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IJRDM
51,2
190
Received 9 January 2022
Revised 19 January 2022
24 August 2022
30 August 2022
Accepted 3 October 2022
International Journal of Retail &
Distribution Management
Vol. 51 No. 2, 2023
pp. 190-204
© Emerald Publishing Limited
0959-0552
DOI 10.1108/IJRDM-01-2022-0010
Extrinsic and intrinsic motives:
panic buying and impulsive buying
during a pandemic
Rambabu Lavuri
Institute of Public Enterprise, Hyderabad, India
Deepak Jaiswal
Siddharth University, Siddharth Nagar, India, and
Park Thaichon
Department of Marketing, Griffith University, Brisbane, Australia
Abstract
Purpose – The present study operationalizes and tests the impact of extrinsic (store environment, promotional
activities) and intrinsic (hedonism, materialism) variables on impulsive buying during the COVID-19 period. It
also considers the dual-factor approach (panic and impulsive buying tendency) using the “Stimulus-Organism-
Response” approach and “Dual-Factor Theory”.
Design/methodology/approach – Purposive sampling was used to obtain data from 362 responses from
retail shoppers and analyzed by path analysis. The moderation of novel constructs (scarcity and COVID-19
pandemic) examines the backdrop of retail impulse shopping.
Findings – The store environment has a detrimental effect on panic and impulsive buying. Promotional
activities have a beneficial effect on impulsive buying tendency. Similarly, hedonism and materialism have a
substantial positive effect on panic and impulsive buying tendencies. Between stimulus (intrinsic and extrinsic)
and response variables, organism factors (panic and impulsive buying inclinations) influenced positively
(impulsive buying); in terms of moderation, scarcity and the COVID-19 pandemic exhibit substantial
moderation between organism and response.
Originality/value – The results contribute substantially to the existing domain of customers’ panic and
impulsive purchasing behavior for the scarcity of essential items during the COVID-19 epidemic. Research in
this field is limited, varied and inconclusive. New insights were obtained as this research blends the “Stimulus-
Organism-Response” and Dual factor theories.
Keywords Scarcity, COVID-19, Store environment, Panic buying tendency, Impulsive buying
Paper type Research paper
1. Introduction
COVID-19 has been a major problem for retail stores (Kazancoglu and Demir, 2021). Due to
lockdown and other security constraints, retail owners are confronted with unusual psychiatric
disorders such as anxiety and panic (Halan, 2021). The pandemic’s unpredictability has
significantly influenced consumer purchasing behavior (Casper Ferm and Thaichon, 2021). Panic
buying has become a worldwide phenomenon (Jeong et al., 2022), indicating consumers lack control
in the area of COVID-19 lockdowns due to fear of scarcity of essential products (Chiu et al., 2022).
Another distinct characteristic of the COVID-19 pandemic is increased impulsive buying
(Kazancoglu and Demir, 2021). Impulsive buying (IB) is an essential aspect of the retail
industry since it improves sales and revenue and benefits store owners via increased sales
(Lavuri, 2021; Mohan et al., 2013). IB is a spontaneous or unplanned purchase tendency that
influences shopping behaviour (Gupta et al., 2021). Before the pandemic, a massive number of
previous studies have investigated shoppers’ IB preferences (Chiu et al., 2022). With increased
worries about safety and scarcity such as unavailability of essential items and fear of out-of-
stock situations in COVID-19, consumers claim to be suffering from psychological issues
such as stress, panic, anxiety and phobia (Kazancoglu and Demir, 2021; Lavuri, 2021). As a
result, these psychological reactions might influence an individual’s shopping behavior and Impulsive
lead to impulsive purchases (Halan, 2021). Prior studies have paid less attention to the buying during
relationship between the store environment and promotional activities with panic and/or
impulsive buying tendencies in the COVID-19 era (Chiu et al., 2022; Prentice et al., 2022).
a pandemic
Hence, more studies are needed to explore consumers’ panic and impulsive buying
throughout the pandemic and aftermath using a stimulus-organism-response (S-O-R) and the
Dual-Factor Theory (DFT) perspective (Chiu et al., 2022).
Therefore, the current study considered two extrinsic (store environment-SE, promotional 191
activities-PE) and two intrinsic (hedonism-H, materialism-M) factors as stimulus/independent
variables; PBT and IBT as organism variables; impulsive buying (IB as a response/dependent
variable; and scarcity and COVID-19 as moderators. We considered PBT, scarcity and Covid-19
(situational factor) new constructs in this study and speculated that they played a significant role
in consumer buying behavior during the pandemic (Islam et al., 2020). To the best of our
knowledge, limited studies have examined the moderation of novel constructs of scarcity and
COVID-19 evaluating PBT and IB in the context of retail shopping behavior. Therefore, we
address the following three research questions: (1) Do extrinsic and intrinsic factors (stimulus
factors) have a positive effect on PBT and IBT (organism factors) towards IB (response factor)?
(2) Do dual factors (PBT and IBT) have a positive and direct effect on IB? (3) Do scarcity and
COVID-19 moderate the association between the extrinsic and intrinsic factors and IB?

