Construction and Building Materials 365 (2023) 130064

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Construction and Building Materials

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Application of cement treated magnesite mine tailings as subgrade

Vinodhkumar Shanmugasundaram *, Balaji Shanmugam
Department of Civil Engineering, Kongu Engineering College, Perundurai, Tamilnadu, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Magnesite Mine Tailings (MMT) collected from Salem magnesite dump site are evaluated for their application as
Magnesite mine tailings subgrade in road construction. Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) was added to MMT by 2%, 4%, 6%, 8% and 10%
Subgrade of its dry weight and compaction characteristics, Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS), Ultrasonic Pulse
Waste recycling
Velocity (UPV), California Bearing Ratio (CBR), durability characteristics and leaching characteristics were
Road material
Mine waste
studied. In addition, X-ray Diffraction (XRD), Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscope (FESEM) and Energy-
Stabilisation Dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) analyses were carried out to explore the stabilisation mechanisms. The
addition of OPC aided in producing a denser mix. The strength characteristics have revealed that the addition of
OPC increases the strength of OPC-MMT mixes. The relationship between UPV and UCS is established to help in
non-destructive evaluation. Nonetheless, higher cement content is mandatory to withstand the durability cycles.
The stabilized mixes have fulfilled the environmental regulatory limits. The XRD, FESEM and EDX analyses have
shown the products of hydration and alkali-magnesite reactions. This study finds that the cement treated MMT
can be used as a subgrade in road construction which will not only reduce the negative environmental effects of
open dumping of MMT but also replaces the natural soil in subgrade construction.

1. Introduction
Magnesite is a common industrial mineral. This carbonate mineral is
a part of the calcite group. The worldwide magnesite reserve is esti­
mated to be 8,500 million tonnes, with the majority of deposits being in
Russia, China, and Australia [1]. Tamil Nadu, India’s top magnesite
producing state, is known for its famous cryptocrystalline magnesite.
Magnesite is typically mined using opencast mining methods, with a 7
percent ore recovery rate. Magnesite Mine Tailings (MMT) are the dis­
carded earth materials that include a large quantity of unrefined
magnesite ore [2].
As magnesite production has increased over the years, a large
amount of MMT has been generated and disposed of as open landfilling.
This causes serious environmental degradation in the areas surrounding
the dumpsite. The dust originated from the dump site settles on sur­
rounding agricultural land, raising the pH and reducing the necessary
nutrients available in the soil. Soil fertility is reduced as a result. This
issue has been reported in the majority of magnesite producing coun­
tries, including China [3,4], India [5], Spain [6], and the Slovak Re­
public [7]. Further, the prolonged leaching of MMT contaminates the
groundwater in the vicinity of the Salem magnesite dump site [8].
On the other side, road networks are developing at an unparalleled
rate throughout the world. It is estimated that around 4.7 million kilo­
metres of roads would be built worldwide by 2050 [9]. The Asian
Development Bank anticipates that an annual investment of $1.5 million
per year would be required to construct new infrastructure projects in
the Asia-Pacific region, indicating the huge expansion in the road in­
dustry [10].
India has the world’s second-largest road network, with 6.2 million
kilometres of the total accessible road network [11]. With the imple­
mentation of the most recent government programmes and policies,
road development is fast growing, creating a tremendous demand for
natural aggregates. Many states are experiencing a scarcity of natural
aggregates and are importing them from neighbouring states and na­
tions. This has greatly increased the cost of road building, mandating the
use of non-traditional aggregates while maintaining quality.
Initially, Sibanda et al. [12] attempted to characterise the MMT
obtained from the Nyla magnesite mine, South Africa. The basic prop­
erties of MMT were explored which suggested that the MMT was well
graded sand. However, this study did not suggest any suitable applica­
tion of MMT. More recently, a detailed characterisation study on MMT
as a construction material reported that the MMT had higher specific
gravity and unit weight compared to river sand. Further, the MMT
predominately consisted of sand and gravel sized particles with an

