factor = minimum lateral force
= column stability factor = depth of fluid or plastic concrete in the form
= personnel and equipment loads-live load during = moment of inertia(= bcP/12 for rectangular beam)
placing and finishing operations = moment of inertia about the x-axis
c, = repetitive member factor = effective length factor
c, = concrete setting factor K, = buckling coefficient
c, = temperature factor K, = format conversion factor
c. = toenailing factor for nailed connections KS = effective section modulus
c_ = variable material load l = brace length
c. = unit weight coefficient ll = design live load on the slab
c, = geometry factor e = span or length; normally measured center to center of
= distance to extreme fiber supports,except for plywood design; i is clear span; e<'
0 = slab dead load when calculating shear.
D,_, = maximum diameter of surface void e, = length of bearing at supports
DL = design dead load including slab weight and e, = clear span face-to-face of supports
superimposed dead load e, = effective length of compression member as used in
= depth of beam cross section slenderness ratio determination
d,, d2 = dimensions of rectangular compression member iu = laterally unsupported length of bending member
E = modulus of elasticity for deflection calculations, reference M = maturity of concrete
design value M,_, = maximum induced bending moment
E' = modulus of elasticity for deflection calculations, adjusted M, = nominal design(resisting) moment(= Fb'S)
design value = number of identical equidistant objects
E, = modulus of elasticity of concrete m.c. = moisture content,%
E,.., = modulus of elasticity for beam and column stability p = concentrated load or total concentric axial load
calculations, reference design value P. = required compressive strength for steel buckling
Em�n' = modulus of elasticity for beam and column stability members (ASD)
calculations, adjusted design value = nominal compressive strength for steel buckling
E, = earthquake or seismic load members
F, = reference bending design value = required compressive strength for steel buckling
F; = adjusted bending design value members (lRFO)
F, = reference compression design value parallel to grain = pressure or load
f,' = adjusted compression design value parallel to grain = total vertical design load for deflection
q, = total vertical design load for strength V, = nominal design (resisting) shear force
R = rate of placement for calculation of form pressure due to W = wind load; or reference withdrawal design value
fresh concrete; or reaction at a point W = uniform load, lb/ft
R8 = slenderness ratio for bending members W, = weight of concrete deadman
R, = horizontal reaction w = uniformly distributed load
RY = vertical reaction w, = unit weight (density) of concrete
r = radius of gyration = distance of concentrated load from the support face
S = section modulus(= bcP/6 for rectangular beam) Z = reference lateral design value
S, = section modulus about the x-axis Z' = adjusted design shear strength
= spacing of members a = numerical constant

sb = spacing of bolts 6 = deflection

T = concrete temperature 6, = columnar shortening
T0 = datum temperature 6"""' = maximum deflection
Tb = bolt tension force = ratio of effective area to gross area
T� = hoop tension '1 = shielding coefficient
T, = temperature of concrete as a function of time Tlm = cumulative shielding coefficient
= time at which maturity is determined 4t = resistance factor
U1 = ultimate load capacity at 3 days 4tb = resistance factor for bending
u. = ultimate load capacity at 4 days 41, = resistance factor for compression
U1 = ultimate load capacity at 7 days A = time effect factor for wood; or lightweight concrete
U1B = ultimate load capacity at 28 days modification factor
V = shear force )J = coefficient of friction
VOn = minimum shear force required for design n = safety factor
V"""' = maximum shear force
APPENDIX C-GLOSSARY

Several sources have been surveyed to determine the most appropriate definitions to
include in this work on formwork for concrete. The source of the definition presented is
indicated in parentheses at the conclusion of the definition. Where the source is an ACI
document, the document designation is indicated. Where the source is ACIConcrete
Terminology, the source is indicated as (CT). Where no source is indicated, the definition
was developed for inclusion in this document or taken from previous editions of Formwork
for Concrete.

anchor, form-device used to secure formwork to previously placed concrete of

adequate strength, normally embedded in the concrete during placement. (CT)
architect/engineer-see engineer!architect.
area exposed to view-portion of structure that can be observed by the public during
normal use. {ACI347.3R-13)
arris-the sharp external corner edge that is formed at the junction of two planes or
surfaces. {CT)
as-cast finish-a concrete surface that has not been altered following form removal.
Some specifiers add Hexcept for patching defects and filling tie holes� to this definition.
back form-see form, top {preferred term).
back stay-see brace {preferred term).
backshores-shores left in place or shores placed snugly under a concrete slab or struc­
tural member after the original formwork and shores have been removed from a small
area, without allowing the entire slab or member to deflect or support its self-weight and
construction loads. {ACI347R-14)
band Iron-thin metal strap used as form tie, hanger, or other holding device.
base plate-a device used between post, leg, or screw jack and foundation to distribute
the axial load.
batten {also batten strip)-a narrow strip of wood placed over the vertical joint of
sheathing or paneling; also used to hold several boards together. {See also cleat.) {CT)
batter-inclination from vertical.
batter boards-pairs of horizontal boards nailed to wooden stakes adjoining an excava­
tion; used as a guide to elevations and to outline the building.
bay-the space, in plan, between the centerlines of adjacent piers, mullions, or columns; a
small, well-defined area of concrete placed at one time in the course of placing large areas,
such as floors, pavements, or runways. {CT)
beam bottom-soffit or bottom form for a beam. (CT)
beam form clamp-any of various types of tying or fastening units used to restrain the
sides of beam forms.
beam hanger-a wire, strap, or other hardware device that supports formwork from
structural members above.
beam pocket-opening left in a vertical member in which a beam is to rest; also an
opening in the column or girder form where forms for an intersecting beam will be
framed. (CT)
beam saddle-see beam hanger (preferred term).
beam side-side (vertical) panels or parts of a beam form.
bent-two-dimensional self-supporting frame, having at least two legs {often piles or
piers) and usually placed at a right angle to the structure that it carries.
blind-side forming-the back-side forms for a wall placed against another wall or struc­
ture where there is little or no clearance for access to the forms once concrete has been
placed; frequently these forms must remain in place permanently as lost forms. {See also
single-sided formwork).
blowholes-see surface air voids (preferred term).
blushing-slight pink or rose color on concrete surface. (ACI347.3R-13)
boxout or block out-a formed opening in concrete. (CT)
brace-a structural member used to provide lateral support for another member, gener­
ally for the purpose of ensuring stability or resisting lateral toads. {ACI 347R-14)
 bracket-an overhanging member projecting from a wall or other body to support
weight acting outside the wall. (See also corbel). (CT)
brick seat-ledge on wall or footing to support a course of masonry. (CT)
buck-framing around an opening in a wall.
bug holes-see surface air voids (preferred term).
bulkhead-a partition in formwork blocking fresh concrete from a section of the form, or
a partition closing a section of the form, such as at a construction joint. (CT)
camber-a deflection that is intentionally built into a structural element or form to
improve appearance or to compensate for the deflection of the element under the effects
of loads, shrinkage, and creep. (CT)
cant strip-see strip, chamfer (preferred term).
cathead-a notched wedge placed between two formwork members meeting at an
oblique angle (CT); castings secured to pencil rod ties with side setscrews; the large, round
retention nut used on she bolts. (CT) (see nut washer, preferred term).
centering-falsework used in the construction of arches, shells, space structures, or any
continuous structure where the entire falsework is lowered (struck or decentered) as a
unit. (See also falsework and formwork.) (ACI 347R-14)
chamfer-either a beveled edge or corner formed in concrete work by means of a
chamfer strip. (CT)
chamfer strip-see strip, chamfer.
clamp, form-device used to connect adjoining components or sections of formwork.
cleanout-an opening in the forms for removal of refuse to be closed before the concrete
is placed. (CT)
cleat-strips of wood installed on sloping walk boards to prevent slipping or under scaf­
fold boards to prevent sliding; small board used to connect formwork members. (See also
batten.)
climbing form-see form, climbing.
coating, form-a liquid applied to formwork surfaces to promote easy release from the
concrete, preserve the form material, or retard setting of the near-surface matrix for prepa­
ration of exposed-aggregate finishes. (CT)
column clamp-any of various types of tying or fastening units to hold column form sides
together. (CT)
construction joint-see joint, construction.
contraction joint-see joint, contraction.
corbel-a projection from the face of a beam, girder, column, or wall used as a beam seat
or a decoration. (CT)
cross bracing-crossing members often used in formwork systems to resist lateral loads
or provide lateral buckling stability, sometimes designed to act in tension only. (See also
sway brace and X-brace.)
crush plate-an expendable strip of wood attached to the edge of a form or intersection
of fitted forms, to protect the form from damage during prying, pulling, or other stripping
operations. (See also strip, wrecking.) (CT)
deadman-an anchor for attachment of a diagonal brace or guy line; usually a heavy
block or other heavy item on the surface of or buried in the ground.
decenter-to lower or remove centering or shoring.
deck-the form on which concrete for a slab is placed; also the floor or roof slab itself. (See
also deck, bridge.) (CT)
deck, bridge-the structural concrete slab or other structure that is supported on the
bridge superstructure and serves as the roadway or other traveled surface. (CT)
decking-sheathing material for a deck or slab form. (CT)
diagonal bracing-see brace.
dome-square prefabricated pan form used in two-way (waffle) concrete joist floor
construction. (CT)
doughnut {donut)-a large washer of any shape to increase bearing area of bolts and
ties; also a round concrete spacer with hole in the center to hold bars the desired distance
from the forms.
drip-a transverse groove in the underside of a projecting piece of wood, stone, or
concrete to prevent water from flowing back to a wall. (CT)
drop-head shore-shore with a head that can be lowered to remove forming compo­
nents without removing the shore or changing its support for the floor system. (ACI
347R-14)

C-2 , APPEND/XC
dry tie-form tie that holds sides of form in position in an area where no concrete is
placed; for example, at the top of a wall form above a construction joint or at a bulkhead.
engineer/architect or architect/engineer-the engineer, architect, engineering firm,
architectural firm, or other agency issuing project plans and specifications for the perma­
nent structure, administering the work under contract documents, or both. (ACI347R-14)
falsework-the temporary structure erected to support work in the process of construc­
tion; composed of shoring or vertical posting and lateral bracing for formwork for beams
and slabs. (See also centering.) (ACI347R-14)
fascia-a flat member or band at the surface of a building or the edge beam of a bridge;
also exposed eave of a building. (CT)
filler-material used to fill an opening in or between forms.
fillet-concrete filling an inside corner between intersecting members requiring a bevel
of the form. (See also strip, chamfer.)
fin-a narrow linear projection on a formed concrete surface resulting from mortar
flowing into spaces in the formwork. (CT)
fishtail-a wedge-shaped piece of wood used as part of the support form between
tapered pans in concrete joist construction.
flashing-a thin impermeable sheet (narrow in comparison with its length) installed as
a cover to exclude water from exposed joints and at roof valleys, hips, roof parapets, or
intersections of roof and chimney. (CT)
flatness-deviation of a surface from a plane. (ACI 347.3R-13)
flying forms-see forms, flying.
form-a temporary structure or mold for the support of concrete while it is setting and
gaining sufficient strength to be self-supporting. (See also formwork.) {ACI 347R-14)
form, climbing-a form that is raised vertically for succeeding lifts of concrete in a given
structure; also called a jump form. (ACI 347R-1 4)
form, crane-climbing-a form that is raised vertically by a crane for succeeding lihs of
concrete in a given structure; also called jump form.
form, drop-panel-a retainer or mold so erected as to give the necessary shape, support,
and finish to a drop panel.
form, edge-formwork used to limit the horizontal spread of fresh concrete on flat
surfaces such as pavements or floors. {CT)
form, permanent-any form that remains in place aher the concrete has developed its
design strength; it may or may not become an integral part of the structure.
form, self-climbing or self-lifting-a form that is raised vertically by mechanical or
hydraulic lifters that are part of the formwork system for succeeding lifts of concrete in a
given structure.
form, sliding-see slipform.
form, stay-in-place-see form, permanent.
form, top-form required on the upper or outer surface of a sloping slab or thin shell. {CT)
form, trench-a form used to construct the sides and bottom of a concrete trench, such
as for trench drains or utility trenches.
form, vented-a form so constructed as to retain the solid constituents of concrete and
permit the escape of water and air.
form, wall-a retainer or mold so erected as to give the necessary shape, support, and
finish to a concrete walt. (CT)
form anchor-see anchor, form.
form coating-see coating, form.
form facing-the form material that comes in direct contact with the concrete. (ACI
347.3R-13)
form hanger-see hanger, form.
form insulation-see insulation, form.
form liner or lining-materials used to line the concreting face of formwork either to
impart a smooth or patterned finish to the concrete surface, to absorb moisture from the
concrete, or to apply a set-retarding chemical to the formed surface. (See also sheathing.)
(CTI
form oil-see release agent.
form scabbing-inadvertent removal of the surface of concrete because of adhesion to
the form.
form sealer- coating applied to the surface of a form to reduce or prevent absorption of
water from the concrete.

GLOSSARY
form spacer-see spreader.
form spreader-see spreader.
form tie-see tie, form.
forms-
forms, fl ying-large prefabricated, mechanically handled sections of floor system form­
work designed for multiple reuse; frequently including supporting truss, beam, or shoring
assemblies completely unitized. (ACI347R-14)
forms, ganged-large mechanically hoisted assemblies with special lifting hardware used
for forming vertical surfaces; also called •gang forms.• (ACI 347R-14)
forms, moving-large prefabricated units of formwork incorporating supports and
designed to be moved horizontally on rollers or similar devices with a minimum amount
of dismantling between successive uses. (CTJ
formwork-total system of support for freshly placed concrete, including the mold or
sheathing that contacts the concrete as well as supporting members, hardware, and
necessary bracing. (See also falsework and centering.) (ACI347R-14)
formwork engineer/contractor-engineer of the formwork system, contractor, or
competent person in charge of designated aspects of formwork design and formwork
operations. (ACI347.2R·05)
friction collar-A clamping device that uses the friction between the device and
the concrete element to support a load.
ganged forms-see forms, ganged.
gap-space between abutting edges of the form-facing materials measured on the plane
of the form surface. (ACI347.3R-13)
glass fiber-reinforced concrete (GFRC)-concrete containing dispersed, randomly
oriented, alkali-resistant glass.
glued laminated timber (G i ulam) -an assembly of selected dimension lumber lamina­
tions bound together with adhesives, with the grain of the laminations running longitudi­
nally and approximately parallel.
hairpin-the wedge used to tighten some types of form ties; a hairpin-shaped anchor set
in place before concrete reaches initial setting. (CT)
hanger, form-dev i ce used to support formwork from a structural framework (the dead
load of forms, mass of concrete, and construction and impact loads must be supported).
(CT)
haunch-a deepened portion of a beam in the vicinity of a support. (CT)
head or header-a member spanning over an opening or between two closely spaced
shores; also the difference in elevation between two points in the body of a fluid, as a
measure of the pressure of the fluid.
honeycomb-voids left in concrete between coarse aggregates due to inadequate
consolidation. (CT)
horizontal bracing-horizontal load-carrying members attached to formwork compo­
nents to increase lateral load resistance; when attached to shores, they may also serve as
lacing. (See also horizontal lacing.)
horizontal lacing-horizontal members attached to shores to reduce their laterally
unsupported length, but not designed to provide resistance to lateral forces.
horizontal shoring-see shoring, horizontal.
insulating concrete form (ICF)-stay-in-place form made of rigid insulating material such
as expanded polystyrene foam, fabricated into molded blocks or panels with plastic or
steel ties and having voids into which concrete is placed.
insulation, form-insulating material applied to outside of forms between studs and over
the top in sufficient thickness and air tightness to conserve heat of hydration to maintain
concrete at required temperatures in cold weather. (CT)
invert-lowest visible surface; the floor of a drain, sewer, tunnel, culvert, or channel.
jack-a mechanical device used for applying force to prestressing tendons, for adjusting
elevation of forms or form supports, and for raising objects small distances.
jack shore-te l escoping, or otherwise adjustable, single-post metal shore.
joint, construction-interface between concrete placements intentionally created to
facilitate construction. (CTJ
joint, contraction-formed, sawed, or tooled groove in a concrete structure to create
a weakened plane to regulate the location of cracking resulting from the dimensional
change of different parts of the structure. (See also joint, construction.) (CT)

APPEND/XC
joist-a horizontal structural member such as that which supports deck form sheathing;
usually supported by stringers or ledgers.
jumbo-traveling support for forms, commonly used in tunnel work.
kerf-a cut or notch in a wood beam or sheet of plywood that facilitates bending the
beam or plywood around a curve; also a cut or notch in a member such as a rustication
strip to prevent damage from swelling and permit easier removal.
key-see keyway.
keyway-a recess or groove in one lift or placement of concrete that is filled with
concrete of the next lift, giving shear strength to the joint.(CTJ
kicker-a wood block or board attached to a formwork member to make the member
more stable.
knee brace-a diagonal brace between horizontal and vertical members in a frame or
formwork shoring frame.
L-head-top of a shore with a braced horizontal member projecting on one side, forming
an inverted l-shaped assembly.
L-shore-shore with an l-head.
lacing-See horizontal lacing (preferred term).
lagging -heavy sheathing used in underground work to withstand earth pressure.(See
also sheathing.) (CT)
laminated strand lumber (LSL)-structural composite lumber made from thin strands
cut directly from logs and bonded together with adhesive with strands parallel to the axis
of the member.
laminated veneer lumber (LVL)-structural composite lumber manufactured from
veneers laminated with adhesive so that the grain of all veneers runs parallel to the axis of
the member.
ledger-horizontal formwork member attached to a beam, wall, or other vertical form­
work side that supports horizontal formwork members or facing material.
lining-any sheet, plate, or layer of material attached directly to the inside face of form­
work to improve or alter the surface texture and quality of the finished concrete.(See also
form lining and sheathing.) {CT)
lost formwork or lost deck-form material that cannot be removed; remains perma­
nently in place and is thus, Nlost.N
mockup-a sample of a component of the building as specified in the contract docu­
ments that is used to establish the expected surface finish.(ACI 347.3R-13)
mold-the cavity or surface against which fresh concrete is cast.
mud sill-a wood plank, timber assembly, or precast concrete pad bedded on earth as a
footing for a shore or post in formwork.
mud slab-a layer of concrete beneath a structural concrete floor or footing over soft, wet
soil; also called mud mat. (CT)
multi-tier shoring -single post shores used in two or more tiers to increase height of the
shoring system.
nailer-a strip of wood or other fitting attached to or set in concrete, or attached to metal
to facilitate making nailed connections. {CT)
neat line-a line defining the proposed or specified limits of an excavation or structure.
nosing-the projection of a stair tread over the riser.
nut washer-a large, round retention nut used on she bolts.
offset-an abrupt change in alignment or dimension, either horizontally or vertically; a
horizontal ledge occurring along a change in wall thickness of the wall above.(CT)
one-sided formwork-see single-sided formwork.
oriented strand board (OSB)-a panel product manufactured from waterproof heat­
cured adhesives and rectangularly shaped wood strands that are arranged in cross­
oriented layers.
overbreak-excavation beyond the neat line of a tunnel or other structure.
pan-a prefabricated form unit used in concrete joist floor construction. (CT)
panel-a section of form sheathing that can be erected and stripped as a unit. (CT)
parapet-the part of a wall that extends above the roof level; a low wall along the top of
a dam.(CT)
parallel strand lumber (PSL)-a structural composite wood product made by gluing
together, parallel to the member long axis, long strands of wood that have been cut from
veneer.
pencil rod-plain metal rod of about 1/4 in. (6 mm) diameter. (CT)

GLOSSARY
permanent form-see form, permanent.
pilaster-column built with a wall, usually projecting beyond the wall. (CT)
plate-a flat, horizontal member either at the top, bottom, or both of studs or posts;a
mud sill if on the ground. (See also mud sill.)
plumb-vertical or to make vertical. (CT)
post-vertical formwork member used as a support. (See also shore or jack.) (CT)
preshores-added shores placed snugly under selected panels of a deck forming system
before any primary (original) shores are removed;preshores and the panels they support
remain in place until the remainder of the complete bay has been stripped and back­
shored, a small area at a time. (AC I 347.2R-05)
purlin-see joist (preferred term).
raker-a sloping brace or shore for lateral support of one-sided forms;a sloping brace for
a shore head.
ranger-see wale (preferred term).
reference area-a significantly large area of a completed concrete surface serving as a
basis of comparison for the acceptance of a surface category of work at a specified loca­
tion of a given project. (ACI347.3R-13)
reglet-a groove in a wall to receive flashing.
release agent-material used to prevent bonding of concrete to a surface. (CT)
reshores-shores placed snugly under a stripped concrete slab or other structural
member after the original forms and shores have been removed from a full bay, requiring
the new slab or structural member to deflect and support its own weight and existing
construction loads to be applied before the installation of the reshores. (See also drop­
head shore, backshores, preshores.) (ACI347R-14)
reveal (n.)-the vertical surface forming the side of an opening in a wall, as for a window
or door. (See also rustication.) (CT)
ribbon-a narrow strip of wood or other material used in formwork.
rib-one of a number of parallel structural members backing sheathing. (CT)
riser-the vertical part of a step in a flight of stairs.
runner-see joist (preferred term).
rustication-a groove in a concrete surface. (CT)
rustication strip-see strip, rustication.
sand box (or sand j ack)-a tight box filled with clean, dry sand, on which rests a tight­
fitting timber plunger that supports the bottom of posts used in falsework or centering;
removal of a plug from a hole near the bottom of the box permits the sand to run out
when it is necessary to lower the falsework or centering.
scab-a short piece of wood fastened to two formwork members to secure a butt joint.
scaffold or scaffolding-temporary structure with an elevated platform for supporting
workers, tools, and materials. (ACI347R-14)
screed-
(1) to strike off a cementitious mixture lying beyond the desired plane or shape;
(2) a tool for striking off the cementitious mixture surface, sometimes referred to as a
strikeoff;or
(3) a ribbon or pad of a cementitious mixture that is preplaced to act as a guide for main­
taining the desired level as more material is placed. (CT)
screed guide-firmly established grade strips or side forms for unformed concrete that
guide the strikeoff in producing the desired plane or shape. (CT)
screed rails-see screed guide.
sheathing-the material forming the contact face of forms;also called lagging or
sheeting. (CT)
sheeting-see sheathing (preferred term).
shore-vertical or inclined support member or braced frame designed to carry the weight
of the formwork, concrete, and construction loads. Also called prop, tom, post, or strut.
(See also L-head and T-head.) (ACI347R-14)
shore, pole-see shore, post.
shore, post-individual vertical member used to support loads;also known as pole shore.
(1) adjustable timber single-post shore-individual timber used with a fabricated clamp to
obtain adjustment and not normally manufactured as a complete unit;
(2) fabricated single-post shore-Type 1: single all-metal post with a fine-adjustment screw
or device in combination with pin-and-hole adjustment or clamp;Type I:I single or double

APPENDIXC
wooden post members adjustable by a metal damp or screw and usually manufactured as
a complete unit; and
(3) timber single-post shore-timber used as a structural member for shoring support.
(CT)
shore head-connector placed on and fastened to vertical shoring to receive and support
horizontal members of the formwork system.
shoring-props or posts of timber or other material in compression used for the tempo­
rary support of excavations, formwork, or unsafe structures; the process of erecting shores.
(CT)
shoring frame-metal frame with two posts and welded horizontal bars often with knee
braces.
shoring, horizontal-metal or wood load-carrying strut, beam, or trussed section used to
carry a shoring load from one bearing point, column, frame, post, or wall to another; may
be adjustable. (CT)
shoring layout-a drawing prepared before erection showing arrangements of equip­
ment for shoring. (CT)
shuttering-British term for formwork in general or, more particularly, form panels in
direct contact with concrete; see formwork.
side form spacer-a device that maintains the desired distance between a vertical form
and reinforcing bars.
sill-the lowest part of an opening in a wall such as a door sill or window sill; also a hori­
zontal bearing member. (See also ledger or mud sill.)
single-sided formwork-a wall formwork system having only one forming side, requiring
provision for tying or other support.
single-waler forming-forming system using plywood sheathing with a tie-restraining
bracket device designed for use with single-member wales.
skew back-see also strip, chamfer.
slick line-pipe line used in placing concrete by pump.
sliding form-see slipform (preferred term).
slipform-a form that is pulled or raised as concrete is placed. (ACI347R-14)
snap tie-a concrete wall-form tie, the end of which is fabricated such that it can be
twisted or snapped off aher removing the forms.
soffit-the underside of a part or member of a structure, such as a beam, stairway, or arch.
(CTI
soldier-a vertical wale used to strengthen or align formwork or excavations. (See also
strong back.)
spandrel-that part of a wall between the head of a window and the sill of the window
above it. (CT)
spandrel beam-a beam in the perimeter of a building, spanning between columns and
usually supporting a floor or roof. (CT)
spreader-a piece of lumber approximately 1 by 2 in. (25 by 50 mm) cut to the thickness
of a wall or other formed element and inserted in the form to hold it temporarily at the
correct dimension against tension of form ties. (CT)
stay-in-place form-any form that remains in place after the concrete has developed its
design strength; may or may not become an integral part of the structure. (See also form,
permanent.)
stiffback-see strong back (preferred term).
strike-see striking.
striking-the releasing or lowering of centering or other temporary support.
stringer-horizontal structural member usually, in slab forming, supporting joists and
resting on shores or other vertical supports.
strip-to remove formwork or a mold; also a long thin piece of wood, metal, or other
material. (See also stripping.) (CT)
strip, cant-see strip, chamfer (preferred term).
strip, chamfer-either a triangular or curved insert placed in an inside form corner to
produce either a rounded or flat chamfer or to form a rustication. Also called cant strip,
fillet, dummy joint, and skew back. (CT)
strip, grade-usually a thin strip of wood tacked to the inside surface of forms at the
elevation to which the top of the concrete lift is to rise, either at a construction joint or the
top of the structure. (CT)
strip, kick-see kicker.

GLOSSARY
strip, rustication�a strip of wood or other material attached to a form surface to
produce a groove or rustication in the concrete. (CT)
strip, wrecking�small piece or panel fitted into a formwork assembly in such a way that
it can be easily removed ahead of main panels or forms, making it easier to strip those
major form components. (See also crush plate.)
stripping�the removal of formwork or a mold. (CT)
strongback�a frame or member attached to the back of a form to stiffen, reinforce, or
align the form during concrete placing operations or handling operations; a vertical wale.
structural composite lumber (SCL)-a generic term for a family of engineered wood
products in which veneer sheet, strands, or other small wood elements are bonded
together with exterior structural adhesives to form lumber-like materials.
stud�member of appropriate size and spacing to support sheathing of a vertical
concrete form.
surface air voids�small regular or irregular cavities, usually not exceeding 0.6 in. (1 S
mm) in diameter, resulting from entrapment of air bubbles in the surface of formed
concrete during placement and consolidation. (ACI347R-14)
surface void ratio�the ratio of the total surface void area to the total concrete surface
area after stripping with no subsequent surface treatment. (ACI347.3R-13)
sway brace�a diagonal brace used to resist wind or other lateral forces. (See also brace,
cross bracing, and X-brace.) (CT)
T-head�top of a shore with a horizontal member projecting on two sides forming a
T-shaped assembly.
T-shore-a shore with aT-head. (CT)
telltale�any device designed to indicate movement of formwork.
template�a thin plate or board frame used as a guide in positioning or spacing form
parts, reinforcement, or anchors; also a full-size mold, pattern, or frame shaped to serve as
a guide in forming or testing contour or shape. (CT)
tie, form�a mechanical connection in tension used to prevent concrete forms from
spreading due to the fluid pressure of fresh concrete. (CT)
tie hole-void in a concrete surface left when a form tie end is snapped off, broken back,
or otherwise removed.
tolerance-the permitted deviation from a specified dimension, location, or quantity. (CT)
tom-see shore (preferred term).
top form-see form, top.
tunnel forming system-forms that resemble a tunnel; modular formwork units of
inverted U or L-shape used for bearing wall structures having a large number of same-size
rooms and where walls and slab above can be cast as a unit with one open end for form
removal.
wale-a long formwork member (usually double) used to gather loads from several
studs (or similar members) to allow wider spacing of the restraining ties; when used with
prefabricated panel forms, this member is used to maintain alignment; also called waler or
ranger. (CT)
waler-see wale.
waterstop-a thin sheet of metal, rubber, plastic, or other material inserted across a joint,
or material adhered within a joint, to obstruct the seepage of water through the joint.
wedge-a piece of wood or metal tapering to a thin edge; used to adjust elevation or
tighten formwork. (CT)
wreck-see strip.
wrecking strip-see strip, wrecking.
X-brace-a crossing pair of diagonal members used to provide lateral stability. Normally
considered to be effective only in tension. (See also brace, cross bracing, and sway
brace.)
yoke-a tie or clamping device around column forms or over the top of wall or footing
forms to keep them from spreading because of the lateral pressure of fresh concrete; also
part of a structural assembly for slipforming that keeps the forms from spreading and
transfers form loads to the jacks. {CT)
APPENDIX D-CONVERSIONS

CONVERSION FACTORS-INCH-POUND TO SI (METRIC)*

To convert rrom lo multiply by

Length

millimctcr(mm) 25.4E+

foo< mctcr(m) 0.3048E

''"' meter(m) 0.9144E

milc(statutc) k.ilomctcr(km)

""
square inch 1
square ccntimctcr(cm )

square foot 2 0.0929

squan:mcu:r(m )

�uan:yard 2 O.ft361
squaremetcr(m )

Volumc(cupuclty)
3 29.51
cubic centimctcr(cm )

gallon 3
cubicmetcr(m )t.

cubic inch '

cubic centimcter(cm )

cubic foot l O.Q2832

cubicmclcr(m )

cubic yard 3
cubicm.,tt:r(m )t

Foret

kilogram-fon:c newton{N) 9.807

kip-force ncwton(N) ""'

pound-force ncwton(N)

Prcssureorsln!SS
(foi'CC'per area)

kilogram-force/square meter pascal(l'a) 9.807

tip-fon:el!.quare inch(ksi) rncgapascal(MPa)

l pascal w�>
newtoRisquare meter (Nim )

pound-foree/squarefOOl pas.::ai{Pa)

pound-force/square ineh(p�i) kilopa!.eal(kPa) 6.895

Bendinwmomentortorque

in<;h-p<Jund-Force newton-melcr(Nm) 0.1130

Fool-pound-Force ncwton-meler(Nm) 1.356

meter-kilogram-force newLon-meter(Nm) 9.S07

 To convert from to mulliply by

Mass
oun.:e-ma,s(a•·oirdupoi.,) grarn{g) 28.)4

pound-mass{a•·oirdupois) kilogram(kg)

ton(m�tric) megagram(Mg) l.COJE

ton(shoT1.2co:llbm) megagram(Mg) 0.9072

Mass per volume

pound-mass/cuhicfoot 3 16.02
kilogrnmfcubicmeter(kgfm )

pound-ma�s/cubic yard 3
kilogramfcubicmeter(kgtm ) 0.5933

pound-ma,sfgalkm 3
kilogramfcubicmeter(kgtm )

Tempc!ratun!f
dcgFahn:nlleit{F) degCelsius(C) lc•(tF-32)/1.8

degCelsius(C) degFahrenheit(F) tF"'J.Rtc+32

*This selected list givts pr�ctical ronvcn;ion factors of units found in concrett technol08Y· The reference
oourcc for infonnation on Sl units and more exact con•·c�ion facto� is �standard for Metric Practice'" ASTM E
380. Symbol.,ofmetric units aregiven in puenthe.<es.
tEindicates that thefactor givcn i, cxact
3 3
tOne liter(cubic decimeter) equalsO.O OI m or 1000cm .
§"Thescequations com·cTlone tcmperature rcading to anothcr and in.:ludc thc ncccssaryscalc cofTC(:tions.To
convert a difference in temper.uure fromFahrenheit toCelsiu.•degrees.divide by l.8 only.i.e..a changefrom70
m88F repn:senls a changenftRF orl8/1.8alOC.
APPENDIX E-ACI 347R-14 GUIDE

Guide to Formwork for Concrete

Reported by ACI Committee 347

Kenneth L. Berndt. Chair

Rodney D. Adams BrianJ.Golanowski H.S.Lew PericlesC.Stivaros

MaryBordner·Tanck TimothyP.Hayes RobcnG. McCracken DanielB.Toon
GeorgcCharitou GardncrP.Horst ErieS.Peterson RalphH.Tulis
Eamonn F. Connolly JefferyC. Jack SteffenPippig
JamesN.Comell ll DavidW.Johnston MatthewJ.Poisel Consulting Members
Jackl. David RogerS.Johnston DouglasJ.Schoonover Samuel A. Gm:nbcrg
Aubreyl.Ounham RobenG.Kent AviadShapira R.KirkGregory
Jcffn:yC.Erson KevinR.Koogle JohnM.Simpson
NoelJ.Gardner JimE.Kretz Rolf A.Spahr