2. Theoretical backdrop
2.1 The stimulus-organism-responses (S-O-R) paradigm
The S-O-R paradigm is a neo-behavioral approach that explains how people attempt to treat
themselves favourably or adversely to react to certain stimuli (Godefroit-Winkel et al., 2022).
S–O-R defines stimulus (S) as specific cues that influence the internal states of an individual.
Among others, these stimuli affect a person’s cognition internally. A stimulus can be internal
or external. The stimulus is the object (environmental product or service) encountered by the
individual at a particular moment. Stimuli can be environment-based (store) or product-based
(emanating from the product). Distinct attributes of the stimuli (product/environment) impact
the internal (psychological) state of individuals/organisms and drive them to respond
behaviorally (Lavuri et al., 2022). Organism (O) refers to the analysis of the stimuli and uses
perceptual and physiological feelings and thinking abilities (Bagozzi, 1986) to examine them.
Response (R) is the individual’s outcome of stimuli and organisms (Lavuri et al., 2022).
Responses include the intention to stay with the brand, positive WoM, purchase intention and
avoiding buying and looking for information (Laato et al., 2021).
Using the SOR framework, we can analyze the consumers’ impulsive buying during the
pandemic. The model offers a robust theoretical foundation for thinking about customer
motivation for action from the viewpoint of their panic buying tendencies and impulsive buying
tendency. In this research, stimuli elements are store environment, promotional activities,
Hedonism (past shopping experience) and materialism that impact the shopper’s panic buying
tendencies and impulsive buying tendency (organisms) in determining impulsive buying
(response). Consequently, we contend that the influence of SE, PA, HD and MT on IB is mediated
by the PBT and IBT and moderated by the SC and COVID-19. The use of SOR theory helps to
understand the underlying processes (O) and reasons (S) that lead to behavior intention (R).

2.2 Dual-factor theory (DFT)

The dual-factor theory (Herzberg et al., 1996) discusses the simultaneous effect of two factors on
the action. This theory postulates that two factors can influence shoppers’ resistance to
introducing a new activity or changing a current one. In the current study, we used dual factors
IJRDM such as PBT and IBT, which affect shoppers’ IB. These effects include panic and impulsive
51,2 buying tendencies patterns that can encourage or discourage shoppers from impulsive buying in
the COVID-19 situation. Therefore, concerning the state of shoppers (O), researchers address dual
effects, such as PBT and IBT, which simultaneously affect shoppers’ impulsive behaviour, as
indicated by the DFT. These two factors are prevalent in recent research as motivating and
demotivating factors for IB. Figure 1 displays the operating outline of all seven S-O-R and dual-
factor approaches included throughout the research analysis.
192
3. Review of literature and hypothesis development
3.1 Store environment (SE)
The architecture of SE can have a significant effect on the customer’s emotions and it can
entice the consumer to invest an extended time in a particular store procuring products
(Hashmi et al., 2020). The term SE refers to the store’s aesthetic components, including the
shape, size, architecture, sound, light, smell, salespeople and atmosphere and these factors
can overstimulate shoppers and have an apparent effect on their IB (Mohan et al., 2013).
Customers like shopping in a more comfortable environment; and it enables them to spend
more time shopping impulsively, resulting in increased impulsive purchases (Lavuri, 2021).
Store layout. A store layout includes the arrangement of merchandise, carts and aisles;
additionally, it involves size, patterns and connections between rooms, which can increase the
customer’s comfort. Strategic store layouts function as cues to influence shoppers’ impulsive
purchases (Mohan et al., 2013). Store atmospheres typically include empty shelves due to
COVID-19 restrictions and shoppers fear the coronavirus spreading because it will affect
them if they visit retail outlets frequently. Therefore, scarcity and situations generate panic
tendencies among shoppers.
Store atmospherics. Prior studies suggest that atmospheric attributes such as sounds,
lighting, window displays, ambience, fixtures, colours, music, scents and odours are highly
pleasurable and stimulating variables that can affect the drive of IB (Iyer et al., 2020). In the

Figure 1.
Conceptual research
framework
COVID-19 scenario, witnessing extensive line-ups in shops may induce people to worry there Impulsive
might be a shortage of necessary commodities and the spreading of the coronavirus in retail buying during
stores. This set of circumstances will affect customers’ panic purchasing behaviour and lead
to impulsiveness (Islam et al., 2020).
a pandemic
Salesperson. Attributes such as friendliness, helpfulness, dress and attitudes of the
salesperson can improve the SE and increase IB. However, prior studies have paid less
attention to the relationship between SE with PBT and IBT in the COVID-19 era.
Simultaneously, when it comes to the panic buying propensity, the information provided by 193
salespeople, such as stock depletion and restocking concerns, could further increase panic
buying. In this pandemic, however, consumers are concerned about a scarcity of supplies and
the spread of the coronavirus. As a result, we investigate the influence of the shop
environment on impulsive purchasing in the epidemic. Therefore, our hypotheses were:
H1a. SE will have a positive effect on shoppers’ PBT during the pandemic.
H1b. SE will have a positive effect on shoppers’ IBT during the pandemic.

