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Chinese Science Bulletin 2003 Vol. 48 No.111055-1063 nology are discussed.

1 Basic concepts and theories on ERD
Advances and applications of
( i ) Governing equations of EHD. If a free charge
electrohydrodynamics moves at a far slower speed than light, the EHD equations
can be summarized as follows according to the theories of
CHEN Xiaopeng, CHENG Jiusheng & YIN Xiezhen electrodynmaics and N-S equations for an incompressible,
Department of Modem Mechanics, University of Science and Technolo- viscous dielectric liquid:
gy of China, Hefei 230026, China Q
Correspondence should be addressed to Yin Xiezhen (e-mail: xzyin@ V·E=- (1)
E'
ustc.edu.cn)
E=-V¢, (2)
Abstract Electrohydrodynamics (EHD) has been applied
in many areas, such as EHD enhanced heat transfer, EHD CY2
-+V·J=O (3)
pump, electrospray mass spectrometry, electrospray nano- at '
technology, etc. The basic theories underlying these applica- V·v=O, (4)
tions and a brief review of the EHD advances are presented
in this paper. As electrospray is an important branch ofEHD, dv 2
(5)
p-=-Vp+/-1.Y' v+ fe,
the applications of electrospray are particularly discussed. dt
Finally, this paper gives some suggestions for the future Ie-
where E is the electric strength, Q the free charge density,
search and development.
E permittivity, ¢ the electric potential, J the current den-
Keywords: electrohydrodynamics, electrospray, microgravity, heat sity, t time, v the media velocity, p the mass density, p the
transfer, EHD pump, mass spectrometry, nano-technology.
pressure, f.1 the viscosity and Ie the electric force.
DOl: lO.1360/02ww0207
Within the dielectric liquid, the current density can
Melcher et al. defined that "Electrohydrodynamics be written as
can be regarded as a branch of fluid mechanics concerned J=QKE-DQVQ+Qv, (6)
with electrical force effects. It can also be considered as
where K and D Q are ion mobility and molecular diffusion
that part of electrodynamics, which is involved with the
coefficients respectively. If the charge transport due to an
influence of moving media on electric fields. Actually, it
external field is faster than that due to its thermal motion,
is both of these areas combined, since many of the most
i.e. the applied voltage is higher than the thermal voltage,
interesting problems in electrohydrodynamics involve
the charge diffusion can be ignored.
both an effect of fluid motion on the fields and an influ-
According to the theory of Laudau [7], an electric
ence of the fields on the motion" [I].
force can be expressed as:
Since the 1970s, many aspects of EHD have been
well investigated. Melcher et al. [I] explored the convection 2
in a liquid layer or ball, which was imposed in an AC or le=QE-2.E2VE+2.v[p[dE) E ], (7)
2 2 dp 8
DC electric field and proposed the leaky dielectric model
with applications reported. Castellanos[2] clarified the sta- where the first term on the right hand side represents
bility of unipolar injection EHD and turbulence and chaos Coulomb force. The second and third represent dielectric
in two-dimensional fields. Saville[3], based on the leaky and electrostrictive forces respectively. Because the per-
dielectric model, summarized EHD in spherical or cylin- mittivity of most materials can be considered as constant
drical solids by analysing the mechanism of free charges' and the liquid is incompressible, the second and third
distribution and motion in the liquid. In 1998, Cas- terms of eq. (7) can be ignored. This indicates that the
tellanos[4] edited a monogragh in which general theoretical Coulomb force is the dominant force.
studies on EHD were introduced. In addition, electrospray ( ii) Boundary conditions. According to the inte-
is an important branch of EHD. Kebarle[S] and Law[6] re- gral form of the above equations, we can get the boundary
viewed the electrospray ionization mass spectrometry and conditions of EHD equations[1] as follows.
the application of electrospray in agriculture respectively.