Objectives of safety, quality, and economy are given priority in lhese CHAPTER 2-NOTATION AND DEFINITIONS
guidelines for formwork. A section on contract documen/s explains 2.1-Notation
the kind and amount of specification guidance the engineer/ 2.2-Definitions
architect should provide for the contractor. The remainder of the
guide advises rhe formwork engineerlconrraclor on the besr ways
CHAPTER 3-GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
ro meet rhe specificarion requiremenrs safely and economically.
3.1-Achicving economy in fonnwork
Separale chapters deal wilh design. conslnlclion. and materials
3.2-Contract documents
for formwork. Considerations specific to architectural concrete
are also owlined in a separate chapter. Other sections are devoted
to formwork for bridges, shells, mars concrete, and underground CHAPTER 4--DESIGN
work. The concluding chaprer on formwork for special merhods of 4.1----General
constmction includes slipforming. preplaced-aggregare concrete. 4.2-Loads
tremie concrere, precart concrete, and presrressed concrete. 4.3-Member capacities
4.4--Safety factors for accessories
Key..·ords: anchors; architecturnl concrete: coatings: construction:
4.5-Shores
constroction loads: contract documents;falsework; fonn ties; fonns; fonn­
work: foundations: quality control;reshoring;shoring;slipfonn construc­
4.6--Bracing and lacing
tion;spccifkations;tolerances. 4.7-Foundations for fonnwork
4.8-Settlemem
CONTENTS
CHAPTER 5-CONSTRUCTION
CHAPTER 1-INTRODUCTION AND SCOPE 5.1-safety precautions
!.\-Introduction 5.2-Construction practices and workmanship
1.2-Scope 5.3-Tolerances
5.4-- lrregularities in formed surfaces
5.5-Shoring and centering
ACI Committee Repons, Guides, and Commentaries are 5.6--Inspection and adjustment of fonnwork
intended for guidance in planning. designing. executing. and 5.7-Removal of fonns and supports
inspecting construction. This document is intended for the use 5.8-Shoring and reshoring of multistory structures
of individuals who are competent to evaluate the significance
and limitations of its content and recommendations and who
will accept responsibilityfor the application of the material it
contains. The American Concrete Institute disclaims anyand
all responsibility for the stated principles. The Institute shall
not be liable for anyloss or damage arising therefrom. ACt 347R-14 supo:rwdcs ACt 347..(14 and Wall adopted and published July
20144Docomen1Efl"tt1iverighuof rtproduc1ionanduseinanyform orbyanymeans.
Reference to this document shall not be made in contract
inctuding�making of copicsbyanypholo pi"O(ess.orbyeltt1ronic or mechanical
documents. If items found in this document are desired by
dcvicc,prin!ed.wrinen,or oral,orreoording for sound or visual,..,produclionorfor
the Architect/Engineer to be a pan of the contract documents,
use in any knowtedg� or rt"trit�al sytttm Qr o:kv'-'t.unl«!i po:m1ission in ,.,.,;,;'41 is
theyshall be restated in mandatorylanguage for incorporation obuoil"lt<lfrom1�copyrigh1propric1on.
bytheArchitecliEngineer.
 GUIDE TO FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE (ACI347R-14)

CHAPTER 6--MATERIALS fundamental to the achievement of safety and economy of

6.1-General formwork and of the required formed surface quality of the
6.2-Properties of materials concrete.
6.3-Accessories The paired values stated in inch-pound and Sl units arc
6.4-Form coatings and release agents usually not exact equivalents. Therefore, each system is to
be used independently of the other.
CHAPTER 7-ARCHITECTURAL CONCRETE
7.1-lntroduction 1.2-Scope
7.2-Role of architect This guide covers:
7.3-Materials and accessories a) A listing of information to be included in the contract
7.4--Design documems
7.5-Construction b) Design criteria for horizontal and vertical loads on
7.6-Form removal formwork
c) Design considerations, including safety factors for
CHAPTER 8--SPECIAL STRUCTURES determining the capacities of fonnwork accessories
8.1-Discussion d) Preparation of fonnwork drawings
8.2-Bridges and viaducts, including high piers e) Construction and use of fonnwork, including safety
8.3-Structures designed for composite action considerations
8.4--Folded plates, thin shells, and long-span roof f) Materials for fonnwork
structures g) Fonnwork for special structures
8.5-Mass concrete structures h) Fonnwork for special methods of construction
8.6-Underground structures
CHAPTER 2-NOTATION AND DEFINITIONS
CHAPTER 9-SPECIAL METHODS OF
CONSTRUCTION 2.1-Notation
9.1-Preplaced-aggrcgate concrete CCP = concrete lateral pressure, lb/ft2 (kPa)
9.2-Slipforms Cc chemistrycoefficient
9.3-Pcrmancnt forms C... unit weight coefficient
9.4--Forms for prestressed concrete construction c1 slipform vibration factor, lb/ft2 (kPa)
9.5-Forms for site precasting gravitational constant, 0.00981 kN/kg
9.6---Use of precast concrete for forms depth of fluid or plastic concrete from top of place­
9.7-Forms for concrete placed under water ment to point of consideration in form, ft (m)
R rate of placement, ftlh (mlh)
CHAPTER 1D-REFERENCES temperature of concrete at time of placement, °F
Authored references CCJ
unit weight of concrete, lb/ft3
CHAPTER 1-INTRODUCTION AND SCOPE density of concrete, kglm3

1.1-lntroduction 2.2-Definitions
Many individuals, firms, and companies are usually The 2014 ACJ Concrete Terminology (http://www.
involved in the design of the facility to be built and in the concrete.org/Tools/ConcreteTerminology.aspx) provides a
design and construction of the formwork. The facility team comprehensive list of definitions. The definitions provided
typically involves structural engineers and architects who herein complement that source.
determine the requirements for the concrete structure to be backshores-shores left in place or shores placed snugly
built. For simplicity, the facility design team will usually under a concrete slab or structural member after the original
be referred to as the engineer/architect, although they may formwork and shores have been removed from a small area,
be referred to separately in some situations. The form­ without allowing the entire slab or member to deflect or
work team may include the general contractor, formwork support its self-weight and construction loads.
specialty subcontractors, formwork engineers, form manu­ brace---structural member used to provide lateral support
facturers, and form suppliers. The participating companies for another member, generally for the purpose of ensuring
and firms also have form designers and skilled workers stability or resisting lateral loads.
executing many detailed tasks. For simplicity, the fonnwork centering-falsework used in the construction of arches,
team will usually be referred to as the formwork engineer/ shells, space structures, or any continuous structure where
contractor, although they may be referred to separately in the entire falsework is lowered (struck or decentered) as a
some sttuattons. unit.
This guide is based on the premise that layout, design, climbing form-form that is raised vertically for
and construction of fonnwork should be the responsibility succeeding lifts of concrete in a given structure.
of the formwork engineer/contractor. This is believed to be

APPENDIXE
 GUIDE TO FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE (ACI347R·14)
drop-head shore-shore with a head that can be lowered
to remove forming components without removing the shore
or changing its support for the floor system.
engineer/architect-the engineer, architect, engineering
firm, architectural firm, or other agency issuing project plans
and specifications for the permanent structure, administering
the work under contract documents, or both.
falsework-temporary structure erected to support work
in the process of construction; composed of shoring or
vertical posting and lateral bracing for formwork for beams
and slabs.
flying forms-large. prefabricated, mechanically handled
sections of floor system formwork designed for multiple
reuse; frequently including supporting truss, beam, or
shoring assemblies completely unitized.
form-temporary structure or mold for the support of
concrete while it is setting and gaining sufficient strength to
be self-supporting.
formwork-total system of support for freshly placed
concrete, including the mold or sheathing that contacts the
concrete as well as supporting members, hardware, and
necessary bracing.
form work engineer/contractor--engineer of the form­
work system or contractor in charge of designated aspects of
formwork design and formwork operations.
ganged forms-large mechanically hoisted assemblies
with special lifting hardware used for forming vertical
surfaces; also called "gang forms".
horizontal lacing-horizontal bracing members attached
to shores to reduce their unsupported length, thereby
increasing load capacity and stability.
preshores-added shores placed snugly under selected
panels of a deck-forming system before any primary (orig­
inal) shores are removed.
reshores-shores placed snugly under a stripped concrete
slab or other structural member after the original forms and
shores have been removed from a full bay, requiring the
new slab or structural member to deflect and support its own
weight and existing construction loads to be applied before
installation of the reshores.
scaffold-temporary structure with an elevated platform
for supporting workers, tools, and materials.
shore-vertical or inclined support member or braced
frame designed to carry the weight of the formwork,
concrete, and construction loads.
slipform-a form that is pulled or raised as concrete is
placed.
surface air voids-small regular or irregular cavities,
usually not exceeding 0.6 in. (15 mm) in diameter, resulting
from entrapment of air bubbles in the surface of formed
concrete during placement and consolidation.
CHAPTER 3-GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
3.1-Achieving economy in formwork
The engineer/architect can improve the overall economy
of the structure by planning so that fonnwork costs are mini-
ACI347R·J4
mized. The cost of formwork can be greater !han half the
tOial cost of the concrete struclure. This investment requires
careful thought and planning by the engineer/architect when
designing and specifying the structure and by the formwork
engineer/contractor when designing and constructing 1he
formwork. Formwork drawings, prepared by the fonnwork
engineer/contractor, can identify potential problems and
should give project site employees a clear picture of what is
required and how to achieve it.
The following guidelines show how the engineer/architect
can plan the structure so that fonnwork economy may best
be achieved:
a) To simplify and permit maximum reuse of formwork,
the dimensions of footings, columns, and beams should
be of standard material multiples, and the number of sizes
should be minimized.
b) When interior columns are the same width as or smaller
than the girders they support, the column form becomes a
simple rectangular or square box without boxouts, and the
slab form does not have to be cut out at each comer of the
column
c) When all beams are made one depth (beams framing
into girders as well as beams framing into columns), the
supporting struciUres for the beam fonns can be carried on a
level platform supported on shores.
d) Considering available sizes of dressed lumber,
plywood, and other ready-made formwork components and
keeping beam and joist sizes constant will reduce labor cost
and improve material use.
e) The design of the structure should be based on the use
of one standard depth wherever possible when commercially
available forming systems, such as one- or two-way joist
systems, are used.
f) The structural design should be prepared simultane­
ously with the architectural design so that dimensions can
be better coordinated. Minor changes in plan dimensions to
better fit fonnwork layout can result in significant reductions
in formwork costs.
g) The engineer/architect should consider architectural
features, depressions, and openings for mechanical or elec­
trical work when detailing the structural system, with the aim
of achieving economy. Variations in the structural system
caused by such items should be shown on the structural
plans. Wherever possible, depressions in the tops of slabs
should be made without a corresponding break in elevations
of the soffits of slabs, beams, or joists.
h) Embedments for altachment to or penetration through
the concrete structure should be designed to minimize
random penetration of the formed surface.
i) Avoid locating columns or walls, even for a few floors,
where they would interfere with the use of large formwork
shoring units in otherwise clear bays.
j) Post-tensioning sequences should be carried out in
stages and planned in a way that will minimize the need for
additional shoring that may be required due to redistribution
of post-tensioning loads.
 GUIDE TO FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE (ACI347R-14)
3.2-contract documents
The contract documents should set forth the tolerances
required in the finished structure but should not attempt to
specify the means and methods by which the formwork engi­
neer/contractor designs and builds the formwork to achieve
the required tolerances.
The layout and design of the formwork should be a
joint effort of the formwork engineer and the formwork
contractor. The formwork construction in compliance with
the formwork design is the responsibility of the formwork
contractor. When formwork design is not by the contractor,
formwork design is the responsibility of the formwork
engineer. This approach gives the necessary freedom to
use skill, knowledge, and innovation to safely construct an
economical structure. By reviewing the formwork drawings,
the engineer/architect can understand how the formwork
engineer/contractor has interpreted the contract documents.
Some local jursidictions have legal requirements defining
the specific responsibilities of the engineer/architect in
formwork design, review, or approval.
3.2.1 Individual specifications-The specification for
formwork will affect the overall economy and quality of the
finished work; therefore, it should be tailored for each partic­
ular job, clearly indicate what is expected of the contractor,
and ensure economy and safety.
A well-written formwork specification tends to equalize
bids for the work. Vague or overly restrictive requirements
can make it difficult for bidders to understand exactly what
is expected. Bidders can be overly cautious and overbid or
misinterpret requirements and underbid. Using standard
specifications such as ACI 301 that have many input sources
in development can mitigate these possible problems.
A well-written formwork specification is of value not only
to the owner and the contractor, but also to the field repre­
sentative of the engineer/architect, approving agency, and
the subcontractors of other trades. Some requirements can
be written to allow discretion of the contractor where quality
of finished concrete work would not be impaired by the use
of alternative materials and methods.
Consideration of the applicable general requirements
suggested herein are not intended to represent a complete
specification. Requirements should be added for actual
materials, finishes, and other items peculiar to and neces­
sary for the individual structure. The engineer/architect can
exclude, call special attention to, strengthen, or make more
lenient any general requirement to best fit the needs of the
particular project. Further detailed information is given in
ACI SP-4.
3.2.2 Formwork materials and accessories-If the partic­
ular design or desired finish requires special attention, the
engineer/architect can specifY in the contract documents
the formwork materials and any other feature necessary to
auain the objectives. If the engineer/architect docs not call
for specific materials or accessories, the formwork engineer/
contractor can choose any materials that meet the contract
requirements.
When structural design is based on the use of commer­
cially available form units in standard sizes, such as one- or
two-way joist systems, plans should be drawn to make use
of available shapes and sizes. Some variation from normal
tolerances should be permitted by the specification: a) for
connections of form units to other framing; and b) to reflect
normal installation practices and typical used condition of
the form type anticipated.
3.2.3 Finish ofexposed concrete- Finish requirements for
concrete surfaces should be described in measurable terms
as precisely as practicable. Refer to 5.4, Chapter 7, and ACI
347.3R.
3.2.4 Design, inspection, review, and approval of form­
work-Although the safety of formwork is the responsibility
of the contractor, the engineer/architect or approving agency
may, under certain circumstances, decide to review and
approve the form work, including drawings and calculations.
If so, the engineer/architect should call for such review or
approval in the contract documents.
Approval might be required for unusually complicated
structures, structures whose designs were based on a partic­
ular method of construction, structures in which the forms
impart a desired architectural finish, certain post-tensioned
structures, folded plates, thin shells, or long-span roof
structures.
The following items should be clarified in the contract
documents:
a) Who will design the formwork
b) Who will determine post-tensioning sequence and
support needed for redistribution of loads resulting from
stressing operations
c) Who will design shoring and the reshoring system
d) Who will inspect the specific feature of formwork and
when will the inspection be performed
e) What reviews, approvals, or both, will be required for:
i. Formwork drawings, calculations, or both
ii. Post-tensioning support
iii. Reshoring design
iv. Fonnwork preplacement inspection
f) Who will give such reviews, approvals, or both.
3.2.5 Contract documents-The contract documents
should include all information about the structure neces­
sary for the formwork engineer to design the form work and
prepare formwork drawings and for the formwork contractor
to build the formwork such as:
a) Number, location, and details of all construction joints,
contraction joints, and expansion joints that will be required
for the particular job or parts of it
b) Sequence of concrete placement, if critical (examples
include pour strips and hanging floors)
c) Tolerances for concrete construction
d) The live load and superimposed dead load for which the
structure is designed and any live-load reduction used
e) Intermediate supports under stay-in-place forms, such
as metal deck used for forms and permanent forms of other
materials supports, bracing, or both, required by the struc­
tural engineer's design for composite action; and any other
special supports
f) The location and order of erection and removal of shores
for composite construction
APPENDIX£
 GUIDE TO FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE (ACI347R·14)
g) Minimum concrete strength required before removal of
shoring and any project specific reshoring requirements
h) Special provisions essential for fonnwork for special
construction methods and for special structures such as
shells and folded plates. The basic geometry of such struc­
tures, as well as their required camber, should be given in
sufficient detail to permit the fonnwork contractor to build
the forms
i) Special requirements for post-tensioned concrete
members. The effect of load transfer and associated move­
ments during tensioning of post-tensioned members can be
critical, and the contractor should be advised of any special
provisions that should be made in the fonnwork for this
condition
j) Amount of required camber for slabs or other struc­
tural members to compensate for deflection of the structure.
Measurements of camber attained should be made at the
soffit level after initial set and before removal of fonnwork
supports
k) Where chamfers are required or prohibited throughout
the project at all element comers, such as door openings,
window openings, beams, columns wall ends, and slab edges
I) Requirements for insens, waterstops, built-in frames for
openings and holes through concrete; similar requirements
where the work of other trades will be attached to, supported
by, or passed through fonnwork
m) Size and location of fonned openings through a struc­
tural slab or wall should be shown on the structural drawings
n) Where architectural features, embedded items, or the
work of other trades could change the location of structural
members, such as joists in one- or two-way joist systems;
such changes or conditions should be coordinated by the
engineer/architect
o) Locations of and details for architectural concrete;
when architectural details are to be cast into structural
concrete, they should be so indicated or referenced on the
structural plans because they can play a key role in the struc­
tural design of the fonn.
CHAPTER 4-DESIGN
4.1-General
4.1.1 Planning-All fonnwork should be well planned
before construction begins. The amount of planning required
will depend on the size, complexity, and imponance (consid­
ering reuses) of the fonn. Fonnwork should be designed for
strength and serviceability. System stability and member
buckling should be investigated in all cases.
4.1.2 Design me!ho<h-Fonnwork is made of many
different materials, and the commonly used design practices
for each material are to be followed (refer to Chapter 6).
For example, fonns are designed by either allowable stress
design (ASD) methods or load and resistance factor design
(LRFD) methods. When the concrete structure becomes
a pan of the fonnwork support system, as in many multi­
story buildings, it is imponant for the fonnwork engineer/
contractor to recognize that the concrete structure has been
designed by the strength design method. Accordingly, in
AC/ 347R-14
communication of the toads, it should be clear whether they
are service loads or factored loads.
Throughout this guide, the tenns "design", "design load",
and "design capacity" are used to refer to design of the fonn­
work. Where reference is made to design load for the penna­
nent structure, structural design load, structural dead load, or
some similar tenn is used to refer to unfactored loads (dead
and live loads) on the structure. Load effects on these tempo­
rary structures and their individual components should be
determined by accepted methods of structural analysis.
4.1.3 Basic objectives-Fonnwork should be designed so
that concrete slabs, walls, and other members will have the
correct dimensions, shape, alignment, elevation, and posi­
tion within established tolerances. Fonnwork should also be
designed so that it will safely suppon all vertical and lateral
loads that might be applied until such loads can be supported
by the concrete structure. Vertical and lateral loads should
be carried to the ground by the fonnwork system or by the
in-place construction that has adequate strength for that
purpose. Responsibility for the design of the fonnwork rests
with the contractor or the fonnwork engineer hired by the
contractor to design and be responsible for the fonnwork.
4,1.4 Design deficiencies-Some design deficiencies that
can lead to unacceptable perfonnance or structural failure
are:
a) Lack of allowance in design for loadings such as
concrete pressures, wind, power buggies, placing equip­
ment, and temporary material storage
b) Inadequate design of shoring, reshoring, or backshoring
c) Inadequate provisions to prevent rotation of beam fonns
where the slabs frame into them on only one side (Fig. 4.1.4)
d) Insufficient anchorage against uplift due to banered
fonn faces or vertical component of bracing force on single­
sided fonns
e) Insufficient allowance for eccentric loading due to
placement sequences
f) Failure to investigate bearing stresses between individual
fonnwork elements and bearing capacity of supponing soils
g) Failure to design proper lateral bracing or lacing of
shoring
h) Failure to investigate the slenderness ratio of compres­
sion members
i) Inadequate provisions to tie comers of intersecting
cantilevered fonns together
j) Failure to account for loads imposed on fonn hardware
anchorages during closure of fonn panel gaps when aligning
fonnwork
k) Failure to account for elastic shortening during
post-tensioning
I) Failure to account for changing load patterns due to
post-tensioning transfer
4.1.5 Formwork drawings o11d calculations-Before
constructing fonns, the fonnwork engineer/contractor may
be required to submit detailed drawings, design calculations,
or both, of proposed fonnwork for review and approval by
the engineer/architect or approving agency. If such draw­
ings are not approved by the engineer/architect or approving
agency, the fonnwork engineer/contractor should make such
 GUIDE TO FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE (ACI347R-14)
INCOIIIAIECTI ...,.,...,,.wo.L
IIOTUIWH(Mkat•IU. .. I .. Otl
ONIIOOf.A""IRACIIIGIIIOOTI'IIOWOOf.D
INCORRECT! ana<:-'""" 111.
TQitUU!LIIUII'CROOITIIOW!..MT.
Fig. 4.1.4-Prevemion of rotation is important where slab frames into beam form on only
one side.
changes as may be required before the stan of construction
of the fonnwork.
The review, approval, or both, of the formwork draw­
ings docs not relieve the contractor of the responsibility
for adequately constructing and maintaining the forms so
that they will function properly. Design values and loading
conditions should be shown on forrnwork drawings. As
related to form use, these include forrnwork design values of
construction live load, allowable venical or lateral concrete
pressure, maximum equipment load, required soil bearing
capacity, material specification, camber required, and other
peninent information, if applicable.
In addition to specifying types of materials, sizes, lengths,
and connection details, fonnwork drawings should provide
for applicable details, such as:
a) Procedures, sequence, and criteria for removal of
forms, shores, rcshores, and backshores and for retracting
and resnugging drophead shores to allow slab to deflect and
suppon its own weight prior to casting of next level
b) Design allowance for construction loads on new slabs
when such allowance will affect the development of shoring
schemes, reshoring schemes, or both (refer to 4.5 and 5.8 for
shoring and reshoring of multistory structures)
c) Anchors, form ties, shores, lateral bracing, and hori-
zontal lacing
d) Means to adjust forms for alignment and grade
e) Waterstops, keyways, and insens
f) Working scaffolds and runways
g) Weepholes or vibrator holes, where required
co•uurcT1 .. ac:_ •n.. '""M ,_
IIOUTIIIGAI.TII(IO.IGHIJUIFU...I ..
COfiRIECT1 111.TO,DR,.OtoH1
,...,..,.,,.__IOTHIIOU.
h) Screeds and grade strips
i) Location of external vibrator mountings
j) Crush plates or wrecking plates where stripping can
damage concrete
k) Removal of spreaders or temporary blocking
I) Cleanout holes and inspection openings
m) Construction joints, contraction joints, and expansion
joints in accordance with contract documents
n) Sequence of concrete placement and minimum elapsed
time between adjacent placements
o) Chamfer strips or grade strips for exposed comers and
construction jomts
p) Reveals (rustications)
q) Camber
r) Mudsills or other foundation provisions for fonnwork
s) Special provisions, such as safety, fire, drainage, and
protection from ice and debris at water crossings
t) Special fonn face requirements
u) Notes to fonnwork erector showing size and loca1ion of
conduits and pipes projecting through formwork
v) Temporary openings or attachments for climbing crane
or other material handling equipment.
4.2-Loads
4.2.1 Vertical loads-Venical loads consist of dead and
live loads. The weight of forrnwork plus the weight of the
reinforcemenl and freshly placed concrete is dead load. The
live load includes the weight of the workers, equipment,
material storage, runways, and impact.
APPENDIX£
 GUIDE TO FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE (ACI347R·14)

Vertical loads assumed for shoring and reshoring design

for multistory construction should include all loads trans­
mitted from the floors above as dictated by the proposed
construction schedule (refer to 4.5).
The fonnwork should be designed for a live load of not
less than 50 lb/f\2 (2.4 kPa) of horizontal projection, except
when reductions are allowed in accordance with ASCEJSEJ
37. When motorized carts are used, the live load should not
be less than 75 lb/ft2 (3.6 kPa).
The unfactored design load for combined dead and live
loads should not be less than 100 lb/fi2 (4.8 kPa), or 125 lb/
tV (6.0 kPa) if motorized cans are used.
4.2.2 Lateral pressure ofconcrete- The design of vertical
fonnwork is detennined by the lateral pressure exerted
by the fresh concrete, which in tum is determined by the
mobility characteristics of the concrete and the method of
consolidating the concrete. Research (ACl Committee 62i
Maximum concrete
1957, 1958; Gardner and Ho 1979; Gardner 1980, 1981,
pressure from Eq.
1985; Clear and Harrison 1985; Johnston et al. 1989; British
Cement Association 1992; Dunston et al. 1994; Barnes and 4.2.2.1bor4.2.2.1c

Johnston 1999, 2003) has assisted in developing recommen­

Fig. 4.2.2-Concrete lateral pressure distribution.
dations for lateral pressures of conventional concrete.
Methods of consolidating concrete include rodding or
CCP ""Wh (4.2.2.1•(•))
spading (no longer used or recommended for large place­
ments), internal vibration, and external vibration. The inten­
sity and depth of internal vibration affect the lateral pressure
(4.2.2.1•(b))
exerted by vibrated concrete. Often, chemical admixtures
are used in conventional concrete to facilitate consolidation.
In recent years, concrete technology has evolved with the
with a minimum of 600C,.. lb/ft2, but in no case greater than
use of supplemental cementitious materials and specialty
wh
chemical admixtures. Conventional concrete with slump
values less than 9 in. (225 mm) are typically vibrated to
ensure proper consolidation. With the increase in slump [ 43,400 2800R
Cc,.,_ =C�C,.. 150+ --+ -- l (4.2.2.1a(c))
beyond 9 in. (225 mm), it is preferable to determine the T T
slump flow spread of the concrete (ASTM CI611/CJ611M)
rather than slump. Concrete mixtures with slump flow spread
with a minimum of 600C,..Iblft2, but in no case greater than
between 15 and 24 in. (400 and 605 mm) may need vibration
wh, where Cc is defined in Table4.2.2.\a(b) and C.., is defined
to consolidate satisfactorily; this depends on the placement
in Table 4.2.2.1a(c).
conditions and characteristics of the structural element. Self­
4.2.2.1 b Sf version- The lateral pressure of concrete, Ca
consolidating concrete (SCC) is a class of high-pcrfonnance
(kPa), can be determined in accordance with the appropriate
concrete that can consolidate under its own mass. Such
equation listed in Table 4.2.2.1b.
concrete can be placed from the top of the formwork or can
be pumped from the base without mechanical consolidation CCP= pgh (4.2.2.1b(•))
(ACI 237R).
The lateral pressure of concrete in formwork can be
represented as shown in Fig. 4.2.2. Unless the conditions of Cc,..,. =C,C., 7.2+
[ 785R l (4.2.2.1b(b))
4.2.2.1 for conventional concrete or 4.2.2.2 for SCC are met, T+\7_8
fonnwork should be designed for the hydrostatic pressure of
the newly placed concrete given in Eq. (4.2.2.1a). with a minimum of 30C,.. kPa, but in no case greater than
When working with mixtures using newly introduced pgh.
admixtures that increase set time or increase slump char­
acteristics, Eq. (4.2.2.1a) should be used until the effect on
formwork pressure is understood by testing, measurement,
or both.
Ccr.... =CC
' ,.
[
7.2+ �+
T+ l 7.8
244R

T+\7.8
l (4.2.2.1b(c))

4.2.2.1a Inch-pound version-The lateral pressure of

concrete, CCP (lb/ft2), can be determined in accordance with with a minimum of 30C.., kPa, but in no case greater than
the appropriate equation listed in Table 4.2.2.1a(a). pgh, where Cc is defined in Table 4.2.2.1a(b) and C,.. is
defined in Table 4.2.2.\a(c).

ACI 347R-14
 GUIDE TO FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE (ACI347R-14)

Table 4.2.2.1a(a)-Applicable lateral pressure equations for concrete other than sec ·Inch-pound version
Slump lnternal•·ibratlondrpth F:lrment Rateofplacement Pressure equation

Gn:aterthan7in. A"Y A"Y "' 4.2.2.la(a)

Lessthanorcqualto 7in. Gn:aterthan4fi A"Y "' 4.2.2.1a(a)

Column' A"Y 4.2.2.la(b)

Wall:lessthanorequalto 14fttall Lessthan7MI 4.2.2.la(b)

L.cssthanorequalto 7in. Lcssthano rcqualto 4ft Wall :gn:aterthanl4fttal1 Lessthan7MI 4.2.2.1a( c)

7 to lSMI 4.2.2.la( c)
wan:
Gn:aterthaniSftllt 4.2.2.1a(a)

'Slump for dtlcrmon.ot1011 oflat�l prnsutl' shall be measum.l after tiM: oddtt1011 ofall admoxtum

1For the purpose ofthis docummt. oolumns are defined as •·mical t�Lll "·ilh no plan dimcnsioocxc«<ling6.5 fl.

:For the purpose ofthis document. walls are defined as •·mica! elements with at least one plan dimension exc«<ling6.5 II

Table 4.2.2.1a(b)-Chemistry coefficient Cc:

Cement type Slag Flynh Retarders C,

None 1.0
l.ll.o rlll Noo< None
Included 1.2

None 1.2
Lessthan70pm:ent Lessthan40percent
Included
A"Y
None
Gn:aterthanorequal to70percent Greaterthanorequalto40percent
Included 1.5

'Retarders tnclu.de any admoxtllll'. such as a tl'tardcr. rcwdong \\-atcr reducer, tl'tardtng mod-range \\atcr-rtducong admoxtutl', or htgh-nonge \\ater-reducmg adm!Xll!ll', that delays
'1Cttingofconcr<1e

Table 4.2.2.1a(c)-Unit weight coefficient C.,

lnch-pound•·enion Sl•·tnlon

Uni t wei g htofconcrete,lblfr' c. Densi tyoreoncrete,kgtml c.