3.2 Promotional activities (PA)

Retailers’ promotional strategies influence shoppers’ impulsive actions (Islam et al., 2020).
Retailers also concentrate on shoppers’ impulsive behaviour by offering activities such as
promotions in stores (Mead et al., 2020). Likewise, promotional tools such as sales, price
promotions, sampling, coupons, demo shows and sweepstakes are helpful for retailers to
stimulate shoppers’ impulsive tendencies (Iyer et al., 2020) and loyalty programs, discounts
and rebates influence shoppers’ impulsive propensity (Mead et al., 2020).
During the recent COVID-19 epidemic, advertising messages suggesting a shortage of items
have spread swiftly over social media, impacting shoppers’ panic buying (Islam et al., 2020).
However, this study sought to examine the link between PA and panic and impulsive purchase
behaviors since this topic had received little attention in prior studies. Thus, our hypotheses are:
H2a. PA will have a positive effect on shoppers’ PBT during the pandemic.
H2b. PA will have a positive effect on shoppers’ IBT during the pandemic.

3.3 Hedonism
Hedonism derives from elevated levels of engagement, enjoyment, perceived independence,
emotional enthusiasm, illusion and pleasurable elements of the shopping experience (Lavuri,
2021). Considering the customer experience improves marketing and exposes customers to
attractive incentives and higher consumer perceptions of hedonic value can lead to greater
purchasing intentions (Yuen et al., 2022). Hedonism has a positive association with impulsive
shopping behaviour. When it comes to hedonic utility, panic buying can give the consumer a
feeling of control. This is particularly true for an ambiguous situation like the COVID-19
pandemic and such control may lead to less anxiety and stress during the pandemic (Yuen et al.,
2022). Fear of the disease may cause people to panic purchase to avoid multiple trips to lessen
their exposure. The ability to save time through panic buying can serve as entertainment for
some customers, triggering additional panic buying. By increasing the hedonic value of the
shopping experience, companies can enhance consumers’ PBT (Lavuri, 2021). The present study
examines the shopper’s previous hedonic experiences with the association of PBT and IBT
towards IB, during the pandemic. Therefore, we hypothesize:
H3a. Hedonism will have a positive effect on shoppers’ PBT during the pandemic.
H3b. Hedonism will have a positive effect on shoppers’ IBT during the pandemic.
IJRDM 3.4 Materialism
51,2 Materialism develops throughout adolescence, affected by extrinsic variables such as age,
gender, economic status, friends and classmates (Lavuri, 2021). Materialism refers to
acquiring and possessing material objects to fulfil life goals and achieve the desired status
(Lavuri, 2021). Secular values such as centrality, happiness and success are the three
dimensions of materialism that affect customers’ IB and they serve as crucial triggers for IB.
Impulsive buyers have higher materialistic tendencies than non-impulsive buyers and
194 besides, materialism is fed by the fear of death (Yuen et al., 2022). Fear of death could lead a
consumer to panic buying, especially regarding items like sanitisers, oxygen cylinders and
masks in the COVID-19 pandemic tenure. In line with the terror management theory,
materialistic individuals activate their self-esteem defense mechanism when they face a fear
of death and have a positive relationship with self-consciousness (Lavuri, 2021). Thus, during
the COVID-19 pandemic, people increased their materialistic tendencies and initiated panic
buying (Lavuri, 2021). Therefore, we also hypothesize:
H4a. Materialism will have a positive effect on shoppers’ PBT during the pandemic.
H4b. Materialism will have a positive effect on shoppers’ IBT during the pandemic.

3.5 Panic buying tendency (PBT)

Panic purchasing is a compulsive activity in which buyers buy excessive quantities of
products to avoid actual or imagined shortage risks (Laato et al., 2021). Consumers’
propensity to spend money is profoundly impacted by people’s assessment of the crisis’s
severity and their anticipation of future goods shortages and panic purchasing is a coping
behaviour to alleviate anxiety and promote food security (Yuen et al., 2022).
During the COVID-19 pandemic, most shoppers created long queues when the government
declared the lockdown and people initially understood this epidemic situation and typically
remained calm (Singh et al., 2021). However, people have grown impatient. Owing to the
COVID-19 panic, customers overstock their trolleys with sanitisers, bottled water, milk, toilet
paper and other foodstuffs, which have been observed in the US (Laato et al., 2021). Shoppers
begin panic shopping out of fear and they are much more likely to participate in impulse buying
(Singh et al., 2021). PBT stimulates the IB propensity of shoppers and affects impulsive
transactions. During the COVID-19 pandemic, buyers impulsively purchased food and other
essential items as well as non-essential products in the US and Canada (Iyer et al., 2020). This kind
of panic and impulsive purchases can worsen shortages (Kazancoglu and Demir, 2021). Because
there is little emphasis on this in previous studies, we investigate the association between impulse
buying, impulsive buying propensity and IB. Therefore, we further hypothesize:
H5a. PBT will have a positive effect on shoppers’ IBT during the pandemic.
H5b. PBT will have a positive and direct effect on IB during the pandemic.