Electric boundary Hydrodynamic boundary
Previous work was specifically discussed for one or
nX[E]~O n[p] ~ n • [Tm+T']
a few topics. A comprehensive review, particularly related
n [D]~Qf nX[v]~O
to practical applications, is therefore needed and will be
presented in this paper. The basic theories underlying the ~~n·v[Q]-n·[J]-V ·K, n• [v]~O
at L
applications ofEHD and a brief review of the advances in
EHD enhanced heat transfer, micro pump fabrication, In this table, [A]=Aa-Ab denotes the jump of A across
electrospray mass spectrometry, electrospray nano-tech- the interface, n the unit normal of the boundary, D the

Chinese Science Bulletin Vol. 48 No. 11 June 2003 1055

REVIEWS
electric displacement, Qf the interface charge density, K e where W I is the convection scale and 1 and Re the current
the surface current density, and V L the surface Nabla. In and Reynolds number respectively. The results in the axial
addition, Tm includes the mechanical pressure and the region were presented as well.
viscous stress and re is the Maxwell stress.
It is worth noting that in practice, to define the
charge density on the electrode is difficult because of the
complex physical and chemical action in the domain con-
cerned. However, Denai' s study[8] shows that the charge
density is constant if the electric strength is moderate, for
instance, about 102-10 3 V/mm. Thus, a nondimensional
parameter defining the surface charge density is intro-
ducedby
2
C _ Qf d (8)
0- £¢o'
where d is the distance between the two electrodes and
¢o the potential difference of the electrodes. There are
two limited conditions, Co» 1 and Co« 1, which are
called the space charge limited condition (SCLC) and Fig. 1. EHD instability of silicon oillayer1J .
weak injection respectively.
(iii) Advances of EHD stability study. When an After many fundamental investigations[13,14] on basic
initially static layer of silicon oil is under the action of a EHD phenomena, the EHD stability study has been Ie-
DC voltage, hexagonal convection cells can appear on the cently expanded to many new fields related to some prac-
free surface as shown in Fig. 1, if the applied voltage tical applications. For example, Kumaran[lS] analyzed the
increases to a sufficiently high value, which is similar to problems with elastic membrane electrodes. Green[16,17]
Benard convection[9]. This phenomenon is called EHD studied EHD convection when a nano-scale electrode and
stability and is essential to understand EHD. The critical a non-uniform AC voltage were applied. Nematic liquid
value for stability can be determined by the parameter crystal EHD stability and its convection were also investi-
gated[18,19]. Because of its theoretical and potential practi-
T = pap. In 1970, Watson[lO,ll] studied this parameter
Kp cal values, EHD convection coupled with heat transfer has
under the condition of SCLC, which gave a critical value been particularly concerned, which will be discussed in
T = T e = 99. If T is larger than T e , the liquid layer begins to
detail later.
move. Te is generally related to the liquid properties, elec- 2 Applications of ERD
trode size, and boundary conditions. According to eq. (6),
( i ) Advances of EHD study. Besides the studies
the media motion can affect the charge transfer. Therefore, on EHD mechanics, some researches were conducted for
there are two critical values, T e and T f (Tf <Te ), which are EHD applications. The first is EHD enhanced heat trans-
linear and nonlinear critical values respectively. However,
fd 20--2S]. As the energy problems have become signifi-
this is different from Benard convection in which there is
cantly crucial since the last century, using EHD convec-
only a linear term. In the plane of current-voltage, the two
tion to increase the efficiency of heat transfer provides a
critical values lead to a circle between them. This means
that if convection occurs in the layer of the dielectric new idea to the industry. There are many EHD problems
liquid initially, it will keep moving even if T f < T < T e . about cells' motion and bio-detection related to electric
Castellanos[3] discussed this phenomenon and the stream action. The fast development of biotechnology requires
line in two-dimensional field theoretically. Furthermore, more deep understanding of the liquid driven by EHD and
electroosmosis[26]. The trends of the application of simple
the charge diffusion, turbulence and chaos were also
discribed in his work. structures which are easy to microminiaturize and inte-
grate also make the EHD driven devices attractive to other
Atten[12] gave the relations among the convection
velocity, current and applied voltage when planar researchers[27-34]. After the study of the breakup of con-
electrodes were applied. ductive liquid droplets in an external electric field by
Rayleigh[3S], the interface stability under the action of
W' DC ¢2, 1 DC ¢5/2, Re«10, (9)
electric field has been investigated widely for a long
W' DC (£jp)E, 1 DC ¢2, Re»10, (10) time[36-41]. Particularly, the investigation under the condi-

1) Luo Xiqing, Experimental and theoretical studies on Coulornbic driven dielectric liquid instability, Bachelor thesis, USTC, 2001.