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: shansvino@gmail.com, vinodh.civil@kongu.edu (V. Shanmugasundaram).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.130064
Received 28 July 2022; Received in revised form 11 November 2022; Accepted 12 December 2022
Available online 16 December 2022
0950-0618/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
V. Shanmugasundaram and B. Shanmugam
Fig. 1. Particle size analysis of MMT.
abudant amount of magnesite and dolomite minerals. This study sug­
gested that MMT could be used as structural fill, road material,
manufacturing of thermal insulation panels and bricks and less corrosive
backfill [13].
The application of MMT as a subgrade for road construction will be a
feasible solution which not only solves the problems of open dumping of
MMT but also reduce the natural soil demand for subgrade construction.
Consequently, the research intends to employ chemically stabilised
MMT for subgrade of the road to reduce the environmental effects of
MMT, diminish the demands of the natural aggregate in the subgrade
construction and develop novel materials for use in road infrastructure.
2. Materials and methods
The MMT was collected from the Salem magnesite dump site, Tamil
Nadu, India. According to the grain size distribution curve as shown in
Fig. 1, the MMT has 28.95 % of gravel sized particles and 67.96 % of
sand sized particles and has been classified as poorly graded sand as per
Indian soil classification system [14]. The MMT is non-plastic and has a
specific gravity of 2.83. The MMT particles passing 4.75 mm sieve were
utilised in this research. The 53 grade Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)
was used as a binder which was confirmed with IS 12269 [15].
In order to evaluate the performance of cement treated MMT, five
different mix ratios were used in this research. The OPC was added to
MMT by 2 %, 4 %, 6 %, 8 % and 10 % of the dry weight of MMT and
water was added according to the optimum moisture content of each
mix based on standard Proctor’s compaction test.
The compaction characteristics of OPC-MMT mixes were examined
using standard Proctor’s compaction test in accordance with IS 4332
part III [16]. The required quantity of dry MMT and OPC were mixed by
hand and a predetermined amount of water was then added. The mix
was then mixed well using a laboratory mixer to get a uniform mix. This
mix was further compacted using a 2.6 kg hammer, falling through a
height of 300 mm. The dry density was plotted against the moisture
content to obtain compaction curves.
The UPV tests were performed to develop a relationship between
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Construction and Building Materials 365 (2023) 130064
pulse velocity and UCS of cement treated MMT specimens at different
curing periods. The UPV tests were performed on 50 mm diameter and
100 mm long cylindrical specimens, compacted at their OMC and MDD.
The specimens were covered in polyethene with their initial mass, di­
mensions, mix ratio and date of casting labelled on the cover. The
specimens were cured for 3, 7, 28 and 90 days at 27 ◦ C ± 3 ◦ C. After
required curing periods, the specimens were checked and qualified
specimens were further subjected to the UPV test.
The Pundit PL-200 Ultrasonic pulse velocity tester was employed to
determine the wave velocity that passed through the prepared specimen.
Initially, the equipment was calibrated with a standard calibrating rod.
Wave velocities of the specimens were calculated by transmitting pulse
waves through the specimens and measuring the travel time. A set of
three trials were performed to get the average pulse velocity for a
specimen.
The UCS tests were performed on the same specimens that were used
for UPV tests as per IS 4332 part V [17]. The UCS tests were done
immediately after UPV tests at a strain rate of 1.25 mm/min.
To investigate the strength of subgrade, dry CBR and submerged CBR
tests were conducted as per IS 2720 part 16 [18]. The required quantity
of MMT and OPC were initially mixed well manually. The calculated
quantity of water was then added to the mix and further mixed in a
laboratory mixer. The mix was then compacted at standard Proctor
energy level and subjected to curing for 28 days at 27 ◦ C ± 3 ◦ C. After
the completion of the curing period, dry CBR tests were performed