3.6 Impulsive buying tendency (IBT)

IBT is a trait of consumers (Mohan et al., 2013) involving a spontaneous and immediate
purchase without any pre-shopping plans (Beatty and Ferrell, 1998) and it is a common
impulsive manifestation (Lavuri, 2021). IBT is described as an involuntary reaction to a new
stimulus that is introduced at the preconscious level because of bio-trends (Mohan et al., 2013).
Shoppers with a high impulsive tendency level are more likely to purchase impulsively.
Similarly, individuals experiencing a loss of inhibition and unreflective behaviour are often
driven by a need for immediate gratification (Beatty and Ferrell, 1998). Impulsive buying
propensity as an individual differential variable is an essential part of research related to
impulsive purchasing behaviour (Gupta et al., 2021). High marketing triggers, such as PA,
advertisements, product assortments, visual appeals and shopping environments have a Impulsive
greater effect on shoppers with a high impulsive buying propensity. Thus, they contribute to buying during
more impulsive buying urges (Beatty and Ferrell, 1998). Therefore, we hypothesize:
a pandemic
H6. IBT would have a positive and direct effect on IB during the pandemic.

3.7 Moderating role of scarcity and the COVID-19 pandemic

This research investigates scarcity and the COVID-19 pandemic in regulating the relationship 195
between organism factors (PBT and IBT) and response factors (IB). Customers who experience
scarcity purchasing are more inclined to acquire the goods before another buyer can (Yuen et al.,
2022). Store congestion is influenced by consumers’ perceptions of scarcity and rivalry (Lavuri,
2021). Scarcity has significantly affected consumers’ buying intentions in the COVID-19 period
(Gupta et al., 2021). When stores have low stock due to scarcity, buyers can panic, which affects
their impulsive purchases (Singh et al., 2021). Merchants leveraging scarcity in their promotional
efforts have also prompted PBT and impulsive purchasing (Yuen et al., 2022). In-store stockpiling
and concealing allow consumers to claim control of the extraordinary and scarce goods before
another shopper purchases them (Naeem, 2021). This research postulated that shoppers would
engage in stockpiling tendencies while stocking up on necessities during periods of scarcity.
Thus, customers’ perceived scarcity affects their purchasing eagerness not only directly but also
indirectly. Therefore, we additionally hypothesize:
H6a. Scarcity positively moderates between the PBT and IB.
H6b. Scarcity positively moderates between the IBT and IB.
The deadly spread of COVID-19 has enormous implications, affecting economic swings and
consumer purchasing decisions (Addo et al., 2020). Due to panic and other psychological
variables, COVID-19 has affected purchasing habits, having a long-lasting effect (Laato et al.,
2021). Because of COVID-19, buyers spend more time at home, which has led to an increase in
impulsive shopping online in all product categories (Iyer et al., 2020). Thus, the COVID-19
pandemic has increased impulsive purchases, especially for those with IBT and this, in turn,
has impacted merchants’ businesses. Therefore, we hypothesize:
H7a. The COVID-19 pandemic positively moderates between the PBT and IB.
H7b. The COVID-19 pandemic positively moderates between the IBT and IB.

4. Methodology
4.1 Data and sample procedure
This study used a quantitative method to investigate the shoppers’ impulsive buying during the
COVID-19 scenario. We employed a purposive sampling method to recruit real consumers
(Lavuri, 2021) with the help of a structured questionnaire. A total of 492 questionnaires were
circulated at retailers; validating 362 with a 73.6% response rate for the final research analysis.
The summary of the demographic characteristics shows that 51.9% of the respondents
surveyed were female and 48.1% were male. 29.6% of the participants were between the ages
of 26 to 35 years, 26.2% were 36 to 45 years age group, 25.4% were below 25 years and 18.8%
were 46 years and above. 34.5% of the respondents had a degree, 31.8% were postgraduate,
17.1% were below degree and 16.6% were above post-graduation. The results also
demonstrated that 33.4% of the respondents were private employees, 22.9% were
homemakers, 20.2% were government employees, 13.3% were businesspeople and 10.2%
were students. However, the largest group (38.7%) of the respondents earned $801-$1,000;
25.4% of them earned $1,001-$1,200; 16.6% of them earned $601-$800; 11.3% of them earned
IJRDM $1,201 and above and 8% of them earned Less than $600. The data show that 30.1% (n 5 109)
51,2 of the shoppers purchased grocery items impulsively; 21.3% (n 5 77) of them purchased
household items; 19.6% (n 5 60) of them purchased food items; 15.7% (n 5 57) of them
purchased healthcare products; 9.7% (n 5 35) of them purchased beauty and cosmetic
products; and 6.6% (n 5 24) of them purchased clothes and apparel.

196 4.2 Research instruments

We created a closed-ended structured questionnaire by adapting questions from pre-
validated scales and modifying them to fit the present research objective. The questionnaire
was evaluated by 79 respondents in a pilot study. Following a pre-test, the questionnaire was
finalized with minor changes to minimize the respondent group’s complexity.
There were three major parts of the questionnaire: (1) demographic profile of respondents,
(2) respondents’ recent IB during the COVID-19 pandemic and (3) nine constructs with
twenty-seven items (SE, PA, hedonism, materialism, PBT, IBT, IB, scarcity and the COVID-19
pandemic), shown in Table 1. To measure the study items, we used a five-point Likert scale,
ranging from 1 to 5 (strongly disagree to strongly agree).