1056 Chinese Science Bulletin Vol. 48 No. 11 June 2003


tion of microgravityl42] has entered a new area.
( ii) EHD enhanced thermal transfer. Generally,
heat transfer by means of thermal convection may not
meet the requirements in some practical situations. EHD
enhanced heat transfer emerges as an important alternative
method to enhance heat transfer, which is known as elec-
tro-thermohydrodynarnics (ETHD).
McCluskeyl20] studied the heat flux through a dielec-
tric liquid layer between two planes. According to the
concept of calorifics, the efficiency of heat transfer by
moving liquid can be identified with the Nusselt number:
F!
Nu=-=-, (11)
Ho
where Ho represents the heat flux through quiescent liq-
uid and H denotes the heat flux through a layer of con-
vective liquid. The experimental results showed that the
electric field increases the Nu number, which can also be
increased by the applied voltage.
Recent studies by Paschkewitz[21] indicated that it
was more remarkable if the liquid was less viscous or with
lower electric conductivity. Smorodin[22] studied the ther-
mal EHD stability of Ohmic liquid layer in an unstable
electric field. Wawzyniak[23] studied the EHD induction
pumping of a stratified liquid/vapor medium coupled with
temperature gradient.
In fact, it is still needed to conduct further research
on creating an appropriate ETHD model. In addition, the
thermal-electric coupling problem is worthwhile to deeply
understand the subjects with a liquid-liquid interface.
(iii) EHD pump. An EHD pump is a device that
drives the motion of a liquid by the action of an external
electric field on the ions contained in the liquid. The
greatest advantage of the EHD pump is no need for a
moving component such as pistons. Besides, it is easy to
be fabricated and assembled. This kind of pumps is
widely used in micromechanic systems, drug delivery and
the micro cooling system.
EHD pumps can be classified into two categories:
ion-drag pumps[29--:J3] and high voltage traveling wave
pumpS[27,28,34,43]. The former are driven by an applied high
DC voltage while the latter are driven by traveling wave
~ Cation flow
Media 1
Interface
-=-Ji-=----'=------=.--=--=-------=.-+-
Media2
tI
Cation flow
Fig. 2. Schematic diagram on charges diffusion across interface.
Chinese Science Bulletin Vol. 48 No. 11 June 2003
REVIEWS
potential. The ions in both kinds of pumps are generated
by the injection of emitter electrode or dissociation of the
electrolyte in the liquid. There is another kind of pumps
called electrokinetic pump, in which the ions are generat-
ed mainly by electroosmosis. The electrokinetic pump[44]
with low applied voltages and a uniform velocity profile is
becoming one of the hotspots nowadays.
(1) Ion-drag pump. The ion-drag phenomenon was
discovered about 100 years ago. Stuetzer[32,33] theoretically
and experimentally studied this phenomenon when
charges are distributed uniformly in the pump. Pic-
kard[30,31] studied both static and dynamic situations. Be-
cause of their unique advantages, the ion drag pumps have
been studied widely since the mid of 20th century. Be-
cause the energy transfer efficiency of these pumps is
always less than 7%, the main work is focused on des-
igning an electrode with reasonable configurations. Shar-
baugh[45] made the electrode as a grid with many needles
on it. Bryan[46] made a ring with needles angled from the
pump's wall. His pump has a diameter of 7 cm. The ener-
gy transfer efficiencies of single stage and multistage
pumps were studied in his work as well. Bologa[47] studied
the relations among the flow rate, efficiency, the stage
number and the distance between the electrodes in the
EHD pump. The diameter was designed as 30 mm and
metal grid electrodes were adopted. Kojevnikov[29] des-
igned a "triple-lines" electrode system with the internal
diameter of pump being 12 mm. The flow rate and electric
conductivity of the liquid were measured in his study.