immediately and for submerged CBR tests, the 28 day cured specimens
were further submerged in water for 96 h and then tested.
At least three specimens were tested for each mix at respective curing
period and the average values of UPV, UCS and CBR were reported.
A series of wetting and drying durability tests were performed on 7
days cured specimens to assess their adverse weather resisting capacities
based on ASTM D559 and IS 4332 part IV [19,20]. The specimens were
prepared in the same way as that of UPV tests. After completion of 7 day
curing period, the specimens were subjected to wetting and drying cy­
cles. A wetting and drying cycle consisted of 5 h immersion in water
followed by 42 h of oven drying at 70 ◦ C ± 5 ◦ C. A set of four specimens
V. Shanmugasundaram and B. Shanmugam
Fig. 2. Compaction curves for OPC-MMT mixes.
were prepared for each mix in which two specimens were used for
moisture content determination while the other two specimens were
used for measuring weight losses due to standard brushing processes.
After the successful completion of 12 wetting and drying cycles, the UCS
of the remained specimens were determined. Three trials were per­
formed for each mix and average values were reported.
In order to investigate the leached toxins from the stabilised mix,
TCLP tests were performed as per US EPA method 1311 [21]. The 28
days cured 8 % cement-MMT and 10 % cement-MMT mixes were sub­
jected to a leaching test as they cleared the durability criteria. The
specimens were prepared in the same way as that of the UCS test. The 28
days cured specimens were carefully grounded so that the cement
bondings were not damaged. An adequate amount of distilled water was
added to achieve a liquid to solid ratio of 20:1 and acetic acid of pH 4.93
was added as extraction fluid at the beginning of the test. After 18 h of
the extraction period, the samples were vacuum filtered through a glass
fibre filter. The concentrations of leached toxins were analysed using an
atomic absorption spectrometer. Three trials were performed for each
mix and the average leached metal concentrations were reported.
The X-ray Diffraction (XRD) analyses were performed on raw MMT
and 28 days cured 10 % cement-MMT mix to identify the mineralogical
changes and stabilisation mechanism using X’PERT3 powder diffrac­
tometer with Cu-kἀ rays of wavelength 1.54443 Å at 25 ◦ C, 30 mA and
45 kV. The samples were grinded to obtain fine powder and then packed
into the sample holder. The top surface of fine powders made flat to
gurantee random particle orientation. The fine particles were scanned
from 5◦ to 90◦ with a 0.0130◦ step size.
Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscope (FESEM) and Energy-
Dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) were also carried out to visualise
the effect of the addition of OPC with MMT using FESEM ZEISS Gem­
iniSEM, Germany and EDAX Nano XFlash Detector, Bruker, Germany. In
order to capture FESEM images, the fine powdered particles were pro­
vided with extremely thin condcutive coating consisting of gold and
palladium. Further, FESEM imaging process were performed in a vac­
uum chamber to eliminate collison electron beams with gases. The
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Construction and Building Materials 365 (2023) 130064
FESEM images were captured by detecting secondary and back scattered
electrons. The EDX system was intergrated with FESEM system. When
the fine powdered particles exposed to high energy electron beams, the
atoms present in the sample emitted characteristic X-rays. The EDX
detector absorbed the incoming X-rays and converted them into electric
pulses of specific voltages in proportionate to the characteristic X-rays of
the element.
Thermo Gravimetric Analyses (TGA) on MMT and 28 days cured 10
% OPC-MMT mix were conducted to estimate minerals present in MMT
and to evaluate the formation of cementitious materials. The TGA
measures the mass loss due to decomposition of various phases present
in the samples upon heating. The tests were performed using NETZSCH
STA 449F3 thermal analyser. A 20 mg (approximately) samples of MMT
and 28 days cured 10 % OPC-MMT mix were heated from room tem­
perature to 1000 ◦ C at the rate of 20 ◦ C/min and N2 was used as pro­
tective gas with a flow rate of 30 ml/min. Further, first order derivatives