Factor Cronbach’s
Construct items loadings alpha

Store environment (SE)

Store layout stimulates my shopping behaviour 0.823 0.816
The store atmosphere creates a positive mood towards my shopping 0.747
Salesperson helping and guiding influences on my purchasing 0.756
Promotional activities (PA)
Discounts/Offers influenced my purchase behaviour 0.778 0.811
Point of purchase influenced my purchase behaviour 0.748
Coupons influenced my purchase behaviour 0.775
Hedonism (H)
I am very much delighted to be shopping 0.869 0.864
When I shop, I really enjoy searching for bargains 0.852
I like shopping to keep up with the latest fashion trends 0.718
Materialism (M)
I enjoy owning things that make people feel amazing 0.882 0.855
I admire people who own luxury homes, vehicles and apparel 0.825
In my life, I like luxury 0.765
Panic buying tendency (PBT)
Panic of social interaction at shopping malls influences my purchasing 0.902 0.881
Panic makes me buy more things than I usually do 0.886
Panic influences my impulsive buying habits 0.739
Impulsive buying tendency (IBT)
It is difficult to avoid purchases when shopping offline 0.784 0.834
I make unexpected buying impulses when shopping 0.814
Sometimes, I make purchases that I do not need now while shopping 0.778
Impulsive buying (IB)
I just needed to purchase things and could not have cared less what I 0.793 0.858
purchased
Table 1. On the off chance that I have cash left by the day’s end time frame, I simply 0.793
Reliability and validity need to spend it
of the study I intermittently buy things since they look wonderful on others 0.866
We adopted three items of the SE measurement scale by Mohan et al. (2013). Similarly, we Impulsive
adapted three items of the PA scale by Duarte et al. (2013). Three items of the hedonism and buying during
materialism measurement scale were adapted from Kem et al. (2018), three items from the PBT
scale were adapted from Lins and Aquino (2020) and three items of IBT and IB scales were
a pandemic
adapted from Lavuri (2021). Furthermore, three items from the scarcity scale were adapted from
Ahmed et al. (2020), while three items from the COVID-19 pandemic scale were adapted from
Addo et al. (2020). The data were analyzed using the structural equation model (SEM) approach
as an analysis tool to estimate the maximum-likelihood of the proposed hypotheses (Hair et al., 197
2015). SPSS v23 and AMOS v22 software were used to evaluate the proposed research model.

4.3 Control variables: demographic factors

According to previous research studies, the socio-demographic profile, such as age, gender,
income level, education, marital status and profession, plays a prominent role in shoppers’
buying behaviour (Lavuri, 2021). Shoppers with a higher income level have a significant
positive effect on buying intention. Thus, the COVID-19 pandemic has increased impulsive
purchases, especially for those with IBT and this, in turn, has impacted merchants’
businesses (Naeem, 2021). Therefore, our analysis includes age, gender, education, income
level and occupation status as control variables.

5. Data analysis and results

5.1 Common method bias
The Harman single-factor test was used to evaluate common method bias. The test outcome
indicated that a single component explained 24.044% of the total variation; this does not suggest
typical bias issues in the data set. The variance is less than 50% (Jaiswal et al., 2022). We used
kurtosis and skewness tests to check the normality of the dataset and the results values were
within the suggested limit of ±1. We calculated the variance inflation factor (VIF) to evaluate
multicollinearity. The predictor variables’ results indicate that the VIF values were less than 3, so
we concluded no multicollinearity issue exists with the dataset (Kline, 2015).

5.2 Measurement model validation

A Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) was conducted using AMOS software to test all the
constructs under analysis using the maximum likelihood technique. Reliability and validity were
assessed using the measurement model. The results of the measurement model fitness indices are
X2/df 5 1.311; RMSEA 5 0.029; GFI 5 0.946; AGFI 5 0.925; CFI 5 0.985; TLI 5 0.982;
IFI 5 0.985; RFI 5 0.916; and NFI 5 0.941 and the results have shown that all indices were found
to fall within the accepted standards (Kline, 2015). The results of factor loading of standardized
items (FL), composite reliability (CR), average variance extracted (AVE) and Cronbach’s alpha
(CA) scores were used to test validity and reliability. The results were modified after the reduction
of insignificant items and the values were increased. Therefore, the values of FL (>0.7), CR (>0.6),
AVE (>0.5) and CA (>0.7) are above the threshold value (Hair et al., 2015) and thus convergent
validity was confirmed. Convergent validity was described as the AVE’s square root and the
values are presented in the brackets in Table 1. It was found that the square root of the AVE of
each of the constructs in the analysis is higher than the squared correlation of the constructs (Hair
et al., 2015), suggesting that the convergent validity was supported in all cases (Table 2).