According to their results, all of the energy transfer effi-
ciencies increase with the applied voltage characterized by
an "s" shape, though the increase is normally below 7%.
(2) Traveling wave pump. A control volume
crossing an interface is shown in Fig. 2. Electrode is be-
low the interface in this figure.
Materials 1 and 2 represent the media with short and
long charge relaxation time respectively. The thickness of
the arrow represents the charge moving speed. Because
there are no charge resources in the control volume, the
flux of charge through the boundary determines the polar-
ity of the interface. That is the same as what was clarified
by Melcher[34]:
Calion flow
tI
Media 2
+ + +
Media I
Cation flow
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REVIEWS
"If the material near the excitation electrodes has a
relaxation time (r =.£, () is conductivity) longer than
()
that of the material further away, the polarity of the charge
induced on the interface is the same as that on the exciting
electrodes and the interfacial shear force is in the same
direction as the traveling wave (forward pumping). If the
dielectric near the electrodes has a shorter relaxation time
than that of the material further away, the polarity of the
charge induced on the interface is the same as that on the
exciting electrodes resulting in a repulsive force causing
backwards pumping."
Because most fluids have similar permittivities, the
relaxation time may be mainly determined by conductivity.
In a qualitative sense, the effective conductivity of the
charged fluid is higher than the uncharged cases. There-
fore, for small voltages or high frequencies the charge
remains in the vicinity of the injection electrodes. The
conductivity gradient results in the backward pumping.
On the contrary, for the case of high voltages or low fre-
quencies, forward pumping is expected.
Many small traveling wave pumps are made in labo-
ratories. For example, Choi[43] created his pump by means
of photolithography on a piece of heat resistant glass. Its
cross section was 3 mm X 300 /lID. The flow rate, pressure
increment and parameters of traveling waves were meas-
ured, which agreed well with the theoretical prediction.
Although the EHD pump energy consumption is low
(with the work current of about several micron Ampere),
the low energy transfer efficiency is always the disadvan-
tage. Another obstacle is degrading of EHD pumps. The
mechanism and the solution to this problem still need
further investigation.
(iv) Application ofEHD in microgravity. An axial
electric field that is imposed on a cylindrical liquid can
enhance the stability and postpone the breakup of the
cylindrical liquid. Therefore, this EHD phenomenon is
applied in the study of "the stability of liquid bridge in
microgravitj'. Without electric action, the Plateau number
( f3 = 112a) of a liquid bridge will not exceed It if Bond
number lEo = g(p, ~PJd) is small, where g is gravity,
Pi and Pe are the mass density of the liquid bridge and
ambient liquid respectively, ythe surface tension of the
liquid bridge, I the length of the bridge and a the initial
radia of the cylinder.
Burcham[42] conducted experiments in a space shuttle.
Deformation of the liquid bridges under the action of
electric field was studied, such as a castor oil-eugenol
bridge in silicon oil, a castor oil bridge in dielectric liquid
(SF6) and an enhanced conductivity castor oil bridge in
SF 6. Under all the conditions, the electric action improved
the stability of the liquid bridge remarkably and delayed
1058
the bridge breakup.
In fact, a leaky dielectric model can explain most of
the phenomena under the condition of microgravity, for
example, the vibration of castor oil bridge in SF6'
However, some problems still remain, such as the
apparent bias in the orientation of the amphora and the
unexpected differences between the behaviour of liquids
with different conductivities. Further work is therefore
needed.