0.511 +( ..1145 1blft1)] O.S{I+(wl2320kgtml)l
w< 140 p<2240
b ut not lessthan0.80 b ut not lessthan0.80

1405w< 150 1.0 2240<p52400 1.0

w>150 ..11451bJIV p>2400 w/2320kglm1

Table 4.2.2.1b-Applicable lateral pressure equations for concrete other than SCC - Sl version
Slump lntcrnal•·ibrationdepth Element Raleofplaeemenl Pressure equation

Gn:aterthan17Smm A"Y My A"Y 4.2.2.1b(a)

Lessthanorequalto l75mm G reaterthan1.2m A'Y A'Y 4.2.2.1b(a)

Column' Aoy 4.2.2.1b(b)

Wall :lessthanorequalto 4.2m tall Lessthan 2.1 mlh 4.2.2.1b(b)

Lessthanorequalto 17Smm Lessthanorequal to1.2m Wall:greatcrthan4.2m tal1 Less than 2.1 mfh 4.2.2.1b( c)

2.1 to 4.5 m!h 4.2.2.1b( c)

wan:
Greaterthan4.Smlh 4.2.2.1b(a)

'Slumpfordelcrmonaloon oflat�ntlprtuurcshallbc mcasurntdlcrtlw:oddouonofall admtxtutl's

'FortM purpose ofthis docum�nt. columns are dc:fined as ,·miul clements with no plan dimension cxc..., ding 2m

:Forthe JIIIIPOS" ofthis docum�nl. walls are defined as •·enical elements with at luot one plan dimension exceeding 1m

4.2.2.2 When working with self-consolidating concrete,
the lateral pressure for design should be the full liquid head
unless the effect on fonnwork pressure is understood by
measurement or prior studies and experience. The lateral
pressures developed by sec are determined by consid­
ering the rate of concrete placement relative to the rate of
development of concrete stiffness/strength. Any method has
to include a measure of the stiffening characteristics of the
sec and should be capable of being easily ch�ked using
on-site measurements. Often, laboratory tests are needed as
a precursor to on-site monitoring tests. Several methods for
estimating lateral pressure of nonvibrated sec have been
proposed (Gardner et al. 2012; Khayat and Omran 2011;
Lange et al. 2008; DIN 18218:2010-01; "DIN S1andard on
Formwork Pressures Updated" 2010; Proske and Graubner
2008) and continue to be developed as additional data become
available. Experience with these methods is presently some­
what limited. Thus, evaluation of estimated pressure on the

APPENDfXE
 GUIDE TO FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE (ACI347R-14)
basis of more than one method is advisable until satisfactory
performance is confirmed for the range of parameters asso­
ciated with the project. Measuring pressures during place­
ment and adjusting the rate of placement to control pres­
sures within the capacity of the forms can be a wise precau­
tion when using unproven SCC mixtures. Researchers and
contractors have used pressure cells inserted through the
form face and load cells on form ties with pressure based on
tributary area as methods of measurement (Johnston 20 I 0).
sec placement pressures have the potential to reach full
liquid head pressures. Generally, concrete lateral pressures
will not reach full equivalent liquid head pressure but agita­
tion of the already-placed concrete in the form will cause
form pressure to increase. There are site and placement
conditions that will increase form pressure. Site conditions
that can transmit vibrations to the freshly-placed concrete
can cause it to lose its internal structure and reliquefy. Heavy
equipment operating close to the forms, or continued work
on the forms, will transmit vibration. Dropping concrete
from the pump hose or placing bucket will also agitate the
in-place concrete. Concrete pumped into the bottom of a
form will always create pressures higher than full liquid
head.
4.2.2.3 Alternatively, a method for either conventional
or self-consolidating concrete based on appropriate exper­
imental data can be used to determine the lateral pressure
used for form design (Gardner and Ho 1979; Gardner 1980,
1985; Clear and Harrison 1985; British Cement Association
1992; Dunston et al. 1994; Barnes and Johnston 1999,
2003) or a project-specific procedure can be implemented
to control field-measured pressures in instrumented forms
to the maximum pressure for which the form was designed
(Johnston 2010).
4.2.2.4 If concrete is pumped from the base of the form,
the form should be designed for full hydrostalic head of
concrete wh (or pgh) plus a minimum allowance of 25
percent for pump surge pressure. Pressures can be as high as
the face pressure of the pump piston; thus, pressure should
be monitored and controlled so that the design pressure is
not exceeded.
4.2.2.5 Caution is necessary and additional allowance for
pressure should be considered when using external vibration
or concrete made with shrinkage-compensating or expansive
cements. Pressures in excess of the equivalent hydrostatic
head can occur.
4.2.2.6 For slipform lateral pressures, refer to 9.2.2.4.
4.2.3 Horizontal loads- Braces and shores should be
designed to resist all horizontal loads such as wind, cable
tensions, inclined supports, dumping of concrete, and
starting and stopping of equipment. Wind loads on enclo­
sures or other wind breaks attached to the formwork should
be considered in addition to these loads.
4.2.3.1 Formwork exposed to the elements should be
designed for wind pressures determined in accordance with
ASCEISEl 7 with adjustment as provided in ASCEISEI 37
for shorter recurrence interval. Alternately, formwork may
be designed for the local building code-required lateral wind
ACI347R·14
pressure but not less than 15 lb/fV (0.72 kPa). Consideration
should be given to possible wind uplift on the formwork.
4.2.3.2 For elevated floor formwork, the applied value of
horizontal load due to wind, dumping of concrete, inclined
placement of concrete, and equipment acting in any direc­
tion at each floor line should produce effects not less than the
effect of 100 lb/linear ft (1.5 kN/m) of floor edge or 2 percent
of total dead load on the form distributed as a uniform load
per linear foot (meter) of slab edge, whichever is greater.
4.2.3.3. For wall and column form bracing design, the
applied value of horizontal load due to wind and eccen­
tric vertical loads should produce effects not less than the
effect of 100 lb/linear ft (1.5 kN/m) of wall length or column
width. applied at the top.
4.2.3.4 Formwork in hurricane-prone regions should be
given special consideration in accordance with ASCEJSEI
)7.
4.2.4 Special loads-The formwork should be designed
for any special conditions of construction likely to occur,
such as unsymmetrical placement of concrete, impact of
machine-delivered concrete, uplift from concrete pressure,
uplift from wind, concentrated loads of reinforcement, form
handling loads, and storage of construction materials. Form
designers should provide for special loading conditions, such
as walls constructed over spans of slabs or beams that exert
a different loading pattern before hardening of concrete than
that for which the supporting structure is designed.
Imposition of any construction loads on the partially
completed structure should not be allowed, except as speci­
fied in formwork drawings or with the approval of the engi­
neer/architect. Refer to 5.8 for special conditions pertaining
to multistory work.
4.2.5 Posr-rensioning loach-Shores, reshores, and
backshores need to be analyzed for both concrete place­
men! loads and for all load transfer that takes place during
post-tensioning.
4.3-Member capacities
Member capacities for use in the design of formwork, exclu­
sive of accessories, are determined by the applicable codes
or specifications listed in Chapter 6. When fabricated form­
work, shoring, or scaffolding units are used, manufacturer's
recommendations for working capacities should be followed
if supported by engineering calculations or test reports of a
qualified and recognized testing agency. The effects of cumu­
lative load duration should be considered in accordance with
the applicable design specification for the materiaL
4.4-Safety factors for accessories
Table 4.4 shows recommended minimum factors of
safety, based on committee and industry experience, for
formwork accessories, such as fonn ties, form anchors, and
form hangers. In selecting these accessories, the formwork
designer should be certain that materials furnished for the
job meet these minimum ultimate-strength safety require­
ments compared to the unfactored load. When manufactur­
er's recommended factors of safety arc greater, the manu­
facturers recommended working capacities should be used.
 GUIDE TO FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE (ACI347R-14)
Table 4.4-Minimum safety factors of formwork
accessories
Safery
ACCl'S.SOry f�clor" Typl'OfcOnSiruction'
Formtie 2.0 Allapplicalions
2.0 Fonnwork anchors supporting form weight.
concretepressures andwindloadonly
Form anchor
3.0 Fonnwork anchors supporting form weight,
concrete pressures,windloads,construction
personnellive loads,andimpact
Fo� 2.0 All applications
hangrn;
Anci!Qring 2.0 Precast-concretc panels"'henusedas
insertsused formwork
as form tics
Sa fctyfactors�basc<l011!hculumatc st�nsthoftl>c a«:cssoryv.hcnncw
'Higher faclors ofN.f�ty q ired byOSHA 1926 for work platform ll:<:cS50rics.
�reu
4.5---Shores
Shores and reshores or backshores should be designed
to carry all loads transmitted to them. A rational analysis
(ACI 347.2R and ACI SP-4) should be used to determine
the number of floors to be shored, reshored, or backshored;
and to determine the loads transmitted to the floors, shores,
and reshores or backshores as a result of the construction
sequence.
The analysis should consider, but should not necessarily
be limited to:
a) Structural design load of the slab or member including
live load, partition loads, and other loads for which the engi­
neer of the permanent structure designed the slab. Where
the engineer included a reduced live load for the design of
certain members and allowances for construction loads, such
values should be shown on the structural plans and be taken
into consideration when performing this analysis.
b) Dead load weight of the concrete and formwork
c) Construction live loads, such as the placing crews and
equipment or stored materials
d) Specified design strength of concrete
e) Cycle time between the placement of successive floors
f) Strength of concrete at the time it is required to support
shoring loads from above
g) The distribution of loads between floors, shores, and
rcshores or backshores at the time of placing concrete, strip­
ping formwork, and removal of reshoring or backshoring
(Grundy and Kabaila 1963; Agarwal and Gardner 1974;
Stivaros and Halvorsen 1990)
h) Span of slab or structural member between permanent
supports
i) Type of formwork systems, that is, span of horizontal
formwork components and individual shore loads
j) Minimum age of concrete when creep deflection is a
concern
k) Loads applied due to post-tensioning transfer
Commercially available load cells can be placed under
selected shores to monitor actual shore loads to guide the
shoring and reshoring during construction (Noble 1975).
Field-constructed butt or lap splices of timber shoring
arc not recommended unless they are made with fabricated
hardware devices of demonstrated strength and stability. If
plywood or lumber splices arc made for timber shoring, they
should be designed to prevent buckling and bending of the
shoring.
Before construction, an overall plan for scheduling of
shoring and reshoring or backshoring, and calculation of
loads transferred to the structure, should be prepared by a
qualified and experienced formwork designer. The struc­
ture's capacity to carry these loads should be reviewed or
approved by the engineer/architect. The plan and responsi­
bility for its execution remain with the contractor.
4.6-Bracing and lacing
The formwork system should be designed to transfer all
horizontal loads to the ground or to completed construction
in such a manner as to ensure safety at all times. Diagonal
bracing should be provided in vertical and horizontal
planes where required to resist lateral loads and to prevent
instability of individual members. Horizontal lacing can
be considered in design to hold in place and increase the
buckling strength of individual shores and reshores or back­
shores. Lacing should be provided in whatever directions are
necessary to produce the correct slenderness ratio /lr for the
load supported, where I is the unsupported length and r is
the least radius of gyration. The braced system should be
anchored to ensure stability of the total system.
4.7-Foundations for formwork
Proper foundations on ground, such as mudsills, spread
footings, or pile footings, should be provided. Formwork
footings and bracing anchors should be designed to resist the
loads imposed without exceeding the allowable soil bearing
capacity, without incurring excessive settlements affecting
the formwork structural integrity and stability, and without
deviating from the specified concrete elevation. If soil under
mudsills is or may become incapable of supporting super­
imposed loads without appreciable settlement, it should be
stabilized or other means of support should be provided.
Mudsills should be protected from loss of soil bearing
strength. Causes might include scour due to running water,
nearby excavations, or the increase of moisture content
caused by the supporting soil becoming wet or saturated. No
concrete should be placed on formwork supported on frozen
ground.
4.8-Settlement
Formwork should be designed and constructed so that
vertical adjustments can be made to compensate for antici­
pated take-up, elastic deformations, and settlements
CHAPTER 5-CONSTRUCTION
5.1-Safety precautions
Formwork engineers and formwork contractors should
follow all state, local, and federal codes, ordinances, and
regulations pertaining to forming and shoring. In addition to
APPENDIX£
 GUJOETO FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE (ACJ 347R-14)
the very real moral and legal responsibility to maintain safe
conditions for workers and the public, safe construction is,
in the final analysis, more economical than any short-tenn
cost savings from cutting comers on safety provisions.
Attention to safety is particularly significant in fonnwork
construction that supports the concrete during its plastic state
and until the concrete becomes structurally self-supporting.
Following the design criteria contained in this guide is essen­
tial for ensuring safe perfonnancc of the fonns. All structural
members and connections should be carefully planned so
that a sound detennination of loads may be accurately made
and stresses calculated.
In addition to the adequacy of the fonnwork, special'struc­
tures, such as multistory buildings, require consideration of
the behavior of newly completed structural elements that are
used to support fonnwork and other construction loads. Note
that the strength of newly completed structural clements will
be less than their final design strength.
Fonnwork failures can be anributcd to substandard mate­
rials and equipment, human error, and inadequacy in design.
Careful supervision and continuous inspection of fonnwork
during erection, concrete placement, and removal can help
prevent accidents.
Construction procedures should be planned in advance
to ensure the safety of personnel and the integrity of the
finished structure. Some of the safety provisions that should
be considered include:
a) Erection of safety signs and barricades to keep unau­
thorized personnel clear of areas in which erection, concrete
placing, or stripping is under way
b) Providing experienced fonnwork personnel with direct
communication means to the placing crew, to closely watch
during concrete placement to ensure early recognition of
possible fonn displacement or potential failures; a supply of
extra shores or other material and equipment that might be
needed in an emergency should be readily available
c) Provision for adequate illumination of the fonnwork
and work area
d) Inclusion of lifting points in the design and detailing
of all fonns that will be hoisted by cranes or other lifting
equipment. This is especially important in Hying fonns or
climbing fonns; in the case of wall fonnwork, consideration
should be given to an independent work platfonn adequately
fastened to the previous lift
e) Incorporation of scaffolds, working platfonns, and
guardrails into fonnwork design and all fonnwork drawings
f) Incorporation of provisions for anchorage of fall protec­
tion devices, such as personal fall arrest systems, safety net
systems, and personnel positioning device systems
g) A program of field safety inspections of fonnwork
5.1.1 Formwork construction deficiencies-Some
common construction deficiencies that can lead to fonnwork
failures include:
a) An ineffective inspection process for removing damaged
or wom material(s), accessories, or other fanning equipment
having lower strength than required
b) Insufficient nailing, bolting, welding, or fastening
c) Insufficient or improper lateral bracing
AC/ 347R-14
d) Failure to comply with manufacturer's recommendations
e) Failure to construct fonnwork in accordance with the
fonn drawings
f) Failure to obtain fonnwork engineer's approval for field
modifications
g) Lack of proper prepour field inspection by competent
persons to ensure that fonn design has been properly inter­
preted by fonn builders
h) Failure to inspect fonnwork during and after concrete
placement to detect abnonnal deflections or other signs of
imminent or potential failure that should be corrected
5.1.1.1 Examples of deficiencies in vertical formwork­
Construction deficiencies sometimes found in vertical fonn-
work include:
a) Failure to control rate of placement of concrete without
regard to design parameters
b) Inadequately tightened or secured fonn ties or hardware
c) Fonn damage in excavations resulting from embank­
ment failure
d) Usc of external vibrators on fonns not designed for
their use
e) Deep vibrator penetration of earlier semi-hardened lifts
f) Improper framing of blockouts
g) Improperly located or constructed pouring pockets
h) Inadequately supponed bulkheads or construction joint
fonnwork
i) Improperly anchored top forms on a sloping face
j) Failure to assess and control concrete properties and
admixture effects with respect to concrete lateral pressure
k) Failure to provide adequate support for lateral pressures
on fonnwork
I) Failure to recognize and resolve forces at locations in
the fonnwork where lateral pressure is not resisted by fonn
ties, such as at T-intersections of walls and at outside comers
m) Installation of lateral bracing at steeper angles than
designed, resulting in an inability to maintain lateral stability,
plumb, and alignment of the fonnwork
n) Placing concrete in such a manner that unbalanced
forces are applied to wall opening blockouts, causing deflec­
tion or displacement of the blackout fonn
o) Failure to provide adequate bracing resulting in attempts
to plumb fonns against concrete weight, wind loads, or other
horizontal forces
p) Inadequately supported wall fonn or column fonn panels
q) Inadequate fastening of the fonn to previous concrete
placement or foundation
5.1.1.2 Examples of deficiencies in horizontalformwork­
Construction deficiencies sometimes found in horizontal
fonns for elevated structures include:
a) Failure to properly regulate the sequence of placing
concrete to avoid unanticipated loadings on the fonnwork
b) Shoring not plumb, thus inducing lateral loading and
reducing vertical load capacity
c) Locking devices on metal shoring not locked, inoper­
ative, or missing. Safety nails missing on adjustable two­
piece wood shores
d) Failure to account for vibration from adjacent moving
loads or load carriers
 GUIDE TO FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE (ACt 347R·14)
"OR
Fig. 5.1.1.2a-lnadequare bearing under mudsill.
e) Inadequately tightened or secured shores and rcshores
including hardware or wedges
f) Loosening or premature removal of reshores or back·
shores under floors below
g) Premature removal of supports, especially under canti·
levered sections
h) Inadequate bearing area or unsuitable soil under
mudsills (Fig. 5.1.1.2a)
i) Mudsills placed on frozen ground subject to thawing
or on saturated ground; mudsills placed prior to a large rain
event during which water accumulates and washes the soil
out from under the sill
j) Connection of shores to joists, stringers, or wales that
are inadequate to resist uplift or torsion at joints (refer to
Fig. 5.1.1.2b)
k) Failure to consider effects of load transfer that can
occur during post-tensioning (refer to 5.8.6)
I) Failure to perfonn, document, and follow up on
preplacement fonnwork inspections
m) Kinked, bent, or otherwise damaged shoring equipment
n) Inadequate shoring and bracing of composite construction
o) Inadequate bracing for horizontal loads due to wind or
other horizontal forces
5.2-Construction practices and workmanship
5.2.1 Fabrication and assembly details-The following
are examples of good construction practice:
a) Properly spliced studs, wales, strongbacks, shores, and
other members of two or more pieces.
b) Shores should be installed plumb within the allowable
tolerance and with adequate bearing and bracing.
c) Specified size and capacity of fonn tics or clamps
should be used.
d) All fonn ties or clamps should be installed and properly
tightened as specified. All threads should fully engage the
nut or coupling. A double nut may be required to develop the
full capacity of the tie.
e) Fonns should be sufficiently tight to minimize loss of
mortar from the concrete.
f) Pour windows or pockets may be necessary in wall
fonns or other high, narrow fonns to facilitate concrete
placement and vibration.
Fig. 5.1.1.2b-Uplifi of formwork. Conneclion of shores to
joisls and stringers should hold shores in place when uplift
or torston occurs.
g) Fabricate ganged fonnwork, tables, and column fonns
on a suitable platfonn, horses, or other means of support
to assure correct and square geometry, straight fonnwork
edges, and the absence of built-n warp within tolerances.
5.2.2 Joints in concre1e
5.2.2.1 Contraction joints, expansion joints, control joints,
construction joints, and isolation joints should be installed
as specified in the contract documents (Fig. 5.2.2.1) or as
requested by the contractor and approved by the engineer/
architect.
5.2.2.2 Bulkheads for construction joints should prefer­
ably be made by splitting the sheathing along the lines of
the reinforcement (either vertically or horizontally) passing
through the bulkhead, and installing the supports such
that the sheathing material is supported along these cuts
and is supported frequently enough to limit its deflection.
Construction joint fonnwork should be made in such sizes
so that it is not trapped behind the reinforcing steel. By
doing this, the fonnwork can be removed more easily and,
in some cases, reused.
5.2.2.3 When required by the contract documents, beveled
inserts at control or contraction joints should be left undis­
turbed when fonns are stripped, and then removed only after
the concrete has been sufficiently cured.
5.2.2.4 Wider wood feature strips, reveals, or rustications
inserted for architectural treatment can be kerfed on their
back sides so as to allow for expansion to take place in the
wooden piece as a result of moisture absorption.
5.2.3 Sloping surfaces-Sloped surfaces steeper than 1.5
horizontal to I vertical should be provided with a top fonn
to hold the shape of the concrete during placement, unless it
can be demonstrated that the top fonns can be omitted.
5.2.4 Formwork inspeclion-The inspection should
be perfonned by a person certified as an ACI Concrete
Construction Special Inspector or a person having equiva­
lent fonnwork training and knowledge.
a) Fonnwork should be inspected for compliance with the
fonnwork drawings.
b) Fonns should be inspected and checked before the rein­
forcing steel is placed to confinn that the dimensions and
the location of the concrete members will confonn to the
structural plans.
APPENDIXE
 GUIDE TO FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE (ACI347R·14)
FORMING IN THESE SPANS SHOULD
REMAIN IN PLACE UNTIL ADJACENT SPAN
IS PLACED, TO PREVENT POSSIBLE
Fig. 5.2.2.1-Forming and shoring restraims at construction joints in supported slabs.
c) Blockouts, inserts, sleeves, anchors, and other embedded
items should be properly identified, positioned, and secured.
d) Fonnwork should be checked for required camber when
specified in the contract documents or shown on the fonn­
work drawings. Fonnwork camber should be measured after
casting but before posl-tensioning and stripping of shores.
Pennanent camber should be measured at soffit both before
and after stripping.
5.2.5 Cleanup and coatings-Fonns should be thoroughly
cleaned of all dirt, mortar, and foreign matter and coated
with a release agent before each use. Where the bottom of
the fonn is inaccessible from within, access panels should be
provided to pennit thorough removal of extraneous material
before placing concrete. If surface appearance of the concrete
is important, fonns should not be reused if damage from
previous use would cause impainnent to concrete surfaces.
Fonn coatings should be applied in accordance with the
manufacturers' instructions before placing of reinforcing
steel and should not be used in such quantities as to run onto
bars or concrete construction joints.
5.2.6 Construction operations on theformwork- Building
materials, including concrete, should not be dropped or piled
on the fonnwork in such a manner as to damage or overload
it. Runways for moving equipment should be provided with
struts or legs as required and should be supported directly on
the fonnwork or structural member. They should not bear on
or be supported by the reinforcing steel unless special bar
supports are provided. The fonnwork should be suitable for
the support of such runways without significant deflections,
vibrations, or lateral movements.
5.2.1 Loading new .slabs-Overloading of new slabs by
temporary material stockpiling or by early application of
pennanent loads should be avoided. Loads, such as aggre­
gate, lumber, reinforcing steel, masonry, or mat:hinery
should not be placed on new construt:tion in such a manner
as to damage or overload it.
5.3-Tolerances
Tolerance is a permissible variation from lines, grades, or
dimensions given in contract documents. Suggested toler­
ances for concrete structures can be found inACt 117.
AC1347R-74
CONSTRUCTION JOINT
Table 5.3.1-Permitted abrupt or gradual irregulari­
ties in formed surfaces as measured within a 5 ft
(1.5 m) length with a straightedge
Clanofsurf�ce
� mm) I � mm) 1112 � II (�5
1/8 in. J 1/4 in. 6 in. J mm) in. mm)
The contractor should set and maintain concrete fonns,
including any specified camber, to ensure completed work is
within the tolerancelimits.
5.3.1 Recommendations for engineerlarr:hilecl and
contractor-Tolerances should be specified by the engineer/
architect so that the contrat:tor will know precisely what is
required and can design and maintain the fonnwork accord­
ingly. Specifying tolerances more exacting than needed can
increase construction costs. It should be noted that tolerances
nonnally found in construction specifications, such as those
inACI 117, are for the as-built concrete members and not the
fonnwork used to shape these members. Fonnwork should be
constructed with such dimensions so the resulting concrete
members arc within the specified dimensional tolerances.
The engineer/architect should specify tolerances or
require perfonnance appropriate to the type of construc­
tion. Specifying tolerances more stringent than commonly
obtained for a specific type of construction should be
avoided, as this usually results in disputes among the parties
involved. For example, specifying pennitted irregularities
more stringent than those allowed for a Class D surface
(Table 5.3.1) is incompatible with most concrete one-way
(lap pans) joist construction techniques.As a matter of prac­
tical construction, lap pans will not provide Class D in all
cases, particularly when subject to reuse on a project.
Where a project involves features sensitive to the cumula­
tive effect of tolerances on individual portions, the engineer/
architect should anticipate and provide for this effect by
setting a cumulative tolerance. Where a particular situation
involves several types of generally accepted tolerances on
items such as concrete, location of reinforcement, and fabri­
cation of reinforcement, which become mutua11y incompat­
ible, the engineer/architect should anticipate the difficulty
and specify special tolerances or indicate which tolerance
govems. The project specifications should clearly state that
a pennitted variation in one part of the construction or in
 GUIDE TO FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE (ACt 347R-14)
one section of the specifications should not be construed as
permitting violation of the more stringent requirements for
any other part of the construction or in any other such speci­
fication section.
The engineer/architect should be responsible for coor­
dinating the tolerances for concrete work with the toler­
ance requirements of other trades whose work adjoins the
concrete construction. For example, the connection detail
for a building's fa�,:ade should accommodate the tolerance
range for the lateral alignment and elevation of the perimeter
concrete member.
5.4-lrregularities in formed surfaces
ACI 347.3R provides detailed guidance and methods for
producing and evaluating concrete formed surfaces. This
section provides a summary of ways of evaluating surface
variations due to forming quality but is not intended for eval­
uation of surface defects, such as surface voids (bugholes
and blowholes), and honeycomb attributable to placing and
consolidation deficiencies. These are more fully explained
by ACI 347.3R and ACI 309.2R. Allowable irregularities
are designated either abrupt or gradual. Offsets and fins
resulting from displaced, mismatched, or misplaced forms,
sheathing, or liners, or from defects in forming materials are
considered abrupt irregularities. Irregularities resulting from
warping and similar uniform variations from planeness or
true curvature are considered gradual irregularities.
Gradual irregularities should be checked with a straight­
edge for plane surfaces or a shaped template for curved
or warped surfaces. In measuring irregularities of plane
surfaces, the straightedge can be placed anywhere on the
surface in any direction.
Four classes of formed surface are defined inACI 117-10,
4.8.3 (Table 5.3.1). The engineer/architect should indicate
which class is required for the work being specified or indi­
cate other irregularity limits where needed; or the concrete
surface tolerances as specified in ACI 301-10, 5.3.3.3, with
form-facing materials meeting the requirements of ACI
301-10, 2.2.1.1, should be followed.
Class A is suggested for surfaces prominently exposed
to public view where appearance is of special importance.
Class B is intended for coarse-textured, concrete-formed
surfaces intended to receive plaster, stucco, or wainscoting.
Class C is a general standard for permanently exposed
surfaces where other finishes arc not specified. Class 0 is a
minimum-quality requirement for surfaces where roughness
is not objectionable, usually applied where surfaces will be
permanently concealed.
Construction methods such as using metal form pans
provide a finish unique to itself and should be given special
consideration by the engineer/architect. Special limits
on irregularities can be needed for surfaces continuously
exposed to flowing water, drainage, or exposure. lf pcrmincd
irregularities are different from those given in Table 5.3.1,
they should be specified by the engineer/architect.
5.5--Shoring and centering
5.5.1 Shoring-The design process and construction prac­
tices should be in accordance with ACI 347.2R. Shoring
should be supported on satisfactory foundations, such as
spread footings, mudsills, slabs-on-ground, piers, caissons,
or piling, as discussed in 4.7.
Shores resting on intermediate slabs or other construction
already in place need not be located directly above shores
or reshores below, unless the slab thickness and the loca­
tion of its reinforcement are inadequate to take the reversal
of moments and punching shear. The reversal of bending
moments in the slab over the shore or reshore below may
occur as shown in Fig. 5.5.la. If reshores do not align with
the shores above, then calculate for reversal of moments.
Generally, the moment induced by the slab dead loads will
not be reversed by the effect of having the upper shore offset
in location from the reshore below. Reshores should be
prevented from falling by such means as spring clips at the
top of reshores and positively attaching perimeter reshores
back into the interior of the structure with appropriate lacing
or bracing. The reshoring plan should be submitted to the
engineer/architect for review related to effects on permanent
structures. Multi-tier shoring-single-post shoring in two or
more tiers-is a dangerous practice and is not recommended
(refer to Fig. 5.5.lb).
Where a slab load is supported on one side of the beam
only (refer to Fig. 4.1.4), edge beam forms should be care­
fully planned to prevent rotating of the beam side form due
to unequal loading.All members should be straight and true
without twists or bends. Special attention should be given
to beam and slab construction or one- and two-way joist
construction to prevent local overloading when a heavily
loaded shore rests on a thin slab.
Vertical shores should be erected so that they cannot tilt
and should have a firm bearing. Inclined shores should be
bmced securely against slipping, sliding, or buckling. The
bearing ends of shores should be square to the supported
member. Wedges may be cut and installed to achieve
full bearing on sloped surfaces or with inclined support
members. Connections of shore heads to other framing
should be adequate to prevent the shores from falling out
when reversed bending causes upward dellection of the
forms (refer to Fig. 5.1.1.2b).
5.5.2 Centering- When centering is used, lowering is
genemlly accomplished by the use of sand jacks, jacks, or
wedges beneath the supporting members. For the special
problems associated with the construction of centering for
folded plates, thin shells, and long·span roof structures, refer
to 8.4.
5.6--lnspection and adjustment of formwork
Helpful information about forms before, during, and after
concrete placement can be found in ACI SP-2, ACI SP-4,
andACI 311.4R.
5.6.1 Before concrete placement-Telltale devices should
be installed on shores or forms to detect formwork move­
ments during concrete placement and wedges used for final
APPENDIX£
 GUIDE TO FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE (ACI347R·14)

II 1'1 1.1 II II
Fig. 5.5. Ja-Reshore installation. Improper positioning of shore from floor to
fo
l or can create bending stresses for which the slab was not designed.

alignment before concrete placement should be secured in

position before the final check.
Fonnwork should be anchored to the shores below so that
undesired movement of any part of the fonnwork system will
be prevented during concrete placement. Such anchorages
should be installed in such a way as to allow for anticipated
take-up, settlement, or deflection of the fonnwork members.
Additional height of fonnwork should be provided to
allow for closure of fonn joints, settlements of mudsills,
shrinkage of lumber, and elastic shortening and dead load
deflections of fonn members. Where appropriate, the dimen­
sional value of the expected shortening effects may be stated
in the fonnwork design drawings.
Positive means of adjustment (wedges or jacks) should
be provided to pennit realignment or readjustment of shores
if settlement occurs. Adjustment during or after concrete
F,.m. Shoring In Stacked Sho,..
placement should not be perfonned.
a,.cecl Towers
5.6.2 During and after concrete placement- During
and after concrete placement, but before initial set of the Fig. 5.5./b-Ta/1 shoring should be fully braced; stacked
concrete, the elevations, camber, and plumbness of fonn· single shores in two or more tiers is dangerous.
work systems should be checked using telltale devices. This
infonnation is useful for the next time the fonns are used in
sequences of erection and removal of shoring and reshoring
a similar configuration. Fonnwork should be continuously
on the fonnwork drawings.
watched so that any corrective measures found necessary
5.7.2 Recommendations
can be promptly made. Fonn watchers should always work
5.7.2.1 The engineer/architect should specify the minimum
under safe conditions and establish in advance a method of strength of the concrete that should be reached before
communication with the placing crews in case of emergency. removal of fonns or shores. The strength can be detennined
Some corrections that may be possible are stopping excess by tests on field-cured specimens or on in-place concrete.
leakage, slowing the rate of pour for vertical members that
Other concrete tests or procedures (refer to ACI 228.1 R) can
show signs of distress, adding ties or bracing from the outside
be used such as the maturity method, penetration resistance,
of bulging fonns, tightening bracing, adding bracing, and
or pullout tests, but these methods should be correlated to the
adding shores to prevent additional deflection.
actual concrete mixture used in the project, periodically veri­
fied by job-cured specimens, and approved by the engineer/
5.7-Removal of forms and supports architect. The engineer/architect should specify who will
5.7.1 Discussion-Although the contractor is generally make the specimens and who will pcrfonn the tests. Results
responsible for design, construction, and safety of fonnwork,
of such tests, including such values as cylinder compres­
concrete strength, age criteria, or all, for removal of fonns
sive strength, cylinder size, and cylinder weight, as well
or shores should be specified by the engineer/architect. The
as records of weather conditions and other pertinent infor·
fonnwork engineer/contractor should communicate specific
mation should be recorded by the contractor or the person

ACI347R·14
 GUtDETO FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE (ACt 347R-14)

a,, . · ·

INCORRECT:
·� � �· 1m
FORMS AND SHORING
STRIPPED IN THIS MANNER WILL CNJSE
STRESSREVEASALINTHEMIDOLESTRIP.

CORRECT: BY STRIPPING THE

MIOOLE STAIPFIAST.THESLABWILL
Of:FLECT AND BE LO.O..DED AS DESIGNED.

Fig. 5. 7.2.1-Stripping sequence for 1wo�1-my slabs.

designated in the contract documents. It should be clearly
stated if a minimum time after placement is a requirement to
strip forms in addition to the normal minimum compressive
strength requirement.
Determination of the time of form removal should be
based on the resulting effect on the concrete. When forms
are stripped, there should be no excessive deflection or
distortion and no evidence of damage to the concrete due to
either removal of support or to the stripping operation (Fig.
5.7.2.1 ). If forms are removed before the specified curing is
completed, measures should be taken to continue the curing
and provide adequate thermal pr01ection for the concrete.
Supporting forms and shores should not be removed from
beams, floors, and walls until these struc!Ural units are strong
enough to carry their own weight and any approved super�
imposed load. In no case should supporting forms and shores
be removed from horizontal members before the concrete
has achieved the stripping strength specified by the engineer/
architect. Shores supporting post-tensioned construction
should not be removed until sufficient tensioning force is
applied to support the dead load, formwork, and anticipated
construction loads.
As a general rule, the vertical forms for columns, walls,
beam sides, and piers can be removed before horizontal
forms for beams and slabs. Formwork and shoring should
be constructed so that each can be easily and safely removed
without impact or shock, and permit the concrete to carry its
share of the load gradually and uniformly.
5.1.2.2 The removal of forms, supports, and protective
enclosures, and the discontinuation of heating and curing
should follow the requirements of the contract documents.
When standard beam or cylinder tests are used to determine
stripping times, test specimens should be cured under condi�
tions that are not more favorable than the most unfavorable
conditions for the concrete that the test specimens repre-
sent. The temperature of the concrete while curing, not the
ambient air temperature, is an important factor in the strength
gain of concrete. The curing time and concrete temperature
records can serve as a basis to assist the engineer/architect
with review or approval of form stripping.
5.7.2.3 Because the minimum stripping time is usually
a function of concrete strength, the preferred method of
determining stripping time is a comparison of the actual
strength gained to the strength required for stripping the
element. Walls, columns, and beam sides can usually be
stripped at fairly low concrete strengths. Soffits of slabs,
beams, and other elevated work need greater strength to
be self-supporting and carry imposed construction loads.
ACI 301 lists tests of job�cured cylinders, several tests of
concrete in place, and evaluation by the maiUrity method as
acceptable methods of determining field strength. When the
contract documents do not specify the minimum concrete
strength required at the time of stripping, the engineer/archi­
tect should be consulted and methods discussed in ACI 301
should be used for determining appropriate form removal
criteria. The elapsed times shown in Table 5.7.2.3 may be
used as guidance for determining stripping time for general
planning purposes. The times shown represent a cumulative
number of days, or hours, not necessarily consecutive, during
which the temperature of the air surrounding the concrete is
above 50°F (1 0°C). If high-early-strength concrete is used,
these periods can be reduced as approved by the engineer/
architect. Conversely, if ambient temperatures remain below
50°F (I 0°C), or if retarding agents are used, then these
periods should be increased at the discretion of the engi·
ncer/architect. Shorter stripping times listed for live load
to dead load ratios greater than 1.0 are the result of more
reserve strength being available for dead load in absence of
live load at the time of stripping. It is important to note that
the temperature of the concrete is the key to strength gain,

APPENDIX E
 GUIDE TO FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE (ACI347R·14)

Table 5.7.2.3-Guidance for stripping time when contract documents do not specify stripping time or
stripping strength required
Structurallin•loadnotgreatcr StructuralliH·Ioadgreater lhan
StrutturAitlcmcntsupporll'd thAnstructural dead lo�d SlrU�IUrAI dt�d load

Walls' 12hours 12hours

Columns' l2hours l2hours

Sidesofbcamsand girder" 12hours l2hours

Panjoisl forms'
30in.(760mm)wide orless Jdays )days
Over 30in.(760mm)widc 4days 4days

Archcemers l4days 7days

Joist.bcam or girdcrsoffils
Under 10ft(Jm)clearspanbc\weenslructuralsupports 7days: 4days
l 0w20ft(3to 6m)clearspanbctweens\ruc\uralsuppons l4daysl 7days
Over20ft( 6m)clear spanbc!"·eens!ruc\uralsuppons 2l days: 14days

One.way floor slabs

Under 1 0ft(Jm)clearspanbctwecns\ructuralsuppons 4daysl )days
10to20ft(3to 6m)clcar spanbc!wl"i:nStruc1Ural suppons 7daysl 4days
Ovcr20ft( 6m)clcar spanbetwl"i:nStructural supports IOdays: 7days

Two-wayslabsystemsl Removal limes arc comingcm on placcmem ofreshorcs where required. Reshorcs
shouldbcplaced as soon as practicable aftcr stripping opcrations arc compkh:bu!
no!later !han the endof the workingday in"·hichslrippingoccurs.Whcrc rcshores
arert"quiredlo implemenlearly slripping"·hilc minimizing:�.ag or creep(ralher !han
for dislribution of supcrimpo>edconstruction loadsas covered in5.8),capacily and
spacing of such reshoresshould bc dcsignedby che formwork engincerleonlractor
andrevicwcdby!he engincer/architcct.