5.3 Hypothesis testing

The outcome of the structural equation model (SEM) reveals the values of X2/df 5 1.407;
RMSEA 5 0.034; GFI 5 0.941; AGFI 5 0.921; NFI 5 0.935; CFI 5 0.980; TLI 5 0.976, IFI 5 0.980;
and RFI 5 0.921. All the data results fit in line with the recommended level by Hair et al. (2015).
IJRDM The study finds that suggested intrinsic and extrinsic factors explain a 15.9% variance for PBT.
51,2 The dual factors approach explains a 17.8% variance for IB. Moreover, the path analysis findings
shown in Table 3 with the aid of coefficients and p-values indicate that the hypotheses (H1a to H6)
were accepted at p < 0.05 and p < 0.001, in the integrative model of current IB research.
Concerning PBT, the study reports that hedonism (H3a) (β 5 0.211, p < 0.001) and materialism
(H4a) (β 5 0.247, p < 0.05) have a significantly positive impact on the PBT. At the same time, the
SE (H1a) (β 5 0.202, p > 0.001) and PA (H2a) (β 5 0.116, p > 0.001) have no significant impact on
198 shoppers’ PBT. Regarding IBT, the results reveal that PA (H2b) (β 5 0.082, p < 0.001), hedonism
(H3b) (β 5 0.148, p < 0.001), materialism (H4b) (β 5 0.264, p < 0.001) and PBT (H5a) (β 5 0.111,
p < 0.001) all have a significantly positive impact on the IBT. SE (H1b) (β 5 0.121, p < 0.05) does
not statistically impact the IBT.

5.4 Moderation analysis

We consider the direct effect of PBT and IBT to directly influence the stimulus factor (SE, PA,
hedonism and materialism) and response (IB). The results confirm that PBT (H5b) (β 5 0.060,

Constructs SE PA H M PBT IBT IB

SE (0.776)
PA 0.301** (0.767)
H 0.107** 0.295** (0.815)
M 0.41* 0.408** 0.254** (0.825)
PBT 0.033 0.162* 0.222** 0.256** (0.845)
IBT 0.267 0.298 0.317** 0.406** 0.19** (0.792)
IB 0.086** 0.129** 0.106** 0.207** 0.123** 0.229** (0.818)
Table 2. CR (>0.7) 0.819 0.811 0.864 0.855 0.881 0.834 0.858
Discriminant validity AVE (>0.5) 0.602 0.588 0.681 0.665 0.714 0.627 0.669
of measurement model Note(s): * 5 p < 0.05 (1-tailed); ** 5 p < 0.01 (2-tailed)

Hypotheses Path Estimate p Supported

H1a SE → PBT 0.202 p > 0.05 No

H1b SE → IBT 0.121 p > 0.05 No
H2a PA → PBT 0.116 p > 0.05 No
H2b PA → IBT 0.082 p < 0.001 Yes
H3a H → PBT 0.211 p < 0.001 yes
H3b H → IBT 0.148 p < 0.001 yes
H4a M → PBT 0.247 p > 0.05 Yes
H4b M → IBT 0.264 *** No
H5a PBT → IBT 0.111 p < 0.001 Yes
H5b PBT → IB 0.060 p < 0.001 Yes
H6 IBT → IB 0.279 p < 0.001 Yes
Moderation analysis: scarcity
H7a PBT → IB 0.022 p < 0.05 Yes
H7b IBT → IB 0.085 p < 0.05 Yes
COVID-19 pandemic
H8a PBT → IB 0.156 p < 0.001 Yes
Table 3. H8b IBT → IB 0.016 p < 0.001 Yes
Hypotheses results Note(s): * 5 p < 0.05; ** 5 p < 0.01; *** 5 p < 0.001
p < 0.001) and IBT (H5b) (β 5 0.279, p < 0.001) has a statistically significant association Impulsive
between stimulus factors and response (IB) and show a positive and direct influence (Table 3). buying during
We used moderation analysis to determine whether the association between PBT, IBT and
IB was moderated by scarcity and the COVID-19 epidemic. We used the PROCESS macro
a pandemic
with a bootstrapping effect of five thousand times to examine the moderating impact on four
proposed associations. The moderation findings provided in Table 3 and Figure 2 suggest
that scarcity has a moderate positive association between PBT and IB and a strong moderate
association between IBT and IB. The COVID-19 pandemic has a robust and moderate 199
association between PBT and IB and a positive association between IBT and IB. As a result,
hypotheses H7a, H7b, H8a and H8b were supported.

5.5 Control variable

We consider consumers’ demographic characteristics as a control variable because these
profiles play a significant role in purchasing intent. The results demonstrate that age

Figure 2.
Moderation analysis
results
IJRDM (β 5 0.084, p > 0.001); gender (β 5 0.090, p > 0.001); education (β 5 0.065, p > 0.001),
51,2 occupation status (β 5 0.062, p > 0.001) and income level (β 5 0.047, p > 0.001) have no
control on consumers’ IB during the COVID-19 pandemic.