As mentioned above, the interface motion under the
electric action is still the hotspot to researchers and most
of the efforts are focused on fundamental studies such as
the surface wave's propogation and the stability of planar,
cylindrical and spherical liquid interfaces.
3 Applications of electrospray
( i) Advances of electrospray. In recent years,
much attention has been paid in electrospray, a branch of
EHD, which is a procedure that relies on the electrostatic
forces to break the liquid into fine droplets. Since these
droplets are highly charged, the Coulombic repulsion
prevents their agglomeration and eases the spray penetra-
tion into the host gas medium. The most unique feature is
that the wide size range (1 /lID-I cm) of monodispersity
droplets can be produced which can be easily controlled.
According to this feature, electrospray procedure can be
used in mass spectrometIj48-51], nanomaterial prepara-
tion[52-55], agriculture[6], ink jet print, fuel spray, drug de-
livery etc.
A comparatively simple way to establish a stable
electrospray is to feed a liquid with sufficient electric
conductivity into a metal capillary charged at a suffi-
ciently high potential, which is a few centimeters away
from a ground electrode. The liquid under stable electro-
spray operation can often be found to form a conic menis-
cus at the outlet of the capillary, through the apex of
which a fine liquid ligament is ejected. Then this liquid
ligament breaks into droplets farther downstream and
develops into a dispersed spray (Fig. 3(c)).
One of the early developments in quantitative study
was conducted by Zeleny. Taylor[56] theoretically and
experimentally proved that the semi-vertical angle of the
cone was 49.3' . This cone is usually called Taylor cone.
Cloupeau [57] widely studied the droplet size distribution,
breakup frequencies, effects of the flow rate and applied
voltage on electrospray. Later, Fernandez[58] studied the
effects of the charged droplets on the Taylor cone. Tang et
aU59] studied the velocity and size of the droplets at differ-
ent spray operating conditions using PDA. Some empiri-
cal equations were obtained as well. Ganan-Calvo[60]
gave the scaling laws of current and droplet size of elec-
trospray. Ye et aP61] studied the multispray mode at the
condition of large flow rate and showed that each spray
Chinese Science Bulletin Vol. 48 No. 11 June 2003

Fig. 3. Electrosrapy modesl77]. (a) Dripping mode; (b) microdripping mode; (c) cone-jet mode; (d)-(f) several instability modes.
kept the mode of cone-jet and the monodispersity droplets
sizes distribution. Peter[62] studied the stability and char-
acters of cone-jet spray and multispray. Hartman[63] ana-
lyzed the interaction between the electric force and capil-
lary on the Taylor cone interface, and theoretically and
experimentally validated the variation of the droplets sizes.
It is because of the promising future of electrospray that a
large number of studies have been conducted in both theo-
ry and applications[64-67].
( ii ) The application of ES on mass spectrometry.
In mass spectrometry, the mass of an individual
molecule is measured by transforming molecules into ions
Chinese Science Bulletin Vol. 48 No. 11 June 2003
REVIEWS
in vacuum and measuring the response of their trajectories
in electric or magnetic fields. Because of the difficulty of
transforming such molecules into gas-phase ions, the ap-
plication of mass spectrometric methods to the analysis of
large polar organic molecules in biology and medicine is
limited. During late 20th century, experimentalists have
developed a number of so-called" soft' ionization meth-
ods. However, ion currents produced by this method are
usually very small and can decrease rapidly with the mo-
1ecular weight of the analyte increasing. If the ions are
very large, their detection with multipliers requires
postacceleration voltages that are sometimes particularly
1059
REVIEWS
high. Furthermore, the ions often have high levels of in-
ternal excitation that can cause substantial peak broaden-
ing due to predissociation. On the other hand, the so-
called "electrohydrodynamic" ionization methods have
also been used. However, as few liquids that have low
vapor pressure are good solvents, the "electrohydrody-
namic" ionization methods have not been widely used.