Post tensioned slab sysceml As soonas pos!-lcnsioningopcmtions havcbcencomple!ed and approved

"Whc.-c such forms also supf10<1 fonn1H>rk f<>r slab<>< beam soffits, the rcmo,·•l times oflllc latter should so,·em.

'Ofthctyi!C'thatcanbc r(mo\·<:d"·ithout disturbingfonning<>r shoring

:Whcn:fonn•can bc n:l1>0'·cdwithoutdi5lurbingsllo<n.,usc half of•·alue5sho"·n butnotlcss than3days.

1Rcfcr lO Section �.8 for S!X'cial conditions aiTe<:lingthe numbcr offtoors to remam shoml or rcshom:l

nol the ambient air temperature. Ambient air temperature
is only used in lhis case to show a minimum ambient air
temperature that will still allow concrele temperatures to be
adequate for proper cement hydration. Concrete lemperature
inside forms can vary depending on the type of forms used
and any methods that are employed to reduce heat loss from
unformed surfaces, such as the top of a wall or top of a slab.
ACI305R and ACI 306R provide funhcr discussion of how
ambient air temperature affects concrete strength gain.
5.8-Shoring and reshoring of multistory
structures
This section discusses methods of shoring and reshoring
of multistory structures and provides general guidance and
considera1ions. ACI 347.2R expands on these concepts and
should be consulted for further guidance on shoring and
reshoringpractices.
5.8.1 Discussion-Shores or falsework are vertical or
inclined suppon members designed to carry the weight of
formwork, concrete, and construction loads, and reshores are
shores placed snugly under a stripped concrete slab or struc·
tural member after the original forms and shores have been
removed from at least full bays. This requires the new slab or
structural member to deflect and suppon its own weight and
existing construction loads applied before the installation of
the reshores. It is assumed that the reshores carry no load at
the time of installation. Aften.vard, additional construction
loads will be distributed among all members connected by
reshores.
Multistory work presents special conditions, panicularly
in relalion to Ihe removal of forms and shores. Reuse of form
material and shores is an obvious economy. Furthermore,
the speed of construction in this type of work permits other
trades to follow concrete placement operations from floor to
floor as closely as possible. The shoring that supports freshly
placed and low-strenglh early-age concrete, however, is
supponed by lower floors that were not originally designed
specifically for these loads. The loads imposed should not
exceed the safe capacity of each floor providing suppon. For
this reason, shoring or reshoring should be provided for a
sufficient number of floors to distribute the imposed construc­
tion loads to several slab levels without causing excessive
stresses, excessive slab deflections, or both (Grundy and
Kabaila 1963; Agarwal and Gardner 1974; Stivaros and
Halvorsen 1990). Reshoring is used to distribute construc­
tion loads to the lower floors.
In a common method of analysis (ACI347.2R;ACI SP-4),
while reshoring remains in place at grade level, each level of
reshores carries the weight of only the new slab plus other
construction live loads. The weight of intermediate slabs is
not included because each slab carries its own weight before
reshores are put in place.
Once the tier of reshores in contact with grade has been
removed, the assumption is made that the system of slabs

ACI347R-14
 GUIDE TO FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE (ACI347R·14)
behaves elastically. The slabs interconnected by reshores will
deflect equally during addition or removal of loads. Loads
will be distributed among the slabs in proportion to their
developed stiffness. The dellection of concrete slabs can be
considered elastic, that is, neglecting shrinkage and creep.
Caution should be exercised when a compressible wood
shoring system is used. Such systems tend to shift most of
the imposed construction loads to the upper floors, which
have less strength. Addition or removal of loads may be due
to construction activity or to removing shores or reshores in
the system. Shore loads are determined by equilibrium of
forces at each floor level.
5.8.2 Advantages of res/wring-Stripping formwork is
more economical if all the material can be removed at the
same time and moved from the area before placing reshores.
Slabs arc allowed to support their own weight, reducing the
load in the reshores. Combination of shores and reshores
usually requires fewer levels of interconnected slabs, thus
freeing more areas for other trades.
If prefabricated drop-head shores are used, the shores can
become the reshores if a large area of shoring is unloaded,
permitting the structural members to deflect and support
their own weight. The drop-head shore has a head that can be
lowered to remove forming components without removing
the shore or changing its support for the floor system. Later
the shore may be retracted and resnugged to act as a reshore.
It can also be used as a backshore or preshore.
5.8.3 Other methods-Other methods of supporting new
construction are less widely used and involve leaving the
original shores in place or replacing them individuatty
(backshoring and preshoring), which prevents the slab from
deflecting and carrying its own weight. Preshores and the
panels they support remain in place until the remainder of
the complete bay has been stripped and backshorcd, a small
area at a time. These methods are not recommended unless
performed under careful supervision by the formwork engi·
neer/contractor and with review by the engineer/architect
because excessively high slab and shore stresses can develop.
5.8.4 Placing reshores-When used in this section, the
word "shore" refers to either rcshores or the original shores.
Reshoring is one of the most critical operations in form­
work; consequently, the procedure should be planned in
advance by the formwork engineer/contractor and should be
reviewed or approved by the engineer/architect. Operations
should be performed so that areas of new construction will
not be required to support combined dead and construction
loads in excess of their capacity, as determined by design
toad and developed concrete strength at the time of stripping
and reshoring.
Shores should not be located so as to alter the pattern of
stress determined in the structural analysis of the completed
structure or induce tensile stresses where reinforcing bars
are not provided. Size and number of shores and bracing,
if required, should provide a supporting system capable of
carrying anticipated loads.
Where practical, shores should be located in the same posi­
tion on each floor so that there will be continuous support
from floor to floor. When shores above are not directly over
shores below, an analysis should be made 10 determine
whether or not detrimental stresses are produced in the
slab. This condition seldom occurs in reshoring because the
bending stresses normally caused by the offset reshores are
not large enough to overcome the stress resulting from the
slab carrying its own dead load. Where slabs are designed
for light live loads or on long spans where the loads on the
shores are heavy, care should be exercised in placing the
shores so that the loads on the shores do not cause excessive
punching shear or bending stress in the slab.
While reshoring is under way, no construction loads
should be permitted on the new construction unless it has
been determined by the formwork engineer/contractor that
the new construction can safely suppon the construction
loads.
When placing reshores, care should be taken not to preload
the lower floor and not to remove the normal deflection of
the slab above. The reshore is simply a strut and should
be tightened only to the extent necessary to achieve good
bearing contact without transferring load between upper and
lower floors.
5.8.5 Removal of reshoring-Shores should not be
removed until the supponed slab or member has attained
sufficient strength to support itself and all applied loads.
Shores should be removed or released before reshore
removal. Premature reshore removal can be dangerous as it
can result in overloading the slabs above. Removal opera­
tions should be carried out in accordance with a planned
sequence so that the structure supported is not subject to
impact or nonsymmetric load patterns.
5.8.6 Post-tensioning effects on shoring and reshoring­
The design and placement of shores and reshores for post­
tensioned construction requires more consideration than for
normal reinforced concrete. The stressing of post-tensioning
tendons can cause overloads to occur in shores, reshores, or
other temporary supports. The stressing sequence has the
greatest effect. When a slab is post-tensioned, the force in
the tendon generally produces a downward load at the beam.
If the beam is shored, the shoring should be designed to carry
this added load. The magnitude of the load can approach the
dead load of half the slab span on both sides of the beam. If
the floor slab is tensioned before the supporting beams and
girders, a careful analysis of the load transfer to the beam
or girder shores or reshores will be required. Additionally,
special attention should be given to locations where a post­
tensioned beam intersects a post-tensioned girder with no
column at the intersection. Post-tensioning forces at these
points due to accumulated dead load transfer can be substan­
tial and should be accounted for in the reshoring design.
Similar load transfer situations occur in post-tensioned
bridge construction.
CHAPTER &-MATERIALS
6.1-General
The selection of materials suitable for formwork should
be based on the price, safety during construction, and the
quality required in the finished product. Approval of form-
APPENDIX£
 GUIDE TO FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE (ACI347R·14)
work materials by the engineer/architect, if required by the
contract documents, should be based on how the quality of
materials affects the quality of finished work. Where the
concrete surface appearance is critical. the engineer/archi­
tect should define their expectations in the contract docu­
ments and reference specific locations where the critical
appearance(s) applies. Refer to Chapter 7 for architectural
concrete provisions.
6.2-Properties of materials
6.2.1 General-ACt SP-4, Formwork for Concrete,
describes the fonnwork materials commonly used in the
United States and provides extensive related data for form
design. Useful specification and design information is also
available from manufacturers and suppliers. Table 6.2.1
indicates specific sources of design and specification data
for fonnwork materials. This tabulated information should
not be interpreted to exclude the use of any other materials
that can meet quality and safety requirements established for
the finished work.
6.2.2 Sheathing-Sheathing is the supporting layer of
formwork closest to the concrete. It can be in direct contact
with the concrete or separated from it by a form liner.
Sheathing consists of wood, plywood, metal, plastic, or
other materials capable of transferring imposed construc­
tion loads to supporting members, such as joists or studs.
Liners are made of wood, plastic, metal, cloth, or other mate­
rials selected to alter or enhance the surface of the finished
concrete (ACI 347.3R).
In selecting and using sheathing and lining materials,
important considerations include:
a) Strength
b) Stiffness
c) Release
d) Reuse and cost per use
e) Surface characteristics imparted to the concrete such as
wood grain transfer, decorative patterns, gloss, orpaintability
f) Absorptiveness or ability to drain excess water from the
concrete surface
g) Resistance to mechanical damage, such as from vibra­
tors and abrasion from slipforming
h) Workability for cutting, drilling, and attaching fasteners
i) Adaptability to weather and extreme field conditions,
temperature. and moisture
j) Weight and ease of handling
6.2.3 Srmctural supports- Structural support systems
should meet material strength requirements to carry the
imposed construction loads that have been transferred
through the sheathing.
Important considerations include:
a) Strength
b) Stiffness
c) Dimensional accuracy and stability
d) Workability for cutting, drilling, and attaching fasteners
e) Weight
f) Cost and durability
g) Ability to accommodate required contours and shapes
ACJ 347R-14
6.3-Accessories
6.3.1 Form ties-A fonn tie is a tensile device used to
hold concrete forms against spreading apart due to the lateral
pressure of concrete. In general, it consists of an inside
tensile member and external holding devices. Fonn ties are
made to a range of specifications, depending on the manu­
facturer. These manufacturers also publish recommended
working loads on ties for use in form design. Their suggested
working loads range from 1000 to more than 50,000 lb (4.45
to 222.40 kN). Manufacturers produce numerous types of
tics for different forming conditions. Refer to ACI SP-4 for a
description of commonly available tie systems.
6.3.2 Form anchors-Form anchors are devices used to
secure formwork to previously placed concrete of adequate
strength. The devices are normally embedded in a previous
concrete placement or drilled in or fastened to a previous
concrete placement or other suitable structural member. The
actual load-carrying capacity of the anchors depends on
their shape and material, the strength and type of concrete
in which they are embedded, the area of contact between
concrete and anchor, and the depth of embedment and loca­
tion in the member. When anchoring to other clements,
whether concrete, timber lagging, sheet piling, or H-piles,
consideration should be given to effects of the loads trans­
ferred to those elements. Manufacturers publish design data
and test infonnation to assist in the selection of proper fonn
anchor devices.
6.3.3 Form hangers-Form hangers are devices used
to suspend fonnwork loads from structural steel, precast
concrete, or other members. They may be fabricated from
wire, flat metal pieces, plastic, or combinations of these
materials.
6.3.4 Reinforcing bar spacers-A reinforcing bar spacer is
a device that maintains the desired distance between a form
and an internal embedded or encased element. Horizontal
reinforcing bar spacers are used as reinforcing bar supports.
Both factory-made and job-site-fabricated devices have
been successfully used. Advantages and disadvantages of
the different types are explained in ACl SP-4 and in CRSl
(2009) and Randall and Courtois (1976). Consideration
should be given to any environmental effects on the rein­
forcing bar spacer material, such as corrosion, and visibility
on the exposed concrete surface. Spacers may affect the
surface finish appearance of the concrete.
6.3.5 Recommendations-The recommended factors of
safety for ties, anchors, and hangers are given in 4.4. The
rod- or band-type form tie and a holding device engaging the
exterior of the form, with a supplemental provision for main­
taining the distance between fonn faces, is the most common
type used for light construction.
The threaded internal disconnecting type of tic, taper tics,
or sleeved through-rod (also called through tie) are often
used for building construction as well as heavy construc­
tion, such as heavy foundations, bridges, power houses,
locks, dams, and architectural concrete. Removable portions
of all tics should be of a type that can be readily removed
without damage to the concrete and that leav� the smallest
practicable holes to be filled. Removable ponions should be
 GUIDE TO FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE (ACI 347R-14)

Table 6 2 1-Form materials with data sources for design and specification
Princip�l uS« Dala§ources

PS20-10: U.S. Dcpanment of Agriculture

(2010): American Wood Council(2012);ANSI!
Sawn lumber Formframing.sheathing.and shoring
AWC NDS-2012;American InsTitute of Timber
Construction(201 2);Brycr et al.(2006)

Engineered wood' Formframing and shoring Smulski(1997): CSA-086-M84

Plywood Form sheathing andpanels PSI--09;APA DSIO;APA YSIO;APAV345

Panelframingand bracing
AISC325- II;A1SID1()()..{18
Heavyforms andfalsework

Column andjoistforms ANSI A48.1: ANSI A48.2;CRSI(2009)

Stay-in-placc dcdforms ASTM A446

Shoring SH 304-00

Stccljoists usedas horizontalshoring SHJOI-03

E�panded meral bulkheads. single-sidedforms StL-c1Joist l nstitute(2010);Hurd(l997b)

Form panels andformframing members

Aluminum' The Aluminum Associa!ion (2010)
Horizontal and venical shoring and bracing

Re<:onstituft'(lwoodpanelproducts! Form liners and sheathing ANSIA208.1;PS20-IO

Insulation materials; Stay-in-placeform liners or sheathing

a) Woodfiber or glassfiber ACISP-4
b)Other commercialproducts Cold-weatherprotection forfresh concrete

Column and beam forms

Fiberor laminatedpapcrprcsscd
ACISP-4
tubes or forms
Voidformsforslabs,beams,girders andprecastpilcs

lntcmaland under-slabvoidforms
CorrugatL-dcardboard Voidforms in beams and girdcrs{normally used "'ith Zil·ens(l%4)
intemalcgg-crate stiffeners)

Stay-in-placeforms
Concrete AC1318
Moldsforprecast units

Ready-made columnforms

Domes andpansfor concrctejoistconstruction

Glassfiber-reinforccdpla>lic Hurd{l993, 1997a)
Custom-madeformsfor special archite<:tural effects

Form ties

Form lining and insulation

Cellular plastics ACISP-4
Stay-in-place wallforms

Otherplastics,including ABS.poly­ Form liners,both rigid and flexible,for dccorativcconcrctc

propylene,polyethylcnc.polyvinyl Hurd(l994)
chloride,polyurethane Chamfer and rusticationformers

Holdformwork secure against loads andpressuresfrom

Form ties,anchors,and hangers Safetyfactors rt:commended in 4.4: Hurd(1993)
concrcreand constructionactivities

Maintain correct distance between reinforcement andform

Sideform spacers Randall and Counois(l976)
toprovide specificd concreteco\·crforstccl

Plaster Waste moldsfor architecturalconcrele ACI303R;ACl SP-4

Release agents andprote<:tiveform

Helppreserveformfacing andfacilitate release Hurd(l996)
coatmgs

"Structuf111 composnc lumber producu are propnmry and untquc to a parttcular manufacturt:r. They cannot be mtert:hanged because 11\dusuy ""'de commoo grades ha•e 1>01 bc.>n
estobli$hed to scn·c as a basis for�ui•·aknce

'Shouldbc rt:adilyweldablc al\d protectedagainstsat.·antc actioo atthepointof cootactwithsteel.lfuscd as a facingmaterialin cootaC1withfresh concretc.it shouldbc oonrt:ac­
'i'·ewcoocretc or concme cootaining calciumchloride.

:clw:cksurface rt:actioo""-ithwetroncrcte.

No:>�c; Manufacturers" recommendations. "hen supported by u:st data and fidd c•pericnce.are a primary source for many form materials. Jn addition. the handbooks, standards.
specification•.and otbcrdatasourccs citcdflcrcinarclistcdin more detailinACISf>-4al\d inthe rcfcrencescited inChaplcr8al\dCbaptcrlOofthis document