6. Discussion and implications

The present study highlights how the selected extrinsic and intrinsic motives affect shoppers’
200 IB amid the COVID-19 outbreak and aftermath using S-O-R and DFT-based frameworks. In
addition, the study examines the dual factors of PBT and IBT, along with testing the
moderation of novel constructs (scarcity and COVID-19) to fill the crucial research gap in the
context of retail shopping behaviour.
The results indicate that the extrinsic motivation of the SE has a negative impact on the
PBT (H1a) and the IBT of shoppers (H1b). In general, the SE stimulates impulsive tendencies
among shoppers through salespeople, store atmosphere and layout. In addition, uneven
circumstances such as a pandemic and crowded stores have contributed to panic buying.
Mostly, people have avoided going outside even for shopping and medical treatments due to
Covid 19 outbreak and its contamination among society in public places such as store outlets,
shopping malls and centres and hospitals.
Likewise, PA has a negative impact on the shoppers’ PBT (H2a), whilst it has a positive
effect on an IBT (H2b). The results support part in line with the findings (Iyer et al., 2020). It is
assumed that advertising practices such as discounts, offers and points of purchase impact
shoppers’ behaviour even during the pandemic. These practices can trigger additional IB.
The results have shown that the intrinsic measure of hedonism has a positive significant
impact on PBT (H3a) and IBT (H3b). Hedonism shopping positively affects IB patterns,
strengthening positive IB performance through increased shopper gratification and the
intrinsic motivation of materialism has a constructive and meaningful relationship to PBT
and impulsive shopping tendency (H4a and H4b), forming a crucial trigger for IB. Thus, the
results support the study (Lavuri, 2021).
The PBT of shoppers has a positive impact on the IBT and IB behaviour (H5a). The results
confirm that shoppers’ panic propensity triggers their inclination towards their impulse
purchasing for daily necessities products and medicine amid unlock phases of the Covid
pandemic and results supported by the study (Singh et al., 2021).
Concerning the DFT, the measure of PBT (H5b) positively influences shoppers’ IB due to
increased scarcity and anxiety. At the same time, another measure of IBT (H6) has also a
statistically positive impact on IB. Due to lockdowns, the propagation of Covid-19 and the
scarcity of messaging on social media, people developed a sense of panic, which increased
their perceived arousal level and eventually resulted in impulsive purchases (Gupta
et al., 2021).
Concerning the test of novel moderating factors, the measure of scarcity has shown an
excellent moderating influence between the PBT and IB (H7a) and a robust relationship
between the IBT and IB (H7b) and these results are supported by the studies of Sherman et al.
(2021). Moreover, the moderating effect of the novel construct of the COVID-19 pandemic
shows a solid, moderate correlation between the PBT and IB (H8a) and demonstrates a
positive association between the IBT and IB (H8b). The findings verify the observation noted
by Ahmed et al. (2020).
Although age, gender, education, employment and income level were not controlling
factors of IB in the COVID-19 circumstance, the fear of stockpiling among the population
heightened panic, which in turn led to impulsive purchases among the respondents. Similarly,
age and occupational status exhibited a negative inverse proposition, which implies that as
an individual’s age grows, impulsive purchasing decreases and occupational status findings
indicate the same results.
6.1 Theoretical implication Impulsive
In this section, the study unlocks several theoretical contributions to fill the crucial literature buying during
gap followed by managerial implications in retail shopping behaviour context. First, the
present study extends the theoretical framework of S-O-R using extrinsic (SE, PA) and
a pandemic
intrinsic motives (hedonism, materialism) along with testing the “Dual factor theory” (DFT) to
capture the behavioural phenomenon of impulse buying of shoppers amid pandemic
situation (Covid-19). Furthermore, the model also tested the moderations of two novel
constructs (Scarcity and the Covid 19 pandemic) related to global pandemic situations 201
encountered by society, firms and nations (Yuen et al., 2022).
Second, the findings establish that “Dual factor theory” (DFT) is one of the important
approaches (comprise of PBT and IBT in this study) to understand the shoppers’ impulse
buying, even effective in changing retail shopping environments such as lockdown and
unlock phases of marketplace amid pandemic circumstances and aftermath. Shoppers are
more inclined towards retail essential shopping such as FMCG, Kirana-grocery, vegetables
and medicine during uneven market situations, thus PBT and IBT are the key predictors of
retail impulse purchasing decisions (Prentice et al., 2022).
Third, the study offers a new mechanism for academic scholars and market practitioners
to understand the psyche of shoppers’ impulse purchase decision-making from both lenses,
i.e. external and internal dynamics. These findings offer a new perspective on shopping
behaviour as it combines cognitive and social dynamics concepts. The SOR and dual are often
employed to describe the shopper’s emotional responses and social habits. The findings of
this investigation may now be applied to the field of consumer psychology and used to
decipher people’s specific shopping habits.
Furthermore, the study also examines the effect of shoppers’ demographic characteristics
(control variables) on impulse purchase decision-making. Gender and income level
characteristics had shown more IB, because panic caused by COVID-19 encourages fear of
shortage in customers, raising perceived arousal levels and eventually leading to impulsive
purchasing (Naeem, 2021).