of mass loss were computed for identification of various phases.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Compaction characteristics
The compaction curves of raw MMT and various mixes are displayed
in Fig. 2. It could be observed that the compaction curves were displaced
right and moved upwards, indicating an increase in OMC and MDD with
an increase in binder content. The increase in MDD is caused by the
addition of OPC which has a higher specific gravity (3.15) than the MMT
(2.83). Further, fine particles of OPC can occupy the voids between
coarser particles of MMT which leads to a denser mix. An increase in
OMC with the addition of OPC is due to the increased fines content of the
mix. The variations in OMC and MDD are related to the change in the
physical properties of the mix. As soon as the water was mixed with OPC
and MMT, the mixes were compacted without allowing time for chem­
ical reactions to occur. The compaction characteristics were in-line with
the previous studies [22,23].
V. Shanmugasundaram and B. Shanmugam
Fig. 3. Stress–strain behaviour of opc-mmt mixes at various curing period.
3.2. Strength characteristics
3.2.1. UCS characteristics
Fig. 3 depicts the uniaxial stress–strain behaviour of 3,7,28, and 90
days cured OPC-MMT mixes. As seen in the figure, with an increase in
the OPC content and curing period, the UCS increased and subsequently
the accompanying strain decreased. The OPC-MMT mixes demonstrated
a typical brittle failure behaviour. However, when compared to the UCS
of cemented sands described in the literature, the UCS of OPC-MMT
mixtures was comparatively low [23,24]. The alkali-magnesite reac­
tion might account for these findings [25] which will be discussed at
later section.
Fig. 4 depicts the influence of curing time on the development of
strength which demonstrates a rapid growth of strength at an early age
(up to 28 days). Furthermore, at a later age (above 90 days), strength
growth occurred at a slower rate.
In order to have a better understanding on the pace of strength
growth, several uniaxial strength ratios were calculated, including q7/
q3, q28/q7, and q90/q28 (where q denotes the UCS and the subscript
displays the curing duration). The q7/q3 ratio had the highest values,
ranging from 1.39 to 1.6, followed by the q28/q7 ratio, which ranged
from 1.21 to 1.28, and the q90/q28 ratio, which ranged from 1.08 to
1.13. In contrast to the q90/q28 ratio, which showed that the rate of
strength development after 28 days was nearly flat, the q7/q3 ratio and
q28/q7 ratio revealed that the rate of strength development was rapid
up to 28 days. The findings concur well with the previous studies
[23,24].
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Construction and Building Materials 365 (2023) 130064
3.2.2. UPV characteristics
Fig. 5 shows a plot of the UPV measurements against the OPC content
at 3, 7, 28, and 90 days of curing. It’s interesting to note that the wave
velocities at various curing times exhibited a pattern identical to that of
UCS, demonstrating a direct connection between UCS and UPV. Fig. 5
shows that an increase in binder concentration and curing time resulted
in a rise in wave velocities. As the hydration products bound the MMT
particles, there were more contact points in the stabilised mix, which
allowed the waves to move more quickly and produced a greater UPV.
Additionally, when the curing time was extended, the stiffness of the
OPC-MMT mixes increased, causing an increase in UPV.
The strength of OPC-MMT mixes may be determined using ultrasonic
velocity. A power function was utilised to estimate UCS using UPV when
taking into account the values of UCS and UPV in the current investi­
gation. Fig. 6 displays the fit along with 95 % prediction bands and a 95
% confidence interval and the following equation was obtained with an
R2 value of 0.8632.
UCS = 309.627V 1.223
where, UCS denotes Unconfined compressive strength in kPa and V
represents the Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity in km/s.
3.2.3. CBR characteristics
The results of the dry and submerged CBR tests are displayed in
Fig. 7. The strength gain is directly proportional to the OPC content as
expected. For an OPC content of 10 %, the maximum dry and submerged
V. Shanmugasundaram and B. Shanmugam Construction and Building Materials 365 (2023) 130064