APPENDIX£
 GUIDE TO FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE (ACI347R-14)
removed unless the contract documents pennit their remaining
in place. A minimum specification for fonn tics should require
that the bearing area of external holding devices be adequate
to prevent excessive bearing stress in the fonn members. It is
important to minimize mortar leakage at fonn ties.
Fonn hangers should support all construction loads
imposed on the formwork supported by the hangers. Fonn
hangers should be symmetrically arranged on the supporting
member and loaded symmetrically, through proper
sequencing of the concrete placement, to minimize twisting
or rotation of the hanger or supporting members. Form
hangers should closely fit the flange or bearing surface of
the supporting member so that applied loads are transmitted
properly as per the manufacturer's instructions.
Where the concrete surface is exposed and appearance
is important, the proper type of form tie or hanger will not
leave exposed metal at the surface. Noncorrosive materials
should be used when tie holes are left unpatched, exposing
the tie to possible corrosion.
6.4-Form coatings and release agents
6.4.1 Coatings-Fonn coatings or scalers are usually
applied in liquid fonn to contact surfaces either during manu­
facture or in the field to serve one or more of the following
purposes:
a) Alter the texture of the contact surface
b) Improve the durability of the contact surface
c) Facilitate release from concrete during stripping
d) Seal the contact surface of the fonn from intrusion of
moisture
6.4.2 Release agenls-Fonn release agents are applied to
the fonn contact surfaces to prevent bond and thus facili­
tate stripping. They may be applied pennanently to certain
fonn materials during manufacture, but arc nonnally applied
to the fonn before each use. When applying in the field, be
careful to avoid coating adjacent construction joint surfaces
or reinforcing steel.
6.4.3 Manufacturers' recommendations-Manufacturers'
recommendations should be followed in the use of coat­
ings, sealers, and release agents. Independent verification
of product pcrfonnance is recommended before use. When
concrete surface color is critical, effects of the coating,
sealing, and release agents should be evaluated. Where
surface treatments such as paint, tile adhesive, sealers, or
other coatings are to be applied to fanned concrete surfaces,
be sure that adhesion of such surface treatments will not
be impaired or prevented by use of the coating, sealers, or
release agent. Also, consider bonding requirements of subse­
quent concrete placements. Follow the manufacturer recom­
mendations when applying fonn release agents. A common
problem is applying too much material, which can nega­
tively affect the surface of the concrete.
CHAPTER 7-ARCHITECTURAL CONCRETE
7.1-lntroduction
7.1.1 Objective-The general requirements for formwork
presented in preceding chapters for the most part also apply
ACI347R-14
to architectural concrete. Additional information is available
in ACI 301. ACI 303R, and ACI 347.3R.
This chapter identifies and emphasizes additional factors
that can have a critical influence on fonnwork for cast-in­
place architectural concrete. Tilt-up, precast archit<.-ctural
concrete, and concrete receiving coatings or plasters that
hide the surface color and texture arc not considered herein.
Concrete receiving coatings or plasters that hide the surface
color and texture is not considered architectural.
7.1.2 Factors affectingformwork-Architectural concrete
is concrete that will be pcnnanently exposed to view and
therefore requires special care in the selection of the
concrete materials, fanning, placing, and finishing to obtain
the desired architectural appearance. Architectural concrete
should be specifically designated as such in the contract
documents. Particular care should be taken in the selec­
tion of materials, design, and construction of the fonnwork,
and placing and consolidation of the concrete to eliminate
bulges, offsets, or other unsightly features in the finished
surface and to maintain the integrity of the surface texture
or configuration. The character of the concrete surface to be
produced should also be considered when the form materials
are selected. Special attention should be given to closure
techniques, concealment of joints in formwork materials,
and to the scaling of fonns to minimize mortar leakage.
7.1.3 Factors in addition to formwork-Many factors
other than fonnwork affect the architectural effects achieved
in concrete surfaces. They start at the design stage and
carry through to the completed project. Factors affecting
the surface appearance of the concrete can also include the
mixture proportions or aggregate, the method of placing the
concrete, the consolidation technique, and the curing proce­
dure. Chemicals can have an effect on the final product,
whether used as additives in the mixture; applied directly
to the concrete, such as curing compounds; or applied indi­
rectly, such as fonn release agents. Even after the structure is
completed, weather and air pollution will affect the appear­
ance of the concrete. These and other influencing factors
should be identified and their effects evaluated during the
initial design stages. The single most important factor for
the success of architectural concrete construction is quality
workmanship.
7.1.4 Uniform construction procedures-Architectural
concrete should minimize color variations and differences
in surface finish. The best way for the contractor to achieve
this unifonnity is to maintain consistency in all construc­
tion practices. Fanning materials should remain the same
throughout the project, and release agents should be applied
unifonnly and consistently. Placement and consolidation of
the concrete should be standardized so that unifonn density
is achieved. Stripping and curing sequences should be
consistenl throughout the work to minimize color variations.
7.2-Role of architect
7.2.1 ?replanning-Architectural concrete is often struc­
tural, but the formed concrete surface generally desired for
architectural concrete is of a higher quality than what is typi­
cally satisfactory for structural concrete, and more costly.
 GUIDE TO FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE (ACt 347R-14)
The architect can use the latest information available in the
an of forming and concrete technology during the design
process to keep plans in line with the budget for the struc­
ture. Intricacies and irregularities, however, can raise the
budget to a point that outweighs the aesthetic contributions
of the architectural concrete. The architect can make form
reuse possible by standardizing building elements such as
columns, beams, and windows, and by making uninterrupted
form areas the same size wherever possible to facilitate
the use of standard form gangs or modules. The increased
size of these uninterrupted areas will contribute to forming
economy and greater uniformity of appearance. A prebid
conference with qualified contractors will bring out many
practical considerations before the design is finalized.
7.2.2 Comract doc11mems and advance approvals-The
architect should prepare contract documents that fully
instruct the bidder as to the location and desired appearance
of architectural surfaces, as well as other specific require­
ments listed in 7.2.3 to 7.2.7. Specifying a preconstruction
mockup prepared and finished by the contractor for approval
by the architect using proposed form materials; jointing tech­
niques; and form surface treatments such as wetting, oiling,
or lacquering should be a requirement for all architectural
concrete. Once such a mockup has been completed to the
satisfaction of the architect and owner, it should remain at
the site for the duration of the work as a standard with which
the rest of the work should comply.
Design reference samples, which are smaller specimens
of concrete with the proposed surface appearance, may also
be created for approval by the architect that can help define
what is required for the mockup. Small samples like these,
kept at the job site for reference, arc not as good as a full­
scale mockup, but can be helpful in defining mockup require­
ments. The samples should be large enough to adequately
represent the surface of the concrete desired. The samples
are to be used as a basis for the mockup only. Several
should be made to represent the variations that can occur
in the final finish. It would be helpful for all architectural
concrete to include a required mockup so that the contractors
can demonstrate they are capable of producing the desired
results. The mockup should be approved in writing by the
architect and owner.
It can be helpful to specify viewing conditions under
which the concrete surfaces will be evaluated for compli­
ance with the approved mockup.
7.2.3 Tolerances-The architect should specify dimen­
sional tolerances considered essential to the successful
execution of the design, keeping in mind that tolerances in
excess of those specified in ACl 117 need to be necessary,
achievable, and economically feasible. ACI 303R and 1 17
may be consulted for further discussions concerning toler­
ances for architectural concrete.
7.2.4 Camber-The contractor should camber form­
work to compensate for deflection of the fonnwork during
concrete placement. The architect should, however, specify
any additional camber required to compensate for structural
deflection or optical sag (the i11usion that a perfectly hori-
zontal long-span member is sagging). The architect should
be aware that horizontal members are checked for compli­
ance with tolerances and camber before the removal of the
forms and shores. Detennining the correct amount of camber
is not an exact science. If the calculated camber for a specific
member does not result in its deflection to a straight line, the
result wi11 be a convex or concave concrete surface.
7.2.5 Joims and details-Location, number, and details
of items such as openings, contraction joints, construc­
tion joints, and expansion joints should be shown on the
design drawings or the architect should specify a review
of the proposed location of all of these details as shown on
the formwork drawings. (Some guidance on joint locations
can be found in ACI 224R, 303R, and 332.1 R.) Because it
is impossible to disguise the presence of joints in the form
face, it is important for their positions to be predetermined
and, if possible, planned as part of the architectural effect.
The architect can plan joint locations between surface
areas on a scale and module suitable to the size of available
materials and prevailing construction practices. If this is not
aesthetically satisfactory, dummy joints can be introduced
to give a sma11er pattern. Actual joints between sheathing
materials can be masked by means of rustication strips
attached to the fonn face. Rustication strips at horizontal
and vertical construction joints can also create crisp edges
accented by shadow lines instead of the potential ragged
edge of a construction joint left exposed to full view. Special
care should be taken during placement and vibration to mini­
mize surface voids (bugholes) and honeycombing that form
when air is trapped beneath horizontal rustications.
Sometimes construction joints in beams can be concealed
above the support columns and joints in floors above their
supporting beams instead of in the more customary regions
of low shear in beams and slabs, usually the middle third of
the span.
7.2.6 Ties and inserts-Form ties and accompanying
tie holes are an almost inescapable part of wa11 surfaces.
Architects frequently integrate tie holes into the visual design
quality of the surface. If this is planned and any effects or
materials other than those provided in 7.3.4 are desired, they
should be clearly specified as to both location and type.
Where tie holes are to be patched or filled, the architect
should specify the treatment desired and specify examples
of the patches as part of the mockup.
7.2. 7 Cover over reinforcing steel-Adequate cover over
reinforcement, as required by codes, is needed for protec­
tion of steel and long-term durability of the concrete.
Reinforcement that is properly located is important in the
control of surface cracking. For positive control of required
cover, the architect can specify appropriate side fonn spacers
as defined in 6.3.4.
The architect should specify sufficient cover to allow
for any reduction that will result from the incorporation of
grooves or indented details and from surface treatments such
as aggregate exposure and tooling. The maximum thickness
of any material to be removed should be added to basic
required cover.
APPENDIX£
 GUIDE TO FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE (ACI347R·14)
7.3-Materials and accessories
7.3.1 Sheathing or form facing-Architectural concrete
fonn sheathing should be of appropriate quality to main­
tain the specified unifonnity of concrete surfaces through
multiple uses and to control deflection within specified limits.
Plywood, steel, glass fiber-reinforced plastic, aluminum, and
other suitable materials can all be used as sheathing or facing
materials. Select the grade or class of material needed for
pressure, framing, and deflection requirements. Be sure that
the chosen material meets the specification requirements for
the concrete surface texture. Procedures for controlling the
rusting of steel fonns should be carefully followed.
7.3.2 Stmctura/ framing-Form facing can be supported
with lumber, steel, or aluminum members straight and rigid
enough to meet the architectural specifications.
7.3.3 Form liners-A fonn liner is a material attached
to the inside face of the fonn to alter or improve surface
texture or quality of the concrete. It is not required struc·
turally. Wood, rigid plastic, elastomcric materials, and glass
fiber-reinforced plastics are all suitable liner materials when
carefully detailed and fabricated. Plastics should be handled
and assembled with care to avoid distortion caused by daily
temperature cycles at the job site.
7.3.4 Form ties-Fonn-tie assemblies for architectural
concrete should pennit tightening of fonns and leave no
metal closer to the surface than 1-1/2 in. (38 mm) for steel
ties and I in. (25 mm) for stainless steel ties. The ties should
not be fitted with lugs, cones, washers, or other devices that
will leave depressions in the concrete Jess than the diameter
of the device, unless specified. Ties should be tight fitting or
tie holes in the fonn should be sealed to minimize leakage at
the holes. If textured surfaces are to be fanned, ties should
be carefully evaluated with regard to fit, pattern, mortar
leakage, and aesthetics.
7.3.5 Side form spacers-Side fonn spacers, as defined
in 6.3.4, are particularly important in architectural concrete
to maintain adequate cover over reinforcing steel and to
prevent development of rust streaking on concrete surfaces.
Plastic, plastic-protected, rubber-tipped, or other noncor­
roding spacers should be anached to the reinforcing bar so
that they do not become dislodged during concrete place­
ment and vibration. The number and location of the side
fonn spacers should be adequate for job conditions.
A contributing factor to reinforcing spacers being visible
at exposed concrete surfaces is the amount of load that
exists between the reinforcing steel, the spacer, and the
fonn facing. If the reinforcing steel is installed plumb,
straight, and with the correct spacing where it protrudes
from previous castings, there should not be an extraordinary
amount of force required between these elements and the
spacer should be there only to prevent the reinforcing bar
from being displaced during concrete placement operations.
If, on the other hand, the fonnwork and spacers are being
used to forcibly push the reinforcing bar into position, there
is a chance that the legs of the spacers can leave imprints in
the sheathing that will result in visible spacers. There is also
a chance that the fonnwork itself can be distorted by these
forces. With architectural fonnwork, it is advisable not to
ACI 347R-14
start erecting or closing fonnwork until the reinforcing steel
is in its correct location, in a relaxed state, so that it does
not rely on the fonnwork to push it into correct position.
Contractors are encouraged to experiment with different
types of spacers for differem exposed elements to detcnnine
which are best for the various applications on a project. The
same spacers that will be used on the finished work should
be incorporated in the mockup.
7.3.6 Reinforcing accessories and tie wire-Noncorrosive
types of tic wire and accessories should be used for archi­
tectural concrete, especially when close to or in contact with
the fonns. Suitable materials include stainless steel, epoxy­
coated material, or plastic-coated material; use of these items
needs to be specified. Stainless steel is often the best choice
as wire snippings often fall into the fonns and are difficult to
remove before placing concrete.
7.4-0esign
7.4.1 Special considerations-The general design proce­
dure will follow the principles outlined in Chapter 4. The
fonnwork engineer/contractor, however, will frequently
need to work with limitations imposed by the architectural
design. Some of these considerations include tie spacing
and size, fonn facing preferences, location and special treat­
ment of fonn joints, special tolerances, and use of admix­
tures. Because these factors can influence fonn design, they
should be fully reviewed at the beginning of the fonn design
process.
7.4.2 Lateral pressure of concrete-Architectural concrete
can be subjected to external vibration, revibration, set
retarding admixtures, high-range water-reducing admix­
tures, and slumps greater than those assumed for deter­
mining the lateral pressure as noted in 4.2.2. Particular care
should be exercised in these cases to design the forms for the
increased lateral pressures that may result from these effects,
high rates of pour, or from other effects noted in 4.2.2.
7.4.3 Structural considerations-Because deflections in
the contact surface of the fonnwork directly influence the
appearance of finished surfaces viewed under varying light
conditions, forms for architectural concrete should be calcu­
lated and evaluated carefully to minimize deflections. In
most cases, deflections govern design rather than bending
(flexural stress) or shear. Deflections of sheathing, studs,
and wales should be designed so that the finished surface
meets the architectural specifications. Limiting these deflec­
tions to //400, where l is the clear span between suppons, is
satisfactory for most architectural fonnwork (refer to ACJ
301 and ACI 303R). Fonns bow with reuse; therefore, more
bulging will occur in the fonned surface after several uses
of the same fonn. This effect should be considered when
designing fonns.
When tic size and spacing are limited by the architect,
the fonnwork engineer/contractor may have to reverse the
usual procedure to arrive at a balanced fonn design. Given
the capacity of the available tie and the area it supports, the
fonnwork engineer/contractor can find the allowable pres­
sure, design supporting members, and establish a rate of
concrete placing.
 GUIDE TO FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE (ACI347R-14)
Where wood fonns arc used, stress-graded lumber (or
equivalent) free of twists and warps should be used for
structural members. Fonn material should be sized and posi­
tioned to limit deflections within the requirements of the
project specification. Joints of sheathing materials should be
backed with structural members to minimize offsets.
7.4.4 Tie and reanchor design-Tie layout should be
planned. If the holes arc to be exposed as part of the archi­
tectural concrete, tie placement should be symmetrical
with respect to the member fanned. If tie holes are not to
be exposed, ties should be located at rustication marks,
control joints, or other points where the visual effect will be
minimized.
Externally braced fonns can be used instead of any of the
aforementioned methods to avoid objectionable blemishes
in the finished surface. Externally braced fonns, however,
can be more difficult and more costly to build.
Consideration should be given to re-anchoring fonns in
preceding or adjacent placements to achieve a tight fit and
minimize grout leakage at these points. Tics should be
located as close as possible to the construction joint to facili­
tate re-anchoring the fonn to adjacent placements.
7.4.5 Joints and details-In architectural concrete, joints
should, where feasible, be located at the junction of the
formwork panels. At contraction or construction joints,
rustication strips should be provided and fastened to the face
or back-fastened to the fonns.
Comers should be carefully detailed to minimize grout
leakage. Sharp comers should, wherever possible, be elimi­
nated by the usc of chamfer strips except when prohibited by
project specifications.
7.4.6 Tolerances-The fonnwork engineer/contractor
should check for dimensional tolerances specified by the
architect that can have a bearing on the design of the fonns.
If no special tolerances are given, the fonnwork engineer/
contractor can usc ACI 117 tolerances for structural concrete.
7.5-Construction
7.5.1 Generai-Fonns should be carefully built to resist
the pressures to which they will be subjected and to limit
deflections to a practicable minimum within the tolerances
specified. Joints in structural members should be kept to a
minimum and, where necessary, should be suitably spliced
or otherwise constructed to maintain continuity.
Pour pockets for vibrating or placing concrete should be
planned to facilitate careful placement and consolidation of
the concrete to minimize segregation, honeycomb, sanding,
or cold joints in the concrete. It should be noted that if pour
pockets are required on the fonns for architectural concrete,
they will nonnally leave a mark on the finished concrete.
The location of pour pockets should be coordinated with the
architect.
Attachment of inserts, rustication strips, and ornamental
reliefs should be planned so that fonns can be removed
without exerting pressure on these attachments or causing
damage to the fonns.
Where special fanning systems are specified by the engi­
neer of the project for structural purposes (such as one- and
two-way joist systems) in areas that are considered archi­
tectural, the architect and engineer should coordinate their
requirements to be sure the architectural effect is consistent
with the fanning method and material specified.
Fonns that will be reused should be carefully inspected
and cleaned after each usc to ensure that they have not
become damaged, distorted, disassembled, or otherwise
unable to perfonn as designed.
7.5.:Z Sheathing and jointing-Contact surfaces of the
fonnwork should be carefully installed to produce neat and
symmetrical joint patterns, unless otherwise specified. Joints
should be either venical or horizontal and, where possible,
should be staggered to maintain structural continuity.
Nailing should be done with care using hammers with
smooth and well-dressed heads to prevent marring of the
fonn surfaces. When required, box nails should be used on
the contact surface and should be placed in a neat pattern.
Screws are often used to fasten the sheathing. Back fastening
should be used if the imprints from nail or screw heads are
objectionable.
Wherever possible, sheathing or panel joints should be
positioned at rustication strips or other embedded features
that can conceal or minimize the joint.
Construction joints should be fonncd with a grade strip
attached to the fonn to define a clean straight line on the
joint of the fanned surface. Fonnwork should be tightened
at a construction joint before the next placement to minimize
seepage of water and mortar between the fonn and previ­
ously placed concrete surfaces.
Architectural concrete fonns should be designed to mini­
mize water leakage and avoid discoloration. One method to
minimize water loss from the concrete at the joints between
sections of the formwork and at construction joints is to
attach a gasket of flexible material to the edge of each panel.
The gasket is compressed when the fonnwork is assembled
or placed against the existing concrete. Caulk, tape, joint
compound, or combinations of these can be used to seal
joints. In all cases, unsupported joints between sheathing
sheets should be backed by framing. Tight fonns require
more care during vibration to remove entrapped air that can
cause surface voids (bugholes).
Textured surfaces on multi-lift construction should be
separated with rustication strips or broad reveals because
accumulation of construction tolerances, random textures,
or both. prevents texture matching. Furthcnnore, the grout
seal between the bottom of a textured liner and the top of
the previous placement is impractical without the rustication
strip.
7.5.3 Cleaning. coating. and release agenls-Fonn coat­
ings or releasing agents should be applied before reinforcing
steel is placed and should be applied carefully to avoid
contacting adjacent construction joints or reinforcement.
The form coating to be used should not stain the concrete or
impair the adhesion of paints or other surface treatments and
should be submitted to the architect for approval.
Fonn sealers should be tested to ensure that they will not
adversely affect the texture when a fonn lining material is
used.
APPENDJXE
 GUIDE TO FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE (ACI347R-14)
Ties that are to be pulled from the wall should be coated
with nonstaining bond breaker or encased in sleeves to facil­
itate removal.
Fonns should be carefully cleaned and repaired between
uses to prevent deterioration of the quality of surface fanned.
Film or splatter of hardened concrete should be completely
removed.
7.5.4 Ornamental liners and detail-Ornamental concrete
is usually fonned by elastomeric molds or wood, plastic,
or plaster waste molds. Members making up wood molds
should be kerfed on the back wherever such members can
become wedged between projections in the ornament. Molds
should be constructed so that joints will not be opened by
slight movement or swelling of the wood. Joints in the molds
should be made inconspicuous by sealing.
The molds should be carefully set in the forms and securely
held in position to reproduce the design shown on the plans.
Where wood fonns adjoin molds, the wood should be neatly
fitted to the profile of the mold and all joints should be care­
fully scaled. The molds and the adjacent wood fonns should
be detailed so that the wood fonns can be stripped without
disturbing the molds. The edge of the mold or pattern strip
should be tapered to a slight draft to pennit removing the
detail material without damaging the concrete. Special
provisions should be made for early fonn removal, retar­
dation, or both, when sandblasting, wire brushing, or other
treatments are required.
Fonn liners should be attached securely with fasteners or
glue recommended by the manufacturer. The fonn behind
the liner should hold the fasteners. The surfaces should be
cleaned and dried thoroughly so that the glue will bond. Do
not use glue at temperatures lower than those recommended
by the manufacturer.
7.6--Form removal
7.6.1 Avoiding damage-When concrete surfaces are to be
left as cast, it is important not to damage or scar the concrete
face during stripping. Forms should be supported so that
they do not fall back or against the architectural surface. The
use of pry bars and other stripping tools should be strictly
supervised. In no case should pi)' bars be placed directly
against the concrete. Even the use of wood or plastic wedges
does not ensure that damage will not occur. Once fonnwork
is removed. the architectural surfaces should be protected
from continuing construction operations as specified in the
contract documents.
7.6.2 Concrete strength-It is desirable for architcc­
IUral concrete to have a higher compressive strength than
normal for stripping. This can be accomplished by adjusting
the mixture proportions or leaving fonns in place longer.
If concrete is not strong enough to overcome the adhesion
between the fonn surface and the concrete, concrete can scale
or spaII. Therefore, a good quality surface might require the
fonns to stay in place longer. The longer the fonns stay in
place, however, the darker the concrete will become. The
engineer/architect should specify what concrete strength is
required before stripping can take place.
ACI347R-14
7.6.3 Uniformity-To maximize surface quality, unifor­
mity in stripping time and curing practices are essential.
Where the objective is to produce as consistent an appear­
ance as possible, it is beneficial to protect the concrete by
leaving the fonnwork in place somewhat longer than nonnal.
Early exposure of concrete to the air affects the manner in
which the surface dries. Ambient conditions and sunlight
exposure can influence the eventual color of the concrete.
7.6.4 Avoiding thermal shock-Cold-weather concrete
placement requires that special attention be paid to the
sudden temperature change of concrete. To avoid thennal
shock and consequent crazing of the concrete surface, the
change in temperature of the concrete should be controlled
within the limits outlined in ACI 303R. This can be accom­
plished by heating the work area, leaving the fonns in place
to contain the heat of hydration, or by insulating the concrete
after the fonns have been removed (refer to ACl 306R).
Positive steps should be taken to inspect, record, and docu­
ment the procedures used to cure the concrete. It should be
noted that it is the temperature of the concrete that is impor­
tant to proper curing, not the ambient air temperature.
CHAPTER 8-SPECIAL STRUCTURES
8.1-Discussion
Fonnwork for all structures should be designed,
constructed, and maintained in accordance with recommen­
dations in Chapters I to 6. This chapter deals with the addi­
tional requirements for formwork for several special classes
of work. ACI 372R and 373R contain information on design
and construction of circular prestressed-concrete structures.
8.2-Bridges and viaducts, including high piers
8.2.1 Discussion-The construction and removal of form­
work should be planned in advance. Fonns and supports
should be sufficiently rigid to ensure that the finished struc­
ture will fulfill its intended structural function and that
exposed concrete finishes will present a pleasing appearance
to the public.
8.2.2 Shoring and centering-Recommended practice in
5.5 and 5.7 for erection and removal should be followed.
In continuous structures, support should not be released in
any span until the first and second adjoining spans on each
side have reached the specified strength. For post-tensioned
bridges, the shore design should consider the resulting
redistribution of loads on the shores similar to the effects
discussed in 5.8.6.
8.2.3 Forms-Forms can be of any of a large number
of materials but the most common are wood or metal.
They should be built mortar-tight of sound material strong
enough to prevent distortion during placing and curing of
the concrete.
8.3-Structures designed for composite action
8.3.1 Recommendations-Structures or members that are
designed so that the concrete acts compositely with other
materials or with other parts of the structure present special
fanning problems that should be anticipated in the design of
 GUIDE TO FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE (ACI347R-14)
the structure. Requirements for shoring or other deflection
control of the fonnwork should be clearly presented by the
engineer/architect in the specifications. Where successive
placements are to act compositely in the completed struc­
ture, deflection control becomes critical.
Shoring, with or without cambering portions of the struc­
ture during placement and curing of the concrete, should be
analyzed separately for the effects of dead load of newly
placed concrete and for the effect of other construction loads
that can be imposed before the concrete attains its design
strength.
8.3.2 Design-Fonnwork members and shores should be
designed to limit deflections to a practical minimum consis­
tent with the structural member being constructed. Where
camber is specified for previously installed components of
the structure, allowance should be made for the resultant
preloading of the shores before application of the dead load
of concrete.
In members constructed in several successive placements,
such as box-girder structures, fonnwork components should
be sized, positioned, supported, or all three, to minimize
progressive increases in deflection of the structure that would
excessively preload the reinforcing steel or other portions of
the composite member.
In multistory work where shoring of composite members
is required, consideration should be given to the number of
stories of shores necessary, in conjunction with the speed of
construction and concrete strengths, to minimize deflections
due to successive loadings. Distinction should be made in
such analyses between shores posted to relatively unyielding
supports, such as foundations, and shores posted to struc­
tures or members that are already elastically supported (refer
to 5.8).
Composite construction can incorporate beams of rela­
tively light cross sections that are fully adequate when
construction is complete. During construction, however,
these beams may require lateral support from the fonnwork.
The engineer/architect should alert the contractor to this
condition in general notes on the strucrural drawings or in
notes on applicable drawings where this condition exists.
The fonnwork engineer/contractor should be alert to this
possibility and provide shoring or lateral support where
needed.
8.3.3 Erection--Construction of pennancnt elements,
erection of fonnwork, or both, for composite construc­
tion follows basic recommendations contained in Chapter
5. Shoring of members that will act compositely with the
concrete to be placed should be done with great care to
ensure sufficient bearing, rigidity, and tightness to prevent
settlement or deflections beyond allowable limits. Wedges,
shims, and jacks should be provided to penn it adjustment if
required before or during concrete placement, as well as to
pennit removal without jarring or impacting the completed
construction. Provision should be made for readily checking
the accuracy of position and grade during placement. Even
though adjustment of fonns may be possible during or after
placing, it is not recommended and may only be attempted
prior to initial set of the concrete.
Where camber is required, a distinction should be made
between the part that is an allowance for settlement or deflec­
tion of fonnwork or shoring and the portion of camber that
is provided for design loadings. The fanner should generally
be the responsibility of the fonnwork engineer/contractor
who designs the fonns and supports unless such camber is
stipula1ed by the engineer/architect. Measurement of camber
provided for structural design loadings should be made after
hardening of the concrete but before removal of the supports
(refer to 3.2.5). This is because the structural deflection
occurring upon removal of the suppons is a function of the
structural design and cannot be contro11ed by the contractor.
8.3.4 Removai-Fonns, supports, or both, should be
removed only after tests and specified curing operations
indicate, to the satisfaction of the engineer/architect, that
the most recently placed concrete has attained the strength
required to develop composite action, and then only after
approval of the engineer/architect. The sequence of such
removal should be approved by the engineer/architect.
8.4-Folded plates, thin she11s, and long-span roof
structures
8.4.1 Discussion-For long-span and space structures
requiring a complex, three-dimensional design analysis, and
presenting three-dimensional problems in fonnwork design,
erection, and removal, fonnwork planning should be done
by fonnwork engineers having the necessary special quali­
fications and experience. These fonnwork engineers should
consult and cooperate with the engineer/architect to make
sure that the resulting surfaces will confonn to the engineer/
architect's design.
8.4.2 Design-The following are items that should be
included in the contract documents:
a) The engineer/architect should specify limiting values
and directions of the reactive forces when the falsework is
supported by the pennanent structure.
b) When applicable, the engineer/architect should include
a decentering sequence plan with the bidding documents as
a basis for the design of the fanning and support system 10
be used by the contractor.
c) In detennining the lateral forces acting on the fonn­
work, the wind load should be calculated on the basis of a
minimum of 15 lb/ft2 (0.72 kPa) of projected vertical area
as specified for wall fonns in 4.2.3. For structures such as
domes, negative forces due to suction created by the wind
on the leeward side of the structure should be considered.
d) The recommendations of 4.1.I and 4.3 should be
followed in fonnwork planning.
Fonnwork design loads should be shown on the fonnwork
drawings. Complete stress analyses should be prepared by
structural engineers experienced in these types of structures,
and the maximum and minimum values of stress, including
reversal of stress, should be shown for each member for
the most severe loading conditions. Consideration should
be given 10 unsymmetrical or eccentric loadings that might
occur during concrete placement and during erection, decen­
tering, or moving of travelers. The vertical or lateral deflec­
tion of the moving fonns or travelers, as well as the stability
APPENDIXE
 GUIDE TO FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE (ACI347R-14)
under various loads, should be investigated to confirm that
the formwork will function satisfactorily and that the speci­
fied tolerances will be met.
Panicular care should be taken in the design and detailing
of individual members and connections. Where truss
systems are used, connections should be designed to keep
eccentricities as small as possible to minimize deflections
or distonions.
Because the weight of the formwork can be equal to or
greater than the design live load of the structure, form details
should be designed to avoid the formwork hanging up and
overloading the structure during decentering.
Due to the special shapes involved, tolerances should be
specified by the engineer/architect in the bidding documents.
8.4.3 Drawings-When required, the formwork engineer/
contractor should submit detailed drawings of the formwork
for approval of the engineer/architect.
These drawings should show the proposed concrete
placing sequence and the resulting loads. To ensure that the
structure can assume its deflected shape without damage, the
dccentcring or handling sequence of the formwork should
be shown on the drawings. The formwork design, drawings,
and procedures should comply with federal and local safety
laws, as well as the contract documents.
Deflection of these structures can cause binding between
the form and the concrete during decentering. Formwork
drawings and form details should be planned to prevent
binding and facilitate stripping of forms. Drawings should
show such details as the type of insens and joints in
sheathing, where spreading of the form can result in the form
becoming keyed into the concrete.
8.4.4 Approval-The engineer/architect should review
the design and drawings for the formwork and the proce­
dures for construction to ensure the structural integrity of the
permanent structure. The engineer/architect should approve
in writing the loads imposed by the formwork, the sequence
of the concrete placing operations, and the timing and proce­
dures of dccentering and stripping.
8.4.5 Construction-In planning and erecting formwork,
provisions should be made for adequate means of adjustment
during placing where necessary. Telltales should be installed
to check alignment and grade during placement. Where the
forming system is based on a cenain placing sequence, that
sequence should be clearly defined by the formwork engi­
neer/contractor and adhered to in the field.
8.4.6 Removal of formwork-Formwork should be
removed and decentered in accordance with the procedure
and sequence specified on the form drawings or on the
contract documents. Decentering methods used should be
planned so as to prevent unanticipated concentrated reac­
tions on the permanent structure. Due to the large deflec­
tions and the high dead load-to-live load ratio common to
this type of structure, decentering and form removal should
not be permitted until specified tests demonstrate that the
concrete strength and the modulus of elasticity specified in
contract documents have been reached. Although required
compressive strengths may already have been attained,
moduli of elasticity can control time of decentering (refer
AC1347R-14
to ACl 334.1 R, 5.2.3). Decentering should begin at points
of maximum deflection and progress toward points of
minimum deflection, with the decentering of edge members
proceeding simultaneously with the adjoining shell.
8.5-Mass concrete structures
8.5.1 Discussion-Mass concrete occurs in heavy civil
engineering construction, such as in gravity dams, arch
dams, gravity-retaining walls, lock walls, power-plant struc­
tures, and large building foundations (ACI 207.1 R). Special
provisions arc usually made to control the temperature rise
in the mass by the use of cement or cementitious material
combinations possessing low or moderate heat-generating
characteristics, by postcooling (cooling the fresh concrete)
or by placing sequence. Heat rise in mass concrete is most
often controlled by replacement of cement with pozzolans,
particularly fly ash.
Fonnwork for mass concrete falls into two distinct catego­
ries: low lift and high lift. Low-lift formwork, for heights
of 5 to 10 ft (1.5 to 3 m), usually consists of multi-use steel
cantilever form units that incorporate their own work plat­
forms and, on occasion, lifting devices. High-lift formwork
is comparable to the single-usc wood forms used extensively
for structural concrete.
8.5.2 Lateral pressure of concrelt-'-The lateral pressure
formulas for concrete placed in walls can be used for mass
concrete (refer to 4.2.2). The formwork engineer needs to
carefully review the concrete mixture proportion to deter­
mine the appropriate formula from 4.2.2. Concrete additives
or cement substitutes can improve heat generation character­
istics, but the same materials can increase concrete set time
and increase lateral pressures.
Consideration should be given to placing sequence in the
determination of pressure. Frequently, concrete is layered in
such a way that the fresh concrete rate of placement locally
is substantially greater than the average rate of placement.
Local lateral pressures can be greater than would be esti­
mated on the basis of the average rate of placement. In addi­
tion, the use of large concrete buckets with rapid discharge
of concrete can cause high impact loads near the forms.
8.5.3 Design considerations-Mass concrete forming can
require special form tie and anchor design. Forming sloping
surfaces requires ties or anchors to resist pressures that are
perpendicular to the face of the form. Therefore, only using
horizontal ties will leave the vertical component of pressure
untied. Vertical (hold-down) anchors should be used. Forms
tied or anchored to a rock face require particular care. Often.
rock anchors are placed before the forms are erected. This
requires the form designer to accommodate tie and anchor
misalignment. The fonnwork engineer/contractor should
check to assure that loads resulting from the tie spacings do
not exceed the working capacity of the rock anchors.
Bending and welding of high-tensile-strength steel tie
rods should not be pennittcd without the approval of the tic
manufacturer. Any approved welding should be by a welder
certified by the American Welding Society (AWS) using
approved written welding procedures.
 GUIDE TO FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE (ACI347R·14)
The capacity of anchors and form ties embedded in previ­
ously placed concrete is dependent on the strength of the
concrete, which is very low at early ages. The embedded
strength should be sufficient to sustain design loadings from
the new placement and initial bolting stresses.
8.6---Underground structures
8.6.1 Discussion-Underground structures differ from
corresponding surface installations in that the construc­
tion takes place inside an excavation instead of in the open,
presenting unique problems in handling and supporting
formwork and in the associated placement of concrete. As
a result, four factors usually make the design of formwork
for underground structures entirely different than for their
above-ground counterparts. First, concrete to fill otherwise
inaccessible areas can be placed pneumatically or by posi­
tive displacement pump and pipeline. Second, rock is some­
times used as a form backing, permitting the use of rock
anchors and tie rods instead of external bracing and shores.
Third, the limits of the excavation demand special handling
equipment that adds particular emphasis to the removal and
reuse of forms. Fourth, rock surfaces can sometimes be used
for attaching hoisting devices.
When placement is done by pneumatic or positive displace­
ment pump and pipeline methods, the plastic concrete is
forced under pressure into a void, such as the crown of a
tunnel lining. For more information on the pumping process,
refer to ACl 304.2R.
8.6.2 Design loads
8.6.2.1 Vertical loads-Vertical and construction loads
assumed in the design of formwork for underground struc­
tures arc similar to those for surface structures, with the
exception of unusual vertical loads occurring near the crown
of arch or tunnel forms and flotation or buoyancy effect
beneath tunnel forms.
In placing concrete in the crowns of tunnel forms, pres­
sures up to 3000 lbltV ( 144 kPa) have been induced in areas
of overbreak and near vertical bulkheads from concrete
placed pneumatically or by positive displacement pump
(ACl SP-4). Overbreak is the excess removal of rock
or other excavated material above the forms beyond the
required tunnel lining thickness. Until more definite recom­
mendations can be made. the magnitude and distribution of
pressure should be determined by the formwork engineer.
The assumed pressure should not be less than 1500 lblft2 (72
kPa) acting normally to the form plus the dead weight of the
concrete placed pneumatically or by pump (ACI SP-4).
8.6.2.2 Lateral loads-For shafts and exterior walls
against rock, the values listed in 4.2.2 should apply.
When the shaft form relies on the single shear value of
embedded anchors in the previous placement as a means
of support, the minimum time lapse between successive
placements (or minimum concrete strength) and maximum
allowable loading in addition to the dead weight of the form
should be specified.
For arch forms and portions of tunnel forms above the
maximum horizontal dimension or spring line of the fonn,
the pressure should be compatible with the pressures
discussed under vertical loads in 8.6.2.1.
8.6.3 Drawings-In addition to the provisions of Chapters
3, 4, and 5, the following data should be included on the
drawings for specialized formwork and formwork for
tunnels:
a) All pressure diagrams used in the design of the fonn,
including diagrams for uplift, unbalanced lateral or vertical
loads, pressurized concrete, or any other load applicable to
the particular installation
b) Recommended method of supplemental strutting or
bracing to be employed in areas where form pressures can
exceed those listed due to abnormal conditions
c) Handling diagrams and procedures showing the
proposed method of handling the form during erection or
installation for concrete placement plus the method of
bracing and anchorage during normal operation
d) Concrete placement method and, for tunnel arch forms,
whether the design is based on the bulkhead system of
concrete placement or the continuously advancing slope
method
e) The capacity and working pressure of the pump and
size, length, and maximum embedment of the discharge line
when placement by pumping is anticipated
8.6.4 Construction-The two basic methods of placing
concrete in a tunnel arch entail problems in the construction
of the fonnwork that require special provisions to pennit
proper reuse. These two basic methods arc commonly known
as the bulkhead method and the continuously advancing
slope method.
The former is used exclusively where poor ground condi­
tions exist, requiring the lining to be placed concurrently
with tunnel driving operations. It is also used when some
factor, such as the size of the tunnel, the introduction of rein­
forcing steel, or the location of construction joints precludes
the advancing slope method. The advancing slope method­
a continuous method of placement-is usually preferred for
tunnels driven through competent rock, ranging between 10
and 25 fl (3 and 8 m) in diameter and at least I mi (I .6 km)
in length.
The arch form for the bulkhead method is usually fabri­
cated into a single unit between 50 and ISO fl (I 5 and 45
m) long, which is stripped, moved ahead, and re·crected
using screw jacks or hydraulic rams. These are permanently
attached to the form and supporting traveling gantry. The
arch form for the continuously advancing slope method
usually consists of eight or more sections that range between
15 and 30 ft (5 and 9 m) in length. These are successively
stripped or collapsed, telescoped through the other sections,
and re-erected using a fonn traveler.
Although the minimum stripping time for tunnel arch
forms is usually established on the basis of experience, it can
be safely predetermined by tests. At the start of a tunnel arch
concrete placement operation, the recommended minimum
stripping time is 12 hours for exposed surfaces and 8 hours
for construction joints. If the specifications provide for a
reduced minimum stripping time based on site experience,
such reductions should be in time increments of 30 minutes
APPENDIX£
 GUIDE TO FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE (AC1347R-14)
or less and should be established by laboratory tests, visual
inspection, and surface scratching of sample areas exposed
by opening the fonn access covers. Arch fonns should not be
stripped prematurely when unvented groundwater seepage
could become trapped between the rock surface and the
concrete lining.
8.6.5 Materials-The choice of materials for underground
fonnwork is typically predicated on the shape, degree of
reuse and mobility of the fonn, and the magnitude of pump
or pneumatic pressures to which it is subjected. Usually,
tunnel and shaft fonns are made of steel or a composite of
wood and steel. Experience is important in the design and
fabrication of a satisfaciOry tunnel fonn due to the nature of
the pressures developed by the concrete, placing techniques,
and the high degree of mobility required.
When reuse is not a factor, plywood and tongue-and­
groove lumber are sometimes used for exposed surface
finishes. High humidity in underground construction usually
alleviates nonnal shrinkage and warping of wood fonn
materials.
CHAPTER �SPECIAL METHODS OF
CONSTRUCTION
9.1-Preplaced-aggregate concrete
9.1.1 Discussion-Preplaced-aggrcgate concrete is made
by injecting (intruding) mortar into the voids of a preplaced
mass of clean, graded aggregate. For nonnal construction,
the preplaced aggregates are vibrated thoroughly into fonns
and around reinforcing and then wetted and kept wet until
the injection of mortar into the voids is completed. In under­
water construction, the mortar displaces the water and fills
the voids. In both types of construction, this process can
create concrete with a high content of coarse aggregate.
The injected mortar contains water, fine sand, portland
cement, pozzolan, and a chemical admixture designed to
increase the penetration and pumpability of the mortar. The
structural coarse aggregate is similar to coarse aggregate for
conventional concrete. It is well washed and graded from 112
in. (13 mm) to the largest size practicable. After compaction
in the fonns, it usually has a void content ranging from 35 to
45 percent (ACI 304.1 R).
9.1.2 Design considerations-Due to the method of place­
ment, the lateral pressures on fonnwork are considerably
different from those developed for conventional concrete,
as described in 4.2.2. The fonnwork engineer/contractor
should be alerted to the unique problems that may occur in
preplaced aggregate placements. In mass placements, heat
of hydration and drying shrinkage are important consider­
ations. Differential pressures may occur in the fonn structure
when mortar injection varies greatly from one fonn face to
another. For additional infonnation, refer toACI 207.1R and
ACI SP-34. Because of the pressure created during aggregate
packing and mortar pumping, fonns that mortar is injected
through should be anchored and braced far more securely
than for ordinary concrete. Particular attention should be
paid to uplift pressures created in battered fonns. Provisions
should be made to prohibit even the slightest uplift of the
ACJ 347R-14
fonn. Injection pipes spaced 5 to 6 ft (1.5 to 1.8 m) apart,
penetrating the face of the form, require that the fonn be
checked for structural integrity as well as a means of plug­
ging or shutting off the openings when the injection pipes
are removed. Some of these problems are reduced where
mortar can be injected vertically in open top fonns.
Fonns, ties, and bracing should be designed for the sum of:
a) The lateral pressure of the coarse aggregate as deter­
mined from the equivalent fluid lateral pressure of the dry
aggregate using the Rankine or Coulomb theories for gran­
ular materials, or a reliable bin action theory (refer to theo­
ries and references presented in ACI 313)
b) The lateral and uplift pressure of the injected monar,
as an equivalent fluid; the mortar nonnally weighs 130 lb/f"tl
(21 kN/m3), but can weigh as much as 200 lb/ft3 (32 kN/m1)
for high-density mortars
The time required for the initial set of the fluidized mortar
and the rate of rise should be ascertained. The maximum
height of fluid to be assumed in detennining the lateral pres­
sure of the mortar is the product of the rate of rise (fVh [m/h])
and the time of initial set in hours. The lateral pressure for
the design of fonnwork at any point is the sum of the pres­
sures detennined from Steps (a) and (b) for the given height.
9.1.3 Constnlclion-ln addition to the information
presented in Chapter 5, the fonns should be mortar-tight and
effectively vented because preplaced-aggregate concrete
entails forcing mortar into the voids around the coarse
aggregate.
9.1.4 Materials for formwork-For unexposed surfaces,
mortar-tight forms of steel or plywood arc acceptable.
Absorptive fonn linings are not recommended because
they permit the coarse aggregate to indent the lining and
fonn an irregular surface. Fonn linings, such as hardboard
on common sheathing, arc not successful because they do
not transmit the external fonn vibration nonnally used for
ensuring a void-free finished surface. Fonnwork should be
designed for the effects of external vibration.
9.2-Siipforms
9.2.1 Discussion-Refer to ACI 313 for silo construc­
tion. Slipfonning is a quasi-continuous fanning process in
which a special form assembly slips or moves in the appro­
priate direction, leaving the fanned concrete in place. The
process is, in some ways, similar to an extrusion process.
Plastic concrete is placed in the forms, and the fonns can be
thought of as moving dies to shape the concrete. The rate of
movement of the fonns is regulated so the fonns leave the
concrete only after it is stiff enough to retain its shape while
supporting its own weight and the lateral forces caused by
wind and equipment.
The vertical or horizontal movement of fonns can be a
continuous process or a planned sequence of finite place­
ments. Slipfonns used on structures such as tunnels and
shafts should follow 8.6. Slipfonns used on mass concrete
structures, such as dams, should follow 8.5.
9.2.2 Vertical slipforms
9.2.2. I Slipfonns can be used for vertical structures, such
as silos, storage bins, building cores, bearing wall build-
 GUIDE TO FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE (ACI347R-14)
Fig. 9.2.2.1-Typical vertical slipform with deck and work
platforms supported on wales.
ings, piers, chimneys, shaft linings, communication and
observation towers, nuclear shield walls, and similar struc·
tures. Vertical slipfonns, with concrete placed while rising,
are usually moved in small increments by jacks that propel
themselves on smooth steel rods or tubing embedded in or
attached to the hardened concrete.
A vertical slipfonn system (refer to Fig. 9.2.2.1) has five
main components: sheathing, wales, yokes, jacks, and jack­
rods, and working or storage decks and scaffolding. The
sheathing or vertical forms can be wood staves, plywood,
metal, glass fiber-reinforced plastic, wood, or a combination
of these materials. The function of the sheathing is to contain
and shape the concrete.
Wales have three main functions:
a) Support and hold the sheathing in place
b) Transmit the lifting force from the yokes to the sheathing
and to the other elements of the fonn
c) Provide support for various platforms and scaffolding
Yokes support the wales at regular intervals with their legs,
transmit the lifting forces from the jacks to the wales, and
resist the lateral force of plastic concrete within the form.
The jacks, installed on the yoke's beams, climb up the jack­
rods and provide the force needed to raise the entire slipform
system. Various platfonns, decks, and scaffolding complete
the slipform system. They provide space for storing concrete,
reinforcing steel, and embedments, and serve as a working
area for placing and finishing.
9,2.2.2 Design and constrnction considerations­
Slipforms should be designed by engineers familiar with
slipform construction. Construction of the slipfonn and
slipping should be carried out under the immediate super­
vision of a person experienced in slipfonn work. Drawings
should be prepared by a slipfonn engineer retained by the
contractor. The drawings should show the jack layout, form­
work, working decks, and scaffolds. A developed elevation
of the structure should be prepared, showing the location of
all openings and embedments. The slipfonn engineer should
be experienced in the use of the exact brand of equipment to
be used by the contractor because there are significant varia­
tions in equipment between manufacturers.
9.2.2.3 Vertical loads-in addition to dead loads, live
loads assumed for the design of decks should not be less
than the following:
Sheathing and joists, or concentrated buggy wheel loads,
whichever is greater... . . ... ................. 75 lb/IV (3.6 kPa)
Beams, trusses, and wales . . . . ................ 50 lb/ft2 (2.4 kPa)
Light-duty finishers' scaffolding .... . . . ... 25 lb/ft2 (1.2 kPa)
9.2.2.4 Lateral pressure of concrete-The lateral pressure
of fresh concrete to be used in designing forms, bracing, and
wales can be calculated as follows.
(U.S. customary units)
where c1 = 100 lb/ft2
(Sl units)
where c1 = 4.8 kPa.
The value of c1 = 100 lb/IV (4.8 kPa) is justified because
vibration is slight in slipfonn work; the concrete is placed
in shallow layers of 6 to 10 in. (!50 to 250 mm) with no
revibration. For some applications, such as gas-tight or
containment structures, additional vibration can be required
to achieve maximum density of the concrete. In such cases,
the value of c1 should be increased to
150 lb/ft2 (7.2 kPa).
9.2.2.5 Tolerances-Prescribed tolerances for slipform
construction of building elements are listed in ACI
117.
9.2.2.6 Sliding operation-The maximum rate of slide
should be limited by the rate for which the fonns are
designed. In addition, both maximum and minimum rates of
slide should be detennined by an experienced slipform super·
visor to accommodate changes in weather, concrete slump,
initial set of concrete, workability, and the many demands
that arise during a slide and cannot be accurately predicted
beforehand. A person experienced in slipform construction
should be present on the deck at all times during the slide
operation.
During the initial placing of the concrete in the slipfonn,
the placing rate should not exceed that for which the form
was designed. Ideally, concrete should be placed in approxi­
mately 6 co 8 in. (150 to 200 mm) lifts throughout the slip­
form operation.
The level of hardened concrete in the form should be
checked frequently by the use of a probing rod to estab-
APPENDIXE
 GUIDE TO FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE (ACJ 347R·14)
lish safe lifting rates. Forms should be leveled before they
are filled and should be maintained level unless otherwise
required for out-of-tolerance corrections. Care should be
taken to prevent drifting of the forms from alignment or
designed dimensions and to prevent torsional movement.
Experience has shown that a plumb line, optical plummet,
laser, or combination of these used in conjunction with a water
level system is effective in maintaining the form on line and
grade and for positioning openings and embedded items.
The alignment and plumbness of a structure should prefer­
ably be checked every 2 hours but at a minimum once during
every 4 hours that the slide is in operation. In work that is
done in separate intermittent slipping operations, a check of
alignment and plumbness should be made at the beginning
of each slipping operation.
More frequent readings should be taken on single tall
structures with relatively small plan sections, as the form
system in these structures tends to twist and go out of plumb
more readily.
Sufficient checks of plumbness should be provided to
readily detect and evaluate movements of the form for all
slipformed structures so that appropriate adjustment can be
made in sufficient time by experienced personnel.
Detailed records of both vertical and lateral form move­
ments should be maintained throughout the slipform
operation.
9.2.3 Horizontal slipforms-Horizontal slipforming
lends itself to concrete structures such as tunnel linings,
water conduits, drainage channels, precast elements,
canal linings, highway median barriers, pavements, curbs,
shoulder barriers, and retaining walls. Horizontal stipforms
generally move on a rail system, tractor treads, wheels, and
other similar means resting on a shaped berm. Working and
storage decks and finisher's scaffolding are attached to and
carried by the moving formwork.
The general provisions of 4.1.4 should be met and the
formwork engineer/contractor should submit drawings of
the slipform for review and approval by the engineer/archi­
tect. These drawings should show the handling diagrams, the
placing procedure, and the provisions for ensuring attain­
ment of the required concrete surfaces.
9.3-Permanent forms
9.3.1 Discussion-Permanent forms, or stay-in-place
forms, are forms left in place that may or may not become
an integral part of the structural frame. These fonns can be
rigid-such as metal deck, precast concrete, wood, plastics,
and various types of fiberboard--or the flexible type-such
as reinforced, water-repellent, corrugated paper, or wire
mesh with waterproof paper backing.
When the permanent form is used as a deck form, it is
supported from the main structural frame with or without
an intermediate system of temporary supports. lf temporary
supports are required under, or to provide structural stability
for, the structural frame members to support the weight of
the fresh concrete without causing excessive deflection or
member instability, such information should be specified by
the engineer/architect.
ACI347R·14
9.3.2 Design considerations-If the stay-in-place form is
not covered in the contract specifications because it has no
function in the finished structure, the form manufacturer's
specifications should be used; the manufacturer's recom­
mended practice should be followed for size, span, fasten­
ings, and other special features pertinent to this type of form,
such as being water-repellent and protected against chem­
ical attack from wet concrete (refer to Chapters 4 and 5).
Particular care should be taken in the design of such forms
by the formwork engineer/contractor to minimize distortion
or deformation of the form or supporting members under the
construction toads.
The engineer/architect who specifies the use of permanent
rigid forms should consider in the struciUral analysis both
the construction dead and live loads on the form as well
as the structure's stability during construction, in addition
to consideration of the form's performance in the finished
structure.
When metal deck is used as a permanent fonn and the
deck will become an integral part of the structure, the deck's
shape, depth, gauge, coating, physical dimensions, proper­
ties, and intermediate temporary support should be as called
for in contract documents. If structural continuity is assumed
in the design of the form, the engineer of the permanent
structure should specifY the required number of permanent
supports over which the form material should be continuous.
When composite metal deck requires shoring to minimize
its deflection due to the concrete placement, the camber of
the members supporting the completed composite slab and
deck should be considered. If the supporting members are
cambered for the dead load of the concrete, and that toad is
prevented from being applied to the supporting members due
to the presence of the shoring, there may be excess camber
left in the supporting members. The engineer/architect who
designed the structure should consider this effect and adjust
the camber appropriately.
9.3.3 Installation
9.3.3.1 Shop drawings-The formwork engineer/
contractor should submit fully detailed shop drawings for all
permanent deck forms to the engineer/architect for review,
approval, or both, as applicable to the project. Shop drawings
should show all form thicknesses, metal gauges, physical
dimensions and properties, accessories, finishes, methods of
attachment to the various classes of the work, and temporary
shoring requirements.
9.3.3.2 Fastenings-The permanent deck form should be
properly fastened to supporting members and to adjacent
sections of deck form and properly lapped, in accordance
with manufacturers' recommendations, to provide a tight
joint that will prevent loss of mortar during the placement
of concrete. Where required, end closures for corrugated or
fluted forms should be provided, together with fill pieces
where a tight fit is required. To prevent buckling, allow for
expansion of metal deck forms after fastening and before
concrete placement.
Flexible types of fonns (those that depend on supporting
members for lateral stiffness) should be tightly joined for
proper installation. Adequate temporary bracing or anchors
 GUIDE TO FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE (ACI 347R-14)
should be provided in the plane of the top chord of the
supporting members to prevent lateral buckling and rotation
of these supports and to maintain the required tension in the
flexible fonn
Paper or metal fonns used to form voids in concrete
construction should be properly placed and anchored to the
reinforcement and to side or deck forms with wire ties or
other approved methods to prevent displacement or flota­
tion during placing of concrete. Water should be prevented
from entering voids. Where water intrusion is possible, weep
holes should be provided to reduce entrapment of water.
9.3.4 Deflections-The vertical and lateral deflections of
the permanent fonn between supports under the load of fresh
concrete should be investigated by the engineer/architect.
Temporary supports, such as shoring and stringers, should
be specified, if necessary, to keep deflection within desired
tolerances.
9.4-Forms for prestressed concrete construction
9.4.1 Discussion-The engineer/architect should indi­
cate in the contract documents any special requirements for
prestressed concrete construction.
It may be necessary to provide appropriate means of
lowering or removing the formwork before full prestress is
applied to prevent damage. Pretensioning or post-tensioning
of strands, cables, or rods can be done with or without side
forms of the member in place, as discussed in 9.4.2. Bottom
forms and supporting shores or falsework should remain in
place until the member is capable of supporting its dead load
and anticipated construction loads, as well as any fonnwork
carried by the member.
The concrete placement sequence for certain structures
should also be planned so that concrete is not subjected to
bending stress caused by deflection of the formwork.
9.4.2 Design
9.4.2.1 Where the side forms cannot be conveniently
removed from the bottom or soffit form after concrete has
set, such forms should be designed with slip joints or with
added panel and connection strength for additional axial or
bending loads that can be superimposed on them during the
prestressing operation.
9.4.2.2 Side forms that remain in place during the transfer
of preS!Tessing force should be designed to allow for vertical
and horizontal movements of the cast member during the
prestressing operation. The form should be designed to mini­
mize the restraint to elastic shortening in the prestressing
operation. For example, small fanning components should
be planned for removal to relieve load on side forms as
well as to eliminate their restraint during prestressing. In
all cases, the restraint to shrinkage of concrete should be
kept to a minimum, and the deflections of members due to
prestressing force and the elastic deformation of forms or
falsework should be considered in the design and removal
of the forms.
9.4.2.3 For reasons of safety, when using post-tensioned,
cast-in-place elevated slabs, the contractor should be careful
to ensure that supporting shores do not fall out due to lifting
of the slab during tensioning. For large structures where the
dead load of the member remains on the formwork during
prestressing, displacement of the dead load toward end
supports should be considered in design of the forms and
shoring, including sills or other foundation support.
9.4.3 Construction accessories-Hold-down or push­
down devices fOr deflected cables or strands should be
provided in the casting bed or forms. All openings, offsets,
brackets, and all other items required in the concrete work
should be provided for in the formwork. Bearing plates,
anchorage assemblies, prestressing steel, conduits, tube
enclosures, and lifting devices shown or specified to be set
in concrete should be accurately located with formwork
templates and anchored to remain within the tolerances
given on contract documents. Quality and strength of these
accessories should be as specified.
9.4.4 Tolerances-Prescribed ranges of tolerances for
job-site precast and plant-manufactured precast-prestressed
concrete members are given in ACI 117 and PC! MNL
135-00.
9.4.5 Curing-Where necessary to allow early reuse of
forms, provisions should be made to use accelerated curing
processes such as steam curing, vacuum processing, or other
approved methods.
9.4.6 Worker safety-Safety shields should be provided
at end anchorages of prestressing beds or where necessary
for the protection of workers or equipment against possible
breakage of prestressing strands, cables, or other assemblies
during prestressing or casting operations.
9.5--Forms for site precasting
9.5. I Discussion-Forms for site precasting are used for
precast concrete items that can be either load- or non-load·
bearing members for structural or architectural uses.
9.5.2 Construction-Exterior braces only should be used
when exposed metal or filled-in pockets resulting from the
use of metal ties would present an objectionable appearance.
To ensure uniformity of appearance in the cast members
or units, particularly in adjacent units where differences
in texture, color, or both, would be visible, care should be
taken that the contact surfaces of forms or form liners are of
unifonn quality and texture.
Form oil (nonstaining, if required) should be applied
uniformly and in accordance with manufacturers' recom­
mendations for this particular class of work.
9.5.3 Accessories-It is particularly important in this class
of work that positive and rigid devices be used to ensure
proper location of reinforcement. All openings, cutouts,
offsets, inserts, lift rings, and connection devices required to
be set in concrete should be accurately located and securely
anchored in the formwork.
The finished surfaces of members should be free of lift
rings and other erection items where it will be exposed,
interfere with the proper placing of precast members or other
materials, or be subject to corrosion. Such items should
be removed so that no remaining metal will be subject to
corrosiOn.
The quality and strength of these accessories should be as
required by the contract documents, but the lifting devices or
APPEND/XE
 GUIDE TO FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE (ACI347R-14)
other accessories not called for in the contract documents are
the responsibility of the contractor.
9.5.4 Tolerances-Prescribed tolerances for precast­
concrete construction arc listed in ACl 117.
9.5.5 Removal of forms-Precast members or units should
be removed from forms only after the concrete has reached
a specified strength, as determined by the field-cured test
cylinders or beams and job history of concrete curing.
Where required to allow early reuse of forms, provi­
sions can be made to use accelerated curing processes such
as steam curing or other approved methods. Methods of
lifting precast units from forms should be approved by the
engineer/architect.
9.6--Use of precast concrete for forms
9.6.1 Discussion-Precast concrete panels or molds have
been used as forms for cast-in-place and precast concrete,
either as permanent forms, integrated forms, or as remov­
able, reusable forms. They have been used for both struc­
tural and architectural concrete, designed as structurally
composite with the cast-in-place material or to provide a
desired quality of outer surface and, in some cases, to serve
both of these purposes. Concrete form units can be plain,
reinforced, or prestressed, and either cast in the factory or
at the job site. The most common use of precast concrete
form units has been for elevated slabs acting compositely
with topping concrete, as in bridge and commercial or insti­
tutional construction. Precast units are also common as
ground-holding systems in tunneling and as stay-in-place
forms for rehabilitation of navigation lock walls. Match
casting is a process where a previously cast element is used
as the bulkhead for the casting of a subsequent element to
assure tight fit. Match casting is often used in the process of
casting units for segmental bridge construction
9.6.2 Design
9.6.2.1 Responsibility for design-Where the integrated
form is to act compositely with the structure concrete, the
form panel should be designed by the engineer/architect,
who should also indicate what additional external support
is required for the permanent forms. For permanent forms
intended to achieve a desired architectural effect, the
engineer/architect can specifY surface finish and desired
minimum thickness of architec!Ural material. Design and
layout of temporary forms and supporting systems should
normally be the responsibility of the formwork engineer/
contractor.
9.6.2.2 Connections--C onnection details should be
planned to overcome problems of mating precast members
to each other and to the existing or cast-in-place structure.
9.6.2.3 Bonding concrete form to concrete srmcrure­
EfTective bond between precast form unit and the concrete
structure is essential and can be achieved by: I) special
treatment, such as grooving or roughening the form face
in contact with the structure concrete; 2) use of anchoring
devices extending across the interface between form panel
and structure concrete; 3) a combination of Items I and
2; and 4) use of paint-on or spray-on bonding chemicals.
AC1347R·14
Lifting hooks in a form unit can be designed to serve also as
anchors or shear connectors.
9.6.2.4 Code requirements-Precast concrete forms used
in composite design with cast-in-place concrete in buildings
should be designed in accordance with ACI 318.
9.6.3 During and after concrete placement
9.6.3.1 Yibration-Thorough consolidation of site-cast
concrete is required to prevent voids that would interrupt the
bond of the form to structure concrete, but sufficient care
should be used to prevent damage of concrete panels by
contact with vibrators.
9.6.3.2 Protection of architectural finish--Care should be
taken to avoid spilling fresh concrete on exposed surfaces,
and any spilled or leaked concrete should be thoroughly
removed before it has hardened. After concrete placement,
protection of precast architectural concrete form facings
may need to be considered.
9.7-Forms for concrete placed under water
9.7.1 Discussion-There are two basic approaches to the
problem of placing concrete under water: the concrete can
be mixed in the conventional manner and then placed by
special methods, or the preplaced aggregate method can be
used.
In the first approach, placement can be made by either
pump, underwater bucket, or tremie. The tremie is a steel
pipe suspended vertically in the water with a hopper attached
to the upper end above the water surface. The lower end of
the pipe, with an ejectable plug, extends to the bottom of
the area where concrete is to be placed. This pipe is charged
with concrete from the surface. Once the pipe is filled
with concrete, it is kept full and its bottom should be kept
immersed in the fresh concrete.
In the second approach, the forms are filled with coarse
aggregate, which is then grouted so that the voids around the
aggregate are filled, as discussed in 9.1. The grout is intro­
duced at the bottom and the water is displaced upward as the
grout rises.
9.7.2 Underwater bucker and rremie
9.7.2.1 Design-Forms for underwater concrete place­
ment are designed with the same considerations as
other forms covered in 4.2, except that the density of the
submerged concrete can be reduced by the weight of the
water displaced. Because of large local pressures that can
develop due to the head of concrete in the trcmic, the loca­
tion of the tremie and possible resulting loads on the form
should be evaluated by experienced personnel. Ignoring the
effects of submergence will result in a practical conservative
design that is sturdy enough to withstand the extra rigors of
underwater conditions.
In tidal zones, forms should be designed for the lowest
possible water level. Changes in construction schedules
can transform a planned submerged placement to one made
above water, thus losing the offsetting water pressure.
9.7.2.2 Consrmcrion-Underwater forms should be built
on the surface in large units because final positioning and
fitting when done under water by divers is slow and costly.
For this reason, foundations should be kept simple in shape,
 GUIDE TO FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE (ACI347R-14)