The reformation of mass spectrometry was motivat-
ed by electrospray ionization technique. Coulomb forces
can disperse the liquid into a fine spray of charged dro-
plets before they are vaporized by the hot ambient air.
When the droplet size decreases, the Reyleigh limit can be
reached at which the Coulomb repulsion is of the same
order as the surface tension. There are two models to de-
scribe this procedure: charge residue model (CRM)[48] and
ion evaporation model (IEM) [SO]. CRM proposes that gas-
phase ions are produced when no further evaporation of
the solvent can occur while IEM means that the gas-
phase ions are emitted directly when solvent evaporation
and Coulomb droplet fissions have reduced the size of the
charged droplets to a certain radius. Since the electrospray
ionization technique reduces the requirement of liquid
volatility and increases the charge in a single droplet, the
precision of mass spectrometry is improved dramatically.
The possible extensions of this method will be in biology
and medicine research to detect the large polar organic
molecules.
The potential importance attracts researchers' atten-
tion on the studies of electrospary ionization mass spec-
trometryl6s-71]. The only problem exists on interconnec-
tion between the electrospray and vacuum parts in mass
spectrometry. The "Coulomb fission" problem is also very
important for improving spectrometry since it determines
the gas phase ion's generation and it has significant theo-
retical value.
( iii) Application of ES on nano-technology.
Nano-
material technology and thin film deposition are two fast-
est developing fields in the 21st century. Because the
monodispersity of the droplets have a wide range of sizes
working in normal ambient temperature and pressure and
charged droplets can be adsorbed on the substrates closely,
the electrospray technique is used in preparation of fine
powder and deposition of thin films as well.
Gourari[72] produced Sn02-M~03 thin layers using
electrospray technique, which had a variety of applica-
tions in monitoring flammable and toxic gases. Chen[S2]
produced Ti0 2 thin films of various surface morphologies
and crystalline structures. Su[SS] produced CdS, CdSe and
ZnS thin films in an open atmosphere and the electrostatic
spray assisted vapour deposition was used. Such a method
solved the problem of environment pollution in chemical
bath deposition and low efficiency in spray pyrolysis
1060
methods. MgO thin films was deposited on SiO/SiO and
corning 7059 glass substrates using the electrospray de-
position method by Kim[73]. zr0 2 and SiC ceramic suspen-
sions were electrosprayed to prepare ceramic thin films by
Miao[74]. Compared to chemical vapour deposition, physi-
cal vapour deposition and plasma spray, the thin films
deposition process using electrostatic atomization is not
only cheap but also controllable.
To extend the application of electrospray in nano-
material and film technology, some problems need to be
solved, such as the preparation of precursor with proper
conductivity, viscosity and capillary due to the sensitivity
of droplets sizes to the precursor's characters. In addition,
special devices need to be designed according to different
purposes to excite the chemical reaction and get rid of co-
products.
(iv) Application of ES on agriculture. Because of
the good control of charged droplets, electrostatic spray
has also been applied to agriculture. Law's review [6] is
cited here briefly.
(1) Electrostatic spraying of pesticides. Deposition
of pesticides onto target plant surfaces is an inefficient
procedure because it involves up to 60%-70% off-target
losses. Hence, its cost increases and pollution is also
caused. In order to solve this problem, it is imperative to
improve not only the droplet-deposition efficiency, but
also the spatial distribution of deposited droplets through-
out the plant canopy especially under leaves, which is
difficult to be reached for a conventional deposition. For-
tunately, electric forces provide an effective solution to
this problem because they can overcome the gravity and
inertial forces.
As mentioned by Law "... pesticides both in the
laboratory and the field, have generally verified 2-8 fold
increases in target deposition, as well as improved spatial
distribution on plant surfaces"·" .
(2) Postharvest electrostatic sprays. Many of food
flavorings, sweeteners, vitamin compounds are prepared
as low conductivity liquid. Spraying such liquid onto
snack foods by electrostatic means reduces wastage and
provides significant product-quality benefits.