Fig. 4. Influence of curing time on UCS.

Fig. 5. Influence of curing time on UPV.

CBR values were 46.38 % and 39.84 %, respectively. The OPC-MMT [27].
subgrade strength was not as high as recommended by the Indian
Roads Congress for cemented sand subgrade [26]. The reduced strength
was caused by the alkali-magnesite interaction. The OPC-MMT mix­ 3.3. Durability characteristics
tures, however, demonstrated sufficient strength to be used as subgrade
The durability test results and IRC requirements are shown in

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V. Shanmugasundaram and B. Shanmugam Construction and Building Materials 365 (2023) 130064

Fig. 6. Relationship between UCS and UPV.

Fig. 7. Influence of OPC content on CBR.

Table 1. Lower OPC content specimens experienced early failures during failed. The samples with greater OPC contents (8 and 10 %) survived all
the wetting and drying cycles. For instance, the specimens with 2 % and 12 cycles without fail. Furthermore, after 12 cycles, the residual UCS of
4 % OPC content, failed during the second cycle and the fifth cycle the 8 % and 10 % OPC-MMT mixes were measured to be 145.83 kPa and
respectively. Additionally, in the eleventh cycle, the 6 % OPC-MMT mix 278.24 kPa, respectively, which satisfies IRC requirements [28].

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V. Shanmugasundaram and B. Shanmugam Construction and Building Materials 365 (2023) 130064

Table 1
Durability properties of OPC-MMT mixes.
Mix designation Number of wetting and drying cycles at failure Weight loss after completion of wetting and Residual Strength after completion of wetting and drying
drying cycles (%) cycles (kPa)

Current research IRC specification [28] Current research IRC specification [28]

2 2 – 7 – 20 % of 28th day strength

4 5 – (Maximum) – (Minimum)
6 11 – –
8 12 (Specimen still not failed) 6.2 145.83
(28.41 % of 28th day strength)
10 12 (Specimen still not failed) 4.9 278.24
(46.93 % of 28th day strength)

Table 2
Leaching properties of OPC-MMT mixes.
Chemical elements Concentration (mg/L) Indian standard Upper limit (mg/L) US EPA Toxicological limit (mg/L)
[29] [30]
MMT 8 % OPC-MMT mix 10 % OPC-MMT mix

Arsenic 0.002 0.001 0.001 0.01 5

Cadmium 0.001 below detection limit below detection limit 0.003 1
Copper 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.05 –
Chromium 0.06 0.04 0.03 0.05 5
Iron 0.178 0.07 0.06 0.3 –
Lead 0.005 below detection limit below detection limit 0.01 5
Magnesium 28.2 11.7 9.4 30 –
Manganese 0.021 0.01 0.01 0.1 –
Mercury below detection limit below detection limit below detection limit 0.001 0.2
Nickel 0.02 below detection limit below detection limit 0.02 –
Silver 0.001 below detection limit below detection limit 0.1 5
Zinc 0.085 0.03 0.02 5 –

Fig. 8. X-ray Diffractograms of raw MMT and 10% OPC-MMT mix.

3.4. Leaching characteristics
The results of the TCLP test are shown in Table 2 together with Indian
drinking water standards and US EPA limits for hazardous waste.
Table 2 makes it clear that the levels of several toxins were much below
the upper permitted limits. In particular, chromium, nickel, and
magnesium concentrations were significantly lower than they were in
the raw MMT. Lower chromium concentrations in leachate were the
consequence of the addition of OPC, which cemented the chromium as
calcium-chromium aluminates in the cementitious matrix [31,32]. The
nickel, lead, and magnesium were chemically and physically encapsu­
lated when nickel hydroxide, lead hydroxide, and magnesium hydroxide

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V. Shanmugasundaram and B. Shanmugam Construction and Building Materials 365 (2023) 130064

Fig. 9. TGA and DTG of MMT.