and forms should be free of complex bracing and connec­ ACI 309.2R-98-Identification and Control of Visible
tion details. Through-ties, which could interfere with the Effects of Consolidation on Fonned Concrete Surfaces
concrete placing, should be avoided. Forces imposed on (Reapproved 2005)
preassembled fonns during lifting should be considered in ACI 311.4R-05-Guide for Concrete Inspection
the fonn design. ACI 313-97-Standard Practice for Design and
Fonns should be carefully fitted and secured to adjacent Construction of Concrete Silos and Stacking Tubes for
materials or construction to avoid Joss of mortar under pres­ Storing Granular Materials
sure developed. If there is any water current flow past the ACI 318-11-Building Code Requirements for Structural
fonn. small openings in the fonn should be avoided, as they Concrete and Commentary
will pennit washing or scouring of the fresh concrete. ACI 332.1R-06-Guide to Residential Concrete
When it is intended to pennit concrete to overflow the Construction
fonn and screed it off to grade, it is essential that the fonn ACI 334.1R-92--Concrctc Shell Structures Practice and
is positioned to the proper grade and is detailed so that the Commentary (Reapproved 2002)
overflow will not interfere with the proposed method and ACI 372R-03-Design and Construction of Circular Wire
devices for stripping. and Strand Wrapped Prestressed Concrete Structures
Fonns should be well detailed, and such details should be ACI 373R-97-Design and Construction of Circular
scrupulously followed so that divers employed to remove the Prestressed Concrete Structures with Circumferential Tendons
fonn can visualize and plan their work before descending. ACI 347.2R-05-Guide for Shoring!Reshoring of
Multi-use fonns can have special devices for positioning Concrete Multistory Buildings
fonns from above water and special stripping devices, such as ACI 347.3R-13-Guide for Fonned Concrete Surfaces
hydraulic jacks, that pennit releasing the fonn from the surface. ACI SP-2(07)--Manual of Concrete Inspection
9.7.3 Prep/aced aggregate ACI SP-4-Fonnwork for Concrete, seventh edition
9.7.3.1 Design-The fonnwork should be designed with ACI SP-34-Concrete for Nuclear Reactors
the same considerations as mentioned previously in 9.1.2.
9.7.3.2 Constmction-lt is important to ensure that silt is American lnsli/Uie ofS!eel Cm/Sinlclion
excluded from the fonns because silt chokes the voids in the AISC 325-11-Steel Construction Manual
aggregate and interferes with the flow of grout. Silt, if left
adhering to the aggregate, can reduce the bond between the American Iron and Sleellnstitute
aggregate and the grout. AlSI DI00-08--Cold-Fonned Steel Design Manual
The inspection of the fonns before concrete placement
should verify that the perimeters of the fonns arc effectively American Na1ional Swndards Jnslitute
sealed against the leakage of grout or the intrusion of silt or ANSI A48.1-1986-Fonns for One-Way Concrete Joist
other fines Construction
ANSI A48.2-1986-Fonns for Two-Way Concrete Joist
CHAPTER 1D-REFERENCES Construction
Committee documents are listed first by document number ANSI A208.1-2009-Particleboard
and year of publication followed by authored documents
listed alphabetically. American Society of Civil Engineers
ASCE/SEI 7-10-Minimum Design Loads for Buildings
American Concrete Institute and Other Structures
ACI 117-10-Specification for Tolerances for Concrete ASCE/SEI 37-02-Design Loads on Structures during
Construction and Materials and Commentary Construction
ACI 207.IR-05-Guide to Mass Concrete (Reapproved
2012) American Wood Council
ACI 224R-0 !-Control ofCracking in Concrete Structures ANSIIAWC NDS-2012-National Design Specification
(Reapproved 2008) for Wood Construction
ACI 228.1R-03-ln-Place Methods to Estimate Concrete
Strength APA-The Engineered Wood Associalion
ACI 237R-07-Self-Consolidating Concrete APA 0510-2012-Panel Design Specification
ACI 301-10--Specificalions for Structural Concrete APA V345-2012-Design/Construction Guide: Concrete
ACI 303R-12-Guide to Cast-in-Place Architectural Fonning
Concrete Practice APA YSl0-1998-Piywood Design Specification
ACI 304.1R-92-Guide for Use of Preplaced-Aggregate
Concrete for Structural and Mass Concrete Applications ASTM lmemalional
ACI 304.2R-96-Placing Concrete by Pumping Methods ASTM A446-76(1981)-Standard Specification for Steel
(Reapproved 2008) Sheet, Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) by the Hot-Dip Process,
ACI 305R-10--Guide to Hot Weather Concreting Structural (Physical) Quality
ACI 306R-l 0--Guide to Cold Weather Concreting

APPENDIXE
 GUIDE TO FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE (ACI347R-14)
ASTM CJ61J/Cl 61JM-09-Standard Test Method for
Slump Flow of Self-Consolidating Concrete
Canadian Standards Association
CSA-086M-84-Engineering Design in Wood
Dewsches lnstitutfiir Normung
DIN 18218:2010-01-Frischbetondruck auf Lotrcchtc
Schalungen (Pressure of Fresh Concrete on Vertical
Fonnwork)
Precast/Prestre.�sed Concrete lnstitllle
MNL 135-00--Tolcrance Manual for Precast
Prestressed Concrete Construction
Scaffolding. Shoring. and Forming Institute
SH 301-03-Horizontal Shoring Beam Safety Rules
SH 304-00--Rccommended Frame Shoring Erection
Procedure
U.S. Department of Commerce. National Institute of
Standards and Technology
PSI-09-Construction and Industrial Plywood
PS20-10--Perfonnance Standard for Wood-Based
Structural-Use Panels
U.S. Departme/11 of Lobar. Occupational Safety and
Health Administration
OSHA 1926-07-Safety and Health Regulations for
Construction
Authored references
ACI Committee 622, 1957, "Form Construction Prac­
tices," ACI Journal Proceedings, V. 53, No. 12, June, pp.
1\05-1118.
ACI Committee 622, 1958, "Pressures on Formwork,"
ACI Journal Proceedings, V. 55, No. 2,Aug., pp. 173-190.
Agarwal,R. K.,and Gardner, N.J.,1974,"Fonn and Shore
Requirements for Multistory Flat Slab Type Buildings," ACI
Journal Proceedings, V. 71, No. II. Nov., pp. 559-569.
American Institute of Timber Construction, 2012, Timber
Construction Manual, sixth edition, John Wiley & Sons,
New York, 648 pp.
American Wood Council, 2012, Wood Frame Construc­
tion Manual, Leesburg, VA.
Barnes,J. M., and Johnston, D. W., 1999, "Modification
Factors for Improved Prediction of Fresh Concrete Lateral
Pressures on Fonnwork," Institute of Construction, Depart­
ment of Civil Engineering, North Carolina State University,
Raleigh, NC, Oct., 90 pp.
Barnes,J. M., and Johnston, D. W., 2003, "Fresh Concrete
Lateral Pressure on Fonnwork," Proceedings ofthe ASCE-CI
Constmction Research Congress, 8 pp.
British Cement Association, 1992, "Hi-Rib Permanent
Fonnwork Trials," Report and Appendix REL031.01.1
BCA, Slough, UK, Feb., 22 pp., and July, 9 pp.
Bryer, D.; Fridley Jr., K.; and Pollock, K. C., 2006, Design
of Wood Structures, sixth edition, McGraw-Hill, 1025 pp.
ACI347R-14
Clear, C. A., and Harrison, T. A., 1985, "Concrete Pres­
sure on Fonnwork," C/RIA RepOI't No. 108, Construction
Industry Research and lnfonnation Association, London,
UK, 32 pp.
CRSI, 2009, Manual of Standard Practice, 28th edition,
Concrete Reinforcing St1..-ellnstitutc,Schaumburg, IL,144 pp.
"DIN Standard on Fonnwork Pressures Updated," 2010,
Concrete International, V. 32, No. 6,June, pp. 27-29.
Dunston, P. S.;Johnston, D. W.; and McCain, P. P., 1994,
"Fonnwork Pressures in Tall Walls with Extended Set
Concrete," Concrete lntemationol, V. 16, No. II, Nov., pp.
26-34.
and Gardner, N. J., 1980, "Pressure of Concrete against Fomt·
work," AC/ Journal Proceedings, V. 77, No. 4,July-Aug.,
pp. 279-286.
Gardner, N.J.,1981,"discussion on "Pressure of Concrete
Against Fonnwork,"," ACI Journal Proceedings. V. 78, No.
3, May-June, pp. 243-246.
Gardner, N. J., 1985, "Pressure of Concrete on Fonn­
work-A Review," AC/ Journal Proceedings, V. 82, No. 5,
July-Aug., pp. 744-753.
Gardner, N. J., and Ho, P. T.-1., 1979, "Lateral Pressure
of Fresh Concrete," ACI Journal Proceedings, V. 76, No. 7.
July, pp. 809-820.
Gardner. N.J.;Keller, L; Quattrociocchi,R.;and Charitou,
G., 2012. "Field Investigation of Fonnwork Pressures using
Self Consolidating Concrete:· Concrete lmemational. V. 34.
No. I,Jan., pp. 41-47.
Grundy,P.,and Kabaila,A., 1963,"Construction Loads on
Slabs with Shored Fonnwork in Multistory Buildings," ACI
Journal Proceedings, V. 60, No. 12, Dec., pp. 1729-1738.
Hurd, M. K., 1993, "Nonmeta11ic Fonn Ties," Concrete
Constmction, V. 38, No. 10, pp. 695-699.
Hurd, M. K., 1994, "Plastic Fonn Liners," Concrete
Construction, V. 39, No. II, Nov., pp. 847-853.
Hurd, M. K., 1996, ''Choosing and Using a Fonn Release
Agent," Concrete Construction, V. 41, No. 10, pp. 732-736.
Hurd, M. K., 1997a, ''Using Glass-Fiber-Reinforced­
Plastic Fonns," Concrete Construction, V. 42, No. 9, pp.
689-692.
Hurd, M. K., 1997b, "Expand Your Fonning Options,"
Concrete Construction, V. 42, No. 9, Sept, pp. 725-728.
Johnston, D. W., 2010, ''Field Measurement of Concrete
Lateral Pressure in Fonnwork," Proceedings of the ASCE-C/
Construction Research Congress. pp. 1335-1344.
Johnston, D. W.; Kahn, K. P.; and Phillips, J. B., 1989,
"Fonnwork Pressures in Tall and Thick Concrete Walls,"
Journal of Constmction Engineering and Manage­
ment, V. 115, No. 3, Sept., pp. 444-461. doi: 10.1061/
(ASCE)0733-9364(1989)115>3(444)
Khayat, K. H., and Omran,A. F.,2011, "Field Verification
of Fonnwork Pressure Prediction Models," Concrete /Iller­
national, V. 33, No. 6,June, pp. 33-39.
Lange, D. A.; Birch, B.; Henschen,J.; Liu, Y.-S.; Tejeda­
Dominquez, F.; and Struble, L. J., 2008, "Modeling Fonn­
work Pressure of SCC," Proceedings of the Jrd North Amer­
ican Conference on De�·ign and Use of Self Consolidaring
Concrete (SCC2008), 6 pp.
 GUIDE TO FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE (ACI347R-14)
Noble, J., 1975, "Stop Guessing at Reshore Loads­
Measure Them," Concrete Construction, V. 20, No. 7, pp.
277-280.
Proske, T., and Graubner, C.-A., 2008, "Fonnwork Pres­
sure Using Self-Compacting Concrete," Technische Univer­
sitat Dannstadt, lnstitut fur Massivbau, 25 pp.
Randall Jr., F. A., and Courtois, P. D., 1976, "Side Fonn
Spacers," ACI Journal Proceedings, V. 73, No. 2, Feb., pp.
116-120.
Smulski, S., ed., 1997, Engineered Wood Products: A
Guide for Specifiers, Designers. and Users, PFS Research
Foundation, Madison, WI, 330 pp.
Steel Joist Institute, 2010, "Standard Specifications and
Load and Weight Tables for Steel Joists and Joist Girders,"
43rd edition, Florence, SC, 77 pp.
Stivaros, P. C., and Halvorsen, G. T., 1990, "Shoring/
Reshoring Operations for Multistory Buildings," AC! Struc­
tura/Journal, V. 87, No. 5, Sept.-Oct., pp. 589-596.
The Aluminum Association, 2010, Aluminum De�;ign
Manual, Arlington, VA.
U.S. Department of Agriculture, 20\0, Wood Handbook:
Wood as an Engineering Material, General Technical Report
FPL-GTR-190, Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, WI,
508 pp. www.fpl.fs.fed.us/documnts/fplgtr/fpl_gtrl90.pdf
Zivcrts, G. J., 1964, "A Study of Cardboard Voids for
Prestressed Concrete Box Slabs," PC! Journal, V. 9, No. 3,
pp. 66-93, and V. 9, No. 4, pp. 33-68.
APPENDIX£
APPENDIX F-ACI318-11 CODE AND COMMENTARY
CHAPTER 6- FORMWORK, EMBEDMENTS, AND
CONSTRUCTION JOINTS
CODE
6.1- Design of formwork
6.1.1 - Forms shaH result in a final structure that
conforms to shapes, lines, and dimensions of the
1 members as required by the contract documents.
6.1.2 - Forms shall be substantial and sufficiently
tight to prevent leakage of mortar.
6.1.3 - Forms shall be properly braced or tied
together to maintain position and shape.
6.1.4- Forms and their supports shall be designed
so as not to damage previously placed structure.
6.1.5 - Design of formwork shall include consider·
ation of the following factors:
(a) Rate and method of placing concrete;
(b) Construction loads, including vertical, horizontal,
and impact loads;
(c) Special form requirements for construction of
shells, folded plates, domes, architectural concrete,
or similar types of elements.
6.1.6 - Forms for prestressed concrete members
shall be designed and constructed to permit movement
of the member without damage during application of
prestressing force.
6.2 - Removal of forms, shores, and
reshoring
6.2.1 - Removal of forms
Forms shall be removed in such a manner as not to
impair safety and serviceability of the structure.
Concrete exposed by form removal shall have sufficient
strength not to be damaged by removal operation.
6.2.2- Removal of shores and reshoring
The provisions of 6.2.2.1 through 6.2.2.3 shall apply to
slabs and beams except where cast on the ground.
6.2.2.1 - Before starting construction, the
contractor shall develop a procedure and schedule for
removal of shores and installation of reshores and for
calculating the loads transferred to the structure during
the process.
COMMENTARY
R6.1 -Design of form work
Only minimum performance requirements for formwork.
necessary to provide for public health and safety, are
prescribed in Chapter 6. Formwork for concrete, including
proper design, construction, and removal, demands sound
judgment and planning to achieve adequate forms that are
both economical and safe. Detailed information on form­
work for concrete is given in: "Guide to Formwork for
Concrtte," reported by Committee 347.6·1 (This provides
recommendations for design, construction, and materials for
formwork, forms for special structures. and formwork for
special methods of construction. Directed primarily to
contractors, the suggested criteria will aid in preparing
project specifications for the contractors.)
Fonnworkfor Co11crete.6·2 reported by ACI Committee 347.
(This is a how-to-do-it handbook for contractors, engineers,
and architects following the guidelines established in ACI
347. Planning. building, and using formwork are discussed,
including tables, diagrams. and formulas for form design
loads.)
R6.2 - Removal of forms, shores, and
reshoring
In determining the time for removal of forms, consideration
should be given to the construction loads and to the possibilities
63
of deflections. · The construction loads are frequently at
least as great as the specified live loads. At early ages, a
structure may be adequate to support the applied loads but
may deflect sufficiently to cause permanent damage.
Evaluation of concrete strength during construction may be
demonstrated by field-cured test cylinders or other procedures
approved by the building official such as:
(a) Tests of cast-in-place cylinders in accordance with
ASTM C873.6·4 (This method is limited to use in slabs
where the depth of concrete is from 5 to 12 in.):
(b) Penetration resistance in accordance with ASTM
C8036·5:
 STRUCTURAL CONCRETE BUILDING CODE (ACI318-11) AND COMMENTARY

CODE COMMENTARY

(a) The structural analysis and concrete strength (c) Pullout strength in accordance with ASTM C9006.6:
data used in planning and implementing form
(d) Maturity index measurements and correlation in
removal and shoring shall be furnished by the
accordance with ASTM C\074.6·7
contractor to the building official when so requested;

(b) No construction loads shall be supported on, nor Procedures (b), (c), and (d) require sufficient data, using job
materials, to demonstrate correlation of measurements on
any shoring removed from, any part of the structure
the structure with compressive strength of molded cylinders
under construction except when that portion of the
or drilled cores.
structure in combination with remaining forming and
shoring system has sufficient strength to support
Where the structure is adequately supponed on shores. the
safely its weight and loads placed thereon;
side forms of beams, girders, columns. walls, and similar

(c) Sufficient strength shall be demonstrated by venical forms may generally be removed after 12 hours of
structural analysis considering proposed loads, cumulative curing time, provided the side forms suppon no
strength of forming and shoring system, and loads other than the lateral pressure of the plastic concrete.
concrete strength data. Concrete strength data shall Cumulative curing time represents the sum of time intervals.
be based on tests of field-cured cylinders or, when not necessarily consecutive, during which the tempera!Ure

approved by the building official, on other procedures of the air surrounding the concrete is above SOOF. The 12-hour

to evaluate concrete strength. cumulative curing time is based on regular cements and
ordinary conditions: the use of special cements or unusual
6.2.2.2 - No construction loads exceeding the conditions may require adjustment of the given limits. For
combination of superimposed dead load plus specified example. concrete made with Type II or V (ASTM Cl50) or
live load shall be supported on any unshored portion ASTM C595 cements, concrete containing retarding
of the structure under construction, unless analysis admixtures. and concrete to which ice was added during
indicates adequate strength to support such additional mixing (to lower the temperature of fresh concrete) may not
loads. have sufficient strength in 12 hours and should be investigated
before removal of formwork.
6.2.2.3 - Form supports for prestressed concrete
members shall not be removed until sufficient The removal of formwork for multistory construction
prestressing has been applied to enable prestressed should be a pan of a planned procedure considering the
members to carry their dead load and anticipated temporary suppon of the entire structure as well as that of
construction loads. each individual member. Such a procedure should be
worked out prior to construction and should be based on a
structural analysis taking into account the following items,
as a minimum:

(a) The structural system that exists at the various stages

of construction and the construction loads corresponding
to those stages:

(b) The strength of the concrete at the various ages during

construction:

(c) The innuence of deformations of the structure and

shoring system on the distribution of dead loads and con­
struction loads during the various stages of construction:

(d) The strength and spacing of shores or shoring systems

used. as well as the method of shoring. bracing. shore
removal. and reshoring including the minimum time
intervals between the various operations:

(e) Any other loading or condition that affects the safety

or serviceability of the structure during construction.