Electrostatic application equipments for induction-
charged fungicide sprays have been developed which very
effectively controls the spoilage microorganisms on
postharvest fruits and vegetables. There are 86% crown-
rot-free banana clusters with electrostatic sprays vs. 74%
with conventional sprays vs. 36% with the unsprayed
control clusters.
(3) Electrostatic pollination Successful crop pro-
duction depends upon the degree of plant pollination
achieved. Significant limitations of insect-vectored pollen
transfer occur due to unfavorable local weather. The car-
rier-liquid suspensions of almond pollen were sprayed
with 12 mC/kg and a 1.6 MY/m applied charging field.
Chinese Science Bulletin Vol. 48 No. 11 June 2003

That resulted in 5.6 folds increase of pollen deposition.
Law also sunuuarized the challenges in agricultural
and biological systems on electrostatic crop spraying,
including severity of Rayleigh instability of charged dro-
plets and its effects upon pest-control efficacy, etc.
4 Studies in China
The current research work in China is at its prelimi-
nary stage. A systematic study is particularly needed.
Zhou[75] studied the atomization of aerodynamic
nozzle assisted with deposition of charges on the droplets
by means of corona discharge. The effects of electric 3::-
tion on the spray, relations between droplets sizes dis-
tribution and applied voltage and the electrode configura-
tion were discussed in his work. Li [23] studied the EHD
enhanced boiling, with the Nu number of 8-9 times
larger with electric field added than that without it.
Cheng[76] showed the droplets' shapes in the electro-
spray and the applied voltage-flow rate, applied voltage-
current relations were also studied in his work. Chen's
work[77] captured different electrospray modes (Fig. 3)
with microscope. His work showed the region of ethanol
cone-jet spray on the plane of applied voltage-flow rate.
Chen1) measured the velocity distribution of electrospray
at different experimental conditions by PlY. Nanostmcture
of Sn-Bi film prepared by electrospray was studied by
YU[78]. PZT (pb(Zrx ' Ti 1_x )03)) film with thickness of 500
microns was prepared by Lu[48], which is a part of piezoe-
lectric film.
5 Prospects in ERD and electrospray
Although it is shown that EHD and electrospray
have been considerably developed. Some topics discussed
as follows are still worth of further studies.
For EHD theories, because the EHD mechanism
involves physics, chemistry, mechanics and electrics, the
phenomena of EHD is so complicated that some funda-
mental principles need further understanding, among
which the most important one is the motion of ions in the
liquid. Although leaky dielectric model can explain many
phenomena, it fails under some special conditions such as
microgravity. In addition, the effects of electric forces on
the fluid including interfaces need more investigation as it
is known that many well-known phenomena, such as sur-
face wave traveling and thermal convection, may change
if an electric field exists.
On the other hand, EHD enhanced heat transfer de-
vices and EHD pump (excluding electrokinetic pump) are
still in the research and development stage at laboratories.
More work towards practical applications is therefore
expected. In addition, some technical problems still re-
main unsolved for the application of electrospray in the
I) Chen, x., Cheng, J., Yin, x., Measurements of drop velocity in electrospary by PIV, Beijing: Optical Technology & Image Processing in
Fluids, Solid Diagnostics, SPIE, 2002 (to appear).
Chinese Science Bulletin Vol. 48 No. 11 June 2003
REVIEWS
preparation of nanomaterials.
In summary, EHD and electrospray are of particular
importance to both theoretical and technical fields. They
present some promising opportunities to the biology, mi-
cromechanics and energy researchers and will be benefi-
cial to the development of industry and technology.
Acknowledgements This work was supported by the National Natural
Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 5576022), Chinese Academy of
Sciences (Grant No. KJCX-SW-L2) and "Sponsor Project on Gradua-
tors' Science and Society Practice of Chinese Academy Society" .
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(Received January 2, 2003)
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