Fig. 10. TGA and DTG of 10% OPC-MMT mix.

were formed as a result of OPC hydration [33,34]. With the addition of
OPC, the concentration of arsenic was lowered due to the formation of
Ca3(AsO4)2 and CaHAsO3 compounds [35]. Furthermore, OPC reacted
with cadmium to form cadmium hydroxide. As it adsorbed on the
cementitious matrix, the cadmium hydroxide was immobilised [34].
Hydration resulted in the formation of copper compounds such as cop­
per hydroxide and atacamite, which lowered copper concentrations
[33]. The adsorption of hydrated zinc complexes on the cementitious
matrix decreased zinc concentrations [36]. Furthermore, the OPC-MMT
mixes met Indian drinking water regulations [29] and could be classified
as non-toxic in accordance with the US EPA [30].
3.5. Mineralogical characteristics
3.5.1. XRD analysis
Fig. 8 compares the X-ray Diffractograms of raw MMT and 10 % OPC-
MMT mix after 28 days of curing period. The MMT predominately
comprised of magnesite. Grossite, dolomite, gibbsite and periclase were
also present in MMT. The 10 % OPC-MMT mix showed a decrease in the
gibbsite, dolomite and magnesite peaks and formation of new com­
pounds like Calcium Silicate Hydrate (CSH), Calcium Aluminium Hy­
drate (CAH) and brucite. The presence of CSH and CAH suggested that
hydration reactions occurred. Furthermore, the presence of brucite

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V. Shanmugasundaram and B. Shanmugam Construction and Building Materials 365 (2023) 130064

Fig. 11. FESEM images and elemental spectrums of 10% OPC-MMT mix.

suggested that an alkali-magnesite reaction occurred. result, distinct endothermic peaks in DTG (Fig. 10) at 430 ◦ C and 460 ◦ C
could be observed. Furthermore, magnesite (MgCO3) and calcite
3.5.2. TGA and DTG analyses (CaCO3), liberated CO2 at about 500 ◦ C to 600 ◦ C and 600 ◦ C to 800 ◦ C
The results of TGA and Differential Thermo Gravity (DTG) analyses respectively. Consequently, endothermic peaks were recorded at 570 ◦ C
of MMT and 28 days cured 10 % OPC-MMT mix are shown in Figs. 9 and and 800 ◦ C in DTG [39]. It is clear from TGA and DTG analyses that the
10 respectively. The mass losses up to a temperature of 105 ◦ C as mechanism of stabilisation includes hydration and alkali-magnesite re­
observed in TGA curves of MMT and 10 % OPC MMT mix (Figs. 9 and action which corroborates the findings of XRD analysis.
10) were caused by the removal of evaporable water in the samples. The
TGA of MMT showed an abrupt loss in mass from 97 % to 45.25 % be­
3.6. Morphological characteristics and elemental analyses
tween 490 ◦ C and 660 ◦ C. Further, the DTG curve of MMT displayed an
intense endothermic peak about 640 ◦ C. The mass loss in the TGA curve
Fig. 11a shows the FESEM image of 28 days cured 10 % OPC-MMT
was due to expulsion of CO2 from magnesite (MgCO3) [37]. Thus, TGA
mix. The presence of unreacted magnesite, conglomeration of CSH
and DTG confirm the presence of magnesite in MMT.
and brucite could be visualised. The alkali-magnesite reaction might
CSH phases showed (TGA in Fig. 10) mass loss between 105 ◦ C and
account for the formation of brucite [25]. When water was added to
400 ◦ C due to interlayer water loss and dehydroxylation. Further, a
OPC-MMT mixes, the CSH, CAH gels and portlandite were formed due to
sharp intensive endothermic peak at 105 ◦ C could be observed in DTG
hydration reactions. The portlandite present in the hydrated cement
(Fig. 10) which was caused by the loss of combined water present in the
then reacted with the surfaces of the magnesite present in MMT,
CSH [38]. The liberation of combined water present in the outer faces of
resulting in the formation of brucite. This alkali-magnesite reaction
hexagonal ettringite columns made less intensive endothermic peaks at
reduced the portlandite content in the OPC-MMT mixes. Past research
about 150 ◦ C in DTG. Brucite (Mg(OH)2) and portlandite (Ca(OH)2)
indicated a reduction in portlandite content of roughly 16 % and 11 %
were dehydroxylated at about 430 ◦ C and 460 ◦ C respectively. As a
for curing periods of 7 days and 28 days, respectively [40]. In general,