For multistory construction. the strength of the concrete

during the various stages of construction should be substanti­
ated by field-cured test specimens or other approved methods.

APPENDIXF
 STRUCTURAL CONCRETE BUILDING CODE (ACI318-11) AND COMMENTARY

CODE COMMENTARY

6.3- Embedments in concrete R6.3- Embedments in concrete

6.3.1 - Embedments of any material not harmful to R6.3.1 - Any embedmems (e.g, conduits, pipes, and
concrete and within limitations of 6.3 shall be sleeves) not harmful to concrete can be placed in the
permitted in concrete with approval of the licensed concrete, but the Work should be done in such a manner that
design professional, provided they are not considered the structure will not be endangered. Empirical rules are
to replace structurally the displaced concrete, except given in 6.3 for safe installations under common conditions;
as provided in 6.3.6. for other than common conditions, special designs should
be made. Many general building codes have adopted ANSI/
ASME piping codes 8 31.1 for power piping6·8 and 8 31.3
for chemical and petroleum piping.6·9 The licensed design
professional should be sure that the appropriate piping
codes are used in the design and testing of the system. The
contractor should not be permitted to install conduits, pipes.
I ducts, or sleeve.s that are not shown in the contract documents
or not approved by the licensed design professional.

For the integrity of the structure, it is important that all

conduit and pipe fittings within the concrete be carefully
assembled as shown on the plans or called for in the job
specifications.

6.3.2 - Any aluminum embedments in structural R6.3.2 - The Code prohibits the use of aluminum in
concrete shall be coated or covered to prevent structural concrete unless it is effectively coated or covered.
aluminum-concrete reaction or electrolytic action Aluminum reacts with concrete and. in the presence of
between aluminum and steel. chloride ions, may also react electrolytically with steel.
causing cracking and/or spalling of the concrete. Aluminum
electrical conduits present a special problem since stray electric
current accelerates the adverse reaction. Provision 3.6.4
prohibits calcium chloride or any admixture containing
chloride from being used in concrete with aluminum
embedments.

6.3.3- Conduits, pipes, and sleeves passing through

a slab, wall, or beam shall not impair significantly the
strength of the construction.

6.3.4 - Conduits and pipes, with their fittings,

embedded within a column shall not displace more
than 4 percent of the area of cross section on which
strength is calculated or which is required for fire
protection.

6.3.5- Except when drawings for conduits and pipes

are approved by the licensed design professional,
conduits and pipes embedded within a slab, wall, or
beam (other than those merely passing through) shall
satisfy 6.3.5.1 through 6.3.5.3.

6.3.5.1 - They shall not be larger in outside

dimension than 1/3 the overall thickness of slab, wall,
or beam in which they are embedded.

6.3.5.2 - They shall not be spaced closer than

three diameters or widths on center.

ACI378-7 7 CODE AND COMMENTARY PROVISIONS RELATED TO FORM WORK

 STRUCTURAL CONCRETE BUILDING CODE (ACI318-11) AND COMMENTARY

CODE COMMENTARY
6.3.5.3 - They shall not impair significantly the
strength of the construction.

6.3.6 - Conduits, pipes, and sleeves shall be

permitted to be considered as replacing structurally in
compression the displaced concrete provided in
6.3.6.1 through 6.3.6.3.

6.3.6.1 -They are not exposed to rusting or other

deterioration.

6.3.6.2 -They are of uncoated or galvanized iron

40 steel
or steel not thinner than standard Schedule
pipe.

6.3.6.3 -They have a nominal inside diameter not

over 2 in. and are spaced not less than three diameters
on centers.

6.3.7 -Pipes and fittings shall be designed to resist R6.3.7- The 1983 Code limited the maximum pressure in
effects of the material, pressure, and temperature to embedded pipe to 200 psi, which was considered too
which they will be subjected. restrictive. Nevenheless, the effects of such pressures and
the expansion of embedded pipe should be considered in the
design of the concrete member.

6.3.8 - No liquid, gas, or vapor, except water not

exceeding 90°F nor 50 psi pressure, shall be placed in
the pipes until the concrete has attained its design
strength.

6.3.9 - In solid slabs, piping, unless it is for radiant

heating or snow melting, shall be placed between top
and bottom reinforcement.

6.3.1 0 -Specified concrete cover for pipes, conduits,

and fittings shall not be less than 1-1/2 in. for concrete
exposed to earth or weather, nor less than 3/4 in. for
concrete not exposed to weather or in contact with
ground.

6.3.11 -Reinforcement with an area not less than

0.002 times area of concrete section shall be provided
normal to piping.

6.3.12- Piping and conduit shall be so fabricated and

installed that cutting, bending, or displacement of rein­
forcement from its proper location will not be required.

6.4 - Construction joints R6.4- Construction joints

6.4.1 - Surface of concrete construction joints shall
be cleaned and laitance removed.
For the integrity of the structure, it is imponant that all
construction j oints be defined in construction documents
and constructed as required. Any deviations should be
.
approved by the licensed design professional.

APPENDIXF
 STRUCTURAL CONCRETE BUILDING CODE (ACI318·11) AND COMMENTARY

CODE COMMENTARY
6.4.2 - Immediately before new concrete is placed, R6.4.2- The requirements of the 1977 Code for the use of
all construction joints shall be wetted and standing neat cement on vertical joints have been removed, since it is
water removed. rarely practical and can be detrimental where deep forms
and steel congestion prevent proper access. Often wet
blasting and other procedures are more appropriate.
Because the Code sets only minimum standards, the
licensed design professional may have to specify additional
procedures if conditions warrant. The degree to which
mortar batches are needed at the start of concrete placement
depend on concrete proportions, congestion of steel,
vibrator access. and other factors.

6.4.3 - Construction joints shall be so made and
located as not to impair the strength of the structure.
Provision shall be made for transfer of shear and other
forces through construction joints. See 11.6.9.
R6.4.3- Construction joints should be located where they
will cause the least weakness in the structure. When shear
due to gravity load is not significant, as is usually the case in
the middle of the span of flexural members, a simple
vertical joint may be adequate. Lateral force design may
require special design treatment of construction joints.
Shear keys, intermittent shear keys, diagonal dowels. or the
shear transfer method of 11.6 may be used whenever a force
transfer is required.

6.4.4 - C onstruction joints in floors shall be located

within the middle third of spans of slabs, beams, and
girders.

6.4.5 - Construction joints in girders shall be offset a

minimum distance of two times the width of intersecting
beams.

6.4.6 - Beams, girders, or slabs supported by R6.4.6- Delay in placing concrete in members supported
columns or walls shall not be cast or erected until by columns and walls is necessary to prevent cracking at the
concrete in the vertical support members is no longer interface of the slab and supporting member caused by
plastic. bleeding and settlement of plastic concrete in the supporting
member.

6.4.7- Beams, girders, haunches, drop panels, shear R6.4. 7 - Separate placement of slabs and beams,
caps, and capitals shall be placed monolithically as haunches, and similar elements is pennitted when shown on
part of a slab system, unless otherwise shown in I the contract documents and where provision has been made
1 contract documents. to transfer forces as required in 6.4.3.

ACJ 3 J 8-1 J CODE AND COMMENTARY PROVISIONS RELATED TO FORMWORK

 American Concrete Institute
Always advancing

As ACI begins its second century of advancing concrete knowledge, its original chartered purpose
remains "to provide a comradeship in finding the best ways to do concrete work of all kinds and in
spreading knowledge." In keeping with this purpose, ACJ supports the following activities:

Technical committees that produce consensus reports, guides, specifications, and codes.

· Spring and fall conventions to facilitate the work of its committees.

· Educational seminars that disseminate reliable information on concrete.

· Certification programs for personnel employed within the concrete industry.

· Student programs such as scholarships, internships, and competitions.

· Sponsoring and co-sponsoring international conferences and symposia.

· Formal coordination with several international concrete related societies.

· Periodicals: the ACI Structural Journal, Materials Journal, and Concrete International.

Benefits of membership include a subscription to Concrete International and to an ACI Journal. ACI
members receive discounts of up to 40% on all ACI products and services, including documents, seminars
and convention registration fees.

As a member of ACI, you join thousands of practitioners and professionals worldwide who share
a commitment to maimain the highest industry standards for concrete technology, construction,
and practices. In addition, ACI chapters provide opportunities for interaction of professionals and
practitioners at a local level.

American Concrete Institute

38800 Country Club Drive
Farmington Hills, MI 48331
Phone: +1.248.848.3700
Fax: +1.248.848.3701
www.concrete.org
APPENDIX G-OSHA REGULATIONS

Safety regulations related to formwork and shoring are found on Subpart Q of the Federal
OSHA Construction Industry Regulations {Title 29 CFR 1926). The Subpart Q standards
for Concrete and Masonry Construction are reproduced in this section for reference. The
safety regulations of individual states may substitute for the Federal requirements, but
the state standards (and the enforcement of those standards) must be at least as effective
in providing safe and healthful employment and places of employment as the standards
promulgated under Federal requirements which relate to the same issues.

Subpart Q - Concrete and Masonry Construction

AUTHORITY: Sec. 107, Contract Work Hours and Safety Standards Act (Construction Safety
Act) (40 U.S.C. 333); Sees. 4, 6, 8, Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970 (29 U.S.C. 653,
655, 657); Secretary of labor's Order No. 12·71 (36 FR 8754), 8·76 (41 FR 25059), 9·83 (48 FR
35736), or 1-90 {55 FR 9033), as applicable.

SOURCE: 53 FR 22643, June 16, 1988, unless otherwise noted.

[59 FR 40730, Aug. 9, 1994]

1926.700 Scope, application, and definitions app/icob/e to this subpart.

{a) Scope and application. This subpart sets forth requirements to protect all construction
employees from the hazards associated with concrete and masonry construction
operations performed in workplaces covered under 29 CFR Part 1926.1n addition to
the requirements in Subpart Q other relevant provisions in Parts 1910 and 1926 apply
to concrete and masonry construction operations.
{b) Definitions applicable to this subpart. In addition to the definitions set forth in
1926.32, the following definitions apply to this subpart
(1) �auII float• means a tool used to spread out and smooth concrete.
(2) NFormwork�means the total system of support for freshly placed or partially
cured concrete, including the mold or sheeting (form) that is in contact with the
concrete as well as all supporting members including shores, reshores, hardware,
braces, and related hardware.
{3) Nlift slabN means a method of concrete construction in which floor, and roof slabs
are cast on or at ground level and, using jacks, lifted into position.
(4) �limited access zone�means an area alongside a masonry wall, which is under
construction, and which is clearly demarcated to limit access by employees.
(5) NPrecast concrete�means concrete members {such as walls, panels, slabs, columns,
and beams) which have been formed, cast, and cured prior to final placement in a
structure.
(6) NReshoringHmeans the construction operation in which shoring equipment (also
called reshores or reshoring equipment) is placed, as the original forms and
shores are removed, in order to support partially cured concrete and construction
loads.
(7) ·shore• means a supporting member that resists a compressive force imposed by a
load.
(8) �vertical slip formsHmeans forms which are jacked vertically during the placement
of concrete.
(9) Jacking operation means the task of lifting a slab (or group of slabs vertically from
one location to another (e.g., from the casting location to a temporary (parked)
location, or to its final location in the structure), during the construction of a
building/structure where the lift-slab process is being used.

[55 FR 42328, Oct. 18, 1990]

1926.701 General requirements
(a) Construction loads. No construction loads shall be placed on a concrete structure or
portion of a concrete structure unless the employer determines, based on information
received from a person who is qualified in structural design, that the structure or
portion of the structure is capable of supporting the loads.

(b) Reinforcing steel. All protruding reinforcing steel, onto and into which employees
could fall, shall be guarded to eliminate the hazard of impalement.

(c) Post-tensioning operations.

(1) No employee (except those essential to the post-tensioning operations) shall be

permitted to be behind the jack during tensioning operations.

(2) Signs and barriers shall be erected to limit employee access to the post­
tensioning area during tensioning operations.

(d) Riding concrete buckets. No employee shall be permitted to ride concrete buckets.

(e) Working under loads.

(1) No employee shall be permitted to work under concrete buckets white buckets
are being elevated or lowered into position.

(2) To the extent practical. elevated concrete buckets shall be routed so that no
employee, or the fewest number of employees, are exposed to the hazards
associated with falling concrete buckets.

(f) Personal protective equipment. No employee shall be permitted to apply a cement,

sand, and water mixture through a pneumatic hose unless the employee is wearing
protective head and face equipment.

(59 FR 40730, Aug. 9, 1994)

1926.702 Requirements for equipment and tools.

(a) Bulk cement storage.

(1) Bulk storage bins, containers, and silos shall be equipped with the following:

(i) Conical or tapered bottoms; and

(ii) Mechanical or pneumatic means of starting the flow of material.

(2) No employee shall be permitted to enter storage facilities unless the ejection
system has been shut down, locked out, and tagged to indicate that the ejection
system is not to be operated.

(b) Concrete mixers. Concrete mixers with one cubic yard (-8 m(3)) or larger loading skips
shall be equipped with the following:

(1) A mechanical device to dear the skip of materials; and

(2) Guardrails installed on each side of the skip.

{c) Power concrete trowels. Powered and rotating type concrete troweling machines that
are manually guided shall be equipped with a control switch that will automatically
shut off the power whenever the hands of the operator are removed from the
equipment handles.

(d) Concrete buggies. Concrete buggy handles shall not extend beyond the wheels on
either side of the buggy.

(e) Concrete pumping systems.

APPENOIXG
 (1) Concrete pumping systems using discharge pipes shall be provided with pipe
supports designed for 100 percent overload.

(2) Compressed air hoses used on concrete pumping system shall be provided
with positive fail-safe joint connectors to prevent separation of sections when
pressurized.

(f) Concrete buckets.

(1) Concrete buckets equipped with hydraulic or pneumatic gates shall have
positive safety latches or similar safety devices installed to prevent premature or
accidental dumping.

(2) Concrete buckets shall be designed to prevent concrete from hanging up on top
and the sides.

(g) Tremies. Sections of tremies and similar concrete conveyances shall be secured
with wire rope (or equivalent materials) in addition to the regular couplings or
connections.

(h) Bull floats. Bull float handles used where they might contact energized electrical
conductors, shall be constructed of nonconductive material or insulated with a
nonconductive sheath whose electrical and mechanical characteristics provide the
equivalent protection of a handle constructed of nonconductive material.

(i) Masonry saws.

(1) Masonry saw shall be guarded with a semicircular enclosure over the blade.

(2) A method for retaining blade fragments shall be incorporated in the design of the
semicircular enclosure.

(j) Lockout!Tagout procedures.

(1) No employee shall be permitted to perform maintenance or repair activity on

equipment (such as compressors mixers, screens or pumps used for concrete
and masonry construction activities) where the inadvertent operation of the
equipment could occur and cause injury, unless all potentially hazardous energy
sources have been locked out and tagged.

(2) Tags shall read Do Not Start or similar language to indicate that the equipment is
not to be operated.

1926.703 Requirements for cast-in-place Concrete.

(a) General requirements for formwork.

(1) Formwork shall be designed, fabricated, erected, supported, braced and

maintained so that it will be capable of supporting without failure all vertical and
lateral loads that may reasonably be anticipated to be applied to the formwork.
Formwork which is designed, fabricated, erected, supported, braced and
maintained in conformance with the Appendix to this section will be deemed to
meet the requirements of this paragraph.

(2) Drawings or plans, including all revisions, for the jack layout, formwork (including
shoring equipment), working decks, and scaffolds, shall be available at the
jobsite.

(b) Shoring and reshoring.

(1) All Shoring equipment (including equipment used in reshoring operations)

shall be inspected prior to erection to determine that the equipment meets the
requirements specified in the formwork drawings.

OSHA REGULATIONS FOR FORM WORK AND SHORING

 (2) Shoring equipment found to be damaged such that its strength is reduced to less
than that required by 1926.703(a)(1) shan not be used for shoring.

(3) Erected shoring equipment shan be inspected immediately prior to, during, and
immediately after concrete placement.

(4) Shoring equipment that is found to be damaged or weakened after erection, such
that its strength is reduced to less than that required by 1926.703(a){1), shall be
immediately reinforced.

(5) The sills for shoring shall be sound, rigid, and capable of carrying the maximum
intended load.

(6) All base plates, shore heads, extension devices, and adjustment screws shall be in
firm contact, and secured when necessary, with the foundation and the form.

(7) Eccentric loads on shore heads and similar members shall be prohibited unless
these members have been designed for such loading.

{8) Whenever single post shores are used one on top of another (tiered), the
employer shall comply with the following specific requirements in addition to the
general requirements for formwork:

(i) The design of the shoring shall be prepared by a qualified designer and the
erected shoring shall be inspected by an engineer qualified in structural
design.

(ii) The single post shores shan be vertically aligned.

(iii) The single post shores shall be spliced to prevent misalignment.

(iv) The single post shores shall be a adequately braced in two mutually
perpendicular directions at the splice level. Each tier shall also be diagonally
braced in the same two directions.

(9) Adjustment of single post shores to raise formwork shall not be made after the
placement of concrete.

(10) Reshoring shall be erected, as the original forms and shores are removed,
whenever the concrete is required to support loads in excess of its capacity.

(c) Vertical slip forms.

(1) The steel rods or pipes on which jacks climb or by which the forms are lifted shan
be-

{il Specifically designed for that purpose; and

{ii) Adequately braced where not encased in concrete.

(2) Forms shall be designed to prevent excessive distortion of the structure during
the jacking operation.

(3) All vertical slip forms shall be provided with scaffolds or work platforms where
employees are required to work or pass.

(4) Jacks and vertical supports shall be positioned in such a manner that the loads do
not exceed the rated capacity of the jacks.

{5) The jacks or other lifting devices shall be provided with mechanical dogs or other
automatic holding devices to support the slip forms whenever failure of the
power supply or lifting mechanism occurs.

(6) The form structure shall be maintained within all design tolerances specified for
plumbness during the jacking operation.

APPENDfXG
 (7) The predetermined safe rate of lift shall not be exceeded.

(d) Reinforcing steel.

(1) Reinforcing steel for walls, piers, columns, and similar vertical structures shall be
adequately supported to prevent overturning and to prevent collapse.

{2) Employers shall take measures to prevent unrolled wire mesh from recoiling. Such
measures may include, but are not limited to, securing each end of the roll or
turning over the roll.

{e) Removal of formwork.

(I) Forms and shores (except those used for slabs on grade and slip forms) shall
not be removed until the employer determines that the concrete has gained
sufficient strength to support its weight and superimposed loads. Such
determination shall be based on compliance with one of the following:

{i) The plans and specifications stipulate conditions for removal of forms and
shores, and such conditions have been followed, or

(ii) The concrete has been properly tested with an appropriate ASTM standard
test method designed to indicate the concrete compressive strength,and
the test results indicate that the concrete has gained sufficient strength to
support its weight and superimposed loads.

(2) Reshoring shall not be removed until the concrete being supported has attained
adequate strength to support its weight and all loads in place upon it.

[61 FR 5507,Feb. 13, 1996)

1926.703 App: General Requirements for Formwork

(This Appendix is non-mandatory.)
This appendix serves as a non-mandatory guideline to assist employers in complying
with the formwork requirements in 1926.703(a)(1). Formwork which has been designed,
fabricated, erected, braced, supported and maintained in accordance with Sections 6
and 7 of the American National Standard for Construction and Demolition Operations
Concrete and Masonry Work, ANSI A10.9-1983, shall be deemed to be in compliance with
the provision of 1926.703(a)( 1 ).
[61 FR 5507,Feb.13, 1996]

1926.704: Requirements for precast concrete.

(a) Precast concrete wall units, structural framing, and tilt-up wall panels shall be
adequately supported to prevent overturning and to prevent collapse until
permanent connections are completed.
(b) lifting inserts which are embedded or otherwise attached to tilt-up precast concrete
members shall be capable of supporting at least two times the maximum intended
load applied or transmitted to them.
(c) lifting inserts which are embedded or otherwise attached to precast concrete
members, other than the tilt-up members,shall be capable of supporting at least four
times the maximum intended load applied or transmitted to them.
(d) Lifting hardware shall be capable of supporting at least five times the maximum
intended load applied transmitted to the lifting hardware.
(e) No employee shall be permitted under precast concrete members being lifted
or tilted into position except those employees required for the erection of those
members.

[FR 41088, Oct. 5, 1989]

1926.705: Requirements for lilt-slab operations.

(a) Lift-slab operations shall be designed and planned by a registered professional
engineer who has experience in lift-slab construction. Such plans and designs

OSHA REGULATIONS FOR FORMWORK AND SHORING

 shall be implemented by the employer and shall include detailed instructions and
sketches indicating the prescribed method of erection. These plans and designs shall
also include provisions for ensuring lateral stability of the building/structure during
construction.
(b) Jacks/lifting units shall be marked to indicate their rated capacity as established by
the manufacturer.
(c) Jacks/lifting units shall not be loaded beyond their rated capacity as established by
the manufacturer.
(d) Jacking equipment shall be capable of supporting at least two and one-half times
the load being lifted during jacking operations and the equipment shall not be
overloaded. For the purpose of this provision, jacking equipment includes any
load bearing component which is used to carry out the lifting operation(s). Such
equipment includes, but is not limited, to the following: threaded rods, lifting
attachments, lifting nuts, hook-up collars, T-caps, shearheads, columns, and footings.
(e) Jacks/lifting units shall be designed and installed so that they will neither lift nor
continue to lift when they are loaded in excess of their rated capacity.
(f) Jacks/lifting units shall have a safety device installed which will cause the jacks/lifting
units to support the load in any position in the event any jacklifting unit malfunctions
or loses its lifting ability.
(g) Jacking operations shall be synchronized in such a manner to ensure even and
uniform lifting of the slab. During lifting, all points at which the slab is supported shall
be kept within 1/2 inch of that needed to maintain the slab in a level position.
(h) If leveling is automatically controlled, a device shall be installed that will stop the
operation when the 1/2 inch tolerance set forth in paragraph (g) of this section is
exceeded or where there is a malfunction in the jacking (lifting) system.
(i) If leveling is maintained by manual controls, such controls shall be located in a central
location and attended by a competent person whole lifting is in progress. In addition
to meeting the definition in 1926.32((), the competent person must be experienced in
the lifting operation and with the lifting equipment being used.
(j) The maximum number of manually controlled jacks/lifting units on one slab shall be
limited to a number that will permit the operator to maintain the slab level within
specified tolerances of paragraph (g) of this section, but in no case shall that number
exceed 14.
(k) (1) No employee, except those essential to the jacking operation, shall be permitted
in the building/structure while any jacking operation is taking place unless the
building/structure has been reinforced sufficiently to ensure its integrity during
erection. The phraseNreinforced sufficiently to ensure its integrityNused in this
paragraph means that a registered professional engineer, independent of the
engineer who designed and planned the lifting operation, has determined from
the plans that if there is a loss of support at any jack location, that loss will be
confined to that location and the structure as a whole will remain stable.
(2) Under no circumstances, shall any employee who is not essential to the jacking
operation be permitted immediately beneath a slab while it is being lifted.
(3) For the purpose of paragraph (k) of this section, a jacking operation begins when
a slab or group of slabs is lifted and ends when such slabs are secured (with either
temporary connections or permanent connections).
(4) Employers who comply with appendix A to 1g26.705 shall be considered to be in
compliance with the provisions of paragraphs (k)(1) through (k)(3) of this section.
(I) When making temporary connections to support slabs, wedges shall be secured
by tack welding, or an equivalent method of securing the wedges to prevent them
from falling out of position. lifting rods may not be released until the wedges at that
column have been secured.
(m) All welding on temporary and permanent connections shall be performed by a
certified welder, familiar with the welding requirements specified in the plans and
specifications for the lift-slab operation.
(n) Load transfer from jacks/lifting units to building columns shall not be executed until
the welds on the column shear plates (weld blocks) are cooled to air temperature.
(o) Jacks/lifting units shall be positively secured to building columns so that they do not
become dislodged or dislocated.
(p) Equipment shall be designed and installed so that the lifting rods cannot slip out of
position or the employer shall institute other measures, such as the use of locking

APPENDfXG
 or blocking devices, which will provide positive connection between the lifting rods
and attachments and will prevent components from disengaging during lifting
operations.

[55 FR 42328, Oct. 18, 1990]

7 926.705 App: lilt Slab Operations

(This appendix is non-mandatory)
In paragraph 1926.705(k), OSHA requires employees to be removed from the building/
structure during jacking operations unless an independent registered professional
engineer, other than the engineer who designed and planned the lifting operation,
has determined that the building/structure has been sufficiently reinforced to insure
the integrity of the building/structure. One method to comply with this provision is for
the employer to ensure that continuous bottom steel is provided in every slab and in
both directions through every wall or column head area. (Column head area means the
distance between lines that are one and one-half times the thickness of the slab or drop
panel. These lines are located outside opposite faces of the outer edges of the shearhead
sections- See Figure 1). The amount of bottom steel shall be established by assuming
loss of support at a given lifting jack and then determining the steel necessary to carry,
by catenary action over the span between surrounding supports, the slab service dead
load plus any service dead and live loads likely to be acting on the slab during jacking.
In addition, the surrounding supports must be capable of resisting any additional load
transferred to them as a result of the loss of support at the lifting jack considered.

:c•thtslab�rdrop
panel thickness

Figure 1--Column Head Area

OSHA REGULATIONS FOR FORM WORK AND SHORING

[55 FR 42328, Oct. 18, 1990]

1926.706: Requirements For masonry construction.

(a) A limited access zone shall be established whenever a masonry wall is being
constructed. The limited access zone shall conform to the following.
(1) The limited access zone shall be established prior to the start of construction of the
wall.
{2) The limited access zone shall be equal to the height of the wall to reconstructed
plus four feet, and shall run the entire length of the wall.
{3) The limited access zone shall be established on the side of the wall which will be
unscaffolded.
{4) The limited access zone shall be restricted to entry by employees actively engaged
in constructing the wall. No other employees shall be permitted to enter the
zone.
{5) The limited access zone shall remain in place until the wall is adequately supported
to prevent overturning and to prevent collapse unless the height of wall is over
eight feet, in which case, the limited access zone shall remain in place until the
requirements of paragraph (b) of this section have been met.
{b) All masonry walls over eight feet in height shall be adequately braced to prevent
overturning and to prevent collapse unless the wall is adequately supported so that
it will not overturn or collapse. The bracing shall remain in place until permanent
supporting elements of the structure are in place.

1926 Subpart Q App A: References to Subpart Q of Part 1926

{This Appendix is non-mandatory.)
The following non-mandatory references provide information which can be helpful in
understanding and complying with the requirements contained in Subpart Q.
Accident Prevention Manual for Industrial Operations; Eighth Edition; National Safety
Council.
Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete (ACI 318-83).
Formwork for Concrete (ACI SP-4).
Recommended Practice for Concrete Formwork (ACI 347-78).
Safety Requirements for Concrete and Masonry Work (ANSI A 10.9-1983).
Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens
(ASTM 09-86).
Standard Test Method for Making and Curing Concrete Test Specimens in the Field
(ASTM 01-85).
Standard Test Method for Penetration Resistance of Hardened Concrete {ASTM C803-
82).
Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength of Concrete Cylinders Cast In-Place in
Cylindrical Molds (ASTM C873-8S).
Standard Method for Developing Early Age Compressive Test Values and Projecting
later Age Strengths (ASTM C918-80).
Recommended Practice for Inspection and Testing Agencies for Concrete, Steel and
Bituminous Materials as Used in Construction (ASTM E329-77).
Method of Making and Curing Concrete Test Specimens in the laboratory (ASTM
C192-88).
Methods of Obtaining and Testing Drilled Cores and Sawed Beams of Concrete {ASTM
C4H7).
Methods of Securing, Preparing and Testing Specimens from Hardened light-weight
Insulating Concrete for Compressive Strength (ASTM CS13-86).
Test Method for Comprehensive Strength of lightweight Insulating Concrete (ASTM
(495-86).
Method of Making, Accelerating Curing, and Testing of Concrete Compression Test
Specimens {ASTM C684-81).
Test Method for Compressive Strength of Concrete Using Portions of Beams Broken in
Flexure (ASTM C116-68 (1980)).
APPENDIX H- PROBLEMS

Chapter 1
1.1. What three factors ultimately determine whether to use metal versus wood and manu­
factured versus job-built formwork systems for a particular project?

1.2. Job-built forms are usually constructed of what structural material?

Chapter 2
2.1. What are the latest editions of three ACI publications referenced as older editions by
OSHA 1926 Subpart Q?

2.2. Based on the suggested basis of measurement of form area for payment purposes,
calculate the payment area of the single wall shown in Fig. 13.8. Assume the wall is 12 in.
thick, there are no rustication joints, and the depression is 3-1/2 in. deep on the inside
face. The wall will be constructed with a low-slump concrete not requiring a top form.

2.3. Why is it justifiable to expend resources comparable to the engineering cost of a

building structure on planning and engineering of the formwork system?

Chapter3
3.1. Formwork economic considerations usually involve a comparison of what three
options?

3.2. During the erection of the formwork, what other three construction trades are most
active and require coordination?

3.3. Draw three separate images of Pier No. 3 from the planning example in Section 3.7.1,
showing each stage of formwork erection for the individual placements and showing
the specific form segments in place.

3.4. Explain four ways in which a formwork contractor can use BIM to make formwork proj-
ects to be more predictable, controllable, and profitable.

Chapfer4
4.1. Determine the density of Southern Pine at 19% moisture content.

4.2. S4S 4x6 dimension lumber will be used as a beam oriented for bending about the
strong axis. Use tabulated values to find the cross-section width, depth, area, moment of
inertia, and section modulus.

4.3. S4S 2xB dimension lumber will be used as a beam oriented for bending about the
weak axis. Use tabulated values to find the cross-section width, depth, area, moment of
inertia, and section modulus.

4.4. A 6x6 rough wood timber will be used as a shore oriented vertically in falsework. Use
Table 4.2 to find the cross-section dimensions, area, moment of inertia, and section
modulus.

4.5. A No. 2 Spruce-Pine-Fir (SPF) S4S 2x12 with moisture content greater than 19% is used
as a joist in bending about the strong axis under a load duration less than 7 days. You
are preparing to investigate the ASD bending strength. List the values of the following
parameters:

Fb=-- E= __ CD=-- CM=-- (�=-- C,.,= __

4.6. A No. 2 Southern Pine S4S 2x8 with moisture content greater than 19% is used as a
joist in bending about the strong axis under a load duration less than 7 days. You are
preparing to investigate the ASD bending strength. list the values of the following
parameters:

F0=__ E= __ cD =-- c"'=-- c�=-- c,.,= __

4.7. A No. 2 Douglas Fir-Larch 545 2x6 with moisture content less than 19% is used as a
joist in bending about the weak axis under a load duration greater than 7 days and less
than 2 months. You are preparing to investigate the A5D bending strength. List the
values of the following parameters:

Fb= -- £=__ C0= __ CM=-- C,= __ C,..= __

4.8. Two double-headed 16d common nails will be used to attach a Douglas Fir-Larch 545
2x4 to a Douglas Fir-Larch 545 4x4 in side grain under normal temperature conditions
for a load duration less than 2 months. Determine the total A5D withdrawal capacity of
the connection if assembled under dry conditions but subject to significant wetting and
drying in service.

4.9. Three 16d box nails will be used to attach a Southern Pine 2x4 S4S to a Spruce-Pine-Fir
S4S 4x4 in side grain under normal temperature conditions for a load duration less than
7 days. Determine the total LRFD withdrawal capacity of the connection if assembled
under dry conditions but subject to significant wetting and drying in service.

4.10. Repeat Problem 4.9for ASD withdrawal capacity.

Chapter 5

5.1. A formwork member is subjected to the following unfactored axial loads: Formwork
load= 1 kip; variable material load=10 kip; construction personnel=5 kip; and wind
load= 3 kips {based on A5CEJ5EI7-10). Determine
a) The A5D controlling combination (kip); and
b) The LRFD controlling combination (kip).

5.2. A 10 in. thick concrete slab will be constructed with concrete having a density (unit
weight) of 1431b/ftl. The slab is reinforced with No. 7 bottom bars at 8 in. on centereach
way and No. 6 top bars at 8 in. on center each way.
a) Determine the average weight of the slab (lb/ft1) based on the actual mass of the
concrete and steel materials.
b) Determine the equivalent density (unit weight) (lb/ftl) of the combined concrete and
steel.
c) Determine the total steel as a percentage of the slab volume.

5.3. Using Table 5.2, determine the total vertical load (lb/ft1) of a two-way concrete joist
system using a 12 in. pan depth and a 24 x 24 in. plan void with a construction live load
of 50ib/ft2•

5.4. Determine the unit weight coefficient Cw for a lightweight concrete with a unit weight
of 120ib/ft3•

5.5. Verify the maximum pressure magnitudes found in Table 5.7 for the following condi­
tions by direct calculation based on Table 5.4. Note that these values are prior to adjust­
ment by C, and Cw
a)R=9ft/h, T=70°F,h=12 ft
b)R = 3 ftlh, T = SO"F, h = 10 ft
c)R=3 ft/h, T=50"F,h= 18 ft

5.6. Lines of shores with X-braces are used to support an elevated form. The shore height is
9ft and the spacing between the seven repeating lines of shores and braces is 5 ft. The
face area of the shores and braces perpendicular to the wind direction under consider­
ation is 100 ft1 and the gross area bounded by a line of braced shores is 500 ft1. Deter­
mine the cumulative shielding coefficient 11m by calculating the actual series. Compare
the value calculated from the actual series to the value calculated from the equivalent
equation.