6.2 Managerial implications

These results demonstrate the importance of government officials and policymakers being
cognizant of unintended consequences while responding to a health crisis. Even as we work
to improve our ability to manage pandemic-related challenges, we must have backup
strategies ready to mitigate the worst of their potential consequences.
While stockpiling might have immediate advantages for merchants and producers, it also has
both immediate and long-term drawbacks. Dissatisfied customers, fewer workers and a jumbled
supply chain are just some of the short-term effects of a stock-out. Marketers’ ability to make
accurate predictions and plans for the future is hampered when consumers stock up. Thus,
marketers need to devise methods to halt impulse purchases. Similarly, SE has shown no
correlation to the IBT or PBT in the study. This suggests that the SE will have no impact on the
consumer during the COVID-19 pandemic. It seems the consumer is aware of available online
options too. Thus, the SE does not lead to increases in impulsive or panic buying. The results
indicate that the behaviour of shoppers during COVID-19 is vastly different from the usual
behaviour. Companies need to analyze these changes and plan new strategies in this direction.
At the same time, the brand’s PA was related to IBT but not to PBT. This shows that the
promotional communication of scarcity of the product by the brands does lead to an increased
IBT but not to PBT. Thus, marketers must formulate new promotional strategies during the
COVID-19 pandemic to increase IBT. Further, hedonism is positively related to both IBT and
PBT. Thus, increased pleasure, excitement, or a sense of control might lead to an increase in
sales even during this pandemic. Companies should reassure consumers that essential goods
IJRDM will be on the shelves and speedy restocking will be provided by the supplier. During panic
51,2 buying, the stores should make the purchase process more accessible and less traumatic for
the consumer. Home deliveries or a personalized distribution system could be strategies to
increase hedonic pleasure during the pandemic.
Materialism is also found to be related to impulsiveness and PBT. While the urge to acquire
and possess materials is crucial for consumers and leads to enhanced IBT, the fear of death is the
materialistic motive that leads consumers to panic buying inclination. While the feeling of
202 possessing a product can be portrayed in advertising messages to increase impulsive buying
propensity, the government should inform consumers about products that can be helpful during
the pandemic. Additionally, the enhanced manufacturing, transportation and warehousing of
critical medical supplies are needed in this desperate circumstance. It has the potential to assist
customers in overcoming their materialistic fear of death, thus affecting their PBT. Companies
should concentrate on positive and innovative marketing messages like storytelling and
gamification for selling their goods. The process of buying a product lessens the fear and anxiety
among consumers and they can comfortably shop for a product. These strategies could also be a
significant competitive advantage during the pandemic.

7. Limitations and future directions

Although the present study unfolds pertinent insights for academic scholars, marketers and
policymakers. The current research examines the influence of extrinsic and intrinsic
variables that influence impulsive behaviour, future research can be conducted on behaviour,
psychological and socio-visual merchandising causes.
Furthermore, this study solely analyses extrinsic and intrinsic elements as the precursors of
panic and impulsiveness, which then leads to IB. Thus, behavioural outcomes may be influenced
by a variety of factors, including marketing cues, attributes and motivations. As a result of
COVID-19’s high contagiousness, health-related structures such as safety precautions may play a
significant role in its spread. Cross-cultural research and demographic metrics can be beneficial in
gaining a more complete understanding through generations.

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About the authors

Dr. Rambabu Lavuri is an Assistant professor at Institute of Public Enterprise (IPE). He completed
Postdoctoral fellow (PDF) at department of business management, at Osmania University, Hyderabad.
He received his Ph.D degree in Green Marketing from Osmania University. His research interests are in
green marketing, sustainability, luxury brands and media advertising. His work has been published in
ABDC Journal such as the Journal of Environmental Planning and Management, Society and Business
Review, International Journal of Emerging Markets, Journal of Promotion Management, Sustainability,
Economics and Environment, Indonesian Journal of Sustainability Accounting and Management, among
others.
Dr Deepak Jaiswal is an Assistant Professor (Dept. of Management) at Siddharth University
Kapilvastu, Siddharth Nagar U. P. (India). He has been the awardee of ICSSR Post-Doctoral Fellowship
(Management) in 2022. He has been a Postdoctoral Fellow at Institute of Management Studies (FMS),
Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi (India). He has earned his full time Ph.D. (Marketing and SCM),
Central University of Himachal Pradesh (India) based on MHRD fellowship scheme of UGC-JRF/SRF. His
research interests include electric vehicle adoption, sustainability marketing, green consumer behaviour
and service quality model. His research work has been published in several reputed journals like
Technological Forecasting and Social Change, Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, International
Journal of Bank Marketing, Marketing Intelligence and Planning, Benchmarking: An International
Journal and Internal Journal of Emerging Markets to name a few.
Park Thaichon (PhD) is the Cluster Leader of the Relationship Marketing for Impact research cluster,
Griffith Business School. His research, teaching and consulting focus is around relationship marketing,
digital marketing, technology and consumer behaviour. He is open to research collaboration, consulting
projects and commercial research. Park is an Associate Editor of the Australasian Marketing Journal and
Journal of Strategic Marketing. He is a member of Griffith Institute for Tourism, Sales and Marketing
Strategy Institute and Griffith Asia Institute. Park has published over 60 A-ranked journal articles since
2015 (ABDC). Park Thaichon is the corresponding author and can be contacted at: p.thaichon@griffith.
edu.au

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