9
V. Shanmugasundaram and B. Shanmugam
Fig. 12. Elemental analysis of MMT and 10% OPC-MMT.
brucite would form on the area of the reacted surface [25] and this
separates the reacted magnesite surface from the unreacted magnesite.
As such, the brucite crystals were formed on the reacted magnesite
surfaces which could be seen in Fig. 11a and b where the Fig. 11b shows
the magnified view of brucite. The reacted surface was characterised by
brucite crystals with a corrugated surface and a short rod shape. The
alkali-magnesite reaction not only took place on the magnesite surface,
but also in the cleavage planes. The brucite crystals were formed in a
dense state in a confined space and generated the force to cause internal
expansion which led to the decrease in bonding strength among the
particles. As a result, the UCS and CBR of cement treated MMT were
lower than that of the cement treated sand.
Fig. 11c and d display the elemental spectrums of unreacted
magnesite and brucite and their respective elemental compositions. The
elemental compositions of unreacted magnesite and brucite are inline
with the standard mineral data [41,42]. However, A slight deviation in
elemental compositions may be due to the presence of impurities such as
iron, silica or calcium carbonates.
The elemental mapping and elemental compositions of raw MMT and
10 % OPC-MMT mix are shown in Fig. 12. The predominant distribution
of Mg in the elemental mapping of MMT indicated the occurrence of
magnesite (Fig. 12b). An increase in the quantities of Ca and Si elements
could be noticed in Fig. 12e and f which was caused by the addition of
OPC. Further, the distribution of Ca and Si elements could be visualised
in Fig. 12e, indicating an extensive coverage of CSH formation. The Mg
content in the MMT was 33.62 %, confirming the existence of magnesite.
When compared to raw MMT, the elemental composition of the 10 %
OPC-MMT mix exhibited a considerable increase in silica, calcium, and
aluminium contents as a result of hydration reaction. Moreover, a slight
increase in oxygen and a decrease in Mg contents in the stabilised mix
indicated the presence of brucite and unreacted magnesite. The findings
of XRD, TGA, DTG, FESEM and elemental analyses were corroborated
with each other, providing strong evidence for the occurrence of hy­
dration and alkali-magnesite reactions.
4. Summary
This study evaluated the performance of cement-treated MMT sub­
grade in terms of compaction, strength, durability and leaching char­
acteristics. Further, microstructural analyses were carried out to explore
the stabilization mechanism. The findings of this study can be sum­
marised as follows.
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Construction and Building Materials 365 (2023) 130064
• The MMT is non-plastic which contains 28.95 % of gravel sized
particles and 67.96 % of sand sized particles and classified as poorly
graded sand. The addition of OPC helps in producing a denser mix
but at the same time causes an increase in OMC.
• The UCS of cemented MMT specimens increases with an increase in
OPC content. The rate of strength development is rapid up to 28 days
and then slows down. A relationship between UCS and UPV is
developed using the power function.
• The 8 % OPC MMT and 10 % OPC MMT mixes sustained the 12
wetting–drying cycles and the residual UCS were 28.41 % and 46.93
% of 28th day UCS. Further, the leachates from these mixes comply
with Indian standards for drinking water.
• XRD, TGA and DTG analyses reveal the formation of CSH, CAH and
brucite in the stabilised mix. The addition of OPC to MMT causes
hydration and alkali-magnesite reactions. Further, FESEM and
elemental analysis also confirm the same.
• From an economical point of view, the 8 % OPC-MMT mix can be
used as a subgrade.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Vinodhkumar Shanmugasundaram: Conceptualization, Method­
ology, Software, Validation, Investigation, Writing – original draft,
Writing – review & editing. Balaji Shanmugam: Conceptualization,
Methodology, Validation, Resources, Supervision.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
The data that has been used is confidential.
References
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[2] Indian Minerals Yearbook – Magnesite, Ministry of mines, Government of India,
Nagpur, 2018.
V. Shanmugasundaram and B. Shanmugam
[3] D. Yang, D.H. Zeng, J. Zhang, L.J. Li, R. Mao, Chemical and microbial properties in
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