APPENDIXH
5. 7. Given the following conditions for a wall form at ground level:
Form height= 16ft, length= 64ft;
location: Iowa; Exposure C, not at top of hill or in a special wind region;
Duration of exposure: less than two weeks.

Determine the wind load force F..,. to be applied at a height of 0.55h using the ASCE/SEI
7-10 method with ASCE/SEI3 7-1 4reductions for an ASD application and compare to
the ACI3 47R minimum lateral force applied at the top of the form to determine which
controls.

5.8. An elevated slab form is to support a 10 in. slab weighing 150 lbfftl. The formwork
weighs 8 lb/ft1• The slab is96ft long parallel to the wind direction being evaluated.
Compare the two ACJ 3 47R minimum levels of lateral load (lb/ft) that must be consid­
ered other than load based upon wind pressure calculation.

5.9. Formwork for the floor slab in Problem 5.8 will have the following characteristics:
Edge form boards 10 in. high, 3/ 4in. plywood sheathing, 2x6joists, 4x6stringers
(girders).
Flat-faced shores and braces;
Framework of braced shores with A,= 42 ft1 for the face width of 64ft. A,/A = 0. 1 2,
9
�.=63. ;
Basic wind speed 115 mph based on ASCE/SEI7-10; Exposure B, not at top of hill or in
a special wind region;
Duration of exposure: less than 3 weeks;
Highest elevation of use: 100ft above ground;
Typical structure floor-to-floor height= 1 2 ft;

For the wind direction parallel to the span direction of thejoists:

a) Determine the wind forces that would occur on each of the following: edge forms,
formworkjoist/stringers, and the lattice framework of braced shores.
b) Compare the ASD equivalent to this loading to the minimums from Problem 5.5.

Chapter6
6.1. A floor slab will have a concrete weight of 130 lb/ft1• The forms and shores weigh
10 lb/ft1, and reshores weigh 41b/ft1• Construction personnel and equipment loading
will be SO lb/ft1• Convert each load to be expressed in terms of the floor slab dead load D
(rounded to three decimal places).

6. 2. A shoring and reshoring analysis has been conducted for the case of two levels of
forms/shores and one level of reshores. The result for a particular step is shown. The
formS/shores weigh 0.01 200. From the information provided, first determine the load
of the reshores. In the next construction step, the lowest level of forms/shores will be
removed. Draw the view of the cells for the next step and show the various resulting
loads in the cells for the slabs and the shores/reshores.

PROBLEMS
6.3. A shoring and reshoring analysis has been conducted for the case of one level of
forms/shores and two levels of reshores. The result for a particular step is shown. In
the next step, the forms/shores are erected at the top level and the next slab is placed.
The combined load of the forms/shores, slab, and construction personnel and equip·
ment load is 1.7000. Draw the view of the cells for this next step and show the various
resulting loads in the cells for the slabs and the shores/reshores.
Slop• loodc_lly_
.....
.. ..

6.4. A shoring and reshoring analysis has been conducted for the case of two levels of
forms/shores and two levels of reshores. The result for a particular step is shown. From
the information provided, first determine the load of the forms/shores and the load of
the reshores. In the next step, the lowest level of forms/shores will be removed. Draw
the view of the cells for this next step and show the various resulting loads in the cells
for the slabs and the shores/reshores.

6.5. Drawings for a structure indicate it was designed for a 120 lb/ft2 slab self weight,
20 Jb/ff partition load, 81b/ft2 mechanical and ceiling load, and 60 Jb/ft1 occupancy
live load with noLL reductions taken. The design load factors were 1.20L and 1.6LL
Determine:
a) The original factored design load stated in lb/ft2 and in terms of D.
b) The total factored load strength available at 10 days if the 40°F curve shown in Fig 6.6
is for the concrete mixture used on the project and the temperature of the curing
concrete, and it is assumed that structure strength is directly proportional to the
percent of 28·day strength attained.
c) The total factored load strength available at 10 days if the 40°F curve shown in Fig 6.6
is for the concrete mixture used on the project and the temperature of the curing
concrete, and it is assumed that structure strength is proportional to the square root
of the proportion of 28·day strength attained.

APPENOIXH
6.6.The temperature of the concrete for an elevated slab is measured every hour after it
was placed at 12 noon.The record of those measurements is shown in the table below.
The datum temperature for the concrete mixture has been previously evaluated by lab
tests to beT0= 23"F.
a) Determine the maturity (°F·hours) at the end of 24, 48, and 72 hours.
b) If the maturity-versus-strength curve for this particular concrete mixture is given
in Fig. 6.11, estimate the percent of specified 28-day strength gained at 24, 48, and
72 hours
Record a/concrete temperature, °F
Hour PM AM PM AM PM AM
12 70 95 80 67 65 69
I 81 93 81 62 70 67
2 95 91 83 59 76 65
3 115 89 85 57 81 62
' 125 86 " " 83 60
5 128 " " " 85 57
6 122 82 83 53 " 55
7 120 81 82 5I 82 55
8 '" 80 80 52 80 56
9 110 79 76 53 77 59
10 105 78 73 56 73 63
II 100 79 71 60 71 69

Chapter 7
Solve the following problems based on detailed calculations, not based on the span and
load tables of Chapter 9.

7.1. Southern Pine S4S 2x4 No. 2 wall form studs, bending about the strong axis, are
continuous over three or more spans of 27 in. Given: load duration less than 7 days, wet
use, temperature under 100°F, not incised, and repetitive use. Determine the maximum
ASD uniform load (lb/in.) that can be carried based on each of the following criteria
separately and identify the controlling maximum load.
a) Bending;
b) Shear, with eb = 1.5 in.; and
c) Deflection if limited to £/400.

7.2. Douglas Fir-larch S4S 4x6 No. 2 stringers bending about the strong axis are contin·
uous for two spans of 5 ft. Given a load duration of greater than 7 days but less than 2
months, dry use, temperature under 100°F, incised, and not repetitive use. Determine
the maximum uniform load (lb/in.) that can be carried based on each of the following
criteria separately.
a) Bending (factored load from LRFD for A.= 0.9);
b) Shear (factored load from LRFD for A= 0.9), with €11 = 3.5 in.;
c) Deflection (unfactored load) if limited to E/240.

7.3. Structural I. 5/8 in. B-B Plyform plywood is to support a load of 12Sib/ft1 over 3 or
more equal spans with face grain oriented parallel to the direction of plywood span.
Determine the maximum span e (in.) based on each of following criteria separately and
identify the controlling maximum span.
a) Bending;
b) Shear, with eb = 1.5 in.;
c) Deflection if limited to €/400.

7.4. Same as problem 7.3 but with plywood face grain perpendicular to the plywood span
direction.

PROBLEMS
7.5. The narrow edge of No. 2 S4S 2x6 Southern Pine joists will bear on the narrow edge
of 4x6 S4S No. 2 Douglas Fir (South) stringers at locations that are more than 6 in. from
the end of either member. Given: load duration less than 7 days, dry use, temperature
under lOOeF, and not incised. Determine the maximum load that can be resisted by each
member in bearing at the location of contact. What is the controlling maximum load
that can be transmitted in bearing?

Chapter 8
Solve the following problems based on detailed calculations, not based on the span and
load tables of Chapter 9.

8.1.A 6x6 rough-sawn wood shore is planned for use in bridge falsework. lf K� = 1.0, what
is the maximum laterally unbraced height allowed for the shore?

8.2. Determine theASD f.wo' for the following conditions: Construction-grade shore,
incised Douglas Fir-Larch, 545 4x4, moisture content greater than 19%, load duration
less than 7 days, and temperature environment between 100 and 12S0F.

8.3. Determine the LRFD £,.,'for the following conditions: Construction-grade shore,
incised Douglas Fir-Larch, S4S 4x4, moisture content greater than 19%, load duration
less than 7 days, and temperature environment between 100 and 12S°F.

8.4.A Douglas Fir (South) S4S 4x4 shore is axially loaded in compression. Given: K.= 1.0, C0
= 1.25, C"'= 1.0, C,= 1.0, and C;= 1.0. Determine theASD load capacity by calculation for
each of the following unbraced shore lengths:
a) 4 ft
b) 8 ft
c) 12 ft
d) 16 ft

B.S. Repeat problem 8.4 to determine the LRFD load capacity for each length, assuming A
=0.8.

8.6. Based onASD, what load will a 16 ft tall 545 4x6 No. 2 grade Southern Pine shore carry
in axial compression if it is braced laterally at midheight only in the weak direction?
Given: K�= 1.0, not incised, normal temperature conditions, dry use, and cumulative
load duration greater than 7 days but less than 2 months.

8.7. Based on LRFD, what factored load will a 16 ft tall S4S 4x6 No. 2 grade Southern Pine
shore carry in axial compression if it is braced laterally at midheight only in the weak
direction? Given: K. = 1.0, not incised, normal temperature conditions, dry use, cumula­
tive load duration greater than 7 days but less than 2 months, and A= 0.9.

8.8. Two double-headed 16d common nails will be used to attach a Douglas Fir-larch 545
2x4 to a Douglas Fir-Larch S4S 4x4 in side grain under normal temperature conditions
for a load duration less than 2 months. Determine the totalASD lateral load capacity of
the connection if assembled under dry conditions but subject to significant wetting and
drying in service.

8.9.A tension brace inclined at 60 degrees from horizontal is anchored to a 3 x 3 x 3 ft

block made of 142 lb/ft3concrete.Attachment is at the center of the top of the block.
The coefficient of friction between the block and the ground is 0.6. Based on a factor of
safety of 1.5, determine the maximum brace tension force that can be resisted by the
block.

Chapter 9
Respond to the following problems using the design tables.

9.1. B-B Plyform Class t plywood continuous for three or more spans is loaded with a pres­
sure of 800 lb/ft1 in a wall form. What is the indicated maximum span when deflection is
limited to t/240 but not more than 1/16 in. if
a) Thickness=SIB in., C0=1.0, and face grain is parallel to span direction?
b) Thickness= 5/8 in., CD= 1.25, and face grain is perpendicular to span direction?
c) Thickness= 1 in., CD= 1.25, and face grain is parallel to span direction?

APPENDIXH
9.2. Determine the spacings of wall form vertical studs, horizontal double wales, and ties
for a 12 ft tall wall form for a maximum pressure of BOO lb/ftl_ Assume 3/4 in. Plyform B-B
Class I plywood with face grain horizontal and No 2. grade 2x4 $4$ Spruce-Pine-Fir studs
and wales with moisture content less than 19%.load duration is less than 7 days and all
members are continuous over three or more spans. Round down to the nearest whole
inch for each spacing.

9.3. Determine the indicated maximum concentric axial load for the following conditions:
a) Douglas Fir-Larch construction-grade 4x4 rough with effective length of 11 ft.
b) Southern Pine construction-grade S4S 4x4 with effective length of 12 ft.
c) Hem-Fir No. 2 grade 545 3x4 with effective length of 10 ft.
d) Douglas Fir-larch No. 2 grade 545 4x4 with effective length of 15 ft.

9.4. Determine the indicated allowable bearing load for the following shore sizes and
allowable bearing design values if bearing contact area is the full end area of the shore.
a) 545 4x6 shore and Fd'= 625 psi
b) $4$ 4x4 shore and Fa'= 565 psi
c) 545 3x4 shore and F,J.'= 405 psi

Chapter 10
10.1. Referring to Fig. 10.2, what is:
a) The beam size on Line A3 betweenlines 1 and 2?
b) The beam size on line 7 betweenlines A and B?
c) Requested to be verified?Who is making the request?Who should respond?
d) The size of the beam corner chamfers?
e) The most typical elevated slab thickness?

10.2.1n Fig. 10.5, why does the drawing indicate that the adjustable shores are to be
turned in opposite directions?

10.3. Based on simple tributary area, calculate the maximum shoring frame leg load for the
shoring towers in Fig. 10.9 on line K betweenlines 1 and 2. Assume Cl'f= 50 lb/ftl, w,=
1SO lb/ft', and formwork weight of 10 lb/ftl of contact area.

Chapter 11
1 1.1. list five items of personal protective equipment that may be required for formwork
crews depending on the actual task.

11.2. Determine the allowable deviation in location for a 4 ft square footing according to
ACI117-10.

11.3. Name and describe a device that reduces or eliminates the need for reinforcing bar
penetrations through bulkheads.

11.4. When many forms of similar size must be built or assembled on the project site,
building a __ will reduce deviation from square and size and improve crew
productivity.

11.5. Name four examples of flying forms.

11.6. Name a device intended to keep wood reshores in place when the stab above the
reshore rebounds upward.

Chapter 12
12.1. What is a side form spacer? Describe three devices that are used to serve this
purpose.

12.2. Why is ·release agent- a better general term than ""form oil"?

12.3. Name the two basic types of form release agents and briefly describe, distinguishing
the two types.

PROBLEMS
12.4. Why is it necessary for aluminum forms to be specially seasoned or coated prior to
contact with fresh concrete?

12.5.1n regard to the stripping times listed inTable 1 2.4,

a) Why is the information indicated as ffguidance� rather than presumptive stripping
times?
b) What are the ambient temperature limitations associated with the listed times?
c) Under what special circumstance can certain of the times be reduced to half of the
listed times, but not less than 3 days?
d) A one-way flat plate floor system has a clear span of 24 ft.The slab is 10 in. thick with
a slab unit weight of 150 lb/ft1.The structural drawings indicate that the slab was
designed for a live load of 80 lb/ft1. A drophead shore forming system is planned
for use. What is the ACI347R guidance provided byTable 12.4 on stripping time for
general planning purposes?

12.6. Steel forms will be used to cast a 12 in. thick wall in cold weather with concrete
containing 300 lb/ydl ofType I cement.The wall will be wrapped with a 2 in. thick
blanket made with mineral fiber insulation. Assuming linear interpolation is appropriate,
what is the minimum acceptable surrounding ambient temperature for 3 days curing
without providing additional protection?

Chapter 13
13.l. ln accordance with the concrete surface classes defined by ACI117, what is the
class of each of the separate formed surfaces where the following irregularities were
measured?
a) Abrupt deviation of 3/8 in.
b) Abrupt deviation of 5/8 in.
c) Gradual deviation of 112 in. measured with a 5 ft straight edge.
d) Gradual deviation of 3/16 in. measured with a 5 ft straight edge.

13.2.1n accordance with ACI301, what are the criteria for Surface Finish 2.0?

13.3. As defined by ACI347.3R, what are the criteria for CSC4 when a non-absorbent form
facing is used? list codes for texture, void ratio, color, irregularities, joints, and form
facing.

13.4. Voids were measured in an as-cast wall surface.The approximately circular voids had
the following counts of diameter in inches: 3/32, 19; 1/8, 1 7; 5/32, 15; 3/16, 13; 7/32, 10;
1/4, 14; 9/32, 7; S/16, 6; 11/32, 2; 3/8, 1. Determine the Surface Void Ratio classification.
INDEX

A Beam formulas 7-4

Absorptive form liners 4-21 Beam or girder forms 11-24
Access for workers 15-7 Beam pockets in girder sides 11-26
ACI 301 formed surface provisions 13-1 Beam sides 11-25
ACI 318-11 code and commentary provisions related to Bearing adjustments 4-8
formwork F-1 Bearing plates or washers 7-37
ACI 347.3R formed concrete surface provisions 13-3 Bearing 7-13
ACI 347R-14 Guide to Formwork for Concrete E-1 Before concreting 12-9
Adjustable shores 11-37 Bending in plywood 7-8
Adjustable steel beams 11-33 Bending in wood beams 7-7
Adjustment and jacking 11-39 Sending plywood to curved surfaces 4-15
Adjustment factors for bending stress 7-8 Bending 7-7
Adjustment factors for LRFD only 4-8 BIM 3-D graphical views of formwork 10-16
Adjustment factors for sawn lumber design values 4-6 BIM advantages 3-15
Adjustment factors for solid wood compression members 8-3 BIM for planning formwork operations 3-13
Adjustment for load duration, (0 (ASD only) 4-6 BIM use by a formwork contractor 3-13
Adjustment for temperature, (1 4-7 Blind side and single-side wall forming 11-14
Adjustment for wet service, C,. 4-7 Board marks and simulated wood grain 14-8
Alignment,location, and dimensions 12-9 Board sheathing 14-7
Alternate methods 3-2 Bolts,lag screws,and other connectors 4-28
Alternate tests 6-27 Bottom-up pumping of concrete 5-9
Alternative load distributions 6-26 Bracing for lateral loads 2-6,8-8
Aluminum 4-17 Bracing of slab forms supported by individual shores 8-9
American Concrete Institute A-1 Bridge formwork 15-1
American Institute of Steel Construction A-2 Building and erecting the formwork 11-1
American Iron and Steel Institute A-2 Building the forms 18-16
American National Standards Institute A-2 Building the panels 11-10
American Society of Civil Engineers A-2 Bulkhead method 17-6
American Society of Safety Engineers A-2
American Wood Council A-2 c
Analysis and design process for slab strength 6-22 Caissons 15-2
Analyzing the loads 6-3 Camber and adjustment for settlement 8-10
Anchorage accessories 16-5 Cantilevers 14-17
Anchorage of braces 8-13 Care and storage of forms and accessories 12-18
Anchors 4-35,8-14 Casting bed 18-25
APA The Engineered Wood Association A-2 Cast-in-place deck supported on steel or precast girders 15-9
Arch bridges 15-12 Cast-in-place pipe 18-11
Archforms 17-3 Cast-in-place segmental bridge formwork 15-18
Architectural formwork design 14-3 Cast-in-place segmental construction 15-13
Architecturallettering 14-21 Channels and canals 18-10
As-cast surface finishes 13-3 Checklist of details 10-13
ASD combinations 5-2 Cleanup and repair 14-25
ASTM International A-2 Cold Weather Protection 12-19
Avoiding thermal shock 12-23 Column clamps 4-38
Column footings 11-6
8 Column form design 7-30
Backshoring 6-16 Column forms 4-41,5-10,11-19
Balanced cantilever erection 15-14 Column heads 11-22
Bar setting 3-8,12-2 Column tolerances 11-24
Basicwind speed 5-14 Columns and pilasters 11-14,14-15
Batter 18-S Columns 11-21
Beam and girder tolerances 11-28 Complex structures 2-12
Beam and slab construction 11-28 Composite construction 2-12,11-40
Beam bottoms 11-24 Compression strength 8-5
Beam form design 7-27 Concentrated loads 7-8
Concrete anchors 8-14 Double members: Tables 9.9 to 9.11 9-5
Concrete chemistry 5-7 Drawing review 10-16
Concrete joist construction 11-30 Drophead shore systems 6-16,11-38
Concrete maturity 6-28 Duration 3·11
Concrete on slopes 18-9 During and after concreting 12-11
Concrete placement methods 17-5
Concrete slump 5-7 E
Concrete strength development 2-6, 6-9 Economical form construction 3-4
Concrete strength for stripping and loading for cycle times 6-22 Economy of formwork 2-13
Construction and contraction joints 14-23 Effect of early loading on slab deflection 6-27
Construction of forms for architectural concrete 14-12 Effect of post-tensioning on forms 18-28
Construction 13-8 Effect of tie on finished concrete surface 4-34
Continuous advancing slope 17-6 End bearing of shores 8·4
Contraction joints 11-18 Engineered wood products 4-8
Control of concrete placement 2-8 Equations for calculating safe span 9-1
Control of concreting practices 2-4 Equipment and layout 11-3
Conversions D-1 Equipment starting and stopping loads 5·20
Corners and openings 14-15 Erecting the panels 11·12
Cost estimate 3·12 Erection and removal 18·28
Cost reduction 3-2 Erection practices 11-19,14-21
Costs affected by the formwork plan 3-7 Estimating form building costs 3-6
Crane size 3-10 Evaluation of formed concrete surfaces and repair
Cranes and hoists 3-8 procedures 13-10
Crew efficiency 3-7 Examine form plan in relation to total job 3-2
Curb and gutter forms 11-9 Expansion joints 15-10
Curb forms 17-2 Exposed Aggregate 14-9
Curing and bond-breaking compounds 18·13 Exposed concrete surfaces 14-5
Curing,finishing,and stripping 18·8 External ties 15-7
Curing,joint cleanup,insulation 16-10 External vibration 11-18
Curvedtilt-uppanels 18-13
Curved walls and round corners 11-15 F
Cut-and-cover construction 17·7 Fabric and porous forms 4-19
Facings for roller-compacted mass concrete and dam repair 16·8
D Factors affecting lateral pressure 5-6
Dead loads 5-3 Failures 2-5,2-8
Deadmen 8-13 Field-cured cylinders attached to forms 6-28
Decentering schedule 18-17 Field-cured cylinders 6-27
Decorative patterns 14-10 Filler blocks 11-32
Deflection of plywood 7-10 Flat plates and flat slabs 11-29
Deflection of the finished structure 8-13 Flat use factor,c,� 4-8
Deflection of wood beams 7-9 Flexibility needs 15-18
Deflection or settlement of formwork 8-10 Flying form systems 11-32
Deflection 7-9 Footings 11-5
Design and construction considerations 18·3,18-9 Form accessories 7-33
Design considerations 13-6,16-3,18·18 Form construction and materials 18·20
Design considerations 17-7 Form construction 17-9,18-25
Design criteria for wood beams 7-7 Form design using the tables 9-7
Design of braces 8-9 Form fabrication 11-2
Design of form shores and bracing 8-1 Form insulation and heating 12-20
Design of slab,wall,beam,and column forms 7-1 Form lining materials 4-20
Design of wood bracing connections 8-10 Form release agents 12-5
Design procedure 7-31 Form removal related to curing needs 12-14
Design standards 14-4 Form removal 18-16
Design tables 9-1 Form traveler operations 17-5
Design velocity pressure 5-15 Formed concrete surface quality 13-1
Design wind load 5-18 Forming and casting 18-14
Design wind speed 5·15 Forming openings,recesses 18-7
Design,inspection,and approval of formwork 2-12 Forms moved for reuse 15-5
Designing,planning,and detailing the formwork 13-6 Formworkdetails 14·5
Developing a practical reuse plan 3-4 Formwork drawings 10-1

INDEX
Formwork erection safety 11-4 lateral pressure of fresh concrete 5-4,18-19
Formwork for architectural concrete 14-1 layout and detail drawings 10-3
Formwork planning process 3-8 layout of casting area 18-24
Formwork requirements 18-24 lift method of construction 18-13
Foundations or starting lifts 16-9 line drawings 10-2
Foundations 15-2 live loads 5-4
Framing and facing materials 4-16 load combinations 5-2
Friction collars and support brackets 4-36 loads and pressures 5-1,14-3,17-8,18-3
loads on the formwork 16-4
G location of shop at project site 11-2
Ganged panel forms and climbing forms 11-12 long line segment casting 15-17
Glass fiber-reinforced polymer 4-18 long-radius curves 11-15
Glossary C-1 low walls 11-11
Glued laminated timber 4-9 lRFDanalysis 6-17,7-21,8-4
Ground anchors 8-14 lRFDcombinations 5-2
Guides and specifications for formwork design and lumber finish and sizes 4-3
construction 2-2 lumber 4-1

H M
Handling,erecting,stripping 16-7 Maintaining and coordinating tolerances 2-11
Hangers 4-36,7-37 Maintaining level and alignment 18-7
Hardware and fasteners 4-23 Making precast bridge segments 15-17
Heat curing considerations 15-19 Manufactured shoring devices 8-7
High walls 11-12 Mass concrete formwork 16-1
Highway and airport paving 11-8 Massive piers 15-6
Highwaypavers 18-11 Materials and accessories related to formed surface of exposed
History of lateral pressure values for form design 5-7 concrete 2-13
Horizontal construction joints 11-18 Materials and hardware 3-4
Horizontalloads 5-13 Materials 14-7
Horizontal slip forms 18-8 Materials 18-24
How formwork affects concrete quality 2-3 Materials,accessories,and proprietary products 4-1
How the Engineer/Architect can reduce form costs 2·14 Maturity of concrete 6·28
Hurricane-prone regions 5-14 Measurement and payment for formwork 2-14
Metal deck 4-42,11-34
Metal molds 14-20
1-Joists 4-11 Minimum horizontal loads 5-13
Improper stripping and shore removal 2-5 Monitoring early strength gain of concrete in the field 6-27
Improving soil bearing and bracing 2-4 Monolithic slab, beam,and girder 15-8
Incising factor,C; 4-8 Mudsills or shoring foundations 11-37
Incremental launching or pushout method 15-17 Multi-story buildings 6-1,12-16
Inflated forming methods 18-17
Influence of placing equipment 17-7 N
Inspection and form watching 12-8 Nail holding power 4-24
Insulation and insulating forms 4-22 Nail types used for formwork 4-24
Invert forms 17-2 Nail-down lap pans 11-31
Nails in plywood 4-26
Nails 4-23
Jacking system 18-6 Non-cantilevered formwork 16-7
Job-built forms 3-4,11-9 Notation for loads and pressures 5-1
Joint surfaces 15-19 Notation 7-2, B-1
Joints 11-17,14-23
Joints 18-26 0
Joists,studs,and beams: Tables 9.6 to 9.8 9-4 Objectives in formwork building 2-1
Occupational Safety and Health Administration {OSHA) A-3
K One-way joist system 11-30
Kinds of lumber 4-2 Ornamental detail 14-18
OSHA regulations for formwork and shoring G-1
Overhang,sidewalks,parapets,and median barriers 15-10
lack of attention to formwork details 2-10 Overlaid plywood 4-14
lateral pressure of concrete equations 5-8 Overlapping inspections 12-9

INDEX
p Reconstituted wood materials 4-16
Panel assembly and erection 11-26 Reducing slipformed wall thickness 18-7
Panel forms and forming systems 4-38 Referenced standards and reports A-1
Pans and domes for concrete joist construction 4-39 Regulations for safety 2-1,11-4
Paving work 11-7 Relationship of architect, engineer, and contractor 2-10
Penetration resistance 6-29 Removal of forms and shores 6-1,11-36,12-12
Permanent shores and back shores 11-39 Rented forms 3-6
Pier caps and tie struts 15-7 Repetitive member adjustment, C, 4-7
Piers 15-5 Reshoring 12-16
Pilasters 11-14,14-15 Reuse schemes 3-4
Piles 15-4 Ribbed and fluted surfaces 14-8
Placing and vibrating-effect on formwork 12-11 Rock or soil offering direct support 15-4
Placing concrete 18-16 Round and flared columns 11-21
Placing reinforcement and inserts 12-2 Round piers 15-6
Planning and supervision 16-11 Rubbed surface finishes 13-3
Planning for maximum reuse 3-3 Rubber liners 4-21
Planning for safety 2-3
Planning form sizes 3-10 5
Planning 3·1 Scaffolding, Shoring, and Forming Institute A-3
Plastermolds 14-19 Scheduling 3-11
Plastic and rubber molds 14-20 Segmental box-girder bridge construction 15-12
Platforms and access for workers 2-3 Seismic loads 5-20
Plywood construction and sizes available 4-12 Selection of formwork and facing 13-8
Plywood types and grades 4-12 Setting, stripping, and cycling costs 3-6
Plywood 4-11 Shafts 17-11
Polymeric form liners 4-20 Shear in plywood 7-12
Polymeric form materials 4-18 Shear in wood beams 7-10
Positioning bars; placement tolerances 12-4 Shear 7-10
Post-tensioned structures6-27 Sheathing and lining 14-13
Post-tensioning 18-27 Sheathing design 7-7, 9-4
Precast concrete 4-43,18-23 Sheathing 18-5
Precast panels as forms or liners 14-10 Shell form design considerations 18-15
Precast segmental construction 15-13 Shells, domes, and folded plates 18-14
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute A-3 Shielding from wind pressure 5-17
Precasting advantages 18-23 Shielding of formwork by surroundings and obstructions 5-17
Prefabricated forms 4-38 Shore layout and installation 11-35
Prefabricated panel systems 11-12 Shore loads 6-16
Preparation for concreting 12-5 Shore loads 6-26
Preparing a formwork specification 2-11 Shoring 11-35
Preparing effective drawings 10-1 Shoring and bracing members 8-1
Preplaced aggregate concrete 18-19 Shoring and floor loads in multi-story structures 6-1
Pressure from Aggregate 18-20 Shoring and reshoring loads in multi-story structures 6-3
Pressure from grout 18-20 Shoring and reshoring 2-4,6-1
Pressure of concrete 5-4,5-8 Shoring frames 4-44
Pressure on sloping surfaces 5-11 Shoring not plumb 2-8
Prestressed precast concrete 18-26 Shoring system design 6-21
Pretensioning 18-29 Shoring towers 11-38
Principal erection methods 15-14 Shoring 4-43
Problems H-1 Short line precasting 15-18
Progressive placing 15-16 Short-radius curves 11-16
Pullout tests 6-29 Shotcrete 18-21
Purchased or rented forms 3-6 Single-post shores 4-44
Size factor, CF 4-8
Q Slab form design 7-22
� �
Quality and c : �nlif1ess f the formwork 12-10 Slab forms 11-28
-_.. Slab loads 6-5
R .·· Slab separation 18-14
I . .
Rate of placemeQt _. ?;{I J"' 1 Slabs supported on steel beams or precast concrete beams 11-34

::��=�� ��:� �:��; � ���

h structural drawings 10-16 Slabs-on-ground 11-7
Slenderness Ratio 8-2,8-S

INDEX
Sliding Operations 18�6 Tolerances for completed work 18-4
Slipformconstruction 18-1 Tolerances for slab work 11-34
Slipformed precast hollow-core floor slab 18-12 Tolerances for walls 11-19
Smooth as-cast surfaces 14-6 Tolerances 11-28,16-11,17-10
Soffits 14�17 Total allowance for camber and adjustments 8-13
Solid wood compression members 8-2 Total pressure on forms 18-20
Spacers and spreaders 4�37 Trades 3-8
Span-by-span construction, stepping formwork 15-15 Traveling forms 18-17
Spandrel beams 11�27 Tremie concrete 18-21
Spandrels and parapets 14-16 Trial plans 3-9
Special purpose and cu�tom-made forms 4-43 Tubular steel shores 8-5
Special techniques in concrete construction 18-1 Tunnel and shaft formwork 17-1
Specifications for quality 2-2 Tunnel forming components 17-1
Specifications 13-5,14-2 Tunnel inverts 18-9
Splicing of Shores 8-5 Two-way joist or waffle slab 11-32
SquareCorners 11-14 Types of cantilever forms in common use 16-2
Stability adjustments 4-8 Types of column forms 7-31
Standards,sp�cifications,and guides related to formwork 2-1
Stay-in-place forms 2�12,4-42 u.
Steel Joist Institute A-3 U.S. Department ofCommerce, National Institute of Standards and
Steel shoring frames 8-6 Technology A-3
Steel strapping 4-37 Unstable soil under mudsills 2-8
Steel 4-16 Use of water on the forms 12-8
Sticking and staining problems 12-7 Usingthe forms 12-1
Stonework facing 15-6
Storage of materials and finished parts 11-3 v
Strength and stability 12-10 Vacuum liners 4-21
Strength properties 4-15 Vertical alignment 15-6
Strength requirements 6-27,18-17 Vertical construction joints 11-17
Stringer design 7-7, 9-4 Verticalloads 5-3
Stripping and decentering 2-12 Vertical slipform construction 18-1
Stripping bridge forms 15-11 Vibration and form access 17-9
Stripping techniques 12-14 Vibration and impact 2-6
Stripping time based on concrete strength 12-12 Vibration 5-6,15-19
Stripping time 12-12,17-10 Void and duct forms 4-40
Stripping 14-24,18-8,18-26 Voids, inserts, attachments 15-19
Structural composite lumber 4-10
Structures designed for composite action 6-26 w
Studs design 7-7, 9-4 Wales 7-7,9-4,18-4
Superstructures 15-8 Wall footings 11-5
Supervision and inspection 2-3 Wall form bracing loads 8-8
Support for reinforcing bars 12-3 Wall form design. 7-15
Support for shoring 8-8 Wall forms 5-10,11-9
Support for superstructure forms 15-10 Wall openings 11-17
Surface void ratio 13-4 Walls 14-12
Suspended forms for fireproofing and composite Weight of concrete 5-6
construction 11-27 Where to construct forms 3-5
Wind load on wall and column forms 5-18
Wind loads on elevated slab formwork 5-19
Temperature 5-7 Wind loads 5-14
Textured as-cast surfaces 14-8 Wind shielding of repetitive objects of formwork system 5-17
Textured surfaces 4-15 Wood grading and design values 4-4
The Aluminum Association A-2 Wood molds 14-18
Ties and braces 11-26 Wood screws 4-26
Ties for water-retaining structures 4-35 Wood shores 8-1,9-5,11-37
Ties 4-31,7-36,14-14 Wood trusses 4-11
Tilt-up construction 18-12
Toenailing and clinching 4-26 y
Tolerance requirements 15-20 Yokes 18-4

INDEX
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